CHAPTER I

THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

This Chapter deals with the fundamental concepts, theories and principles
relative to the self and identity. It helps the student understand the construct
of the self from various disciplinal perspectives. Knowledge on Western and
Eastern thought further helps the student develop a better understanding of
himself/herself.

What to Expect?

This chapter seeks to realize the following outcomes:

1. Discuss the different representation and conceptualizations of the self

from various disciplinal perspectives.
2. Examine the different influences, factors and forces that shape the self.
3. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the
different disciplines and perspectives.
4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the
development of one’s self and identity by developing a theory of the
self.

Lesson 1: PHILOSOPHY

Before we even had to be in any formal institution of learning, among

the many things that we were first taught as kids is to articulate and write our
names. Growing up, we were told to refer back to this name when talking
about ourselves. Our parents painstakingly thought about our names. Should
we be named after a famous celebrity, a respected politician or historical
personality, or even a saint? Were you named after one? Our names
represent who we are. It has not been a custom to jus randomly pick a
combination of letters and number (or even punctuation marks) like zhjk756!!!
To denote our being. Human beings attach names that are meaningful to

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berthed progenies because names are supposed to designate us in the world.
Thus, some people get baptize with names such as precious “beauty or “love”
likewise, when our parents call our names, we were taught to respond to them
because our names represent who we are. As a student, we are told to
always write our names on our papers, projects, or any output for that matter.
Our names signify us Death cannot even stop this bond between the person
and her name. Names are inscribed even into ones gravestone.
A name is not the person itself no matter how intimately bound it is with
the bearer. It is only a signifier. A person who was named after a saint most
probably will not become an actual saint. He may not even turn out to be
saintly! The self is thought to be something else than the name. The self is
something that a person perennially molds, shapes, and develops. The self is
not a static thing that one is simply born with like a mole on one’s face or is
just assigned by one’s parents just like a name. Everyone is tasked to
discover one’s self. Have you truly discovered yours?

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Explain why it is essential to understand the self;

2. Describe and discuss the different notions of the self from the
points- of-view of the various philosophers across time and place;
3. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented in
different philosophical schools; and
4. Examine one’s self against the different views of self that were
discussed in class.

Socrates and Plato

Prior the Socrates, the Greek thinkers, sometimes

collectively called the Pre-Socrates to denote that some
of them preceded Socrates while others existed around
Socrates’s time as well, preoccupied themselves with the
question of the primary substratum, arche that explains
the multiplicity of things in the word. These men like

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Thales, Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Empedocles, to name a
few, were concerned with explaining what the world is really made up of, why
the world is so, and what explains the changes that they observe around
them. Tired of simply conceding to mythological accounts propounded by
poet-theologians like Homer and Hesiod, these men endeavored to finally
locate an explanation about the nature of change, the seeming permanence
despite change, and the unity of the world amidst is diversity.

After a series of thinkers from all across the ancient Greek world who
were disturbed by the same issue, a man came out to question something
else. This man was Socrates. Unlike the Pre-Socratics, Socrates was more
concerned with another subject, the problem of the self. He was the first
philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning about the self. To
Socrates, and this has become his life-long mission, the true task of the
philosopher is to know oneself.

Plato claimed in his dialogs that Socrates affirmed that the unexamined
life is not worth living. During his trial for allegedly corrupting the minds of the
youth and for impiety, Socrates declared without regret that his being indicted
was brought about by his going around Athens engaging men, young and old,
to question their presuppositions about themselves and about the world,
particularly about who they are (Plato 2012). Socrates took it upon himself to
serve as a “gadfly’’ that disturbed Athenian men from their slumber and shook
them off in order to reach the truth and wisdom. Most men, in his reckoning,
were really not fully aware of who they were and the virtues that they were
supposed to attain in order to preserve their souls for the afterlife. Socrates
thought that this is the worst that can happen to anyone; to live but die inside.

For Socrates, every man is composed of

body and soul. These means that every human
person is dualistic, that is, he is composed of two
important aspects of his personhood. For Socrates,
this means all individuals have an imperfect,

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impermanent aspect to him, and the body, while maintaining that there is also
a soul that is a perfect and permanent.

Plato, Socrates’s student, basically took off from his master and
supported the idea that man is dual nature of body and soul. In addition to
what Socrates earlier espoused, Plato added that there are three components
of the soul; the rational soul, the spirited soul, and the appetitive soul. In his
magnum opus “The Republic” (Plato 2000), Plato emphasizes that justice in
the human person can only attained if the three parts of the soul are working
harmoniously with one another. The rational soul forged by reason and
intellect has to govern the affairs of the human person, the spirited part which
is in charge of emotions should be kept at bay, and the appetitive soul in
charge of base desires like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex are
controlled as well. When this ideal state is attained, then the human person’s
soul becomes just and virtuous.

Augustine and Thomas Aquinas

Augustine’s view of the human person reflects the

entire spirit of the medieval world when it comes to
man. Following the ancient view of Plato and
infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity,
Augustine agreed that man is of a bifurcated nature.
An aspect of man dwells in the world and is
imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the
Divine and the other is capable of reaching immortality.

The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living
eternally in a realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God. This is because
the body can only thrive in the imperfect, physical reality that is the world,
whereas the soul can also stay after death in an eternal realm with the all-
transcendent God. The goal of every human person is to attain this
communion and bliss with the divine by living his life on earth in virtue.

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 Thomas Aquinas, the most eminent thirteenth
century scholar and stalwart of the medieval
philosophy appended something to this Christian
view. Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, Aquinas
said that indeed, man is composed of two parts:
matter and form. Matter, or hyle in Greek, refers to
the “common stuff that makes up everything in the
universe.” Man’s body is part of this matter. Form on the other hand, or
morphe in Greek refers to the “essence of a substance or thing.” It is what
makes it what it is. In the case of the human person, the body of the human
person is something that he shares even with animals. The cells in man’s
body are more or less akin to the cells of any other living, organic being in the
world. However, what makes a human person a human person and not a dog,
or a tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, just as in Aristotle, the soul is
what animates the body; it is what makes us humans.

RENE DESCARTES

Rene Descartes, Father of Modern Philosophy

conceived of the human person has having a body
and a mind. In his famous treatise, the Meditations
of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much
that we should doubt. In fact, he says that since
much of what we thinks and believe are not
infallible, they may turn out to be false. One should
only believe that since which can pass the test of Doubt (Descartes 2008). If
something is so clear and lucid as not to be even doubted, then that is the
only time when one should actually by a proposition. In the end, Descartes
though that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self,
for even if one doubts oneself that only proves that there is a doubting self, a
thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be doubted. Thus, his famous,
cogito ergo sum, “I think therefore, I am.” The fact that one thinks should lead
one to conclude without a trace of doubt that he exist. The self then for

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Descartes is also a combination of two distinct entities, the cogito, the thing
that thinks, which is the mind, and the extenza or extension of the mind, which
is the body. In Descartes’s view, the body is nothing else but a machine that is
attached to the mind. The Human person has it but it is not what makes man
a man. If at all, that is the mind. Descartes says, “But what then, am i? A
thinking thing. It has been said. But what is a thinking thing? It is a thing that
doubts, understand (conceives), affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagines
also, and perceives” (Descartes 2008).

DAVID HUME

David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, has a very

unique way of looking at man. As an empiricist who
believes that can one can know only what comes
from the senses and experiences, Hume argues
that the self is nothing like what his predecessors
thought of it. The self is not entity over and beyond
the physical body. One can rightly see here the
empiricism that runs through his veins. Empiricism is the school of thought
that espouses the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and
experienced. Me can only attain knowledge by experiencing. For example,
Jack knows that Jill is another human person not because he has seen her
soul. He knows she is just like him because he sees her, hears her, and
touches her.

To David Hume, the self is nothing else but a handle of impressions.

What are impressions? For David Hume, if one tries to examine his
experiences, he finds that they can all be categorized into two; impressions
and ideas. Impressions are the basic objects or our experience sensation.
They therefore form the core of our thoughts. When one touches an ice cube,
the cold sensation is an impression. Impressions therefore are vivid because
they are products of our direct experience with the world. Ideas, on the other
hand, are copies of impressions. Because of this, they are not as lively and

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vivid as our impressions. When one imagines the feelings of being in love for
the first time, that still is an idea.

What is the self then? Self, according to Hume, is simply “ a bundle or

collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with an
inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement.” (Human
and Steinberg 1992). Men simply want to believe that there is a unified,
coherent self, a soul or mind just like what the previous philosopher thought. In
reality, what one thinks is a unified self simply a combination of all experience
with a particular person.

IMMANUEL KANT

Thinking of the “self” as a mere combination of

impressions was problematic for Immanuel Kant.
Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume’s account that
everything starts with perception and sensation of
impressions. However, Kant thinks that the things
that men perceive around them are not just
randomly infused into the human person without an
organizing principle that regulates the relationship of
all these impressions. To Kant, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the
impressions that men get from the external world. Time and space, for
example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but is built in our minds.
Kant calls these the apparatuses of the mind.

Along with the different apparatuses of the mind goages the “self.”
Without the self, one cannot organize the different impressions that one gets
in relation to his own existence. Kant therefore suggest that is an actively
engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge and experience.
Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality. In addition, it is also
the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons.

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GILBERT RYLE

Gilbert Ryle solves the mind-body dichotomy that

has been running for a long time in the history of
thought by blatantly denying the concept of an
internal, non-physical self. For Ryle, what truly
matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his
day-to-day life.

For Ryle, looking for and trying to understand a self as it really exists is
like visiting your friend’s university and looking for the “university.” One can
roam around the campus, visit the library and football field, and meet the
administrators and faculty and still end up not finding the “university.” This is
because the campus, the people, the systems, and the territory all form the
university. Ryle suggests that the “self” is not an entity one can locate and
analyze but simply the convenient name that people use to refer to all the
behaviors that people make.

MERLEAU-PONTY

Merleau-Ponty is a phenomenologist who asserts

that the mind-body bifurcation that has been going
on for a long time is a futile endeavor and an invalid
problem. Unlike Ryle who simply denies the “self,”
Merleau-Ponty instead says that the mind and body
are so intertwined that they cannot be separated
from one another. One cannot find any experience
that is not an embodied experience. All experience is embodied. One’s body
is his opening toward his existence to the world. Because of these bodies,
men are in the world. Merleau-Ponty dismisses the Cartesian Dualism that
has spelled so much devastation in the history of man. For him, the Cartesian
problem is nothing else but plain misunderstanding. The living body, his
thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all one.

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ASSESSMENT
In your own words, state what “self” is for each of the following
philosophers. Your answers must be on the space provided.

1. Socrates

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. Plato
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______________________________________________________________

3. Augustine
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

4. Descartes
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5. Hume
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. Kant
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

7. Ryle
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

8. Ponty
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY

1. Video Clip.

Formulate your own Philosophy of the Self. Create a 30 seconds video

clip that will briefly explain your concept. Provide examples and
illustrations. Post your video clip on social media and report to class
the comments and feedbacks.

REFERENCES

Beilharz, Peter, and Trevor Hogan. 2002. Social Shelf, Global Culture: An
Introduction to Sociological Ideas. New York: Oxford University Press.

Chaffee, John. 2015. The Philosophere’s Way: Thinking Critically About

Profound Ideas. 5th Ed. Boston:Pearson.

David, Randolph.2002. Nation, Self, and Citizenship: An Invitation to

Philippine Sociology. Department of Sociology, College of Social Sciences
and Philosophy, University of the Philippines.

Descartes, Rene.2008. Meditations on First Philosophy: With Selections from

the objections and Replies. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ganeri, Jonardon. 2012. The self: Naturalism, Consciousness, and the First-
Person Stance. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hume, David, and Eric Steinberg. 1992. An Inquiry Concerning Human

Understanding;[with] A letter from Gentleman to His Friend in Edinburgh;
[and] An Abstract of a Treatise of Human Nature. Indianapolis: Hackett
Publishing.

Marsella, Anthony J., George A. De Vos, and Francis L.K. Hsu. 1985. Culture
and Self: Asian and Western Perspetives. Tavistock Publications.

Mead, George Herbert. 1934. Mind, Self, and Society: From the Standpoint of
a Social Behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Plato.2000. Plato; “The Republic.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

-------.2012. Six Great Dialogues: Apology, Citro, Phaedo, Phaedrus,
Symposium, The Republic. Courier Corporation.

Plato.2017. The Republic. Germany: BookRIX.

Rappe, Sara L. 1995. “Socrates and Self-knowledge.” Apeiron: A Journal for

Ancient Philosophy and Science 28 (1):1-24

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Schlenker, Barry R. 1985. The Self and Social Life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Stevens, Richard. 1996. Uderstanding the Self. California: SAGE

Publications.

Lesson 2. Sociology

The social aspect of the self is explored in many ways, in which social
situation influence one’s view of self. The self is not created in isolation, and
people are not born with perception of oneself as good in sports, make-up
artistry, dancing, or business. Such perceptions are identified through
observations, or interactions with other people. “Am I beautiful?” “ Do my
eyebrow look like Liza Soberano na?” These questions can be answered by
looking at those people around. The self has meaning only within the social
context, and it is wrong to say that the social situation defines our self-concept
and our self-esteem. We rely on others to provide a “social reality”- to help us
determine what to think, feel, and do (Hardin & Higgins, 1996).

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

a. Compare and contrast the different views of the self

b. Examine the two components of self
c. Describe the concept of the looking-glass self and how it affects self-
concept
d. Explain the concept of social comparison and why it is important to
human behavior.

1. SOCIOLOGICAL VIEWS OF THE SELF

1.1 The Self as Product of Modern Society Among Others

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 With modernization, the self becomes a “delocalized” self which is free to
seek its own identity; defining religion, theological tradition; free from
customary constraints hence, deviating from the traditional way of life.
Stability one’s self-identity is no longer based on pre-given traditional broad
definition of the self.
Clifford Geertz (1973) believes that the struggle for ones individuality is
only possible in modern society where religio-theological traditions are
gradually replaced by rational and scientific calculations; and the intimate
personal affiliations are replaced by urbanized way of life. Modernization or
the destruction of the traditional way of life “delocalizes” the self. This poses
certain
Problem as:

1. The newfound freedom threatens the very authenticity of the self

(e.g. love).
2. Alienation (Marx) – human beings haunted by the very images they
have created
3. Objectification of the body’s ( e.g. medical practice)
4. dehumanization of self
Solution: for the individual to discover the “true” and “authentic” part of
himself/herself to realize his/her potentials, there is a need to abolish
repressive social constraints.
1.2 Self as Necessary fiction

Self for Nietzsche, is the sum of individual’s action, thoughts and

feelings. Self is nothing more than a metaphor, a representation of something
abstract; symbolic. It is possible for us to remember something even if we
have not experienced it. Self has continuity even if it is only in memory i.e,
either heard or witnesses which did not happen to you. A true given self is not
what unites these experiences, but it is presumed unity of these experiences
that gave rise to a concept of the self.
1.3 Post-modern View of the Self

Self is a narrative, a text written and rewritten. Self is a story. It is

dynamic. Self is a product of modern discourse that is historically and socially
imprisoned by what is acceptable by norms, etc. self in post modernity is

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complicated by electronic mediated virtual interaction of cyber self such as
change in appearance ( in the cyberspace). According to N. Green, self is
“digitalized” in cyberspace, a virtual version of who we are. The self is seen in
websites or social media- face book, twitter, instagram, etc.
The following are the manifestation:

1. information technology dislocates the self, thus, self is “digitalized” in

cyberspace
2. Global migration produces multicultural identities.
3. Post-modern selves are “pluralized” selves
Social Construction of the Self

Self is not discovered; it is made through the socialization process.

BUT, individual are not just hapless victims of socialization. The individual is
an active strategizing agent that negotiates for the definition of himself. (Ikaw
ang gumagawa ng kung ano ka”) self is acquired socially through language,
like symbols. We construct ourselves based on our social roles through
socialization agents – family, school, community, etc.
1.4 Rewriting the Self as an Artistic Creation

Nietzsche states that the unity of the self is not pre-given but accomplished
through conscious effort – transform self through beautiful work art. Individual
must fashion, care for and cultivate themselves. We can recreate ourselves to
get hold of the present, forgive the past and plan the future.
Rorty: contingencies of selfhood – conceal the “ugly” reinterpreting the
overall aesthetic contours of the self. This does not mean that by rewriting
narrative of herself she will discover something deep about herself…
redescribing one’s self is just a way of reinterpreting and redescribing one’s
past.
1.5 Self Creation and Collective Identity

Memories (photographs, video) play significant role in creating the self

and identity. Memory and forgetting are most important in recreating a
person’s identity. Such memories of the past include pain, triumph, etc.
Such experience of the past can be linked with social transformation.
Another important aspect of this view of self is that creation is formed
within “imagined communities”. Selves obtain their nature from cultural
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traditions embodied in various social institutions. These are preserved in a
collective narrative which becomes the reservoir for the project of self-
creation. Self creation along cultural lines must be done in maximum cultural
recognition of differences among and between individual and cultural groups.
1.6 Self Creation and the struggle for cultural recognition

This is a challenge of self-identity amidst recognition of racial and

ethnic identities. Self creation is necessarily grounded on collective
solidarities. We create ourselves by struggling with cultural hassles then
owning the created self. We hide the ugly part of our cultural nature. We learn
to adjust.
Beyond Self Creation

The quest or search for self-identity is a product of modern society but

this is complicated by the socio-cultural sensibilities of postmodernity, new
information technologies and globalization, reconfiguring ourselves as to
gender, sex, ethnicity, and creating one’s style, signature.
Yet the project of self creation is embedded within imagined
communities. The self constantly live in this paradox: to pursue self creation
pre-given, not willfully chosen social circumstances.

2. Mead’s Theory of Self

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) is an American sociologist best

known as a founder of American pragmatism, a pioneer of symbolic
interaction theory, and as one of the founder of social psychology.
Mead’s theory of the self maintains that the conception a person holds
of himself/herself in his/her mind emerges from social interaction with others.
This is, in effect, a theory and argument against biological determinism
because it holds that the self is neither initially there at birth nor necessarily at
the beginning of a social interaction, but is constructed and re-constructed in
the process of social experience and activity.
The self, according to Mead, is made of two components: the “I” and
the “me”. The “me” represents the expectations and attitudes of others (the
“generalized other”) organized into a social self. The individual defines his or
her own behavior with reference to the generalized attitude of the social

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group(s) he/she occupies. When the individual can view himself or herself
from the standpoints of the generalized other, self- consciousness in the full
sense of the term is attained. From this standpoint, the generalized other
(internalized in the “me”) is the major instruments of social control, for it is the
mechanism by which the community exercises control over the conduct of its
individual members.
The “I” is the response to the “me”, or the person’s individually. It is
essence of agency in human action. So, in effect, the “ me” is the self as
object, while the “I” is the self as subject (Crossman, 2017).
In other words, the “I” is the responses of an individual to the attitudes
of others while the “me” is the organized set of attitudes of others which an
individual assumes. The “me” is the accumulated understanding of the
“generalized other,” i.e how one thinks one’s group perceives oneself. The “I”
is the individual’s impulses. The “I” is self as subject; the “me” is self as object.
The “I” is the knower, the “me” is the known. The mind, or stream of thought,
is the self-reflective movements of the interaction between the “I” and the “me”
these dynamics go beyond selfhood in a narrow sense, and from the basis of
a theory of human cognition. For Mead the thinking process is the internalized
dialogue between the “I” and the “me”
Understood as a combination of the “I” and the “me”, Mead’s self
proves to be noticeably entwined within a sociological existence. For Mead,
existence in a community comes before individual consciousness. First one
must participate in the different social positions within society and only
subsequently can one use that experience to take the perspective of others
and become self-conscious (Boundless, 2016).
2.1 Mead’s Three Stages of Development of Self

Stage 1: The Preparatory Stage

The first stage is the preparatory stage. The preparatory stage starts
from the time we are born until we are about age two. In this stage, children
mimic those around them. This is why parents of young children typically do
not want you to use foul language around them (Rath,2016). If a two-year-old
child can “read” what he or she has most likely done is memorized the book
that had been read to him or her. In a noontime TV show, Vic Sotto, Allan K.,

15
Jose Manalo, use quite foul language like “bwisit” “bastos” “siraulo” and so is
the language of a child who hears them. Does he or she idea of what he/she
is saying or doing? No. He/She is mimicking. He/She is in the preparatory
stage. If he/she had been an older child, the scenes in the segments of the
show would cease to have any humor. It works because he/she doesn’t
understand the meaning behind his/her words, actions, or tone of voice.
Stage 2: The Play Stage

From about age two to six, children are in the play stage. During the
play stage children play pretend and do not adhere to the rules in organized
games like patintero or basketball (Rath,2016). Playing a game with children
of this age is far easier to just go will any “rules” they come up with during the
course of the game than trying to enforce any “rules” upon them. Playing the
never-ending Chinese garter with girls still do not actually have one specific
set of rules the same as last time played, and yet they still play the game
while adhering to these rules. During this stage, children play “pretend” as the
significant other. This means that when they play “bahay-bahayan”, they are
literally pretend to be the mommy or the daddy that they know.
Stage 3: The Game Stage

The third stage is the game stage, which is from about seven onwards.
In this stage, children can begin to understand and adhere to the rules of
games. They can begin to play more formalized games because they begin to
understand other people’s perspective- or the perspective of the generalized
other. In this stage, when children play “pretend” they may still play “bahay-
bahayan”, but are pretending to a mommy or a daddy independent of the one
that resides in their home. The generalized other refers to the viewpoint of the
social group at large. The child begins taking this perspective into account
during this stage (Rath 2016).

2.2 The Looking-Glass self: Our Sense of Self is Influence by Others

‘Views of Us

The concept of the looking –glass self states that part of how we see
ourselves comes from our perception of how others see us (Cooley, 1902).

