SCIENTIFIC COLLECTION «INTERCONF» | № 42

DOI 10.51582/interconf.19-20.02.2021.049

Iordan Corina
doctoral student, Moldova State University, Republic of Moldova

DEFINITION OF TRANSLATION, TRANSLATION STRATEGY,

TRANSLATION PROCEDURE, TRANSLATION METHOD,
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE, TRANSLATION TRANSFORMATION

Abstract. In modern linguistics, one of the current topics is the study of the relationships between
languages, as one of the main means of transmission of meanings and the socio-cultural reality.
Among the many challenges studied by the modern linguistics, an important place is the study of
the linguistic aspects of cross-language speech activity, which is called «translation» or
«translation activity». It is through the translation, we have access to the systems of meanings of
other cultures, which with the help of translators acquire its interpretation. Translation implies a
correct and clear rendering of what is expressed in one language by means of another language.
Within the field of translation theory, certain notions have been researched from a wide range of
perspectives and have been assigned a multitude of labels. Due to the confusing use of concepts
and terms, we aim to present and define the most important ones, with which the translation theory
operates, such as: translation procedure, translation strategy, translation method, translation
technique and translation transformation. Also, in this paper, we discuss the types of translation,
its purposes and the difficulties that translators encounter in the process of translation.
Keywords: translation, translation procedure, translation strategy, translation method,
translation technique and translation transformation.

In this paper, we discuss three translation techniques: literal, cultural, and

artistic.
Literal translation is a well-known technique, which means that it is quite easy
to find sources on the topic. Cultural and artistic translation may be new terms.
Whilst cultural translation focuses on matching contexts, artistic translation focuses
on matching reactions. Because literal translation matches only words, it is not hard
to find situations in which we should not use this technique. Because artistic
translation focuses on reactions, judging the quality of an artistic translation work is

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one of the most difficult things one can do. We end up having a score of complexity
and humanity for each one of the mentioned techniques: Literal translation would
be the closest thing we have to the machines world and artistic translation would be
the closest thing we have to the purely human world. By creating these
classifications and studying the subtleties of each one of them, we are adding degrees
of quality to our courses and to translation as a professional field. The main
contribution of this paper is then the formalization of such a piece of knowledge.
We, however, also lay the foundations for studies of this type.
In this paper, we discuss three translation techniques: literal, cultural, and
artistic. Literal translation is a well-known technique, which means that it is quite
easy to find sources on the topic. Cultural and artistic translation may be new terms.
Whilst cultural translation focuses on matching contexts, artistic translation focuses
on matching reactions. Because literal translation matches only words, it is not hard
to find situations in which we should not use this technique. Because artistic
translation focuses on reactions, judging the quality of an artistic translation work is
one of the most difficult things one can do. We end up having a score of complexity
and humanity for each one of the mentioned techniques: Literal translation would
be the closest thing we have to the machines world and artistic translation would be
the closest thing we have to the purely human world. By creating these
classifications and studying the subtleties of each one of them, we are adding degrees
of quality to our courses and to translation as a professional field. The main
contribution of this paper is then the formalization of such a piece of knowledge.
We, however, also lay the foundations for studies of this type.
Translation is one of the oldest occupations of man. Differences in terms of
languages prompted people to this hard, but much-needed work, which served and
serves the purpose of communication and exchange of spiritual values among
peoples.
The most common understanding of the translation is reduced to its treatment
as a means of cross-language communication. Translation is considered a form of
linguistic mediation, in which the content of a foreign language text (the original) is

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transferred into another language by creating in this language an information and

communication equivalent text.
The development of transport, the means of information and communication,
the increased cultural and educational levels, the awareness of the need of
understanding and cooperation, the search for ways and means to address the global
problems of the present - all this can be achieved only by the combined efforts of all
nations and people. No doubt, all these factors have stimulated the development of
translation.
Applying the method of bibliographic study, the theoretical and
methodological literature was analyzed regarding the research problem, in order to
develop a theoretical synthesis.
«Translation is a complex dichotomous and cumulative process that involves a
host of activities drawing upon other disciplines related to language, writing,
linguistics and culture.» This multi-disciplinary process suggests that three major
activities run concomitantly: 1. Transfer of data from the source language to the
target language; 2. Synchro-analysis of text and translation and research of subject-
matter; 3. Continuous self-development and learning [1, p. 23].
Other scholars define the word translation, as follows:
1. E. Breus: Translation is a process of interlingual communication. Not only
two languages interact in the translation process, but also two cultures [14, p. 17].
2. T. Kazakova: Translation is a kind of transformation of a source language
text into a target language text [15, p. 9].
The task of translation is to ensure a type of cross-language communication in
such a manner, so that the created text in the target language could act as a complete
communication replacement of the original and equate the original in terms of
function, structure and content.
We could say that the main idea of all these linguists is the fact that translation
implies a correct and clear rendering of what is expressed in one language by means
of another language.
In his article On Linguistic Aspects of Translation, Roman Jakobson
distinguishes 3 types of translation:

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1. intralingual translation, or rewording (an interpretation of verbal signs by

means of other signs in the same language);
2. interlingual translation, or translation proper (an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of some other language);
3. intersemiotic translation, or transmutation (an interpretation of verbal signs
by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems) [3, p. 233].
Translation can be classified according to several criteria, such as:
1. Who does the translation: the translation may be done by a human translator
or by a computer.
2. Form of speech: the translation may be written (written translation of a
written text or written translation of an oral text) or oral (oral translation of an oral
text (simultaneous translation, consecutive translation) or oral translation of a
written text).
3. Number of languages in translation situation: one-way or two-way
translation.
4. Direction of translation: direct translation (translation into the mother
tongue) and inverse translation (translation into a foreign language).
5. Functional style and genre of the text: literary texts (literary translation has
the function to produce an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader) and
informative texts (informative translation has the function to render into the target
language the non-literary texts) [8, p. 14-15].
According to Peter Newmark, translation has five purposes. The first purpose
is to contribute to peace and understanding between people, groups and nations. The
second purpose is to render knowledge in a simple, correct and accessible language.
The third purpose is to explain and mediate between cultures taking into
consideration the common humanity, showing regard to their positive characteristics
and implicitly showing their negative characteristics. This does not mean that every
time the translation has to find a cultural equivalent. The fourth purpose is to
translate the world’s best books, the universal works in which the human soul is kept
safe and lives: drama, poetry, fiction, philosophy, religion, history, the influential
works of psychology, politics and sociology, of social and individual behavior.

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These works should be retranslated for each generation, where the universal is more
important than cultural. Also the translator has to resist the desire to be over explicit,
to cut down the connotation, the metaphor, the symbol, to sense; the translation,
just like the original, has to fascinate not just to instruct. The fifth purpose is as a
general help necessary in learning a foreign language. These five purposes may
cross each other and meet in the translation of a text. Also, they should not be
ranked in a certain order, because at one time or another all of them may be
equally important [5, p. 43-45].
Speaking of translation, we have to mention the fact that it is considered that
translators translate better into their native language than into a second one. The
reason for this supposition is that translators have a more in-depth cultural and
linguistic background of their native language than of a second one which they have
to study in order to be skilled translators. Also, the translator who translates into
their mother tongue has a more practical and natural knowledge of the different
linguistic elements such as lexicology, morphology, semantics, syntax than the one
who translates into a foreign language. Also, we could add the fact that the
translation into the first language makes it possible for the translators to render
cultural elements such as idioms, proverbs, metaphors, collocations, and others into
correct equivalents in their native language because such translators are born and
raised in the culture into which they translate these culture-bound words. Comparing
the translator’s first and second language we could say that the first language is
naturally acquired and practiced, while the second one is learned in the course of
their life. Thus, the cultural and linguistic knowledge of their second language is
always in progress and never finished. James Dickins, Sándor Hervey and Ian
Higgins argue that: «Translator training normally focuses on translation into the
mother tongue, because higher quality is achieved in that direction than in translating
into a foreign language [2, p. 2]».
Taking into consideration the linguistic level, we could say that translation into
first language offers the translator some advantages, such as an innate knowledge of
lexical, morphological, semantic and syntactic aspects of their native language
because the translator obtains these linguistic elements naturally in time. This

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variety of aspects forms the translator’s developing linguistic reservoir. Unlike