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 According to the American sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864-
1929), the degree of personal insecurity you display in social situations is
determined by what you believe other people think of you. Cooley’s concepts
of the looking glass self, states that a person’s self grows out of a person’s
social interactions with others. The view of ourselves comes from the
contemplation of personal qualities and impressions of how others perceive
us. Actually, how we see ourselves does not come from who we really are,
but rather from how we believe others see us (Isaksen,2013).
Sometimes, the influence of other people’s appraisals of ourselves on
our self-concepts may be so strong that we end up eternalizing them. For
example, we are often labeled in particularly ways by others, perhaps
informally in terms of our ethnic background, or more formally in terms of a
physical or psychological diagnosis. The labeling bias occurs when we are
labeled, and other’s views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling
(Fox & Stinnett, 1996). For example, if a teacher knows that a child has been
diagnosed with a particular psychological disorder, that teacher may have
different expectations and explanations of the child’s behavior than he or she
would if not aware of that label. Where things get really interesting for our
present discussion is when those expectations start to become self-fulfilling
prophecies, and our self-concept and even our behavior start to align with
them. For example, when children are labeled in special education context,
these labels can then impact their self-esteem (Taylor, Hume, & Welsh,
2012).
If we are repeatedly labeled and evaluated by others, then self-
labeling may occur which happens when we adopt others’ labels explicitly
into our self-concepts. The effects of this self-labeling on our self-esteem
appear to depend very much on the nature of the labels. Labels used in
relation to diagnosis of psychological disorder can be detrimental to people
who then internalize them. For example, Moses (2009) found that adolescents
who self-labeled according to diagnoses they had received were found to
have higher levels of self-stigma in their self-concepts compared with those
who described their challenges in non-pathological terms. In these types of
situation, those who self-label may come to experience internalized
prejudice, which occurs when individuals turn prejudice directed toward them
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by others onto themselves. Internalized adjustment in members of various
groups, including sexual minorities (Carter,2012) and racial minorities
( Szymanski & Obiri, 2011).
In other cases, labels used by wider society to describe people
negatively can be positively reclaimed by those being labeled. Galinsky and
colleagues (2013) explored this use of self-labeling by ,members of
oppressed groups to reclaim derogatory terms, including “queer” and “bitch”
used by dominant groups. After self-labeling, minority group members
evaluated these terms less negatively, reported feeling more powerful, and
were also perceived by observers as more powerful. Overall, these results
indicate that individual who incorporate a formerly negative label into their
self-concept in order to reclaim it can sometimes undermine the stigma
attached to the label.
2.3 Social Comparison Theory: Our Sense of Self Is Influenced by
Comparison with Others.

Self-concept and self-esteem are also heavily influenced by the

process of social comparison (Buunk & Gibbons, 2007; Van Lange, 2008).
Social comparison occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about
the appropriates and validity of our opinions, and about our relative social
status by comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of
others. These comparisons can be with people who we know and interact
with, with those whom we read about or see on TV, or with anyone else we
view as important. However, the most meaningful comparisons we make tend
to be with those we see as similar to ourselves (Festinger, 1954).
Social comparison occurs primarily on dimensions on which there is no
correct answer or objective benchmark and thus on which we can rely only on
the beliefs of others for information. Answers to questions such as “what
should I wear to the interview?” or what kind of music should I have at my
wedding?” are frequently determined at least in part by using the behavior of
others as a basis of comparison. We also use social comparison to help us
determine our skills or abilities – how good we are at performing a task or
doing a job, for example. When students ask their teacher for the class
average on an exam, they are also seeking to use social comparison to
evaluate their performance.
18
ASSESSMENT

Test I: Multiple choices. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

1. It represents the self as subject, and the individual’s impulses.

A. “I” B. “Me” C. “You” D. “We”

2. In this stage, children can begin to understand and adhere to the rules
of games.
A. game B. language C. play D. preparatory

3. He is known for his concepts of looking-glass self.

A. Cooley B. Mead C. Erikson D. Freud

4. This occurs when one is labeled, and others’ views and expectations of
an individual are affected by that labeling.

A. Internalized prejudice C. self labeling

B. Labeling bias D. social comparison

5. This occurs when individuals turn prejudice directed toward them by

others onto themselves.
A. Internalized prejudice C. self labeling
B. Labeling bias D. social comparison

Test II: Essay. Describe some aspects of your self-concept that have been
created through social comparison. Write down your thoughts and feelings in
no less than 100 words. (Use separate sheet of paper)

19
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY

How do you negotiate your self-identity in the different social contexts you are
into? Use the space provided inside the box.

Negotiating My Self-identity

20
REFERENCES

Baumeister, R., & Bushman, B. (2011). “The Self. “Socal Psychology and
Human Nature. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Buunk, A.P., & Gibbons, F.X. (2007). Social comparison: The end of a theory
and the emegergence of a field. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 102 (1), 3-21.

Crossman, Ashley (2017). Biography and Works of George Herbert Mead.

Retrieved June 2, 2017, from http//www.thought.com/George-herbert-mead-
3026491

Festinger, L.U. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human

Relations, 7-117-140. Doi:10.1177/001872675400202

James, William. 1890, “The Self and its Selves” (161-166). Retrieved on
August 10, 2017 from http://mills-soc116.wikidot/notes:james-self-and-its-
selves.

21
 Lesson 3. Anthropology

This section deals with the Anthropological perspective of understanding the

self. Anthropology is generally defined as the study of humankind in all times
and places. There are many branches of anthropology: this includes
archeology, primatology, cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology and
many other applied anthropology. This section however, will only deal with the
modern trends in anthropology especially in understanding humankind in
relation to their culture. Let us begin our study with the recognition of our own
unique cultural practice.

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

a) Define anthropology
b) Explain culture and the mechanism of enculturation
c) Synthesize anthropological perspectives on self-awareness and self
reflexive conduct
d) Show appreciation of one’s cultural identity through practice of one
cultural values

Anthropology

Anthropology is a study of all the aspects of human condition. This

includes human history, the present human condition, and even the future
possibilities. It also examines the biology, interactions in society, language
and especially culture (Kottak, 2009). Anthropology explores the
interconnectedness and interdependence of human cultural experiences in all
places and ages. This kind of broad and holistic perspective of

22
anthropological inquiry equips the anthropologists the ascendacy in explaining
human nature (Havilland, et. Al., 2014).
How does anthropology explain human nature? What is the
anthropological concept of the self? The self is both a biological and cultural
entity. The traditional anthropological understanding of the self is that self is
animal specie which underwent the process of biological evolution and has
shared characteristics with other living animals, the hominids, in particular.
The self is believed to have evolved from apes some 33milion years ago and
in the evolutionary process the self traced his/her origin from hominid species
“homo sapiens”. Since the self has better development in terms of brain within
billion neurons, and adaptation to the environment for survival, the self
develops a culture resulting in behavioral changes. The self is a living animal
but superior to other animals due to certain factors, namely: a.) physical
aspects (self as the only animal with a larger brain capacity making him/her a
rational animal; the only animal that can stand straight allowing him/her to
have better mobility in doing things, etc,: can cooperate with others in a
systematic manner in larger cooperation; and invents new things for survival.)
Now, let us examine the two very important concepts in anthropology
before we discuss further about the self, the contemporary self. These
concepts are culture and enculturation.
Culture is traditionally defined as systems of human behavior and
though. This covers all customs, traditions and capabilities of human as they
function in society. In other words, cultures are those complex structures of
knowledge, beliefs, arts, religion, morals, law, language, traditional practice
and all other aspects needed by humans to function in society.
Culture is symbolic. When our ancestor learned to use tools and
symbols to originate meaning of significant events in life and in society, those
tool and symbols becomes an integral part of the culture. The burial sites,
ancestral homes, landmarks of significant and historical events, the rituals,
customary actions and even some natural phenomena are all part of one’s
culture. In the words of Greetz, C, (1973), culture is “a historically transmitted
patterns of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions
expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate,
perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about their attitudes towards life”.
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The “embodiment in symbols” of cultural elements describes both an attitude
of our body to incorporate techniques and social devices, and creative
vocation to invent and incorporate new and different expressive operative
ways. (Thomas Csordas, 1999).
Culture therefore, is learned and is very much integrated in one’s
customs and beliefs. It is engrained in the patterns and systems of one’s life.
Hence, if culture considers all aspects and elements of the self, people must
be on guard that culture can be adaptive or maladaptive. On the one hand,
communities shall continue to assess whether the practices rituals and
customary actions are still relevant and still beneficial to the development of
the community. Adaptive culture shall continues to manifest the key central
values that the individual and the community want to demonstrate. On the
other hand, communities may also try to get rid of the cultural practices that
will only extinguish the identity and good will of the community.
In order to do this, we have to understand the concept of enculturation.
Broadly defined, enculturation is the transmission of culture from one
generation to the next. Unlike biological hereditary transmission, cultural
transmission is done through observation, use of language, adaptation to
environment, rituals, and formal and informal education. Every member of the
community will then distinguish themselves from other communities because
of the differences in the way people do things in their lives.
The Self and Person in Contemporary Anthropology

The anthropological self takes a holistic dimension of the individual

person. It considers both the biological and environmental aspects of the
persons. The genetic component plays a significant role in the culture
development of an individual. Anthropologists even suggest that the genes of
the person living in a particular community are already a necessary
component for the enculturation of the person. In the same way,
environmental exposure is also a vital component in the creation of the
cultural self. Some anthropologists claim that environmental exposure starts
soon after birth. However contemporary anthropologist suggests that the
environmental exposure starts during conception. The child inside the
mother’s womb already hears the language, tastes the food and feels the

24
mother’s emotion. These experiences then are solidified as soon as the child
is born.
The growing years of the child is very crucial in anthropological
perspective. This is the time when the child develops the psychological
construct of dependency or independency. In many western cultures where
independence is the cultural emphasis, the child is usually provided with a
room and is trained to be independent by giving less physical contact from
parents or carers. On the contrary, in most part of Asia and Africa, Children
are reared in close contact with parents, especially the mother, thus
developing the sense of dependence on significant others and the immediate
community (like family).
These rearing practices are the key to the development of the
neuromotor functions of the child and this neuromotor circuitry is fundamental
in the formation of self-awareness.
Self-awareness

Anthropology defines self-awareness as “that which permits one to assume

responsibility for one’s own conduct, to learn how to react to others, and to
assume a variety of roles” (Haviland, 2003). It has been observed that a child
starts to conceptualize self-awareness at age two. However, studies also
show that self-awareness is conceptualized much earlier by children sleeping
with parents and re exposed to a variety of stimuli like touch and the like.
Stimulations is maximized when the child is in close contact with the mother
or carer and all the other members of the family. This develops the neural
circuitry or hard wiring of the brain faster than with the children with less
stimulation. This is particularly advantageous for us Filipinos because most of
the time our cultural practice is to sleep with our parents until at least school
age.
Following the faster process of enculturation and self-awareness is the
importance of attachment of positive values to one’s self. The child must be
able to get the culturally correct values necessary for adult life. Parents,
immediate family and the community play a vital role in the development of
the child’s values. What the child observes from what the adults are doing or
thinking will more likely be adapted and imitated by the child. However, in the

25
continued process of self-awareness, the child will eventually develop his or
her own identity. This identity is further intensified by a practice common to all
cultures – the naming ritual.

Naming individualizes a person. It gives a person his/her own unique

traits, experiences, personality, identity and status. The latter, however, gives
the person’s name its place as a member of the group. The person’s name is
also a symbol of one’s status in the community. It either gives you honor or
stigma. The person’s name is at the same time a project in progress. The self
that bears the name continues to establish an identity of the name in the
community.
Self and Behavior Environment
In order strengthen the identity of the self, one must be able to grasp
the different behavioral orientations. These are concepts that will help situate
the self in different behavioral conditions. The four environmental orientations
are: object orientation, spatial orientation, temporal orientation and normative
orientation.
Object orientation positions the self in relation to the surrounding
objects. The self should be able to act responsively to the cultural objects
around. Take for example the T’boli, an indigenous group from South
Cotabato. They learn to respect the trees, the lakes, the falls and animals of
the forest. They believe in the spirit of the forest hence they consider the
woods as a holy ground where no leaf shall be turned as one walks through.
Spatial orientation provides the self with personal space in relation to
other people or things, in our earlier example, the individualistic society where
independences is of utmost importance, personal space is also emphasized.
Whereas in the communal society where interdependence is strongly
developed, personal space is more likely lessened. It is however important to
note that the self must be able to keep personal space. It would be a deviant
behavior to any community when a person intrudes the personal space of the
other.
Temporal orientation endows the self with the sense of time. Time is
truly relevant to cultural communities. In Filipino philosophy, time is seen as
spherical (unlike the western concepts of time as linear), where life-events are

26
repeated but may not be necessarily the same. Routinary activities are not
considered a repetition of previous activity because these activities will be
done at the “feel of time.” This is particularly true in the rural communities
where only the self or very few people are involved. In urban communities
where time is of the essence, and where the western linear concept of time is
practiced, the self must be able to adjust to this temporal orientation.
The last example is better explained in normative. Normative
orientation provides the self with the grasp of accepted norms in the
community. Being on time is a generally accepted norm in communal
activities. In communities where punctuality is considered a value, being on
time is already a charitable gesture. Likewise, normative orientation is at the
same time providing the self an idea of behaviors which are not acceptable in
the community. The self at a very early age must have known that killing
stealing; hunting others and the like are behaviors that should be avoided.
The Self Embedded in Culture

When the self is able to distinguish what is acceptable behavior and

what is not, it only follows that the self is already able to recognize the
differences between self and the other. This ability to manage the differences
between selves is what makes the self-embedded in culture. Psychological
anthropologists recognize the thin line that distinguishes the cultural self and
the “actual self.” The latter includes all the feelings, thoughts, experiences,
biological and psychological constitutions, language and memory. However
the actual self is also being shaped by all these same elements and more.
Therefore what remains in this distinction is the solid identity of the self in
relation to everything else.
The claim of the self as embedded in culture can only be embraced when the
self recognizes its relation to everything else. The complexity of cultural
identities of peoples, things, and events shall be recognized and respected by
the self. The individual self must remain reflexive of the similarities and unique
differences of everything around it. This shows that the self should not
maintain the individualistic, independent and autonomous entity but that the
self should be able to maintain his or her solid culturally reflexive identity in
relation to everything and everyone else.

27
 Anthropology recognizes the movement of this understanding towards
plurality and multiplicity of thoughts, beliefs, convictions, and practice. Hence,
this is exactly the contribution of anthropology to the postmodern era. There is
now the breakdown of grand narratives that subdue the small voices in the
peripheries. In other words, the anthropological movements at this time are
already geared toward recognizing the power of culture in influencing little
gaps and interstices, meaning intervening spaces the power of people. It is
only when the self recognizes the power of culture constituted by every
system that we can have an effective shaping of social reality.
This can be illustrated by few examples. One perhaps is the attitude of
some indigenous peoples (IP), especially the IP students enrolled in big
universities where they do not want to be recognized as IP or they do not
want to be identified as IP. This may only mean that these students are not
proud of their cultural identity. Eventually, this may lead to cultural
degradation.
Cultural degradation or more horribly cultural genocide means the loss
of a particular culture due to assimilation or loss of interest. Assimilation
happens when a dominant culture, the Ilocano culture for example, is
overshadowing the inferior culture, meaning the culture possessed by lesser
population living within the Ilocano communities the inferior culture will
eventually lose its identity. As a results, we will not be surprised when children
do not know anymore how to speak their own indigenous dialect, or perform
the rituals that were used to be performed by the elders, or play traditional
instruments that were played by the indigenous musicians, or to cook the
indigenous delicacies prepared by traditional chefs to mention a few.
In a larger scale, culture is also lost through continued violence,
genocide, inability to respect traditions, religions, beliefs, and the cultural
community’s sense of pride, which are largely the results of globalization. For
many decades, the Moros of Mindanao, for example, are continuously striving
for the recognition of their cultural identity and self-realization. However,
history tells us that both the Moros and the dominant culture living in
Mindanao are constantly victimized by the unending violence perpetrated by
various groups. In the end, many of the cultural landmarks, meaning the
identity of the people, are either prejudiced or lost forever.
28
 A very obvious example of cultural degradation is that brought about by
excessive exposure to media in various forms. Television for instance
influences language, traditions, beliefs, knowledge and even personalities. In
judging beauty for, media proposes the following criteria.
 Face must be beautiful and unpimpled
 Hair must be black and silky
 Skin color must be fair and flawless
 Body must be slim and tone, etc.

“Culture is also not a force or usual agent in the world, but a context in which
people live out their lives. “(Clifford Geertz, 1973)
In conclusion, Anthropology liberates the self from the fallacies of
dominant ideas. In this most liberating science, the self is no longer seen as
an entity with innate ideas, ready to face the world, and as if programmed to
respond to the demands of time. Likewise, the self is not seen as a “blank
slate” ready to encode all the details of everyday experiences, so that it
becomes limited only to what is written on that slate. In anthropology, the self
is recognized as (1) biologically attuned to respond to his or her environment
(2) variably self aware of the mechanism of the elements of culture working
within the self and (3) self-reflexive of the uniqueness and differences of all
other selves and everything else around.

29
ASSESSMENT

True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if the
statement is incorrect.

a.____________ Anthropologists emphasized that self is purely cultural

beings whose thoughts and actions are prescribed by society.

b.____________ Culture encompasses all aspects of the human being

including art, language , subsistence, history, thoughts, and the like.

c.____________ Religion is NOT part of culture because anything that

pertains to God and Faith is holy and cannot be subjected to scientific
experimentation.

d.____________ In recognition of the uniqueness of the other person, one

must be able to respect cultural practice that involve violence and repression.

e.____________ Normative orientation speaks of the self as reflexive of the

ethical norms of the community.

Analysis on Issues. Form a small group of live members. Identify some

cultural issues in your community and complete the table below.

Cultural categories Existing Issues Possible Causes Proposed

of Issues Solutions

The wearing of
traditional dress or
regalia

30
 The use of
indigenous
language or
vernacular

The destruction of
cultural or
historical heritage

The national
cultural pride and
identity

Rebellion and
struggle for self-
determination

The assimilation of
traditional self into
a dominant culture

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY

1. Self-Project. This section speaks about the anthropological

perspective of the self. Given this perspective, what aspects of your
self do you want to further develop? Identify these aspects and make it
a Self-Project. You may use the format below.

Project title: Date:

Rationale:

General
Goal:
Objectives activities Existing Possible Projected Duration Measures
Assets Source Difficulties of success
(strengths)
1.

2.

31
 3.

Make a Prezzi presentation of your project. Post it on your Facebook or

Instagram account. Tag your teacher or email the URL to your teacher. You
may also want to present your Self-Project in class.

2. Mandala. Mandala is a Sanskrit word which means “disk” or a

geometric figure that represents the universe. In psychoanalysis, the term
mandala is a circular figure that is usually filled with the person’s drawing of
his/her dreams or figures that represent the person’s search for completeness
and self unity.
For this activity, you need to prepare 1 whole sheet of paper. Draw a
big circle on the middle on the paper. Make sure to maximize the space of the
paper. Inside the circle, draw the most significant cultural influences (e.g.
materials, activities, celebrations, beliefs, influential persons etc) that have
helped shape yourself into what you are now. After 10 minutes, your teacher
will give a signal for you to pick a partner. Share Mandala with your partner.
Report to class the commonalities in your sharing.

32
REFERENCES

Cohen, A.P. (1995). Social anthropology-anthropology of the self: The

individual in cultural perspective> Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, 1(4), 872. Retrieved from
http://search.com/docview/22217592accountid-141440

Ferraro, Gary, Andreatta, Susan. 2012. Cultural Anthropology: an applied

perspective. Instructor’s Edition. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, United
States of America.

Gow, D.D. (2002) Anthropology and development: evil twin or moral

narrative? Human Organization, 61(4), 299-313. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview?201029236?accountid=141440

Havilland, William. 2003. Anthropology. Wadsworth, Thompson Learning Inc.

10th Edition, United State of America

Heiss, J.P. & Piette, A. (2015). Individual Anthropology. Zeitschrift Fuer

Ethnologie, 140(1), 5-17. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview?
201029236?accountid=141440

33
 Lesson 4. PSYCHOLOGY

Most people would say that they do not want to talk about themselves. But in
actuality, most people like hearing life stories of another person as a chance
to talk about themselves or to relate self to others. The famous line of “Me,
Myself and I” is often used in movies, animations and even in social media- as
caption to picture or as shout-outs.
The Psychology of self focuses on the representation of an individual based
on his/her experiences. These experiences are either from the home, school
and other groups, organization or affiliations he/she engaged in. seemingly,
the “self” is one of the most heavily researched areas in social and personality
psychology, where concepts are introduce that beyond our physical attributes,
lies our psychological identity. Questions of “Who am I?” or “what am I beyond
my looks?” are thoughts of many that continuously search for a deeper sense
of self which can be traced back from some time of human history. “Drawing
on caves suggests that sometime during the dawn of history, human beings
began to give serious thought to their nonphysical selves. With the advent of
written history, writers would describe this awareness of self in terms of spirit,
psyche, or soul.” (Pajares & Schunck, 2002)
From ancient to current times, the concept of the self is always an
interesting subject for many as it is very personal that it talks about
interpersonal properties. In oxfordbibliographies.com (2-13), it is mentioned
that whatever stance one adopts regarding the self’s ontological status, there
is little doubt that the many phenomena of which the self is a predicate-self-
knowledge, self-awareness, self-esteem, self-enhancement, self-regulations,
self-deception, self-presentation to name just a few, are indispensable
research areas.

34
What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

a. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the different

psychological theories in the study of the “self”
b. Expound the self as a cognitive construction
c. Examine the self as proactive and agentic.
THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Cognitive construction is a cognitive approach that focuses on the

mental processes rather than the observable behavior. This approach will
assist individuals in assimilating new information to their existing knowledge
and will enable to make the appropriate modification to their existing
intellectual framework to accommodate their new information.

William James and the Me-Self, I-Self

With the initiative of Wilhelm Wundt, the father of Scientific,

Psychology, Scientific methods in studying what Aguirre et al. (2011)
mentioned as “phenomenon of the consciousness”, urged interest in further
studies of the self and its role in human behavior. It is in this time that “William
James” classic distinction between the self as knower (or pure ego) and the
self as known (or the empirical self) provides a useful scheme within which to
view the multitudinous aspects of self-functioning
(oxfordbibliographies.com,2013).
W. James suggested that “the self of “Me”, being as it were duplex” is
composed of “partly object and partly subject.” As a consequence, he
differentiated between the self as knower, or the “I” and the self as known, or
“Me”. He referred to the “I” as pure ego and suggested that this component of
self is consciousness itself. The “Me”, on the other hand, is one of the many
things that the I may be conscious of , and it consists of three components,
one physical or material, one social, and one spiritual (Pajares & Schunck,
2002).

35
 Material Self- consists of things that belong to us or that we belong to.
Things like family, clothes, our body, and money are some of what make
up our material selves.
Social Self – our social selves are who we are in given social situation.
For James, people change how they act depending on the social situation
that they are in. James believed that people had as many social selves as
they had social situations they participated in.
Spiritual Self – is who we are out core. The spiritual self is more concrete
or permanent than the other two selves. The spiritual self is our subjective
and most intimate self. Aspects of an individual’s spiritual self, include
things like his/her personality, core values, and conscience that do not
typically change throughout a lifetime.

Global versus Differentiated Models

There had been postulation that one’s self may be fragmented into
different parts and different selves which may be in conflict needs regulation
from each other. Although W. James gave a very interesting perspective on
the self, and was even among the first writers to coin the ‘Self-Esteem’, other
theories emerged to study on the selfhood as an integrated part of one’s
psyche. In the past 30 years, self-esteem has become deeply embedded in
popular culture (Brown & Marchall, 2006). It is a person overall self evaluation
or sense of self-worth.
Global self-esteem (a.k.a. Feelings of Self-esteem), is a personality
variable that represents the way people generally feel about themselves. It is
relatively enduring across time and situations. According to researchers (e.g.
Crocker & Park, 2004; Crocker &Wolfe, 2001), Global self-esteem is a
decision people make about their worth as a person.
State Self-esteem (a.k.a. Feelings of Self-worth), refers to temporary
feelings or momentary emotional reaction to positive and negative events
where we feel good or bad about ourselves during these situation or
experiences.
Domain Specific-self esteem (a.k.a. Self-evaluations), is focused on how
people evaluate their values abilities and attributes. This is making distinctions

36
or differentiation on how good or bad people are in specific physical attributes,
abilities and personal characteristics.

Real and Ideal Self Concepts

The self as the regulating center of an individual’s personality and
self=processes under the guess of id, and superego functioning (Pajares &
Schunck, 2002), rocked psychology as the biggest breakthrough
understanding the psychological self. From this milestone, prominent
psychologists followed with their own perspective of the self to contest the
roles and function of ego as the self. These were the landmarks of
Contemporary Psychology and the understanding of the internal process of
man. A group of psychologists called for renewed attention to inner
experience, internal processes, and self-constructs. This perspective asserts
the overall dignity and worth of human beings and their capacity for self-
realization (Hall, Lindzey, & Manosevitz, 1997)

Karen Horney with her feminine psychology, established that a person

has an ‘ideal self’ ‘actual self’ and the ‘real self’. She believed that everyone
experiences basic anxiety through which we experience conflict and strive to
cope and employ tension reduction approaches. Hall, et al. (1997) mentioned
that Horney believed people develop a number of strategies to cope with
basic anxiety. Because people feel inferior, an idealized self-image – an
imaginary picture of the self as the possessor of unlimited powers and
superlative qualities, is developed. On the other hand, the actual self, the
person one is in everyday life, is often despised because it fails to fulfill the
requirements of the idealized image. Underlying both the idealized self and
actual self is the real self, which is revealed only as a person begins to shed
the various techniques develop to deal with basic anxiety and to find ways of
resolving conflicts. The real self is not an entity but a ‘force’ that impels growth
and self-realization.

Carl Rogers with his Person-Centered Theory, establish a concept of self,

involving the Real Self (a.k.a. Self-concept) and Ideal Self includes all those
aspects of one’s being and one’s experience that are perceived in awareness
37
(through not always accurately) by the individual (Feist, Feist& Roberts,
2013). It is the part of ourselves where we feel, think, look and act involving
our self-image. On the other hand, the Ideal Self revolves around goals and
ambitions in life, is dynamic, the idealized image that we have developed over
time. This is what our parents have taught us considering: what we admire in
others, what our society promoters, what we think are in our best interest.
A wide gap between the ideal and the real self indicates incongruence and
an unhealthy personality (Feist et al., 2013). If the way that I am (the real self)
is aligned with the way that I want to be (the ideal self), then I will feel a sense
of mental well-being or peace of mind. If the way that I am is not aligned with
how I want to be, the incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result in mental
distress or anxiety. The greater the level of incongruence between the ideal
self and self, the greater is the level of resulting distress.

Multiple versus Unified Selves

Postmodern psychology contends that man has an identity that shifts and
morphs in different social situation and in response to different stimuli, as
Kenneth Gergen argues that having a flexible sense of self in different context
is more socially adaptable than force oneself to stick one self-concept
(ctsites.uga.edu, 2016, danielcw).
Theories believed that there is no one answer to the question, “Who am
I?” as one person can undergo several transition in his life and create multiple
versions of himself. However, there is still the contention of the importance of
mental well-being, maintaining a unified, centralized, coherent self.
Multiple Selves, according to K. Gergen, are the capacities we carry
within us from multiple relationships. These are not ‘discovered’ but ‘created’
in our relationships with other people.
Unified Selves, as strongly pointed out in Traditional Psychology
emphasizes that well-being when our personality dynamics are congruent,
cohesive and consistent. It is understood that a person is essentially
connected with selfhood and identity. In a healthy person the ego remains at
the helm of the mind, coherent and organized, staying at the center
(ctlsites.uga.edu,2016,danielcw).

38
True versus False Selves

Donald W. Winnicott distinguish what he called the ‘true self’ from the
“false self” in the human personality, considering the true self as based on a
sense of being in the experiencing body and the false as necessary defensive
organization, a survival kit, a caretaker sele, the means by which a threatened
person has managed to survive (Klein,1994).
True Self has a sense of integrity, of connected wholeness that harks to
the early stage. False Self is used when the person has to comply with
external rules, such as being polite or otherwise following social codes. The
false self constantly seeks to anticipate demands of others in order to
maintain the relationship. The Healthy False Self is functional, can be fits in
but through a feeling that it has betrayed its true self. The Unhealthy False
Self fits in but through a feeling of forced compliance rather than loving
adaptation (chancgingminds.org 2016). False Selves, as in investigation by
Heins Kohut (1971), can lead towards narcissistic personality, which
identify external factors at the cost of one’s own autonomous creativity.

The Self as Proactive and Agentic

Social Cognitive Theory takes an agentic view of personality, meaning that
humans have the capacity to exercise control over their own lives. People are
self-regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing and that they
have the power to influence their own actions to produce desire
consequences. People consciously act on their environment in a manner that
permits growth toward psychological health. An adequate theory of
personality, according to G. Allport must allow for proactive behavior (Feist et
al., 2013).
Agent Self – the agent self is known as the executive function that allows
for actions. This is how we, as individuals, make choices and utilize our
control in situations and actions. The agent self, resides over everything that
involves decision making, self-control, taking charge in situations, and actively
responding. A person might desire to eat unhealthy foods, however, it his/her

39
agent self that allows that person to choose to avoid eating them and make a
healthier food choice (Baumeister, & Bushman 2011).
Human agency is not thing but an active process of exploring,
manipulating and influencing the environment in order to attain outcomes.
According to Albert Bandura, the core features of human agency are
Intentionally (acts a person performs intentionally) forethought (setting goals,
anticipation of outcomes of actions, selection of behavior to produce desired
and avoiding undesirable ones), self-reactiveness (monitoring progress
towards fulfilling choices), and self-reflectiveness (examination of own
functioning, evaluation of the effect of other people’s action on them). These
lead to self-efficacy, the belief that they are capable of performing actions
that will produce a desire effect (Feist, et al., 2013).
Self-Efficacy lies in the center Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory. It is the
measure of one’s ability to complete goals. People with high self-efficacy often
are eager to accept challenges because they believe they can overcome
them, while people with low self-efficacy may avoid challenges, or believe
experiences are more challenging than they actually are
(appsychtextbk.wikispaces.com,2014).
Let us move further as we continue examining other perspectives of the
self.

40
 ASSESSMENT

Test I: Multiple Choices. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

1. It refers to the ‘self’ as the pure ego.

a. “I” b. “Me”

2. He was among the first who coined the term ‘self-esteem’

a. George Berkeley b. William James

3. He proposed that ideal self is one’s aspirations to become.

a. Mischel b. Rogers

4. He contends that a person has multiple rather than unified selves.

a. Gergen b. Freud

5. The differentiated model of self is starting the presence of

a. Permanent reactions b. temporary reactions.

Test II: Essay. Which among the theories on’Self’ as a Cognitive Construction,
explain best your personality dynamics? Write down your thoughts and
feelings in no less than 300 words.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

41
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Activity 1

Make a collage of your ‘Ideal Self’ and ‘Real Self’. Use cut-out magazine
pictures or use your drawing skills to create a collage that represent your
‘two selves’. Next, have a friend or family member make a collage of your
‘Actual Self’. Compare them and see what you will learn about yourself.

Activity 2

Test out Theory of Agentic Self, to show that we make choices and utilize
our control in situations and actions. Get a group of 3-5 teenagers and let
them watch a video on the benefits of choosing healthy foods. In the
middle of watching the videos pause and offer them a choice of healthy
and junk foods and let them choose what they want to eat while finishing
the video. See how concepts of Agentic Self will be confirmed or negated
in this simple experiment\,

Activity3

Pick any song that you think is relevant. This can be pop, R&B, classic
rock, country or whatever you like. Write the lyrics down and analyze how
the Multiple Selves were depicted in the song.

42
REFERENCES

Aguirre, F., Monce, M.R. & Dy, G. (2011) Introduction to Psychology. Malabon
City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc. appsychtextbk.wikispaces.com (2014)
Retrieved May 23, 2014 from http;//appsychtextbk.wikispaces/Albert+Bandura

Hurlock, E., 2001. Developmental Psychology. A lifespan approach. McGraw

Hill, Inc. USA

Myers, David G. 2002. Social Psychology, 7th edition. McGraw Hill Higher
Education, New York

Tria, G.E, J.E. Gaerlan and D.A. Limpingco, 2012. General Psychology 6e.
KEN, INC., Quezon City Philippines

Villafuerte, S.L. Learning Modules in Psychology. 2013. ISBN 978-971-92250-

2. Legazpi City, Philippines

43
 Lesson 5: The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different

perceptions of the “self” and one of the most common distinctions between
cultures and people is the Eastern-vs-Western dichotomy wherein Eastern
represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern America. It
must be understood that this distinction and the countries included was
politically colored at the social science. Furthermore, it must be reiterated that
while countries who are geographically closer to each other may share
commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create differences. In the
Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying perception
regarding the “self.”

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Differentiate the concepts of self according to Western thought against

Eastern/Oriental perspectives;
2. Explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts; and
3. Create a representation of the Filipino self.

There are actually a lot of sources in which you can analyze the
perspective of each culture and country about the concept of “self.” You can
see it in their literature like how one culture depicts a hero or a villain in their
boss or their stories. You can see it in their social organization like how they

44
see their boss or their subordinate. Artworks, dances, even clothing may show
you clues about the “self”

In this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies

that greatly influenced the mindset of each nation or culture. Since almost all
the theories about the self, which were discussed in the previous lessons,
also came from the Western scientific research, we will highlight the Eastern
thoughts in these lessons.

First is Confucianism. Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical

conduct, of how one should properly act according to their relationship with
other people; thus, it is also focused on having a harmonious social life (Ho
1995). Therefore, the identity and Self-concept of the individual are
interwoven with the identity and status of his/her community or culture,
sharing its pride as well as its failures (Ho1995).

Self-cultivations is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but the

characteristics of a chun-tzu, a man of virtue or noble character, is still
embedded in his social relationship (Ho 1995). The cultivated self in
Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein personal
needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of may, making Confucian
society also hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in
society (Ho 1995).

Second philosophy is Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the

universe. However, Taoism rejects having one definition of what the Tao is,
and one can only state clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative,
unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost everything. Taoism rejects the
hierarchy and strictness brought by Confucianism and would prefer a simple
lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how to attain that life (Ho
1995).

The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is

part of the universe, one of the forms and manifestations of the Tao (Ho

45
1995). The ideal self is selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self, it
is living a balanced- life with society and nature, being open and accepting to
change, forgetting about prejudices and egocentric ideas and thinking about
equality as well as complementary among humans as well as other beings
(Ho 1995). In this way, you will be able to act spontaneously because you will
not be restricted by some legalistic standards but because you are in harmony
with everything.

The third belief is Buddhism. There are various groups who have
adopted Buddhism; thus, you may find differences in their teachings with our
discussion but more likely, their core concepts remained the same. the self is
seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and control things,
or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also the source of all these
sufferings (Ho 1995). It is, therefore, our quest to forget about the self, forget
the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have with the world, and to
renounce the self which is the cause of all suffering and in doing so, attain the
state of Nirvana (Ho 1995).

The self or the individual is not the focus of the abovementioned Asian
or Eastern philosophies or beliefs. Even with extended discussions about how
the self should work, Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self within a
bigger context. In striving to become a better person, one does not create a
self above other people or nature but a self that is beneficial to his community
as well as in order and harmony with everything else. As for Buddhism, the
self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just out of the
center of the picture, but from the whole picture entirely.

As previously discussed, Western perspective does not discount the

role of environment and society in the formation of the self but focus is always
looking toward the self. You compare yourself in order to be better; you create
associations and bask in the glory of that for your self-esteem; you primary in
developing yourself.

46
 One can also describe that the Western though looks at the world in
dualities wherein you are distinct from the other person, the creator is
separate from the object he created, in which the self is distinguished and
acknowledge (Wolter 2012). On the other hand, the Eastern perspective sees
the other person as part of yourself as well as the things you may create, a
drama in which everyone is interconnected with their specific roles Wolter
2012)

Several studies showed that Americans, for example, talk more about
their personal attributes when describing themselves while Asians in general
talk about their social roles or the social situations that invoked certain traits
that they deem positive for their selves (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011).
Evaluation of the self also differs as Americans would highlight their personal
achievements while Asians would rather keep a low profile as promoting the
self can be seen as boastfulness that disrupt social relationship (Gleitman,
Gross, and Reisberg 2011).

The western culture is what we would call an individualistic culture

since their focus is on the person. Asian culture, on the other hand, is called a
collectivistic culture as the group and social relations that is given more
importance than individual needs and wants.

By valuing the individual, western may seem to have loose

associations or even loyalty to their groups. Competition is the name of the
game and they are more likely straightforward and forceful in their
communication as well as decision- making. Eastern or oriental person look
after the welfare of their groups and values cooperation. They would also be
more compromising and they tend to go around the bush in explaining things,
hoping that the other person would “feel” what they really want to say
(Qingxue 2003).
Westerners also emphasize more on the value of equality even if they
see that the individual can rise above everything else. Because everyone is
on their own in the competition, one can say that they also promote ideals that
create “fair” competition and protect the individual. Asian’s with their
47
collectivistic culture, put more emphasis on hierarchy as the culture wants to
keep things in harmony and order (Qingxue 2003). For example, Westerners
would most likely call their bosses, parents, or other seniors by their first
name. The boss can also be approached head-on when conflicts or problems
about him arises. For Asians, we have respectful terms for our seniors and a
lot of workers not dare go against the high-ranking officials (Qingxue 2003).

It must be emphasized, however, that these are general commonalities

among Western cultures as compared to Asian or Oriental cultures. In the
case of the Philippines, we can also consider the colonization experience for
differences and similarities with our Asian neighbors. We might also find
variation among provinces and regions due to geographical conditions.

With the social media, migration, and intermarriages, variety between

the Western and Asian perceptions may either be blurred or highlighted.
Whereas conflict is inevitable in diversity, peace is also possible through the
understanding of where each of us is coming from.

Assessment

Write top five (5) differences between Western and Eastern society, culture
and individuals in the table below. Cite your sources.

Western Eastern

Enrichment Activity

48
 Create a presentation, diagram or concept map of the SELF according
to Filipino culture. Provide a brief explanation of your output. You can also cite
books and researches about Filipino culture, self, and identity to further
elaborate on the topic.

Summary

The philosophy of self defines the essential qualities that make one person

distinct from all others and many conditions of identity that make one subject
of experience distinct from other experiences. The self is the idea of a unified
being which is the source of consciousness.
The various disciplinal perspectives – philosophical, sociological,
anthropological, psychological, also, concept from the eastern and western
philosophers was presented to explore yourself and not limit your
understanding of what you believe.

REFERENCES

Gleitman, Henry, James Gross, and Daniel Reisberg. 2011. Psychology. 8 th

Ed. Canada W.W. Norton and Company.

Ho, David. 1995. “Selfhood and identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism,

and Hindhuism; Contrast with the West” Journal for the Theory of Social
Behavior 25: 2. Accessed October 14, 2017.
http://www.iaccp.org/sites/default/files/ho_1995_0.pdf.

Qingxue, Liu. 2003 “Understanding Different Cultural Patterns or Orientations

Between East and West. “investigations linguisticae. Vol.IX.April 2003.
Accessed October 14,2017.
http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/inveling/pdf/liu_quingxue_inve9.pdf.

Wolter , Derek C. 2012. “In Search of the Self: Eastern versus Western
Perspectives.” Oglethorpe Journal of Undergraduate Research Vol.1: Iss. 1,
Article 1. Accessed October 14, 2017.

49
http://digitalcommonskennesaw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
referer=https://www.google.com.ph/&httpsredir=1&article=1003&context=ojur

Chapter II

UNPACKING THE SELF

This chapter explores the various aspects of self and identity

such as the physical or biological, sexual, material or economic, spiritual,
political, and digital self. Certain issues and concerns regarding self and
identity are to be explored in order to arrive at a better understanding of one’s
self. This chapter includes the mandatory topics on Family Planning and
Population Education.

What to Expect?

This chapter seeks to realize the following outcomes:

1. Explore the different aspects of self and identity;

2. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various
aspects of self and identity;
3. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development
of various aspects of self and identity; and
4. Examine one’s self against the different aspects of self- discussed in
class.

Lesson 1: The Physical Self

Physical appearance is among the major concerns of people today, in

our world which is heavily influenced by media. According to Erving Goffman
(1971), “people are concerned with the way others perceive them, and such

50
concern serves as a motivation to manage their behaviour in order to present
favourable and appropriate images to others. Such self- presentation includes
not only the individual’s social behaviours but also his/her physical body”.

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Identify and reflect on the different forces and institutions that impact
the development of the physical self;
2. Explain the impact of culture on body images and self- esteem.
3. Discuss the role of media on the adolescents understanding of beauty
and self-esteem and its influence on their body image satisfaction;
4. Examine one’s self against the different concepts and aspects of the
physical self.
5. Propose measures to enhance the adolescents’ “body image
satisfaction”.

The Self as Impacted by the Body

The concept of physical self has gained a considerable attention in the

fields of Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, including religious and
biological or health studies. These disciplines agree on the premise that the
physical self is an important component in the study of the person’s self and
identity. As what William James said, “ the self is the sum total of all that man
can call his, which includes his body, family and reputation, also his clothes
and his house…” The concrete or tangible aspect or dimension of the person
which is primarily observed and examined through the body is known as the
physical self.

William James, a renowned

psychologist and a pioneer of
American Sociology, states that the
body is the initial source of
sensation and necessary for the
origin and maintenance of
personality. Erik Erickson also

51
claims that experience is anchored in the ground- plan of the body. This
supported by Sigmund Freud who states that the physical body is the core of
human experience. Furthermore, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945) placed the
body at the center of human existence, as a way of experiencing the world.

Such ideas make clear to us the fact that the body is the way through
which we make sense of the world and our environment. We experience life
through our bodies and senses (sight, smell, touch, etc.), allowing us to
interpret the world around us. However, the body is not merely an object in
the world but we are also our bodies in that the body is the vehicle for our
expression in the world. The body is the sight for the articulation of all our
identifications of gender, class, sexuality, race, ethnicity and religion.

The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self- Esteem: The Importance
of Beauty

Well dressed, elegant, good-looking and attractive. These are the

words we usually associate with beauty. As Kenny and Nichols describe, they
are the determining factors shaping beauty. “Attractive children, and adults
are treated more favourably by others in the society.”

Standards of beauty and appearance are the

product of a diverse mix of cultural and
historical influences. Norms of beauty and
appearance are tied to ideals of appearance
and hard work. Today, the norm or standard
of beauty includes wavy blond hair, light skin
and eyes, and a tall and slim form. Some
people have the good fortune to possess
features that adhere to standardized ideals of
beauty though nature bestows less-than-perfect physical attributes upon
others such as slightly misshapen noses, protuberant chins, breasts that
appear too large or too small. For the most part, people learn to live with
these imperfections. But in several cases, the individual is so dissatisfied with
his/her physical attributes that he/ she seeks to alter them through surgical
means. Breasts augmentation is the favourite while liposuction is also

52
prevalent. Plastic surgery remains most popular among women, maintaining
beautiful bodies through plastic surgery procedures.

Popular interest in body image issues has grown dramatically in recent

years, due to an emphasis on individual responsibility and self-determination
in contemporary society as well as the seemingly limitless capacities of
modern medicine. What do we exactly mean by body image? It refers to the
person’s perception of the level of attractiveness of his/ her body or it can be
somebody’s own impression of how his/ her body looks. It may also be our
sense of how other people view our bodies. In that sense, body image can be
seen as both internal (personal) and external (social). One’s perception of his
or her body elicits either pleasing/ satisfying or unpleasing/ unsatisfying
feelings. Body image lies at the heart of adolescence and it is the mental
representation of one’s own body, which is very important aspect of identity.

Along with the concept of body image is the concept of beauty. Beauty
is of two types: the inner beauty which refers to the inner qualities of the
person and the external beauty which refers to the physical characteristics of
the person.

The Role of Culture in our Understanding of Body Image and Self-

Esteem

Culture is commonly defined as the shared patterns of thoughts,

beliefs, behaviors and habits in both material and symbolic realms. Culture
includes language, technology, economic, political and educational systems,
religious and aesthetic patterns, social structures and so on. Through culture,
society shapes us in many ways.As mentioned earlier, body image is both
internal and external. These includes how we perceived our bodies visually,
how we feel about our physical appearance, how we think and talk to
ourselves about our bodies, and our sense of how other people view our
bodies.

Margo de Mello (2014) explains that the culture of physical

improvement trains us not only to believe that all bodily processes are under
our control, but to feel ashamed about those parts of our flesh that refuse to

53
comply with the cultural ideal. Body shame is a culturally conditioned reaction
to a commercially-fabricated fantasy of physical perfection.

Audrey Tramel (2013) mentions that

the predominance of “pop culture” in
today’s society definitely has some
effects such as the way teenagers
think of themselves, how they
associate with others, and how they
express characteristics of their
maturation. Pop culture or popular
culture is a culture widely accepted and patronized by the public as in pop
music which is very appealing to the youth. Pop culture influences how teens
define themselves as in the case of a recent famous K-pop boy band, named
“Exo” which gained the admiration of millions of Filipino teenagers. It
influences the way they define themselves. Indeed, an important
characteristic of every teenager’s maturation is his/her self-definition. Self-
definition refers to the way a person sees himself.

Recent researchers agree that pop culture has some impact on

teenagers’ self-definition. Pop culture can provide benchmarks which become
the teenagers’ basis of their self-definition. In this way, they see themselves
adopting certain characteristics from the various celebrities and other models
they see in pop culture. Lastly, self-definition can be intrinsically tied into self-
esteem and confidence, two critical components of a healthy disposition
throughout maturation and into adulthood.