translation into a first language, the one into a second language gives the translator
only some academic knowledge. Every time the translator is not sure of the lexical,
morphological or semantic rules of the second language into which they translate,
the translator will have to use different dictionaries and references. In certain cases,
they have to consult more than one dictionary or reference in order to find the
appropriate meaning for a certain word and the search for correct equivalents in the
target language may take a long time. In this regard, Katharina Reiss points out that:
«Due to the fact that differences between the grammatical systems of languages are
frequently quite great, it is the morphology and syntax of the target language that
clearly deserve priority unless there is some overriding factor either in the nature of
the text or some special circumstance [9, p. 60]».
Taking into consideration the morphological level, we could say that translation
into the native language tends to be better than translation into a second language because
of the translator’s instinctive knowledge of the morphological rules of their first
language. Moreover, the semantic knowledge of the translator who translates into their
native language is an additional advantage to good translation because they do not
translate words separately but meaning in a given context. In some languages, one word
can be used to refer to several things and only those translators who translate into their
native language are aware of such a semantic characteristic. This might cause confusion
when the translator translates into a foreign language.
Although, it is considered that monolingual and bilingual dictionaries are
translator’s best friends, the translator who translates into their language manages
quite well even without using dictionaries, because inherently, they know better the
lexical aspects of their first language than those of a second language.
With regard to culture, translation into the first language offers the translator a
profound knowledge of different aspects of culture because many texts are usually
colored with cultural elements such as proverbs, idioms, metaphors and other
cultural characteristics. When a translator translates into his native language, he
knows very well about the fact there are cultural differences and they can render the
cultural elements of the source language into appropriate equivalents in their own

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culture and language. From another point of view, a translator who translates into a
foreign language may not be able to notice or identify the cultural aspects of the
second language because they are strangers to that culture, and it does not matter
how many references they consult. Peter Newmark argues: «The translator will be
caught every time, not by his grammar, which is probably suspiciously «better» than
an educated native’s, not by his vocabulary, which may well be wider, but by his
unacceptable or improbable collocations [7, p. 180]».
Generally, cultural aspects, such as idioms, proverbs, metaphors, etc. defy
translators who translate both in the first language and the second language, because
these aspects are quite difficult to render from one culture to another. Nevertheless,
those translators who translate such interesting characteristics into their mother
tongue consider them much easier to handle and translate than those who try to
render them into a foreign language. Actually, all cultures and languages have such
cultural features, but share with others only some of them.
When speaking of translation, there are a few important terms, that have a tight
connection, and we should be able to distinguish between them. These terms are:
translation procedure, translation strategy, translation method, translation technique
and translation transformation.
Further, we will talk in more detail about translation strategies and translation
methods.
C. Séguinot distinguishes between local (those dealing with text segments) and
global (those dealing with whole texts) strategies. According to him, there are at
least 3 global strategies which can be employed by translators:
1. translating without interruption for as long as possible;
2. correcting surface errors immediately;
3. leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the revision
stage [10].
L. Venuti distinguishes between local and global strategies as well. However,
according to him, there are only 2 global strategies: domestication and
foreignisation. Thus, the foreignisation is oriented towards the source text and aims
to preserve the culture of the source text. In this case the «cultural codes» of the

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target language are sacrificed to make the reader of the translated text feel the
foreign character. It can also be seen as a way to encourage readers of the target
language to be interested in other cultures. The strategy of domestication involves
adapting the source text to the culture of the target text. This strategy is oriented to
the target language and focuses on the expectations of readers who want to have a
translation based on their own culture. L. Venuti compares these two strategies,
concluding that the domestication can reduce the message of the source text, and
the foreignisation is the strategy to be used to translate the source text, even if some
readers might consider the result of the translation strange [11, p. 20].
Speaking of translation methods, P. Newmark states that the difference
between translation methods and translation procedures is the fact that, translation
methods relate to whole texts, while translation procedures are used for sentences,
and smaller units of language [6, p. 81].
P. Newmark mentions the following translation methods:
1. word-for-word translation: this is a translation in which the source
language order is preserved, and the words are translated singly by their most
common meanings, out of context;
2. literal translation: this is a translation in which the source language
grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest target language
equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context;
3. faithful translation: this is a translation which tries to reproduce the precise
contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the target language
grammatical structures;
4. semantic translation: this is a translation which differs from «faithful
translation» only as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the
source language text;
5. adaptation: this is a translation which is considered to be the «freest» form
of translation; it is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes,
characters, plots are usually preserved; the source language culture is converted to
the target language and the text is rewritten;