The influence of Media on the Adolescent’s Understanding of Beauty

The media creates ideals, in the form of celebrities and models, for
men and women to admire. These give us pressure to conform to
expectations. Images in the media often make us worry about our own
appearance, defining what body is attractive and which one is not seeing
being fat as unattractive.

54
 Genesis M. Javellana (2014) mentions that the media plays a large role
in how teenagers view themselves by shaping images of what teenagers are
supposed to be or do. Research findings revealed that the internet is the most
frequently used media with the respondents using it often. Magazines have
the strongest negative relationship with the weight of the respondents; and
proposed that measures such as media awareness seminars and screening
and balancing of commercials and advertisements on television and
magazines are needed to balance the effects of media on adolescents.

Findings from further studies, showed that teenagers imagine

themselves being the actor/actress in a movie they have watched.They copy
an actor’s/ actresses’ clothes, hairstyle, and/or lines in the movie because it
would make them look cool or feel good. They like a movie because the actor/
actress in that movie look exceptionally good. They use the product endorsed
by their favourite actor/actress. They feel upset after seeing
handsome/beautiful personalities on TV or internet. They edit their solo
pictures to make them look better before posting them online. They feel
handsome/beautifuk when their solo picture gets a lot of likes.

Impact of Media on the Self-esteem of the Adolescent

Evidence from different types of studies in the fields of eating

disorders, media, psychology, health psychology, and mass communication
indicates that mass media are an extremely important source of information
and reinforcement in relation to the nature of the thin beauty ideal, its
importance, and how to attain it.

In the concepts of physical changes in the body and identity of

adolescent, Davies & Furnham, found out that the average teenager is
sensitive to, and critical of, his/her physical self. Constant exposure to cultural
standards of beauty in evaluating own body image (via media and social
networks) may produce non-normative shift in the form of dieting practices
which may lead to eating disorders as a result of body image dissatisfaction,
the feeling of discrepancy between actual and ideal body image. Stice and
Withenton (2002), have found body image dissatisfaction to be a strong
predictor of depression, exercise dependence, eating disorders and steroid

55
use among young people in the US. The “Cultural Ideal Hypothesis” predicts
that, since the cultural ideal for the female body is being slim, adolescent girls
should more likely to express body dissatisfaction and resort to dieting. A
cultural ideal is that male bodies be big and strong while ideal female bodies
in Western and Asian culture is slim.

Certainly, the exposure to the thin-ideal media image on women posed

a great impact on their self-esteem. It increase body dissatisfaction, negative
mode states and eating disorder symptoms and decreased self-esteem.

Self- esteem and Its Significance

Self-esteem, sometimes referred to as self-worth or self-respect, is an

important part of success. In other words, self- esteem is how much you
appreciate and like yourself. Self- esteem is often seen as a personality trait
which tends to be stable and enduring. It can involve a variety of beliefs about
yourself, such as the appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs, emotions,
and behaviors. Self-esteem is one of the basic human motivations.Too little
self-esteem can leave people feeling defeated or depressed. It can also lead
people to make bad choices, fall into destructive relationships, or fail to live up
to their full potential. Too much self-esteem, however, as exhibited in
narcissistic personality disorder, can certainly be irritating to others and can
even damage personal relationships.

Those who consistently receive overly critical or negative assessments

from caregivers, family members, and friends will likely experience problems
with low self-esteem. Additionally, your inner thinking, age, any potential
illnesses, disabilities, or physical limitations, and your job can affect your self-
esteem. Possessing little self-regard can lead people to become depressed,
to fall short of their potential, or to tolerate abusive situations and
relationships. Too much self-love, on the other hand, results in an irritating
sense of entitlement and an inability to learn from failures. It can also be a
sign of clinical narcissism which is a personality disorder.

Developing Self-esteem

56
 To overcome such adverse effects on the issues of self-esteem, here
our best insights on how to strike a balance between accurate self-knowledge
and respect for who you are. You need to develop a positive body image
which involves:

a. Understanding that healthy, attractive bodies come in many shapes

and sizes;
b. Physical appearance says very little about our character or value as a
person;
c. How we get to this point of acceptance often depends on our individual
development and self-acceptance.

To get to that all important point of balance, there are a few steps we can
take:

a. Talk back to the media and speak our dissatisfaction with the focus on
appearance;
b. Emphasize numbers as pounds, kilograms or inches, feet and meters
on the scale; they don’t tell us anything meaningful about the body as a
whole or our health;
c. Stop comparing ourselves with others and remember that each one is
unique;
d. We need to appreciate and enjoy our bodies in the uniqueness of what
we have;
e. Spend time with people who have a healthy relationship with food,
activity, and their bodies;
f. Question the degree to which self-esteem depends on our appearance
because basing our happiness on how we look is likely to lead us to
failure and frustration, and may therefore prevent us from finding true
happiness;
g. Broaden our perspective about health and beauty by reading about
body image cultural variances, or media influence and check out a
local art gallery payingparticular attention to fine art collections that
show a variety of body types throughout the ages and in different
cultures;

57
 h. Recognize that size prejudice is a form of discrimination, as shape and
size are not indicators of character, morality, intelligence, or success;
i. Approach health and well-being from a frim and socially engaging
perspective and put importance on a healthy lifestyle and;
j. Keep in mind that the body, in whatever shape or size, is good and
sacred, having been created in the image and likeness of god. Such
body deserves love and respect.

We will have a positive body image when we have a realistic perception of

our bodies, when we enjoy, accept and celebrate who or what and how we
are, and let go of negative societal or media perpetuated conditioning.

Assessment

Test I: Multiple choice. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

1. It creates ideals, in the form of celebrities and models, for men

and women to admire.
a. Media
b. Identity
c. Body image
d. Self
2. This is the way through which we make sense of the world and
our environment.
a. Body
b. Body image
c. Identity
d. Self
3. It refers to the person’s perception of the level of attractiveness
of his/her body or it can be somebody’s own impression of how
his or her body looks.
a. Beauty
b. Body image
c. Physical appearance
d. Self-esteem

58
 4. It is generally defined as the shared patterns of thoughts,
beliefs, behaviors, and habits in both material and symbolic
realms.
a. Culture
b. Language
c. Self-concept
d. Values
5. It is used to describe a person’s overall sense of self-worth or
personal value.
a. self-concept
b. self confidence
c. self-esteem
d. self-identity

Test II: Essay. Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. How does media influence the teenager’s understanding of

beauty?
2. What are the effects of the teenager’s constant exposure to
media to the building/development of his/her identity?
3. As a teenager, how can you develop a healthy/ positive self-
esteem?

Enrichment Activities

Activity 1.Listen to either of the following songs. Reflect on the lyrics and cite
a line that is most striking to you. Explain why you have chosen it. Then
discuss your own concept of beauty.

1. Song: Unpretty by TLC

Log on to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JWT0K9VeYXM
2. Song: Beautiful by Christine Aguilera
Log on tohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aoYEQgG4-JY

Activity 2.Log on to http://goo.gl/forms/yELu8JxmiMpwjoId2 and answer the

survey on Self-Awareness Index. After answering the forms, click view scores.

59
Activity 3.Make a portfolio about yourself.

REFERENCES

Alata, Eden Joy Pastor, Caslib, Bernardo Nicolas Jr, Serafica, Janice Patria
Javier, Pawilen, R.A. (2018). Understanding the Self. 1 st Edition.

Chafee, J.(2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the
Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson.106-
169

Dalisay G. Brawner, Analiza F. Arcega(2018).Understanding The Self. 1 st

Edition

Demello, M. (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Pp 173-188. And Fat and Thin Bodies.
189-205. In Body Studies: An Introduction.Rooutledge

Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of

Exposure to FB on Self esteem. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social
Networking. Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (eds).
Compassion and Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY. Guilford Press. 79-
92.<http://self-compassion.org/the-research>.

Sosis, R. (2010). The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual. In Angeloni (ed).

Annual Editions: Anthropology 10/11.33 rd ed. McGraw Hill. 133-137

Stein & Stein (2011). Ritual. In the Anthropology of Religion, Magic and
Witchcraft. Prentice Hall. 77-102.

Villafuerte, S.L., Al F. Quillope, R.C. Tunac & E.I. Borja (2018). Understanding
the Self. Neime Publishing House Co. LTD. ISBN 978-621-95906-1-7.

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 Lesson 2: The sexual Self

This is the part of yourself where you learn and understand your sexual
development and how people’s sexual activity, beliefs, misconceptions and
unlimited access from the internet on sex can influence your own sexual
behaviors and responses. Your sexual self speaks of your sexual health,
sexual orientation, gender identity and expression and values around
sexuality.

It has been believed that the sex chromosomes of humans define the
sex (female or male) and their secondary sexual characteristics. From
childhood, we controlled by our genetic makeup. It influences the way we treat
ourselves and others. However, there are individuals who do not accept their
innate sexual characteristics and they tend to change their sexual organs
through medications and surgery. Aside from our genes, our society or the
external environment helps shape our selves. This lesson helps us better
understand ourselves through a discussion on the development of our sexual
characteristics and behaviour.

What to expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Discuss the developmental aspect of the reproductive system;

2. Describe the erogenous zones;
3. Explain human sexual behaviour;
4. Characterize the diversity of sexual behaviour; and
5. Differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception.

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The Human Reproductive System

One of the many seemingly magical things about human reproduction

is that only one sperm can ever penetrate an egg. Sex, however, is not just for
reproduction. That may be its primary biological mandate, but it serves other
purposes as well.

The ovaries produce 400,000 eggs or so every 28 days. The ovum is

100,000 times larger than the sperm cell. The egg cell caries the C
chromosome. The testes produce 200 million sperm cells/ spermatozoa every
week. It carries X or Y chromosome, which is the sex-determining cell.

Development of Human Reproductive Organs

A critical event for the development of reproductive organs takes place

about one month before birth wherein the male testes formed in the
abdominal cavity at approximately the same location as the female ovaries,
descend to enter the scrotum. If this normal event fails, it may lead to
cryptorchidism. This condition usually occurs in young males and causes
sterility (which is also a risk factor for cancer of the testes) that is why surgery
is usually performed during childhood to solve this problem.

Reproductive organ (gonads) produce the gametes (testis or ovary)

begin to form until about the eight week or embryonic development. During
the early stages of human development, the embryonic reproductive

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structures of males and females are alike and are said to be in the indifferent
stage. When the primary reproductive structures are formed, development of
the accessory structures and external genitalia begins. The formation of male
or female structures depend on the presence of testosterone. Usually, once
formed, the embryonic testes release testosterone, and the formation of the
duct system and external genitalia follows. In the case of female embryos that
form ovaries, it will cause the development of the female ducts and external
genitalia since testosterone hormone is not produced.

Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System

Neoplasms (abnormal and excessive growth of tissue) are a major

threat to reproductive organs. Tumors of the breast and cervix are the most
common reproductive cancers in adult females, and prostate cancer (a
common sequel to prostatic hypertrophy) is a widespread problem in adult
males.

In female, a natural decrease in ovarian function usually follows

characterized by reduced estrogen production that causes irregular ovulation
and shorter menstrual period. Consequently, ovulation and menses stop
entirely, ending childbearing ability. This event is called as menopause, which
occurs when females no longer experience menstruation. The production of
estrogen may still continue after menopause but the ovaries finally stop
functioning. The reproductive organs and breasts begin to atrophy or shrink if
estrogen is no longer released from the body. The vagina becomes dry that
causes intercourse to become painful (particularly if frequent), and vaginal
infections become increasingly common. Other consequences of estrogen
deficiency may also observed including irritability and other mood changes
(depression in some); gradual thinning of the skin and loss of bone mass; and
slowly rising blood cholesterol levels, which place postmenopausal women at
risk for cardiovascular disorders. Some physicians prescribe low-dose
estrogen-progestin preparations to help women through this usually difficult
period and to prevent skeletal and cardiovascular complications.

There is no counterpart foe menopause in males, although aging men

show a steady decline in testosterone secretion, their reproductive capability

63
seems unending. Healthy men are still able to father offspring well into their
80s and beyond.

Sexual Development

Sexual development is a lifelong process that starts at the

moment of conception. People are all a little different from each other, so it
makes sense that they don’t all develop in the same way. Sexual
development can be predicted as part of the human development but not
everyone is expected to have the same pattern of changes or the same
pacing.

Any intervention with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in

the embryo results in strange abnormalities. For instance, a genetic male
develops the female accessory structures and external genitalia if the
embryonic testes fail to produce testosterone. On the other hand, if a genetic
female is exposed to testosterone (as in the case of a mother with androgen-
producing tumor of her adrenal gland), the embryo has ovaries but may
develop male accessory ducts and glands, as well as a male reproductive
organ and an empty scrotum. As a result, pseudohermaphrodites are formed
when individuals have an accessory reproductive structures that do not
“match” their gonads while true hermaphrodites are individuals who possess
both ovarian and testicular but this condition is rare in nature. Nowadays,
many pseudohermaphrodites undergo sex change operations to have their
outer selves (external genitalia) fit with their inner selves (gonads).

Moreover, abnormal separation of chromosomes during meiosis can

lead to congenital defects of the reproductive system. For instance, males
who possess extra female sex chromosome have the normal male accessory
structures, but atrophy (to shrink) of their testes causes them to be sterile.
Other abnormalities result when a child has only one sex chromosome. An
XO female appears normal but lacks ovaries. YO males die during
development. Other much less serious conditions also affect males primarily
such as phimosis, which is due to a narrowing of the foreskin of the male
reproductive structure and misplaced urethral openings.

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Puberty

Puberty marks the start of sexual development in an individual,

generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old, when the reproductive
organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of
rising levels of gonapodal hormones (testosterone in males and estrogen in
females). After this time, reproductive capability continues until old age in
males and menopause in females.

The changes that occur during puberty is similar in sequence in all

individuals but the age which they occur differs among individuals. In males,
as they reach the age 13, puberty is characterized by the increase in the size
of the reproductive organs followed by the appearance of hair in the public
area, axillary, and face. The reproductive organs continue to grow for two
years until sexual maturation, marked by the presence of mature semen in the
testes.

Puberty in girls usually starts between ages 8-13, along with all the
bodily changes (breast, hair, akin, hips and voice). Menarche is the first
menstrual period of females which happens two years after the start of
puberty. Hormones play an important role in the regulation of ovulation and
fertility of females.

Human Sexual Response

Biological factors such as the presence of androgens, estrogens and

progesterone, prime people for sex. According to William Masters and Virginia
Johnson, the cycle consists of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm and
resolution. The Sexual response Cycle is a model that describes the
physiological responses that take place during sexual activity.

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The sexual Response Cycle

Sexual motivation, often referred to as libido, is a person’s overall

sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. This is motivated by biological,
psychological, and social factors. In most mammals, sex hormones control the
ability to engage in sexual behaviors. However, sex hormones do not directly
regulate the ability to copulate in humans. They are only influence on the
motivation to engage in sexual behaviors. Social factors such as work and
family also have an impact, as do internal psychological factors like
personality and stress.

Human Sexuality

Sexuality is much more than sexual feelings or sexual intercourse. It is

an important part of who a person is and what she/he will become. It includes
all the feelings, thoughts and behaviors associated with being female or male,
being attractive and being in love, as well as being in relationships that
include sexual intimacy and sensual and sexual activity. It also includes
enjoyment of the world as we know it through the five senses: taste, touch,
smell, hearing, and sight.

Once youth have reached puberty and beyond, they experience

increased interest in romantic and sexual relationships and in genital sex

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behaviors. As youth mature, they experience strong emotional attachments to
romantic partners and find it natural to express their feelings within sexual
relationships. There is no way to predict how a particular teenager will act
sexually. Overall, most adolescents explore relationships with one another,
fall in and out of love, and participate in sexual intercourse before the age of
20.

The Five Circles of Sexuality

1. Sensuality – is awareness and feeling about your own body and other’s
people’s bodies, especially the body of a sexual partner. Sensuality
enables us to feel good about how our bodies’ look and feel and what
they can do. Sensuality also allows us to enjoy the pleasure our bodies
can give us and others.
2. Sexual Intimacy – is the ability to be emotionally close to another
human being and to accept closeness in return. Several aspects of
intimacy include sharing intimacy, caring about another, liking or loving
a person, emotional risk-taking and vulnerability to a loved one.
3. Sexual Identity – is a person’s understanding of who he/ she is
sexually, including the sense of being male or of being female. Sexual
identity consists of three “interlocking pieces” that together, affect how
each person sees him/herself. Each “piece” is important.
4. Reproduction and Sexual Health – these are a person’s capacity to
reproduce and the behaviors and attitudes that make sexual
relationships healthy and enjoyable.
5. Sexualization – is the aspect of sexuality in which people behave
sexually to influence, manipulate, or control other people. Often called
“shadowy” side of human sexuality, sexualization spans behaviors that
range from the relatively harmless to the sadistically violent, cruel, and
criminal. These sexual behaviors include flirting, seduction, withholding
sex from an intimate partner to punish him/her or to get something,
sexual harassment, sexual abuse, and rape. Teens need to know that
no one has the right to exploit them sexually and that they do not have
the right to exploit anyone else sexually.

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 There are physiological and psychological aspects in being turned on,
being in love and attached to another person. The chemistry of lust, love and
attachment lies in our brains, which is the humans’ most important “sex
organ”.

Lust – this is a phase which is driven by the sex hormones testosterone and
estrogen, in both men and women. Estrogen and testosterone are the two
basic types of hormones present equally in men and women’s body that
excite the feelings of lust within the brain.

Attraction- this phase is said to be one of the beautiful moments in life. This is
the phase when a person actually starts to feel the love. This is the amazing
time when you are truly love-struck and can think of little else. Scientists think
that three main neurotransmitters are involved in this stage; adrenaline,
dopamine and serotonin.

Attachment – is a bond helping the couple to take their relationship to

advance levels. It instigate the feeling of bearing children and falling in love
with them wholeheartedly. Scientists think there might be two major hormones
involved in this feeling of attachment; oxytocin and vasopressin.

Erogenous Zones

Erogenous zones refer to parts of the body that are primarily receptive
and increase sexual arousal when touched in a sexual manner. Some of the
commonly known erogenous zones are the mouth, breasts, genitals, and
anus. Other common areas of the body that can be aroused easily may
include the neck, thighs, abdomen, and feet.

Types of Human Sexual behaviour

Human sexual behaviour is defined as any activity between two

persons or in a group that induces sexual arousal.

The various types of human sexual behaviour are usually classified

according to the gender and number of participants. There is solitary behavior
involving only one individual, and there is sociosexual behaviour involving
more than one person. Sociosexual behaviour is generally divided into

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heterosexual behaviour (male with female) and homosexual behaviour (male
with male or female with female).

1. Solitary Behavior

Self-gratification means self-stimulation that leads to sexual arousal

and generally, sexual climax. Usually, most self-gratification takes place in
private as an end itself. Self-gratifiication, generally beginning at or before
puberty, is very common among young males, but becomes less frequent
or abandoned when sociosexual activity is available. The fantasy
frequently involves idealized sexual partners and activities that the
individual has not experienced and even might avoid in real life.

2. Sociosexual behaviour

Heterosexual behaviour is the greatest amount of sociosexual

behaviour that occurs between only one male and one female. Physical
contact involving necking or petting is considered as an ingredient of the
learning process and eventually of courtship and the selection of a
marriage partner.

Petting differs from hugging, kissing, and generalized caresses of the

clothed body to practice involving stimulation of the genitals. Petting may
be done as an expression of affection and a source of pleasure,
preliminary to coitus.

Coitus, the insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female
reproductive organ, is viewed by society quite differently depending upon
the marital status of the individuals. In western society, premarital coitus is
more likely to be tolerated but not encouraged if the individuals intend
marriage. In most societies, marital coitus is considered as an obligation.
There is a difficulty in enforcing abstinence among sexually experienced
and usually older people for societies that try to confine coitus in married
couples.

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Nervous System Factors

Sexual response is
dependent on the activity
of the nervous system.
The entire nervous system
plays a significant role
during sexual response.
The autonomic system is
involved in controlling the
involuntary response. In
the presence of stimulus
capable enough of initiating a sexual response, the efferent cerebrospinal
nerves transmit the sensory messages to the brain. The brain will interpret the
sensory message and dictate what will be the immediate and appropriate
response of the body. After interpretation and integration of sensory input, the
efferent cerebrospinal nerves receive commands from the brain and send
them to the muscles; and the spinal cord serves as a great transmission
cable. The muscles contract in response to the signal coming from the motor
nerve fibers while glands secrete their respective products.

The hypothalamus and limbic system are the parts of the brain
believed to be responsible for regulating the sexual response. Sex hormones
can intensify the mounting behaviour of individuals. Apart from brain-
controlled sexual response, there is some reflex sexual response. This reflex
is mediated by the lower spinal cord and leads to erection and ejaculation for
male, vaginal discharges and lubrication for female when the genital and
perineal areas are stimulated. But still, the brain can overrule and suppress
such reflex activity – as it does when an individual decides that a sexual
response is socially inappropriate.

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Sexual Problems

Sexual problems may be classified as physiological, psychological, and

social.

Physiological problems are the least among the three categories. Only
a small number of people suffer from diseases that are due to abnormal
development of genitalia or that part of the neurophysiology controlling sexual
response. Some common physiologic conditions that can disturb sexual
response include vaginal infections, retroverted uteri, prostatitis, adrenal
tumors, diabetes, senile changes of the vagina, and cardiovascular problems.
Fortunately, the majority of physiological sexual problems can be resolved
through medication or surgery while problems of the nervous system that can
affect sexual response are more difficult to treat.

Psychological problems comprise by far the largest category. They are

usually caused by socially induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes,
ignorance, and sexual myths held by society. Erectile impotence is almost of
physiological origin in males under 40. Impotence may be the result of
disinterest in the sexual partner, fatigue, and distraction or other causes- such
occasional impotency is common and requires no therapy.

Ejaculatory impotence results from the inability to ejaculate in coitus, is

usually of psychogenic origin. It appears to be associated with ideas of
contamination or with memories of traumatic experiences. Occasional
ejaculatory inability can be possibly expected in older men.

Vaginismus is a strong spasm of the pelvic musculature constricting

the female reproductive organ so that penetration is painful or impossible. It
can be due to psychological trauma that serves as an unconscious defense
against coitus.

The Diversity of Human Sexuality

The aspect of sexuality is especially important for young adolescents to

understand, since peer, parent, and cultural pressures to be “masculine” or
“feminine” increase during the adolescent years. Both young men and women

71
need help sorting out how perceptions about gender roles affect whether they
feel encouraged in their choices about relationships, leisure, activities,
education, and career.

Gender bias means holding stereotyped opinions about people

according to their gender. Gender bias might include believing that women
are less intelligent or less capable than men that men cannot be sensitive.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic,

and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. Sexual orientation
also refers to a person’s sense of identity based on those attractions, related
behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those
attractions.

Adolescence is a period when a people separate from their parents

and families and begin to develop autonomy. Adolescence can be a period of
experimentation, and many youths may question their sexual feelings.
Becoming aware of sexual feelings is a normal development task of
adolescence. Sometimes adolescents have same-sex feelings or experiences
that cause confusion about their sexual orientation.

How do people know if they are lesbian, gay, or bisexual?

According to current scientific

and professional understanding,
the core attractions that form the
basis for adult sexual orientation
typically emerge between middle
childhood and early adolescence.
These patterns of emotional,
romantic, and sexual attraction
may arise without any prior sexual experience. Different lesbian, gay, and
bisexual people have very different experiences regarding their sexual
orientation. Some people know that they are lesbian, gay or bisexual for a
long time before they actually pursue relationships with other people. Some

72
people engage in sexual activity (with same- sex and /or other sex partners)
before assigning a clear label to their sexual orientation, so claiming a lesbian,
gay, or bisexual identity may be a slow process.

Since 1975, the American Psychological Association has called on

psychologists to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that
has long been associated with lesbian, gay, and bisexual orientations. The
prejudice and discrimination regularly experienced by people identified as
lesbian, gay, or bisexual have been shown to have negative psychological
effects. Therefore, youths who come out early are particularly in need of
support from parents and others. Young people who identify as lesbian, gay,
or bisexual may be more likely to face certain problems, including being
bullied and having negative experiences in school. These experiences are
associated with negative outcomes, such as suicidal thoughts, and high-risk
activities, such as unprotected sex and alcohol and drug use. Support from
important people in the teen’s life can provide a very helpful counterpart to
bias and discrimination.

Sexual Intercourse

Sexual intercourse is a behaviour that may produce sexual pleasure that often
culminates in orgasm in females and males. Sexual intercourse may also
result in pregnancy and /or STDs. Youth need accurate health information
about sexual intercourse- vaginal, oral, and anal.

Premarital Sex

Premarital sex is a sexual activity practiced by people who are

unmarried. It can be any sexual relations a person has prior to marriage.
People who have premarital sex are recommended by health professionals to
take precautions to protect themselves against sexually transmitted infections
(STIs) such as HIV/AIDS. There is also a risk of an unplanned pregnancy in
heterosexual relationships.

Factors that encourage having premarital sex:

1. Having poorly educated parents

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 2. Unsupportive family relationships
3. Lack of parental supervision
4. Friends who are sexually active
5. Poor school grades/ poor academic performance
6. Poor spiritual exercise/ lack of church involvement
7. Engaged in risky leisure activities

Sexually Health and Sexually Transmitted Diseases/ Infections

The factual information about reproduction is necessary so youth will

understand how male and female reproductive systems function and how
conception and / or sexually transmitted diseases (STD) infection occur.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are infections transmitted from an

infected person to an uninfected person through sexual contact or vaginal
intercourse, oral sex and anal sex. The term STI evolved from venereal
disease (VD)to sexually transmitted disease (STD), then “sexually transmitted
infection (STI). One of the leading of STDs worldwide is AIDS or Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome, which is caused by HIV of Human
Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS and it is
preventable and manageable but not curable. The virus usually targets the T-
cells of the immune system. The virus survives throughout the body but may
be transmitted via body fluids such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast
milk.

How do people gets AIDS? AIDS is developed through:

1. Bodily fluids (blood products transfusion, semen and vaginal fluids)

2. Intravenous (IV) Drug Abuse (sharing needles and use of unsterilized
blades)
3. Sexual intercourse (unprotected vaginal, oral and anal sex).

Aside from HIV and AIDS, there are some other sexually transmitted
diseases in humans. The following list of disease is based on Sexually
Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2016 of the U.S Department of Health and
Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

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1. Chlamydia
In both men and women symptoms of sexually transmitted
Chlamydia trachomatis(Bacteria) may include a watery discharge and
pain when urinating; in women Chlamydia trachomatis also causes
inflammation of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
Women may also experience vaginal discharge, fever, abdominal pain,
and pain in the genital area.As a result, the infection remains untreated
and may develop into more serious conditions, including pelvic
inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, and infertility. Pregnant
women with chlamydia infections can also pass it to their babies during
birth.
2. Gonorrhoea
This is caused by bacteria called Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Gonorrhea is almost always spread through sexual contact with the
vagina, penis, anus, or mouth, although ejaculation is not necessary for
infection to occur. Symptoms are usually present two to seven days
after infection, but in some cases, the first symptoms may not appear
for 30 days. Gonorrhea is much more obvious in males, who develop
pain and an acute discharge of pus from the urethra.In females the
infection occurs in the urethra, the vagina, or the cervix. Although
discharge and irritation of the vaginal mucous membranes may be
severe, more often few or no early symptoms appear.
3. Syphilis
Syphilis is the infectious disease caused by the spirochete
Treponema pallidum (Bacteria) and usually transmitted by sexual
contact or kissing. Painless ulcers develop in the mouth, and broad,
wartlike lesions, which also are highly infectious, may appear in the
genital area. Headache, fever, and enlarged lymph glands are
sometimes observed.
4. Chancroid
A sexually transmitted disease that produces a painful ragged
ulcer at the site of infection, caused by the bacterium Haemophilus
ducreyi. Clinical manifestations include genital ulcers and inguinal
lymphadenopathy.
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 5. Human Papillomavirus
Human Papillomavirus (HPV), family of viruses that
encompasses more than 100 different types. Most of them are
harmless. Some of the viruses cause warts (benign growths) on the
skin; the viruses are transmitted by physical contact. More than 30
types of HPV are transmitted sexually and can infect the genital area of
men and women. Some of the sexually transmitted types have been
implicated as a cause of genital cancers, most often cervical cancer.
HPV infection is extremely common and in most cases causes no
symptoms.
6. Herpes Simplex Virus
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is among the most prevalent of
sexually transmitted infectious. Although most infections are
subclinical, clinical manifestations are characterized by recurrent,
painful genital and/ or anal lesions.
7. Trichomonas vaginalis
Trichomonas vaginalis is a common sexually transmitted
protozoal infection associated with adverse health outcomes such as
preterm birth symptomatic vaginitis.

Vaginal infections are more common in young and elderly women and
in those whose resistance to diseases is low. The usual infections include
those caused by Escherichia coli which spread through the digestive tract; the
sexually transmitted microorganisms such as syphilis, gonorrhoea, and
herpes virus; and yeast (a type of fungus). Vaginal infections that are left
untreated may spread throughout the female reproductive tract and may
cause pelvic inflammatory disease and sterility. Problems that involve painful
or abnormal menses may also be due to infection or hormone imbalance.

In males, the most common inflammatory conditions are prostatitis,

urethritis, and epididymitis, all of which may follow sexual contacts in which
STD microorganisms transmitted. Orchiditis or inflammation of the testes is
rather uncommon but is serious because it can cause sterility.

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Teenage Pregnancy

This is pregnancy in human females

under the age of 20 at the time that the
pregnancy ends. In teenage pregnancy,
there are risks of low birth weight,
premature labor, anemia, and pre-
eclampsia are connected to the biological
age itself. About 15 million girls aged 15-19
and some 1 million girls under 15 give birth every year worldwide, most in low
and middle income countries (WHO, 2014). Comprehensive sex education
and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy.

Family Planning/ Responsible Parenthood

Family planning, also called responsible parenthood is a simple way of

regulating and spacing the births of children. It is giving birth accepting to the
health and economic conditions of the family, giving birth of the mother
according to her right age. Benefits derived from Family Planning are
identified as follows:

1. For the family- to promote healthy and happy family.

2. For the mother- she can recover her health and strength after delivery.
3. For the child- a better chance of growing healthier and well cared.

Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception

Contraception also known as birth control and fertility control. This is a

method or device used to prevent pregnancy. It also defined as a deliberate
prevention of conception or impregnation.

Natural method or natural birth control employs natural control

methods that people do to help prevent an unintended pregnancy and without
the use of modern/ artificial ways of contraception. These require commitment
when you make the decision, discipline and self-control for it to be effective.

a. Abstinence

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 This natural method involves refraining from sexual intercourse and is
the most effective natural birth control method with ideally 0% fail rate.
However, most people find it difficult to comply with abstinence, so only
few use this method.

b. Calendar Method

This method is also called as the rhythm method. It entails withholding

from coitus during the days that the woman is fertile. According to the
menstrual cycle, the woman is likely to conceive three or four days before
and three or four days after ovulation. The woman needs to record her
menstrual cycle for six months in order to calculate the woman’s safe days
to prevent conception.

Calendar Method

c. Basal Body Temperature (BBT)

The basal body temperature indicates the woman’s temperature at

rest. Before the day of ovulation and during ovulation, BBT falls at 0.5˚F, it
increases to a full degree because of progesterone and maintains its level
throughout the menstrual cycle. The woman must record her temperature
every morning before any activity. A slight decrease in the BBT followed
by a gradual increase in the BBT can be a sign that a woman has
ovulated.

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 d. Cervical Mucus Method

The change in the cervical mucus during ovulation is the basis for this
method. During ovulation, the cervical mucus is copious, thin, and watery.
It also exhibits the property of spinnbarkeit, wherein it can be stretched up
until at least 1 inch and is slippery. The woman is said to be fertile as long
the cervical mucus is copious and watery.

e. Symptothermal Method

The symptothermal method is basically a combination of the BBT

method and the cervical mucus method. The woman records her
temperature every morning and also takes note of changes in her cervical
mucus. She should abstain from coitus three days after a rise in her
temperature or on the fourth day after the peak of a mucus change.

f. Ovulation Detection
The ovulation detection method uses an over-the-counter kit that
requires the urine sample of the woman. The kit can predict ovulation
through the surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) that happens 12 to 24 hours
before ovulation.
g. Coitus interruptus

Coitus interruptus is one of the oldest methods that prevents

conception. A couple still goes on with coitus, but the man withdraws the
moment the ejaculates to emit the spermatozoa outside of the female
reproductive organ. A disadvantage of this method is the pre-ejaculation
fluid that contains a few spermatozoa that may cause fertilization.

Artificial Method employs artificial control methods to help prevent

unintended pregnancy use modern/ contemporary measures.

a. Oral Contraceptives

Also known as the pill, oral contraceptives contain synthetic estrogen

and progesterone. Estrogen suppresses the Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) and LH to prevent ovulation. The progesterone decreases the
permeability of the cervical mucus to limit the sperm’s access to the ova.

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b. Transdermal Patch

The transdermal patch contains both estrogen and progesterone. The

woman should apply one patch every week for three weeks on the
following areas: upper outer arm, upper torso, abdomen, or buttocks. At
the fourth week, no patch is applied because the menstrual flow would
then occur.

c. Vaginal Ring

The vaginal ring releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone

and it surrounds the cervix. This silicon ring is inserted into the female
reproductive organ and remains there for three weeks and then removed
on the fourth week, as menstrual flow would occur. The woman becomes
fertile as soon as the ring is removed.

d. Subdermal Implants

Subdermal implants are two rod-like implants inserted under the skin of
the female during her menses or on the seventh day of her menstruation
to make sure that she will not get pregnant. The implants are made with
etonogestrel, desogestrel, and progestin and can be helpful for three to
five years.

e. Hormonal Injections

A hormonal injection contains medroxyprogesterone, a progesterone,

and is usually given once every 12 weeks intramuscularly. The injection
causes changes in the endometrium and cervical mucus and can help
prevent ovulation.

f. Intrauterine Device (IUD)

An intrauterine device is a small, T-shaped object containing

progesterone that is inserted into the uterus via the female reproductive
organ. It prevents fertilization by creating a local sterile inflammatory
condition to prevent implantation of the zygote. The device can be
effective for five to seven years.

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g. Chemical Barriers

Chemical barriers such as spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and

glycerine films are used to cause the death of sperms before they can
enter the cervix and to lower the pH level of the female reproductive organ
so it will not become conducive for the sperm.

h. Diaphragm

It is circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be placed before
coitus. Diaphragm works by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the
female reproductive organ and it works better when used together with
spermicide. The diaphragm should remain in place for six hours after
coitus.

i. Cervical Cap

The cervical cap is made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim of the
cervix. It is shaped like a thimble with a thin and could stay in place for not
more than 48 hours.

j. Male Condoms

The male condom is latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is placed on

the erect male reproductive organ before penetration into the female
reproductive organ to trap the sperm during ejaculation

k. Female Condoms

Female condoms are made up of latex rubber sheaths that are pre-
lubricated with spermicide. They are usually bound by two rings. The outer
ring is first inserted against the opening of the female reproductive organ
and the inner ring covers the cervix. It is used to prevent fertilization of the
egg by the sperm cells.

l. Surgical Methods

During vasectomy, a small incision is made on each side of the

scrotum. The vas deferens is then tied, cauterized, cut, or plugged to block
the passage of the sperm.

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 In women, tubal ligation is performed after menstruation and before
ovulation. The procedure is done through a small incision under the
woman’s umbilicus that targets the fallopian tube for cutting, cauterizing, or
blocking to inhibit the passage of both the sperm and ova.

Assessment

Test I: Multiple Choices. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

1. It is the phase which is driven by the sex hormones testosterone and

estrogen in both men and women.
a. Love
b. Lust
c. Infatuation
d. Sex
2. It is the awareness and feeling about your own body and other people’s
bodies, especially the body of a sexual partner.
a. Sexuality
b. Sexual Intimacy
c. Sensuality
d. Sex
3. It refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/ or sexual
attractions to men, women, or both sexes.
a. Sexual Orientation
b. Gender
c. Sexuality
d. Sex
4. It is a behavior that may produce sexual pleasure that often culminates
in orgasm in females and in males.
a. Sexuality
b. Sexual Intercourse
c. Lust
d. Sex
5. This is a part of yourself which involves your sexual development and
how people’s sexual activity, beliefs, misconceptions and unlimited

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 access from the internet on sex can influence your own sexual
behaviors and responses.
a. Sexuality
b. Sexual self
c. Forbidden Self
d. Sex

Test II: Essay. Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. From your readings, describe your sexual self. What are your beliefs in
engaging in sexual intimacy? What can you say about your sexuality,
attraction, beliefs and sexual responses?
2. Are you in favour of legalizing marriage among homosexuals and
transgenders? Why?

Enrichment Activities

Activity 1. Write a proposal that will raise the awareness of the students and to
help eliminatesexually transmitted diseases especially among the youth.

Activity 2. Interview two kinds of parents (one adolescent and one adult) and
relate their experiences in raising children, and in making a living to raise a
family. Write down your insights about their experience and how applicable
the use of contraception is in their situation.

Activity 3. Make a slogan to advocate the responsible use of certain family

planning methods. Compare your slogans to the rest of the class and come
up with a unique statement for the whole class on Sexual Health and Well-
being.

Activity 4. Compose a jingle to show your view on premarital sex and teenage
pregnancy. Make it into a short video.

83
References:

Eden Joy Pastor Alata, Bernardo Nicolas Caslib Jr, Janice Patria Javier
Serafica, R.A. Pawilen (2018). Understanding the Self. 1 st Edition.

Chafee, J.(2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the
Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson.106-
169

Dalisay G. Brawner, Analiza F. Arcega(2018).Understanding The Self. 1 st

Edition

Demello, M. (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Pp 173-188. And Fat and Thin Bodies.
189-205. In Body Studies: An Introduction.Rooutledge

Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of

Exposure to FB on Self esteem. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social
Networking. Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (eds).
Compassion and Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY. Guilford Press. 79-
92.<http://self-compassion.org/the-research>.

Sosis, R. (2010). The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual. In Angeloni (ed).

Annual Editions: Anthropology 10/11.33 rd ed. McGraw Hill. 133-137

Stein & Stein (2011). Ritual. In the Anthropology of Religion, Magic and
Witchcraft. Prentice Hall. 77-102.

Villafuerte, S.L., Al F. Quillope, R.C. Tunac & E.I. Borja (2018). Understanding
the Self. Neime Publishing House Co. LTD. ISBN 978-621-95906-1-7.

84
 Lesson 3: The Material Self/ Economic Self

We are living in a world of sale and shopping spree. We are given a

wide array of products to purchase from a simple set of spoon and fork to
owning a restaurant. Almost everywhere, including the digital space, we can
find promotions of product purchase. Product advertisements are suggestive
of making us feel better or look good. Part of us wants to have that product.
What makes us want to have and already possess is related to our self.

Belk (1988) stated that “we regard our possessions as part of our
selves. We are what we have and what we possess.” Our wanting to have
and possess has a connection with another aspect of the self, the material
self.

Material self refers to all of the physical elements that reflect who a
person is which includes his/ her body, possessions and home. Materialism
refers to the theory or belief that nothing exists except matter, its movements
and its modifications; the theory or belief that consciousness and will are
wholly due to material agency; a tendency to consider material possessions
and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values.

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Define material self;

2. Describe how material self affects a person; and
3. Explain the relationship between possessions and the self.

We Are What We Have

People had a “material self”, in the words of William James, the

Harvard psychologist and giant of the American intellectual scene in the late
nineteenth century. According to James, the material self is about our bodies,
family and reputation but also clothes and his house, his lands and horses,
and yacht and bank account. If they grew, their owners felt triumphant. If they
faded, people felt a part of themselves was dying. We are deeply affected by
these things because we have put much investment of our self to them.

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 The material self is constituted by our bodies, clothes, immediate
family, and home. It is to these things that we are most deeply affected
because of our investments of self within these things. The innermost part or
our material self is our body. Intentionally, we are investing in our body. We
are directly attached to this commodity that we cannot live without. We strive
hard to make sure that this body functions well and good.

Influenced by the “Philosophy of Dress” by Herman Lotze, James

believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. Clothing is a
form of self-expression. We choose and wear clothes that reflects our self.

Moreover, our immediate family hold another great important part of

our self. What they do or become affects us. When an immediate family
members dies, part of our self dies, too. When their lives are in success, we
feel their victories as if we are the one holding the trophy.

The fourth component of material self is home. Home is where our

heart is. It is the earliest nest of our selfhood. Our experiences inside the
home were recorded and marked on particular parts and things in our home.
There was an old saying about rooms: “if only walls can speak”. The home
thus is an extension of self, because in it, we can directly connect our self.

Having investments of self to things, made us attached to those things.

The more investment of self-given to the particular thing, the more we identify
ourselves to it. We also tended to collect and possess properties. Goldberg
and Lewis (1978) go further in suggesting that “many collectors who are
inhibited and uncomfortable in social interaction, surround themselves with
favoured objects upon which they project human-like qualities. They
practically talk to these objects; they find comfort in being with them and
regard them as friends”. The collections in different degree of investment of
self, becomes part of the self. Possessions then become a part or an
extension of the self.

As we grow older, putting importance to material possession

decreases. However, material possession gains higher value in our lifetime if
we use material possession to find happiness, associate these things with

86
significant events, accomplishments, and people in our lives. There are even
times, when material possession of a person that is closely identified to the
person, gains acknowledgment with high regard even if the person already
passed away. Example of these are the chair in the dining room on which the
person is always seated, the chair will be the constant reminder of the person
seated there; a well-loved and kept vehicle of the person, which some of the
bereaved family members have a difficulty to sell or let go of because that
vehicle is very much identified with the owner who passed away; the favourite
pet or book, among others that the owner placed a high value, these favourite
things are symbols of the owner.

The possessions that we dearly have tell something about who we are,
our self-concept, our past, and even our future.

There is a connection between wealth and well-being, a belief that

feeds what Juliet Schor (1998) calls the “cycle of work and spend” – work
more to buy more. The level of consumption is set mainly by people’s choices
about how much to work, and therefore how much income to earn. The
individual chooses between hours at work (which yield income) and leisure (a
good in itself, but a costly one because it entails foregoing income).

Curtis (2017) manifested that cash can serious bearing on one’s belief
regarding the way a person views himself/ herself. The following are
evidences behind the idea that money truly can change people:

a. Social and Business Value

By recognizing a task’s social value, a person sees it as a worthy

investment of time and a part of his/ her social duty, and he/she is usually
happy to help out. When money is offered as the motivation, however,
people then start thinking less of the social aspect and more about the
business value.

As a matter of fact, even relatives who ask for a favour nursing the
dependent senior citizens require compensation to equate the effort done.
The more money received the more frequent visits and more tasks done. If

87
less money is paid, the lesser the chances of coming back with many
alibis and excuses given.

b. Self-Sufficiency and Service

Those who are conscious of money typically strive to be more self-

sufficient than those for whom money isn’t a priority. When given a very
difficult and even impossible task, with instructions that help was available,
it was the money-related group that seemed the most intent on getting the
job done alone, even when it was not possible to finish the task solo. It
only means that money-conscious individuals are more self-sufficient than
their peers, particularly when money is made the focus.

c. Self-View

The amount one earns could have an effect on how he/she views both
himself/ herself and others. The wealthiest people are those with the
deepest sense of “class essentialism” – the idea that differences between
classes are based upon identity and genetics, rather than circumstance.
Poor people tend to believe that social class was not related to genes, that
essentially, anyone can be rich and anyone can be poor. Rich people were
more likely to believe that wealth was part of genes and identity, that they
were entitled to wealth based upon their personal circumstances and
actions.

d. Ethics

Those who perceive themselves to be in a higher class were the most

likely to engage in unethical behaviour, particularly when a symbol of
wealth was introduced, such as cutting off a pedestrian when in a luxury
car. Self- interest maximization is an idea that suggests those who have
the most money or occupy higher classes are more likely to take a “what’s
in it for me?” attitude.

e. Addiction

Many addictions begin because a person gets a positive response from

a certain type of behaviour, whether it’s a happy feeling that one gets from

88
 shopping or a thrill that comes from gambling, actively seeking out that
behaviour again and again for the same outcome can trigger an addiction.
This is called “behavioural or process addiction” a compulsive behaviour
not motivated by dependency on an addictive substance, but rather by a
process that leads to a seemingly positive outcome. Earning money can
be very addictive for some individuals. That high of a big check or a well-
padded savings account can become the sole purpose of a wealth-
searcher’s life.