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6. free translation: this is a translation which produces the target language text
without the style, form or content of the original;
7. idiomatic translation: this is a translation which reproduces the «message»
of the original, but tends to distort the nuances of meaning by preferring
colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original;
8. communicative translation: this is a translation which tries to render the
exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way, so that both content and
language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership [6, p. 45-47].
Further, we will talk in more detail about translation techniques, translation
transformations and translation procedures.
Lucia Molina and Amparo Hurtado Albir define translation techniques as
procedures that can be used to analyze and classify how translation equivalence
works and they, also, highlight the fact that translation techniques:
1) affect the result of the translation
2) are classified by comparison with the original
3) affect micro-units of text
4) are by nature discursive and contextual
5) are functional» [4, p. 509].
L. Barhudarov says that translation transformations are those numerous and
diverse cross-language changes that take place in order to achieve translation
equivalence (translation adequacy), despite discrepancies in the formal and semantic
systems of the two languages [13, p. 190].
Another linguist, V. Komissarov states that translation transformations (or
interlanguage transformations) are those changes which make it possible to carry
out the transition from original units to translation units in the indicated sense.
V. Komissarov divides the translation transformations into two categories: lexical
and grammatical. The lexical transformations include: transcription, transliteration,
calque and the lexical and semantic substitutions (concretization, generalization,
modulation). The most common grammatical transformations include: syntactic
assimilation (literal translation), division of a sentence, combination of sentences,
grammatical replacements. The complex lexical and grammatical transformations

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include antonymic translation, explication (descriptive translation) and

compensation [16, p. 171-172].
According to J. –P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet there are 2 main translation
strategies – direct and oblique translation, covering 7 translation procedures. Direct
translation comprises:
1. borrowing: the source language word is transferred directly to the target
language;
2. calque: the source language expression is «borrowed» and then it is
transferred in a literal translation;
3. literal translation: a word-for-word translation.
Oblique translation comprises:
1. transposition: replacing one word class with another without changing the
meaning of the message;
2. modulation: a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change in
the point of view;
3. equivalence: describing the same situation by using completely different
stylistic or structural methods for producing equivalent texts;
4. adaptation: it is used in those cases where the type of situation being referred
to by the source language message is unknown in the target language culture [12, p.
31-39].
P. Newmark gives many translation procedures, such as:
1. transference: the process of transferring a source language word to a target
language text;
2. naturalization: it adapts the source language word first to the normal
pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (word-forms) of the target language;
3. cultural equivalence: the source language cultural word is translated by a
target language cultural word;
4. functional equivalence: it is applied to cultural words and requires the use of
a culture-free word, sometimes with a new specific term, it therefore neutralizes or
generalizes the source language word;

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5. descriptive equivalence: description has to be weighed against function;

6. synonymy: it is used for a source language word where there is no clear one-
to-one equivalent, and the word is not important in the text;
7. through-translation: the literal translation of common collocation, names of
organization, the components of compounds;
8. shifts or transpositions: a change in the grammar form from the source
language to the target language;
9. modulation: a variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective and
of category of thought;
10. recognized translation: the translator should normally use the official or the
generally accepted translation of any institutional term;
11. translation label: a provisional translation usually of a new institutional term,
which should be made in inverted commas, which can later be discreetly withdrawn;
12. compensation: it occurs when the loss of meaning, sound-effect, metaphor
or pragmatic effect in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part;
13. componential analysis: the splitting up of a lexical unit into its sense
components, often one-to-two, -three or –four translation;
14. reduction and expansion;
15. paraphrase: an amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment
of the text; etc. [6, p. 68-91].
As we have noticed, when speaking of translation procedure, translation
strategy, translation method, translation technique and translation transformation,
there is no general agreement, and there is confusion about terminology, concepts
and classification. Terminological diversity and the overlapping of terms make it
difficult to use and understand these terms. The same concept is uttered with
different denomination, and the classifications differ, covering various areas of
problems. In one classification one term may overlap another term in a different
system of classification.
Assuming all the above statements, in order to clarify this terminological
problem, we can state the fact that translators distinguish between global translation
strategies and local translation strategies.

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Global translation strategies may also be called translation methods, while

local translation strategies may also be called translation procedures, translation
techniques or translation transformations.
Global translation strategies represent the strategies applied by a translator to a
text as a whole, while local translation strategies represent the strategies applied by
a translator in the translation of individual expressions in the source text, such as
words, idioms, grammatical constructions, etc.
In conclusion, we could say that the translators who translate into their native
language outmatch those translators who carry out translations into a second
language because the former are better equipped with cultural and linguistic
knowledge than the latter. With respect to linguistic competence, translation into
first language offers the translators some advantages, such as an innate knowledge
of lexical, morphological, semantic and syntactic aspects of their native language.
Unlike translation into a first language, the one into a second language gives the
translators only some academic knowledge and the translators have to use quite
frequently different dictionaries and references which may not be useful or available
when needed. In terms of cultural level, the translators who translate texts that have
cultural elements into their native language carry out the translations better than the
ones who translate into a second language because they can easily recognize the
cultural elements which cannot be rendered into another language literally. These
elements are harder to translate for those translators who carry out a translation into
a foreign language even if they know that language fluently.

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