ASSESSMENT

Test I: Multiple Choices. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

1. The use and display of wealth and other possessions, all the physical
elements that reflects who a person is, make up the
a. Material self
b. Spiritual self
c. Social self
d. None
2. It is an idea which suggests that those who have the most money or
occupy higher classes are more likely to take a “what’s in it for me?”
attitude.
a. Self- suffiency and service
b. Self-interest maximization
c. Self- view
d. Addiction
3. It is the idea that differences between classes are based upon identity
and genetics, rather than circumstances.
a. Class essentialism
b. Self- sufficiency
c. Self- interest maximization
d. Social and business value
4. The “cycle of work and spend” is best illustrated in
a. Work more to buy more
b. Work less to buy more

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 c. Buy more to spend more
d. Work more to provide enough
5. The innermost part of material self.
a. Body
b. Clothes
c. Immediate family
d. Home

Test II: Essay. Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. Describe some aspects of your self- concept that have been created
through social comparison. Write down your thoughts and feelings in
no less than 300 words.
2. A very wealthy person gave you a debit card and told you to use it as
much as you want to make yourself happy. What are you going to do
with it? How do you feel as you do the Debit Card Challenge?

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Activity 1. Create a collage of your treasured possessions including your

current clothing style. You may use symbols or pictures of your treasured
possessions. Put a short note why you treasure each item.

Activity 2. Make a research on the role of Filipino consumer culture to Filipinos

self and identity.

Activity 3.List down things you bought for the week and things that you need
for the week. Make your new budget plan for the week and explain each of
your choices in relation to self. Then write a reflection paper about material
self.

90
REFERENCES:

Eden Joy Pastor Alata, Bernardo Nicolas Caslib Jr, Janice Patria Javier
Serafica, R.A. Pawilen (2018). Understanding the Self. 1 st Edition.

Chafee, J.(2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the

Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson.106-

169

Dalisay G. Brawner, Analiza F. Arcega(2018).Understanding The Self. 1 st

Edition

Demello, M. (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Pp 173-188. And Fat and Thin Bodies.
189-205. In Body Studies: An Introduction.Rooutledge

Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of

Exposure to FB on

Self esteem. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social Networking.

Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (eds).
Compassion and Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY. Guilford Press. 79-
92.<http://self-compassion.org/the-research>.

Sosis, R. (2010). The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual. In Angeloni (ed).

Annual Editions: Anthropology 10/11.33 rd ed. McGraw Hill. 133-137

Stein & Stein (2011). Ritual. In the Anthropology of Religion, Magic and
Witchcraft. Prentice Hall. 77-102.

Villafuerte, S.L., Al F. Quillope, R.C. Tunac & E.I. Borja (2018). Understanding
the Self. Neime Publishing House Co. LTD. ISBN 978-621-95906-1-7.

91
 Lesson 4. The Spiritual Self

The spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective part of the self. It
is the most intimate version of the self because of the satisfaction experienced
when thinking of one’s ability to argue and discriminate, of one’s moral
sensibility and conscience, and of our unconquerable will is purer than all
other sentiments of satisfaction. The ability to use moral sensibility and
conscience may be seen through the expressions of the religion, its beliefs
and practices. In the same manner, cultural rituals and ceremonies are some
manifestations what people believe in. moreover, seeking the meaning of life
is a journey that the spiritual self is on.

In search of his identity, man can never do away from considering his
spiritual well- being. For one thing, he is composed of both body and soul.
The body points to his relationship with material world and the soul, his
relationship with the spiritual world, which is the transcendental dimension of
life.

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the students is expected to:

1. Articulate ways of finding meaning in life;

2. Explain the Biblical as well as the Filipino understanding of the soul
and the spirit;
3. Discuss the significance of the practice of religion in the spiritual life of
the person; and
4. Construct an essay indicating how he/ she could personally and
concretely live the great commandment of love.

The Concept of Spirituality

The spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. It is aspect of
self which develops a certain level of spirituality which is deemed as man’s
way of seeking as well as expressing the meaning and purpose of his life. It
speaks of the quality of one’s relationships – with God, self, others, institutions
and God’s entire creation, marked by respect, forgiveness, generous service

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and prayer. Spirituality leads man to a deeper communion with the Divine. It is
a path of direct and personal connection with the Divine. It embraces all faiths,
social and political ideologies. It aids persons in spiritual, emotional or
physical distress, crisis or discomfort as well as those seeking to make a
significant change in their lives through self-awareness. This can be a healing
process that leads to personal development.

The Spirit and the Soul

These two terms “spirit and soul” are sometimes used interchangeably,
they have distinctions which need to be recognized. The spirit in the Hebrew
language is “ruach or pneuma” in Greek which means breath (esp. the breath
of life). The spirit is described as the disposition of an individual, a person’s
habitual attitudes, as man’s supernatural power which comes from God. Soul
on the other hand, is in Hebrew, “nephesh” or in Greek “psyche”, originally
meaning throat or neck, which means “human life.” In modern psychology, it is
described as the “will, mind, the seat of emotion, conscience.” Both soul and
spirit mean life. But soul stands for natural man, while spirit is the ethical
factor which adds the new dimension of relationship with God. Spirit enables
man to serve God and to participate in the supernatural order.

The term used by the Filipinos for spirit is loan word, “espirito or
espiritu”, which is in Visayan term, “ginhawa”, in Tagalog, “hininga”, and in
Ilocano, “anges”. The concept of soul is very familiar to the Filipinos. This is
the “nonphysical aspect of the person”, the complexity of human attributes
that manifests as consciousness, thought, feeling, and will, regarded as
distinct from the physical body. In some systems of religious belief, the soul is
the spiritual part of a human being that is believed to continue to exist after
the body dies.

The Filipino Traditional Understanding of Soul

The soul according to the Indigenous Filipino, “kaluluwa, kararwa,

kadkadduwa, all come from the root word “duwa”, which means, two. This is
because the soul has two existences- one physical that is connected to the
human body and its life, and the other spiritual where it exists on its own. The

93
Ilocano “kadkadduwa” is derived from kadduwa, meaning “companion”. The
doubling of “kad” intensifies the nature of companionship.

The Tagalogs call the soul, “kaluluwa”; the Bagobos, “gimokud”; the
Bukidnons, “makatu”; the Ilokanos, “kadkadduwa or kararwa” (inside the
physical body); the Ilonggos, “dunga” (if person is alive), and “kalag” (if person
is dead); and the Visayans, “dungan” (willpower). For the Cebuanos, the soul
is referred to as “kaluha”, and the Mindoro folks, “karadwa or kalag”. For the
Kankanays of Cordillera, “ab-abiik” is the term used for the spiritual self which
is also applicable to trees, stones, rivers, etc., which are also believed to have
ab-abiik. “Ikararua” for the Ibanag’s soul which has the role of giving direction
and wholeness to the man. When the person is frightened, the ikararua leaves
the body while the body remains alive. A ritual called “mangagakao” is
performed to invite the soul to return to the body. Another involuntary
departure of the soul happens when it is lured or captured by bad spirits or
“engkantu”. Sickness is the effect of temporary loss of the soul and death is
the effect of permanent loss.

Finding and Creating Meaning

According to Viktor Emil Frankl, “meaning is something to discover

rather than to invent.” It has the same concept with inner happiness, life
satisfaction, self-actualization, deep spirituality. He believes that in life, there
is an “existential vacuum” which means that life is empty, meaningless,
purposeless, aimless, adrift, and so on. Because of this existential vacuum,
we fill our lives with pleasure, eating beyond all necessity, or even having
promiscuous sex.

In Logotheraphy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or

doing a deed, experiencing something or encountering someone and attitude
toward unavoidable suffering. Logotherapy is a psychotherapy introduced by
Dr. Viktor E. Frankl, who is considered the Father of Logotherapy. The main
belief of logotherapy is that “man’s primary motivational force is search for
meaning.” Logotherapy aids individuals to find personal meaning of life,
whatever life situation they may be. It uses the philosophy of optimism in the
face of tragedy, where people are capable of “turning suffering into human

94
achievement and accomplishment; deriving from guilt the opportunity to
change oneself for the better; and deriving from life’s transitoriness an
incentive to take responsible action.”

All psychotherapies make philosophical assumptions about the human

persons that cannot be proved with certainty. Viktor Frankl Institute of
Logotherapy states the assumptions of logotherapy, which include the
following:

1. The human being is an entity consisting of body, mind, and spirit.

The body and mind are what we have and the spirit is what we are.
2. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable.
It is something everyone experiences and it represents an order in a
world with laws that go beyond human laws.
3. People have a will to meaning.
This is our main motivation for living and acting. When we see
meaning, we are ready for any type of suffering.
4. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find
meaning.
This deals with change of attitudes about unavoidable fate
5. Life has a demand quality to which people must respond if decisions
are to be meaningful.
This can be done by following the values of society or by following the
voice of our conscience.
6. The individual is unique.
This is enhanced by the realization that we are irreplaceable.

Three Ways of Discovering Meaning in Life

Viktor Emil Frankl indicates three broad approaches:

a. Experiential Values

This approach involves experiencing something or someone we

value. The most important example of experiential values is the love
we feel towards another- family, relatives, friends, and workmates.

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 b. Creative Values

This is the traditional existential idea of providing oneself with

meaning by becoming involved in one’s projects, or better, in the
project of one’s own life. It includes the creativity and passion involved
in art, music, writing, inventions, and works

c. Attitudinal Values

Attitudinal values include practicing virtues such as compassion,

bravery, a good sense of humor, and the like. But Frankl’s most
famous example is achieving meaning by way of suffering. The
ultimate goal is self- transcendence, in the spiritual realm. It is a
reference to God, a reference to religion.

Religion

Researches speak of religion as the people’s way of connecting

themselves to God as they search for meaning in life. Rebecca Stein (2011)
works on the definition of “religion” as a set of cultural beliefs and practices
that usually includes some or all of basic characteristics. These characteristics
are:

1. A belief in anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and

gods.
2. A focus on the sacred supernatural, where sacred refers to a feeling of
reverence and awe.
3. The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on
supernatural beings as well as physical beings and objects.
4. The performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of
sacred object to communicate to supernatural beings and/ or to
influence or control events.
5. The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and
other means.
6. Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism
of social control within a community; provide explanation for unknown
and a sense of control for individuals.

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 An individual lives in society where there are many practices of religion.
The choice of religious belief lies within the spiritual self. Although the choice
maybe influenced by the society and its culture.

a. Ritual

Ritual is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or

sacred law. Ritual is a specific, observable mode of behaviour exhibited by all
known societies. Participation to rituals is expressions of religious beliefs.
People worldwide engage in religious rituals that require a considerable
amount of time or personal sacrifice. A good example is the case of the
Vegans of Phuket, Thailand who perform various acts of self- torture,
including bathing in hot oil, fire walking, and piercing themselves with sharps
implements during their annual vegetarian festival. Many religions encourage
rituals of pilgrimage, a round trip to a place considered sacred for the purpose
of religious devotion or ritual.

In many cases, sacrifice as the offering of something to the supernatural

beings is performed to please or to express gratitude to such deities. An
example of this is the offering ritual called “harang”, practiced by the Visayan
fishing villages. Such ritual is described as a process of purification (tuob),
invocation (pagtawag), entreaty (pangamuyo), offering (bayad), feast (kan-
on), encompassing almost every aspect of the community’s existence
including good or bad harvest, the operation of fishing boats and cases of
illnesses. “Kanyaw” in the Cordillera which is performed as an expression of
thanksgiving to their deities as well as a means to appease them is also
noteworthy. Similarly, the “Buklog” of the Subanens in Aurora, Zamboanga is
performed in their fiesta to honor the spirits and plea for favors. Rituals in this
sense have the function of uniting the people.

b. Magic

Magic is commonly referred to as “tricks” and “illusion” that make

impossible things seem to happen, usually perform as entertainment. It is a
special talent or skill; an act that makes impossible things happen through
some sort of trickery or deception, and thereby manipulating not the

97
supernatural world, but rather human perception. However, magic, as
anthropologists use the term, refers to activities, usually rituals, by which a
person can compel the supernatural to behave in certain ways. It is seen as
the ability which gives somebody control over the forces of nature. It is used in
many cultures for healing, keeping away evil, seeking the truth, and for
vengeful purposes. It is an attempt to make supernatural forces act in specific
ways for good or evil purposes by recourse to certain specified formulas.

c. Witchcraft

Witchcraft, commonly understood as “kulam”, refers to the idea that certain

people have an inborn power to harness spirits or energies for specific
purposes. It is an explanation of events based on the belief that certain
individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm,
including sickness and death. The witch or sorcerer tends to steal food
remnants, hair, nail clippings, or clothes from the victim and use these objects
to inflict harm upon the victim.

Major World Religion

Religious beliefs, rituals, practices, and customs are all part of the
expression of the spiritual self. What to believe and how to manifest the belief
is entirely dependent on the individual. A person might believe that there is a
higher being, a supernatural being, usually termed as God, but not
necessarily wants to be affiliated or identified with a certain religious group.
Others may have religious practices which are perceived to be contrary to the
practices of other groups.

There are different religions with different beliefs and practices.

A. Buddhism

Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of rose. Instead, there are
suffering, pain, and frustrations. When people suffer, they want to
experience the goodness of life and avoid disappointments.It becomes a
habit known as the reactive cycle of wanting and hating, like and dislikes,
and craving and aversion. The reactive cycle can be broken through the

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practice of meditation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper understanding,
and acceptance of things as they are.

Two types of meditation practices:

1. Samantha – is practiced as mindfulness of breathing and
development of loving- kindness
2. Vipassana – practices aim at developing insight into reality.
Acquiring wisdom is by studying Buddha’s teaching, the Dharma.
Through the reflection of Dharma, Buddhists can achieve a deeper
understanding of life. Buddhists believe in non-violence principle.

Some of the major Buddhist celebrations are Parinirvana Day in

February; Buddha Day (Wesak) in May; Dharma Day in July;
Padmasambhava Day in October; andSangha Day in November.

B. Christianity

Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in three persona: God

the Father (Creator), God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit
(Sustainer). Eternal life after death will be achieved through faith in Jesus
Christ. Jesus Christ is, God of Son, who came into flesh, to spread the
Good News of Salvation. He died on the cross for the sin of the humanity
but resurrected from the death, so that anyone who believes in Him will be
saved and have eternal life.

Sacrament of Baptism and Sacrament of Communion are practiced by

Christian churches. The Sacrament of Baptism symbolizes the birth in
Christian World, while the Sacrament of Communion is an act of
remembrance of Jesus Christ’s sacrificial love.

Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the two major celebrations in

Christianity. Christmas usually on December 25, commemorates the birth
of Jesus Christ while Resurrection Sunday (depend on the lunar calendar,
sometime in March or April) celebrates the resurrection of Jesus from
Death.

C. Hinduism

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 Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious
groups; thus, there is no single founder or leader. Hindus believe that
existence is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth, governed by Karma.

Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the
past life was spent. Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of
successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the
previous life was lived. Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus.
Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other important texts of the Hindus.

Diwali and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus.
Diwali is the festival of lights while Navrati is the festival of nine nights,
which celebrate the triumph of good over evil.

D. Islam

Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “One God”. They believe in the
unity and universality ofGod. Muslims also have a strong sense of
community or “ummah” and an awareness of their solidarity with all
Muslims worldwide. Islam means “willing submission to God”.

Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and final prophet sent by
God. Mohammed was born in Mecca and received revelations from God
through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years. The Holy book of
Islam is called the “Quran”, which was taught to be recited in Arabic
because any translation is seen as inadequate.

Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the foundation of
Muslim life:

1. Shahadah – statement of faith: “There is no God but the one true

God and Mohammed is his messenger”.
2. Salat – the prayer that is practiced five times a day.
3. Zakat – the monetary offering for the benefit of the poor. It
comprises the 2.5% of a Muslim’s assets.
4. Hajj – the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims who can afford are
asked to do the pilgrimage at least once in their lifetime.

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 5. Sawn – the fasting. Muslims do fasting, from food, drink, and sexual
act, during the celebration of Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth
month of the Islamic lunar calendar. The fast is from dawn to
sunset.

Two of the major festivals in Islam are Eidul-Fitr and Eidul-Adha.

Eidul- Fitr is the celebration at the end of Ramadan, while Eidul- Adha
is celebrated within the completion of the Pilgrimage, the Hajj.

E. Judaism

The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated
the Hebrew slaves from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land through the
leadership of Moses and later, Joshua. The Jews believe in the coming of
Messiah, the Savior. The sacred scripture of the Jews is called the Torah
or the Law. The Torah is the guide of the Jewish living.

There are five major festivals observed by the Jews:

1. Rosh Hashanah – the New Year

2. Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement
3. Pesach – Passover
4. Shavuot- Pentecost
5. Sukkot – Tabernacles.

The Jewish Sabbathbegins on Friday evening at sunset and is an

important time when families gather for the Sabbath meal.

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ASSESSMENT

Test I: Multiple Choices. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

1. The spirit in the Hebrew language which means the breath of life.
a. Ruach
b. Nephesh
c. Anges
d. Dungan
2. This is the non-physical aspect of the person that manifest as
consciousness, thought, feeling and will.
a. Soul
b. Spirit
c. Body
d. Life
3. This approach involves experiencing something or someone we value.
a. Attitudinal Values
b. Creative Values
c. Experiential Values
d. Existential vacuum
4. This is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or
sacred Law.
a. Ritual
b. Magic
c. Witchcraft
d. Religion
5. It believes that existence is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth, governed
by karma.
a. Islam
b. Hinduism
c. Buddhism
d. Judaism

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Test II. Essay. Answer the given questions comprehensively.

1. Explain in not more than 10 sentences your purpose in life.

2. How could you personally live the “Great Commandment of Love?”
3. If you were to choose from the following values, which one would you
prefer: beauty, faith, wealth or wisdom? Why?
4. What is your concept of a meaningful life?
5. When was the first time you realized that there is a higher being than
yourself? What made you believe that there is a higher being?

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Activity 1. Make a poster about the instance or situation that made you believe
in the existence of higher being.

Activity 2. Make a video clip with reflection on any of the following topics:

a. Filipino rituals and ceremonies covering all regions of the Philippines.

b. Filipino indigenous religious practices featuring five tribes from Luzon,
Visayas, or Mindanao.
c. Modern day expression of spiritual being.

Make sure to showcase the origin, meaning of each ritual and ceremony,
and your personal reflection.

Activity 3. Make a documentary about a World War II Filipino survivor. Feature

the following:

a. Life story during the war.

b. How he/ she survived the war.
c. Description of his/ her meaning of life.
d. Compare to Viktor Frankl’s sources of meaning
e. Test logotherapy assumptions

Activity 4. Draw a symbol that best illustrates your most intimate or most
meaningful experience with God. Explain such experience and describe how
you felt. What do you think was God telling you in that particular experience?

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REFERENCES

Eden Joy Pastor Alata, Bernardo Nicolas Caslib Jr, Janice Patria Javier
Serafica, R.A. Pawilen (2018). Understanding the Self. 1 st Edition.

Chafee, J.(2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the

Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson.106-

169

Dalisay G. Brawner, Analiza F. Arcega(2018).Understanding The Self. 1 st

Edition

Demello, M. (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Pp 173-188. And Fat and Thin Bodies.
189-205. In Body Studies: An Introduction.Rooutledge

Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of

Exposure to FB on Self esteem. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social
Networking. Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (eds).
Compassion and Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY. Guilford Press. 79-
92.<http://self-compassion.org/the-research>.

Sosis, R. (2010). The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual. In Angeloni (ed).

Annual Editions: Anthropology 10/11.33 rd ed. McGraw Hill. 133-137

Stein & Stein (2011). Ritual. In the Anthropology of Religion, Magic and
Witchcraft. Prentice Hall. 77-102.

Villafuerte, S.L., Al F. Quillope, R.C. Tunac & E.I. Borja (2018). Understanding
the Self. Neime Publishing House Co. LTD. ISBN 978-621-95906-1-7.

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 Lesson 5. The Political Self

The Philippines is not only the first country in Southeast Asia to gain
independence; it is also the only country in the world known to hoist the flag
upside down during war. Truly, we have a lot to be proud of. If only we realize
that there are things unique to the identity of the country, we might be able to
rethink our sense of pride. For example, our University of Santo Tomas in
Manila and the University of San Carlos in Cebu are among the oldest
schools in the world, and they have outdated most of the known schools
today.

Filipinos are known for their greatness. One will be surprised to see the
monuments of Dr. Jose Rizal not only in the Philippines but throughout Asia
and Europe. Another controversial physician, Dr. Abelardo Aguilar helped in
the discovery of antibiotic erythromycin (Ilosone) that has been saving millions
of people until today. The famous Carlos P. Romulo was the First Asian to
become President of the United Nations. This is not to mention the countless
professionals, athletes, beauty titlist, and artists who made it to the global
stage.

In this lesson, we will trace the historical roots of our values and traits,
and we will consider the community and institutional factors that affect the
Filipino identity. Secondly, we will consider the role of the self in establishing a
democratic culture. The primary goal is to help the self- discover one’s source
of pride –the national heritage from which can truly develop a political self with
an authentic Filipino identity. Political self –concepts however, may be
considered a collection of perceptions about one’s role, competence, and
engagement in politics.

What to expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Trace the historical context of the political self of the Filipinos;

2. Take pride of the Filipino identifying values and traits; and
3. Connect the current trends or social upheavals to the historical
viewpoints of independence and liberation.

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Developing a Filipino Identity: Values, Traits, Community and
Institutional Factors

Our historical experience provides a profound trace of how our

identifying values and traits have developed. In the precolonial era, the
Filipinos were free. The system of government was wide ranging in small units
called “balangay”- a term derived from a wooden boat used by a community of
families for their living. The notes of Antonio Pigafetta, the scribe of the
Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan, revealed that the natives of the
Philippine islands were autonomous and economically prosperous.

When the Spanish colonizer, Miguel Lopez de Lagazpi made a kinship

pact, the “sanduguan”, with a native chieftain Sikatuna of Bohol, the pact was
initially understood as a mutual promise, like blood brother, of helping one
another in times of need and development. The blood compact was primarily
grounded on the Filipino value of “katapatan” (true to one’s promise). For over
three centuries the Filipinos helped the colonizers build their military fortress,
paid their taxes, joined their civil guards and constructed their government
and religious infrastructures. However, the Spanish colonizers did not remain
faithful to the pact that they have agreed with the Filipinos. Towards the end
of the third century under the Spanish colonial rule, a few educated “indios”
(Filipino natives), reminded themselves of the original kinship pact, and
faithful to the traditional values and traditions of the prosperous “balangay”,
they manifested the value of “katapangan” (courage) to fight back against the
oppressive rule of the colonizers.

The reformist Dr. Jose Rizal of Laguan used his talent and skill as a
poet and writer to enlighten the Filipinos about the oppressive structures
brought by the colonizers. He burned in them the spirit of “pagka-makabayan”
(patriotism) once again after centuries of hopelessness and desperation. He
trusted the Filipino intelligence and banked on it to awaken the consciousness
of the people. His satirical novels – “Nole Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo”
candidly depicted the worsened tyranny, oppression and domination of
Filipinos under colonial rule.

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 The last poem written by Jose Rizal – “Mi Ultimo Adios” – seemed to
favour the armed wing of the same revolutionary struggle of Andres Bonifacio.
It seeks to uphold and advocate the pact between brothers to sustain
“kalayaan” (liberty) and “pakikipagkapwa- tao” (being faithful to the goodness
of the other).

While the colonial powers and influence were so ingrained in the

Filipino system, the revolutionary movements against the Spaniards began to
claim only little and scattered victories all over the country. Then the American
intervened to help the Filipinos win the war and gain liberation from Spain. In
1898, the country gained its independence from Spain. However, for the next
fifty years, the Americans remained in the country and continued to intervene
with its political, educational, economic and military affairs. Thus, the
Philippine- American war broke and costed the lives of thousands of Filipinos
and Americans.

The superiority and might of American military led to the surrender of

the Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo. This signified the end of the
revolutionary struggles of the Filipinos. This led the political pragmatist
Manuel Quezon to bring the fight to the US Congress and eventually won the
Jones Law. He became the Commonwealth President, and in 1946 the
country finally received its independence.

Establishing a Democratic Culture

Just shortly after we have gained independence from the United

States, Filipino democracy started to take shape; the Japanese occupied the
country and established the Japanese- sponsored Philippine Republic.
President Jose Laurel cushioned the impact of the atrocities and violence by
constantly winning the trust of the Japanese while faithfully serving the
suffering Filipinos. He was the guerrilla who fought his battle not in the jungles
but in the embattled office in Malacañang.

The defeat of japan in World War II also meant the regaining of

Philippine independence. Since then, we struggled to rebuild our communities
and the structures of our democracy. Filipinos lived their liberated hopes and

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dreams until the establishment of the 1973 Marcos Constitution. After 13
years under Martial Law, the people became fed up with so much corruption,
injustice and violence that eventually led to EDSA Revolution. The People
Power in EDSA remains to be a compelling message to the world that the
Filipinos values freedom so dearly.

The historical bloodless EDSA People Power revolution guided the

promulgation of the 1987 Constitution. This document defined how the
institutions and systems of government function in the way of democracy.
Since President Corazon Aquino, until the present administration under
President Rodrigo Duterte, the Filipinos became highly vigilant and watchful to
safeguard the democratic processes in the government and communities.

In recognition of the importance of People Power, and the fortification

of democratic culture, the 1987 constitution ensures the following:

1. That the government shall afford full protection of Filipino workers here
and abroad, and provide equality of employment opportunities (Article
XIII, Section 3).
2. That everyone guarantees the right of workers to self-organization,
collective bargaining and negotiations, and peaceful concerted
activities in accordance with law (Article XIII, Section 3).
3. That the institutions recognize the rights of farmers and land owners,
as well as cooperatives and farmers’ organizations (Article XIII, Section
3).
4. That the authorities protect the rights of subsistence fisherfolks (Article
XIII, Section 7).
5. That the people may pursue and protect, within the democratic
framework, their legitimate and collective interest through peaceful and
lawful means (Article XIII, Section 15).
6. That the government ensures the right of the people and their
organization to effective and reasonable participation at all level of
social, political and economic decision-making (Article XIII, Section 16).

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 7. That congress provides a system of initiative and referendum where
people can directly propose and enact or reject laws passed by
congress or local legislative body (Article XVI, Section 32).

What is Democracy?

Democracy is a Greek word composed of two parts: “demos”, the

people and “kratos”, the rule of the people. Democracy is described as the
awareness and understanding that the self and community are both the
foundation of democratic practice and the result of it.

The following are identified as attributes of a democracy society:

1. Empowerment of the people

2. Consultation
3. Popular decision-making
4. Total development
5. Delivery of services
6. Fair and impartial system of justice
7. Accountability of public officials
8. Promoting respect for the rights of others
9. Concern for their welfare
10. Unity
11. Justice and equity

If the government officials and the society cooperate with each other,
respect each other, know how to handle situations, this will lead to a better
democratic government, a stronger sense of community, a stronger sense of
belonging and a more stable, more meaningful and healthier sense of self.

Assessment

Test I: Multiple Choices. Encircle the letter of your chosen answer.

1. Who made a kinship pact with a native chieftain Sikatuna of Bohol?

a. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
b. Antonio Pigafetta
c. Emilio Aguinaldo

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 d. Manuel Quezon
2. This term derived from a wooden boat used by a community of families
for their living.
a. Balangay
b. Indios
c. Kalayaan
d. Katapangan
3. The pact was initially understood as a mutual promise, like blood
brothers, of helping one another in times of need and development.
a. Sanduguan
b. Katapatan
c. Katapangan
d. Pagka-makabayan
4. What is the last poem written by Dr. Jose Rizal?
a. Noli Me Tangere
b. El Filibusterismo
c. Mi Ultimo Adios
d. Indios
5. He was the guerrilla who fought his battle not in the jungles but in the
embattled office in Malacañang.
a. Manuel Quezon
b. Ferdinand Marcos
c. Jose Laurel
d. Corazon Aquino

Test II: Essay. Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. Do you consider the Philippine government as truly democratic? Why

do you say so?
2. How can the youth exemplify patriotism?
3. What are the significant insights we have gained from the dictatorial
rule of Marcos?

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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Activity 1. Examine your personal convictions, values and traits that are
similar to the struggles of the Filipino people in history. Compose a journal
entry that signifies your contribution to Philippines independence and
democracy.

Activity 2.Make a depiction of the most profound selfie of a typical Filipino.

The selfie must be able to show either of the following background:
landmarks, artifacts, work of art, inventions, monuments, unique architectures,
historical figures, heroes, famous individuals, festivities and celebrations.

111
REFERENCES

Eden Joy Pastor Alata, Bernardo Nicolas Caslib Jr, Janice Patria Javier
Serafica, R.A. Pawilen (2018). Understanding the Self. 1 st Edition.

Chafee, J.(2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the

Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson.106-

169

Dalisay G. Brawner, Analiza F. Arcega(2018).Understanding The Self. 1 st

Edition

Demello, M. (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Pp 173-188. And Fat and Thin Bodies.
189-205. In Body Studies: An Introduction.Rooutledge

Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of

Exposure to FB on

Self esteem. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social Networking.

Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (eds).
Compassion and Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY. Guilford Press. 79-
92.<http://self-compassion.org/the-research>.

Sosis, R. (2010). The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual. In Angeloni (ed).

Annual Editions: Anthropology 10/11.33 rd ed. McGraw Hill. 133-137

Stein & Stein (2011). Ritual. In the Anthropology of Religion, Magic and
Witchcraft. Prentice Hall. 77-102.

Villafuerte, S.L., Al F. Quillope, R.C. Tunac & E.I. Borja (2018). Understanding
the Self. Neime Publishing House Co. LTD. ISBN 978-621-95906-1-7.

112
 Lesson 6. The Digital Self

The term “online identity” implies that there is a distinction between

how people present themselves online and how they do offline. In contrast to
the internet of the 1990s, people today use social media primarily to
communicate with people they know in real life contexts like home, work, and
school. Second, wireless networking and portable devices like smart phones
and tablets make it easy to access social media as part of day-to-day life,
rather than having to formally “log on” to the internet.

We are living in a digital age and other than face to face interaction, we
have interactions involving technology – cellular phones, computers and other
gadgets. Thus, we build our digital self. Digital self is the persona you use
when you are online. Some people maintain one or more online identities that
are distinct from their real world selves. This lesson will help you understand
how online identity is established based on what information you offer in
technology- interactions. This is also present what you can do to protect your
online personality that can affect your offline personality.

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. Discuss about online identity and their self in cyberspace and user id;
2. Expound selective self-presentation and impression management;
3. Evaluate the impact of online interactions on the self; and
4. Establish boundaries of the online self: private vs. public, personal vs.
social identity online; gender and sexuality online.

Online Identity and Self in Cyberspace

Online identity is the sum of your characteristics and interactions.

Because you interact differently with each website you visit, each of those
websites will have a different picture of who you are and what you do.
Sometimes the different representations of you are referred to a partial
identities, because none of them has the full and true picture of who you are.
Your online identity is not the same as your real-world identity because the

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characteristics you represent online differ from the characteristics you
represent in the physical world.

Social media like social network sites, blogs, and online personals
require users to self-consciously create a virtual depictions of themselves.
Every website that you interact with will collect its own version of who you are,
based on the information that you have shared. Thus, it is up to you how you
will represent yourself as closely as who you are and what you do in real life
or selectively, to create a representation far from your real life. This explains
why our behaviors can change if we notice that we are being watched or
observed. This self- presentation can also change depending on who we are
interacting with or what personal information we need to providing to present
ourselves in a way that will be acceptable to others. Thus, we can select only
what we want to present and impress to others, what we view beneficial to our
personality, especially when we create a digital self.

Impact of Online Interactions on the Self

When interacting with people, we automatically make inferences about

them without even being consciously aware of it. We cannot help but what
they are thinking about, what their facial expressions mean, what their
intentions are, and so on. Research suggests that young users report
increased self-esteem and general well- being following instances of positive
feedback on social networking sites. Facebook users were most satisfied with
their lives and exhibited greater social and political engagement. However,
online interactions cannot reveal our true feelings and can decrease people’s
happiness levels. It is easier to hide our emotions behind an email, a
Facebook post or a tweet. Moreover, browsing social media sites can lead to
feelings of jealousy when we compare self to the online personal of others.

Compared with face-to-face presentations, online interactions enable

us to self- censor to a greater extent and manage our online identities more
strategically which provides greater opportunity to misrepresent ourselves.

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 The positive impact of social media and online interaction on the self:

1. Social media sites inform and empower individuals to change

themselves and their communities.
2. Increased self-esteem when receiving many likes and shares.
3. Boost one’s moral and feelings of self- worth

The negative impact of social media and online interaction on the self:

1. Extensive online engagement is correlated with personality and brain

disorders like poor social skills.
2. Low self- esteem due to the risk of being exposed to cyberbullying and
cyber-pornography.
3. More occupied in giving attention to social media than in keeping their
customs and practices.

Extended Self in a Digital World

Russell W. Belk on his “Extended Self in a Digital World” presents five

changes emerging from our current digital age:

1. Dematerialization

Things are disappearing right before our eyes – our information,

communications, photos, videos, music, calculations, messages, written
words are now largely invisible and immaterial, composed of electronic
streams stored in digital storage devices in locations we will never know.
Belk proposes four functions of virtual consumptions:

a. Stimulates consumer desire for both material and virtual goods.

b. Actualizes possible daydreams such as those of wealth and status
by enacting them in video games.
c. Actualizes impossible fantasies such as being a magician or space
pirate with magical objects.
d. Facilitate experimentation such as being a criminal in a video game.
Reports show that virtual goods are now some of the most valued
commodities for cybercriminals who attempt to hack into games and

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 steal virtual possessions to resell. Suicide may also result to a
stolen virtual or digital possession.
2. Reembodiment

This is characterized as the “breakout of the visual” online, leading to a

new “constructions” and definitions of the self in the virtual world where
online games, blogs, web pages, photo and video-sharing sites, internet
dating sites are possible; we are disembodied and reembodied as
avartars, sharing identity with the chosen avatar virtually. Online, the plain
represent themselves as glamorous, the old as young, and young as older.
In some cases, even virtual sex, marriage and divorce are made possible.
Virtual participants may also have multiple characters, increasing one’s
anonymity. the self is now extended into avatars, which can affect our
offline behaviour and our sense of self, from a more private to public
presentation of self which is now co-constructed that can help affirm or
modify our sense of self. It is highly recommended that we set boundaries
to our online self.

3. Sharing

Uploading, downloading, sharing, etc. provide free access of

information through web surfing. In Facebook, social media friends know
more than the immediate families about our daily activities, connections,
and thoughts. Diaries that were once private or shared only with close
friends are now posted as blogs for everyone to read. There is loss of
control due to sharing – uncontrolled sharing of information by online
participants or friends; restrictions are not observed.

4. Co- construction of Self

Our digital involvement is social in nature. Our blogs invite comments,

social interaction which help in constructing our individual and joint
extended sense of self as the new version of Cooley’s “Looking Glass Self
Theory” known as the collaborative self. Seeking affirmation is obviously
identified. Friends also help to co-construct and reaffirm each other’s
sense of self through their postings, tagging and comments.

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 5. Distributed Memory

In a digital world, there is a new set of devices and technologies for

recording and archiving our memories. The dilemma is seen in the
narrative of the self. Our identity is not to be found in behaviour nor in the
reactions of others, but in the capacity to keep a particular narrative going,
done by continually integrating events in the outside world into our ongoing
story about the self. Photos posted in the online world may not be accurate
in giving memories of the past since the photos, blogs, etc. may just be
selected representations of happy times hence, may not be sufficient to tell
our stories.

Boundaries of the Online Self

Adolescents’ online interactions are both a literal and a metaphoric

screen for representing major adolescent developmental issues, such as
sexuality and identity. Because of the public nature of internet chat rooms,
they provide an open window into the expression of adolescent concerns.

Setting boundaries to your online self:

a. Stick to safer sites.

b. Guard your passwords.
c. Be choosy about your online friends.
d. Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there
forever, even if you try to delete it.
e. Don’t be mean or embarrass other people online.
f. Limit what you share.

Research states that there are more gender-related similarities in

establishing an online self and blog use and that the online self is a good
venue for gender expression and sexuality. This is because in one’s online
identity, there is no physical embodiment of gender or other physical markers
of identity. Age and sex are the primary categories to which people are
assigned but in online identity, these are not evident and non-explicit. Yet
extra care with full sense of accountability must be observed in the use of the
social media to protect the self.

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ASSESSMENT

Test I: True or False. Write True or False. For False answers, give your
explanation why.

______1. Interaction through online requires emotional involvement.

______2. Online interaction can decrease people’s happiness levels.

______3. Impression management is an attempt to influence the perceptions

of other people about self.

______4. Your online self is the sum of your characteristics and interactions
using the internet.

______5. The internet is an important source of sexual information for teens.

Test II: Essay. From your readings, describe you Digital Self. Emphasize the
negative and positive impact of creating your online identity with emphasis on
cyberbullying. Write down your thoughts and feelings in no less than 300
words.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Activity 1.Make a slogan to advocate the responsible use of the internet.

Activity 2.Make a short video clip (you as actor/ actresses) on Digital Self that
would promote a healthy self- presentation and positive online interactions.

Summary

The concept of the self, to unpack that, it can only mean discovering
that we have many, not just one. We have a self for each and every social
situation, and they do not know each other, nor do they need to. There is an
evolutionary reason why our many selves do not know each other; if they did,
they would surely interfere and make it even more difficult to manifest
appropriately.
There is no such thing as a true self nor are there any false selves. We have
many, and their interests do not always align, they most often do not, hence
the problem with keeping promises.

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REFERENCES

Eden Joy Pastor Alata, Bernardo Nicolas Caslib Jr, Janice Patria Javier
Serafica, R.A. Pawilen (2018). Understanding the Self. 1 st Edition.

Chafee, J.(2013). Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the
Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson.106-
169

Dalisay G. Brawner, Analiza F. Arcega(2018).Understanding The Self. 1 st

Edition

Demello, M. (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Pp 173-188. And Fat and Thin Bodies.
189-205. In Body Studies: An Introduction.Rooutledge

Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of

Exposure to FB on

Self esteem. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social Networking.

Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411

Neff, K. (2012). The Science of Self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (eds).
Compassion and Wellness in Psychotherapy. NY. Guilford Press. 79-
92.<http://self-compassion.org/the-research>.

Sosis, R. (2010). The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual. In Angeloni (ed).

Annual Editions: Anthropology 10/11.33 rd ed. McGraw Hill. 133-137

Stein & Stein (2011). Ritual. In the Anthropology of Religion, Magic and
Witchcraft. Prentice Hall. 77-102.

Villafuerte, S.L., Al F. Quillope, R.C. Tunac & E.I. Borja (2018). Understanding
the Self. Neime Publishing House Co. LTD. ISBN 978-621-95906-1-7.

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 CHAPTER III

MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF

This third and final chapter identifies three areas of concern for the student,
namely: learning, goal setting, and managing the stress. It also provides for
the more practical application of the concepts discuses in this course and
enables them to hands on experience of developing self-help plans for self-
regulated learning, goal setting, and sel care.

What to Expect?

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

1. Understand the theoretical underpinnings for how to manage and care for
different aspects of the self.
2. Acquire and hone new skills and learnings for better managing of one’s
self and behaviors
3. Apply these new skills to one’s self and functioning for a better quality of
life.

Lesson 1: Learning To Be a Better Learner

Knowing the “self” is not enough. Since “who you are” is partly made
up of your choices, you must also have the ability to choose especially to be
better you in the school, your knowledge of yourself should at least enable
you to become a better student.
This lesson will present several techniques that you can adapt
depending on your situation and preferences to make you a better learner.
Learning should not just mean studying for your quizzes and exams in school.
Learning could also occur outside the confines of a book or classroom, like
when you want to acquire a new move in your favorite sport, or the skills for a
certain hobby, among others.

Furthermore, the techniques here are not the only techniques available and
months or years from now, new ways on how to study better will be

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discovered or rediscovered. What is important at this moment is that you learn
how to learn these things.

What to Expect?

At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to:

1. explain how learning occurs;

2. enumerate various metacognition and studying techniques; and

3. identify the metacognitive techniques that you find most appropriate

for yourself.

We are Homo sapiens or the “wise man”. We think in a more complex

level than our ancestors and most, if not all, of the other beings. But being
called wise, not only do we think, but we are also capable to think about
thinking, like how we think of things and why we think in a certain way about
things. It is like your brain thinks about itself, then thinks about how it thinks
about itself.
In the context of learning, studies show that when you are able to think
about how you think, how you process information, and how you utilize
techniques while you are studying, you have a higher chance of improving
your learning process than those who do not reflect on their methods.
This idea falls under the concept of metacognition. “Metacognition is
commonly defined as “thinking about thinking” (Livingston 1997);
Papaleontiou Luca 2003). It is the awareness of the scope and limitations of
your current knowledge and skills (Meichenbaum, 1985 in American Institutes
for Research 2010). Due to this awareness, metacognition enables the person
to adapt their existing knowledge and skills to approach a learning task,
seeking for the optimum result of the learning experience (American Institute
for Research 2010).

Metacognition I also not limited to the thinking process of the

individuals, it also includes keeping one’s emotions and motivations while
learning in check (Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Some people learn better when
they like the subject, some when they are challenged by the topic and others

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if they have a reward system each time they finish a task. The emotional state
and the motivation of a person then should also be in the preferred ideal state
for that person in order to further facilitate his or her learning.
As seen from the abovementioned definition, metacognition basically
has two aspects: (1) self-appraisal and (2) self-management of cognition.
(Paris and Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Self-appraisal is
your personal reflection on your knowledge and capabilities while self-
management is the mental process you employ using what you have in
planning and adapting to successfully learn or accomplish a certain task
(Paris and Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Similar concepts,
usually called elements of metacognition, are matacognitive knowledge or
what you know about how you think and metacognition regulation or how to
adjust your thinking processes to help you learn better (American Institute for
Research 2010).
Under metacognitive knowledge, there are several variables that affect
how you know or assess yourself as a thinker. First is the personal variable,
which is your evaluation of your strengths and weaknesses in learning.
Second is the task variable, which is what you know or what you think about
the nature of the task, as well as what strategies the task requires. Lastly,
strategy variable refers to what strategies or skills you already have in dealing
with certain tasks (American Institute for Research 2010).
However, it must be noted that in order to make self-appraisal and self-
management work, you must have an accurate self-assessment – you must
be honest about what you know and capable of in order to find ways to utilize
your strengths and improve on your weaknesses (Schoenfield 1987 in
Papaleontiou-Louca 2003).
Going back to the activity, review your MAI results and your answers
during the analysis. Do you feel that the results do not represent you? Rather
than dismissing the test or the results if you feel any incongruence to your
perception, try to analyze if your answer were accurate and think of the
specific instances when you were learning something. Think also of the
various factors that make that learning experience successful and enjoyable
for you, including your emotions and motivations at that certain period.

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 By doing the above reflection, you are actually utilizing metacognitive
skills. According to Waterloo Student Class Office (n.d.), the following are
other skills that can help you in exercising metacognition:
1. Knowing your limits. As mentioned earlier, one cannot really make
any significance advancement in using metacognitive skills without
having an honest and accurate evaluation of what you know and what
you do not know. Knowing your limits also looks at the scope and
limitations of your resources so that you can work with what you have
at the moment and look for ways to cope with other necessities.

2. Modifying your approach. It begins with the recognition that your

strategy is not appropriate with the task and/or that you do not
comprehend the learning experience successfully. Recognizing, for
example, that you are not understanding what you are reading, you
should learn to modify your strategy in comprehending your material.
You might want to read and reread a page in five-minute intervals
instead of trying to finish the material in one sitting. You may want to
make a summary or code for yourself instead of using keywords or
highlighting sections of what you are reading.

3. Skimming. This is basically browsing over a material and keeping an

eye on keywords, phrases, or sentences. It is also about knowing
where to search such key terms. For example, you might want to look
at the introduction first or the abstract. The Table of Contents can also
provide you with a quick guide to the contents of the book. Introductory
paragraphs, headings or subheadings, and conclusions can also
provide you with an overview of the whole material. This technique
works best when you want to get an idea about the contents of a
reading material in a limited time frame, or when, you want to focus on
certain details, among others.

4. Rehearsing. This is not just about repeatedly talking, writing, and/or

doing what you have learned, but also trying to make a personal

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 interpretation or summary of the learning experience. One of the fun
ways to do this is by imagining yourself being interviewed about your
task. As you try to convey what you have learned from the resources,
you also insert your opinions or other personal take on the matter. Just
be sure that the key concepts are well understood and are still in-line
with the source material even with multiple rehearsals.

5. Self-test. As the name implies, this is trying to test your

comprehension of your learning experience or the skills you have
acquired during learning. While some materials already come with test
like this book, you can still create test for yourself. You can make essay
questions or definition of terms test while you are reading or watching a
material. You can challenge yourself in completing a task successfully,
maybe in a given period of time – for example doing 50 free throws
with at least 90% success rate. Self-test does not only focus on what
you have learned but also on how you learned it. After the experience,
you should also ask questions like, “What strategies did I use?” “How
successful were my learning strategies?” “How can I further improve
my learning skills?”

Other strategies that you need to develop include asking questions about
your methods, self-reflection, finding a mentor or support group if necessary,
thinking out loud (though you have to be considerate of others also when
doing this), and welcoming errors as learning experiences. For clarification,
“welcoming errors” does not mean seeking them or consciously making them
such as much as possible. It means that when commit a mistake, you do not
dismiss it as insignificant or you do not try to avoid responsibility of the results.
You must process them to learn every lesson that you can take about
yourself, about the topic, and other people or things. By having more positive
attitude toward mistakes, you will also have the courage to venture into new
and unknown learning experiences that may one day interest you.
Using these strategies, you can at least identify four types of
metacognitive learners (Perkins 1992 in Cambridge International
Examinations 2016). First, the “tacit” learners are unaware of their
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metacognitive process although they know the extent of their knowledge.
Second, the “aware” learners know some of their metacognitive strategies but
they do not plan on how to use these techniques. Third “strategic” learners, as
the name implies, strategize and plan their courseof action toward a learning
experience. Lastly, the “reflective” learners reflect on their thinking while they
are using the strategies and adapt metacognitive skills depending on their
situation.

As you may have noticed already, the goal of metacognition is for the
student to be a self-regulated learner. Education should not be limited by the
capabilities of the teacher, the content of school textbooks, the four corners of
the classroom, and the duration of the academic year or courses. You should
have the capability to study things on your own as well as accurately evaluate
your progress.

This is one of the benefits of using metacognitive techniques and

strategies. Another benefit is the comprehension and development of
cognitive limitations of the learner because the student is now aware of
his/her capabilities. Various researches also showed significant improvement
in academic performance in any subject and across age range. The student is
also enabled to transfer knowledge form one context into another (Cambridge
International Examinations 2015).

Other tips that you can use in studying are the following (Queensland
University of Technology Library n.d.):
1. Make an outline of the things you want to learn, the things you are
reading or doing, and/or the things you remember.
2. Break down the task in smaller and more manageable details.
3. Integrate variation in your schedule and learning experience. Change
reading material every hour and do not put similar topics together (e.g.,
try studying English then Mathematics instead of English and Filipino
together). Also include physical activities in your planning.
4. Try to incubate your ideas. First, write your draft without doing much
editing. Let the ideas flow. Then leave your draft at least overnight or
around 24 hors – some even do not look at it for a week – and do

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 something else. After given period, go back to your draft or prototype
and you might find a fresh perspective about it. Sometimes, during
incubation, you suddenly have ideas coming to you. Write them down
in a notebook first and do not integrate them into the draft yet. Review
what you have written when the incubation period is done.
5. Revise, summarize, and take down notes, then read them to help you
minimize cramming in the last minute, especially when you have a
weakness in memorizing facts and data. Some people are motivated
when the deadline is very close – tomorrow, for instance – and they
just review the day before some evaluation or exercise. If you are that
kind of person, you may still motivate yourself and have that feeling of
urgency at the last minute but by using the aforementioned techniques,
your “cramming” need not to be a desperate attempt to learn but only
as a way to energize your brain as you make a final review of the
things you have already been studying for a week or so before.

6. Engage what you have learned. Do something about it. On a reading

material for example, highlight keywords and phrases, write your
opinions about the matter on a separate notebook, or create a diagram
or concept map. Some people also learn best by copying the key
paragraphs word for word. You may want to look for other definitions
and compare or contrast materials use your new knowledge during
discussions – just do something about it.
As you were reading this topic, were you aware of your metacognitive
processes? What changes did you feel as you try to use the metacognitive
strategies and skills? We encourage you to utilize and adapt the
aforementioned techniques in whatever learning experiences you are about to
accomplish and find enjoyment and success in learning.

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ASSESSMENT

How Do You Think About Thinking?

Answer the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) and evaluate

yourself as a learner. A copy of the MAI can also be downloaded from the
following link:
https://www2.viu.ca/studentsuccessservices/learningstrategist/documents/Met
acognitiveAwarenessInventory.pdf (accessed October 1, 2017).

Answer the following questions, then write your answers in the space
provided.

1. Do you agree with the results of your MAI? Why or why not?

2. Make a list of your “Top 5 Tips / Secrets for Studying” based on your
personal experiences / preferences. Share your answer in class.

3. Does your MAI result consistent with your personal Top 5 tips / Secrets
for studying?\

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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY

Scenario: you are about to study for your final examinations and it is as
if the universe conspired for a heavy finals week, all your subjects provided at
least three new reading materials and topics one week (7 days) before the
examination period. Create a diagram or schedule using at least five of the
metacognitive strategies, skills, and studying techniques mentioned in this
lesson on how you would prepare for the next seven days before your final
examinations.

REFERENCES

American Institutes for Research. 2010. “TEAL Center Fact Sheet No.4:
Metacognitive Processes.” In Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy.
Accessed September 15, 2017.
https://lincs.ed.gov/sites/default/files/4_TEAL_Metacognitive.pdf.

Cambridge International Examinations, 2015. “Metacognition: Education

Brief”, Accessed September 13, 2017.
http://www.cambridgeinternational.org/image/ 272307-metacognition.pdf.

Elmore, Kristen, George Smith, and Daphna Oyserman, 2012. “Self-Concept

and Identity.” In Handbook of Self and Identity, 2 nd Ed., edited by Mark R.
Leary and June Price Tangney, 69-95, New York: The Guilford Press.

Gleitman, Henry Jame Gross, and Daniel Reisberg, 2011. Psychology, 8 th Ed.
Canada: W.W. Norton and Company.

Ho, David, 1995. “Selfhood and Identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism,

and Hinduism: Contrast with the West.” Journal for the Theory of Social
Behavior 25:2. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-5914.1995.tb00269.

Hogg, Michael, and Graham Vaughan, 2010. Essentials of Social Psychology,

Italy: Pearson Education Limited.

Jhangiani, Rajiv, and Hammond Tarry, 2014. Principles of Social Psychology

1st Ed. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0
International License. https://doi.org/10.24926/8668.2001.

Livingston, Jennifer, 1997. “Metacognition: An Overview,” Accessed

September 13, 2017.
http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/cep564/Metacog.html

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Metacognitive Awareness Inventory, n.d. Accessed September 9, 2017,
http://www2.viu.ca/studentsuccessservices/learningstrategist/documents/Meta
cognitiveAwarenessInventory.pdf

Papaleontiou-Louca, Eleonora, 2003. “The Concept and Instruction of

Metacognition.” Teacher Development Vol. 7, No. 1. DOI:
10.1080/13664530300200184.

Qingxue, Liu, 2003. “Understanding Different Cultural Patterns or Orientations

Between East and West.” Investigations Linguisticae, Vol. IX, April 2003.
Accessed September 18, 2017.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=
10.1.1.184.6260&rep=1&type=pdf.

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 Lesson 2: Do Not Just Dream, Make It Happen

Jack Canfield is an epitome of success. He has authored seven books

listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as New York Times Bestseller,
beating Stephen King (Macmillan 2017). These books are: Chicken Soup for
the Soul Series: The Success Principles: How to Get from Where You Are to
Where You Want to Be. The Power of Focus; The Aladdin Factor; Dare to
Win; You’ve Got to Read This Book; and The Key to Living the Law of
Attraction. Jack Canfield is the chairman and founder of The Canfield Training
Group; founder and former chairman of the Chicken Soup for the Soul
Enterprises; and was invited to a thousand radio and television programs
worldwide (Canfield 2017).
One of Canfield’s feature quotes about success is: “By taking the time
to stop and appreciate who you are and what you have achieved – and
perhaps learned through a few mistakes, stumbles and losses – you actually
can give you the insights about you. Self-acknowledgement and appreciation
are what give you the insights and awareness to move forward toward higher
goals and accomplishments” (Brown 2016).
We will learn more about Canfield’s quote through Albert Bandura’s
self-efficacy theory. Dweck’s mindsets theory, and Locke’s goal setting theory.

Lesson Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. use Bandura’s self-efficacy theory for self-assessment;

2. differentiate growth and fixed mindset by Dweck; and

3. design personal goals adapting Locke’s goal setting theory.

Albert E. Bandura’s Self-efficacy

Biography

The concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Albert Bandura in an

article entitled “Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change”

130
published in Psychological Review in 1977. The article also became an
instant classic in psychology (Kendra 2017).
Albert E. Bandura was born in Mundare, Alberta on December 4, 1925.
He was the youngest of six children. He grew up with parents who put great
emphasis on the value of family, life and education.
Bandura took a summer job in Alaska after high school graduation. He
then took an introductory psychology course at the University of British
Columbia as a working student. In three years time, he graduated with the
Bolocan Award in Psychology in 1949.
He earned his master’s degree from the University of Iowa in 1951 and
his PhD in Clinical Psychology in 1952. He had a postdoctoral position at the
Wichita Guidance Center before accepting a position as a faculty member at
Stanford University in 1953, where he still works at present.
The Bob Doll Experiment

In the 1950s, Dr. Bandura had a study known as the Bobo Doll
Experiment. In this experiment, the sample children were presented with new
social models of violent and nonviolent behavior toward an inflatable
redounding Bobo doll. The result were: the group of children who saw the
violent behavior model became violent to the doll, while the control group who
was represented with the nonviolent behavior model was rarely violent to the
doll. This experiment has proven right the hypothesis that social modeling is a
very effective way of learning. Dr. Bandura introduced the social learning
theory that focuses on what people learn from observing the interacting with
other people. Bandura’s social cognitive theory states that people are active
participants in their environment and are not simply shaped by that
environment.
To date, as an faculty member of Sanford University, Dr. Bandura
continues to do researches such as self-efficacy, stress reactions, and effects
of modeling on human behavior, emotion, and thought. He has received many
awards and honorary degrees due to his works (The Great Canadian
Psychology Website 2008).
Dr. Bandura was named the most influential psychologist of all time.
His theories gave major contribution to the field of psychology, psychotherapy,

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and education. He was elected president of the American Psychological
Association (APA) in 1974. He was awarded by APA for his distinguished
scientific contributions in1980 and again in 2004 for his outstanding lifetime
contributions to psychology. In 2015, Dr. Bandura was awarded the National
Medal of Science by President Barack Obama (Kendra 2017).
Summary of Self-efficacy Theory

Weibell (2011) summarized Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy theory:

“Self-efficacy theory is based on the assumption that psychological

procedures serve as a means of creating and strengthening expectations of
personal efficacy.”

Self-efficacy theory distinguishes between expectations of efficacy and

response-outcome expectancies. According to Weibell (2011), outcome
expectancy is “a person’s estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain
outcomes.” An efficacy expectation is “the conviction that one can
successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes.”
Although a person may expect a certain activity to lead to a particulate
outcome, they may lack the motivation perform the action, doubting their
ability to do so. Outcome and efficacy expectations are differentiated because
individuals can believe that a particular course of action will produce certain
outcomes. However, if they entertain serious doubts about whether they can
perform the necessary activities with such information, it does not influence
their behavior.
Self-efficacy typically comes into play when there is an actual or
perceived threat to one’s personal safety, one’s ability to deal with potentially
aversive events. Increasing a person’s self-efficacy increases their ability to
deal with a potentially averse situation. For example, experimental studies on
the treatment of adults with ophidiophobia (fear of snakes) have demonstrated
that raising levels of self-efficacy is an effective technique to help them cope
with threatening situations. Perceived self-efficacy mediates anxiety arousal.

Weibell (2011) stated that Dr. Bandura defined self-efficacy as

“people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of
performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives.” He
identified acts of people with “high assurance in their capabilities,” such as:

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 1. approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered;

2. Set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them;

3. heighten or sustain efforts in the face of failures or setbacks;

4. attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills

which are acquirable; and

5. approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise

control over them.

In contrast, people “who doubt their capabilities”

1. shy away from tasks they view as personal threats;

2. have slow aspirations and weak commitment to goals they choose to

pursue;
3. dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all
kinds of adverse outcomes, rather than concentrating on how to
perform successfully;

4. slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties;

5. are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks;

and

6. fall easy victim to stress and depression.

Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influence by which a

person’s self-efficacy is developed and maintained. These are:

1. performance accomplishments or mastery experiences;

2. vicarious experiences;

3. verbal or social persuasion; and

4. physiological (somatic and emotional) states.

Dr. Bandura identified that “mastery experiences” or “personal

performance accomplishments” are the most effective ways to create a strong

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sense of efficacy. “Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy.
Failures undermined it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is
firmly established.” Vicarious experiences through observance of social
models also influence one’s perception of self-efficacy. The most important
factor that determines the strength of influence of an observed success or
failure on one’s own self-efficacy is the degree of similarity between the
observer and the model.
Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises
observers’ belief that they, too, possess the capabilities to succeed, given the
comparable activities. By the same token, observing others who fail despite
high efforts lowers observers’ judgments of their own efficacy and undermines
their efforts. The impact of modeling on perceived self-efficacy is strongly
influenced by persuasive is the models successes and failures. If people see
the models as very different from themselves, their perceived self-efficacy is
not much influenced by the models’ behavior and the results it produces.
Verbal or social persuasion also affects one’s perception of self-
efficacy. It is a “a way of strengthening people’s belief that they have what it
takes to succeed,” Verbal or social persuasion can provide a temporary boost
in perceived ability. When it is effective in mobilizing a person to action, and
their actions leads to success, the enhanced self-efficacy may become more
permanent. “People who are persuaded verbally, that they possess the
capabilities to master given activities, are likely to mobilize greater effort and
sustain it than if they harbor self-doubts and dwell on personal deficiencies
when problems arise.” This increases their chances of success. Unfortunately,
“it is more difficult to instill high beliefs of personal efficacy by social
persuasion alone than to undermine it since unrealistic boosts in efficacy are
quickly disconfirmed by disappointing results of one’s efforts” (Weibell 2011).
People also rely on their somatic or emotional states when judging their
capabilities. Stress and tension are interpreted as “signs of vulnerability to
poor performance.” Fatigue, aches, and pains, and mood also effect
perception of ability. Dr. Bandura notes, however, that it is not the intensity of
the emotional or physical reaction that is important, but rather, how it is
perceived and interpreted. People with a high sense of self-efficacy may
perceive effective arousal as “an energizing facilitator performance, whereas
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those who are beset by self-doubts regard their arousal as debilitator”
(Weibell 2011).
Since “most human motivation is cognitively generated,” self-belief of
efficacy is an important factor in human motivation. Beliefs of self-efficacy
work in coordination with component skill and incentive to act. Inasmuch as a
person has both the component skills needed to succeed and incentive to
engage, self-efficacy plays an important role in determining what activities a
person will choose to engage in, how much effort they will expend, and how
long that effort will be sustained when things get tough (Weibell 2011).
Expectation alone will not produce desired performance if the
component capabilities are lacking. Moreover, there are many things that
people can do with certainty of success but they do not perform because they
have no incentives to do so (Weibell 2011).
Dr. Albert Bandura’s quotes about self-efficacy (Kendra 2017) are as follows:
● “Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute
the sources of action required to manage prospective situations.” From
Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory,
1986.
● “If efficacy beliefs always reflected only what people can do routinely,
they would rarely fail but they would not set aspirations beyond their
immediate reach nor amount the extra effort needed to surpass their
ordinary performances.” From Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 1994.
● “Self-belief does not necessarily ensure success, but self-disbelief
assuredly spawns failure.” From Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control,
1997.
● “By sticking it out through tough times, people emerge from adversity
with a stronger sense of efficacy.” From Encyclopedia of Human
Behavior, 1994.
● “People’s beliefs about their abilities have a profound effect on those
abilities. Ability is not fixed property; there is a huge variability in how
you perform. People who have sense of self-efficacy bounce back from
failure; they approach things in terms of how to handle them rather
than worrying about what can go wrong.” From Self-efficacy: The
Exercise of Control, 1996.
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Carol S. Dweck’s Fixed and Growth Mindset Theory

Biography

Carol’s S. Dweck is the author of Mindset: The New Psychological of

Success.She was born on October 17, 1946. She graduated from Bernard
College in 1967 and earned her PhD from Yale University of Illinois before
joining Stanford University in 2004 (Up closed 2017).
She is one of the leading researchers in the field of motivation and is a
Lewis and Virginia Eaton Professor of Psychology at Stanford University. Her
research focused on why people succeed and how to foster success. She has
been elected as one of the outstanding scholars in Social Sciences at the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Her works has been featured in
different publications like The New Yorker, Time, The New York Times, The
Washington Post, and The Boston (Mindset 2006-2010).
Dr. Dweck has been received the following awards (Stanford Profiles):

● Book Award for Self-Theories, World Education Federation (an

organization of the United Nations and UNICEF) (2004)

● Donald Campbell Career Achievement Award in Social Psychology,

Society for Personality and Social Psychology (2008)

● Award for Innovative Program of the year, “Brainology” (2008)

● Ann L. Brown Award for Research in Development Psychology,

University of Illinois (2009)

● Klingstein Award for Leadership in Education, Klingstein Center,

Columbia University (2010)

● Thorndike Career Achievement Award in Educational Psychology,

American Psychological Association (2010)

● Beckman Mentoring Award, Colombia University (2011)

● Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, American Psychological

Association (2011)

● Gallery of Scientist, Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain

Sciences (2011)

● James McKeen Cattell Lifetime Achievement Award, Association for

Psychological Science (2013)

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● Distinguished Scholar Award, Society for Personality and Social
Psychology (2013)

Fixed and Growth Mindset

Dr. Dweck’s contribution to social psychology relates to implicit theories

of intelligencewith her book, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success
published in 2006. Dr. Dweck described people with two types of mindset.
People who believe that success is base on their innate abilities have “fixed”
theory of intelligence, and goes under fixed mindset. On the other hand,
people who believe that success is based on hard work, learning, training,
and perseverance have growth theory of intelligence, which goes under
growth mindset. According to Dr. Dweck, individuals may not necessarily be
aware of their own mindset, but their mindset can still be discerned based on
their basic abilities, while growth-mindset individuals do not mind or fear
failure as much because they realize their performance can be improved and
learning comes from failure. These two mindsets play an important role in all
aspects of a person’s life. Dr. Dweck argues that the growth mindset will allow
a person to live a less stressful and more successful life (Upclosed 2017).
In an interview with Dr. Dweck in 2012, she described the fixed and
growth mindset as:

“In fixed mindset, students believe their basic abilities, their

intelligence, their talents are just fixed traits. They have a certain amount and
that’s that, and their goal becomes to look smart all the time and never look
dumb. In the growth mindset, students understand that their talents and
abilities can be developed through effort, good teaching and persistence.
They don’t necessarily think everyone’s the same or anyone can be Einstein,
but they believe everyone can get smarter if they work for it.” (Upclosed 2017)
Individuals with growth mindset are more likely to continue working
hard despite setbacks while individuals with fixed mindset can be affected by
subtle environmental cues. For example, children given praise such as “good
job, you are smart” are more likely develop a fixed mindset, whereas, if given
compliments like “good job, you worked very hard” are likely developed a
growth mindset. In other words, it is possible to encourage students to persist

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despite failure by encouraging them to think about learning in a certain way
(Upclosed 2017).

Edwin A. Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

Biography

Edwin A. Locke is internationally known for his research on goal

setting. He was born on January 5, 1938. He is Dean’s Professor (Emeritus)
of Leadership and Motivation at the Robert H. Smith School Business at the
University of Maryland, College Park. He received his BA from Harvard in
1960 and his PhD in Industrial Psychology from Cornell University in 1964
(Locke 2017).
He has published more than 300 chapters, notes, and articles in
professional journals on such subjects as work motivation, job satisfaction,
incentives, and the philosophy of science. He is also the author/editor of 12
books, including The Selfish Path of Romance: How to Love with Passion and
Reason (Platform Press); Study Methods and Study Motivation (Ayn Rand
Bookstore 2008); Goal Setting; A Theory of Goal Setting and Task
Performance (Prentice Hall 1990, with G. Latham);New Developments in
Goal Setting and Task Performance (2013, with G. Latham); Handbook of
Principles of Organizational Behavior (Blackwell 2000; Second Edition, Wiley
2009); The Prime Movers: Traits of the Greatest Wealth Creators (Second
Edition, Ayn Rand Bookstore 2008); and Postmodernism and Management;
Pros, Cons and the Alternative (JAI: Elsevier 2003). A recent survey found
that Locke’s goal setting theory (developed with G. Latham) was ranked
number one in importance among 73 management theories. His work has
been supported by numerous research grants, and he has served as
consultant to research firms and private business (Locke 2017).
Dr. Locke has been elected a Fellow of the Association for
Psychological Science,theAmerican Psychological Society, the Academy of
Management, and has been a consulting editor for leading journals. He was a
winner of the Outstanding Teacher-Scholar Award at the University of
Maryland, the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the Career Contribution Award from

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the Academy Management (Human Resource Division), the Lifetime
Achievement Award from the Academy of Management (Organizational
Behavior Division), and James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award from the
American Psychological Society. He is also a writer and lecturer for the Ayn
Rand Institute and is interested in the application of the philosophy of
objectivism to behavioral sciences (Locke 2017).
Goal Setting Theory

The goal setting theory was first studied by Dr. Locke in the middle of
1960s. He continued to do more studies in relation to his theory. In 1996, he
published another article entitled “Motivation Through Conscious Goal
Setting.” The article is about his 30 years of research findings on the
relationship between conscious performance goals and performance on work
tasks. The basic contents of goal setting theory are summarized in terms of
14 categories of findings discussed in the article (Locke 1996).
Locke (1996) first described that the approach of goal setting theory is
based on what Aristotle called final causality; that is, action caused by a
purpose. It accepts the axiomatic status of consciousness and volition. It also
assumes that introspective reports provide useful and valid data for
formulating psychological concepts and measuring psychological phenomena
(e.g., purpose, goal commitment, self-efficacy). He then discussed the
attributes of goals and his 14 research findings.
Goal Attributes

Goals have both an internal and an external aspect. Internally, they are
ideas (desired ends); externally, they refer to the object or condition sought
(e.g., a job, a sale, a certain performance level). The idea guides action to
attain the object. Two broad attributes of goals are content (the actual object
sought) and intensity (the scope, focus and complexity, among other of the
choice process). Qualitatively, the content of a goal is whatever the person is
seeking. Quantitatively, two attributes of content, difficulty, and specificity,
have been studied (Locke 2017).

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Research Findings

A research was made by Locke (2017) under the article “Motivation

Through Conscious Goal Setting.” The research has the following findings:
1. The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievement.

The linear function assumes, however, that the individual is committed

to the goal and possesses the requisite ability and knowledge to achieve it.
Without these, performance does drop at high goal levels.

2. The more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance
is regulated.

High goal specificity is achieved mainly through quantification (e.g.,

increase sales by 10%) or enumeration (e.g., a list of tasks to be
accomplished). Thus, it reduces variance in performance, provided that the
individual can control his or her performance. This is not to say that specificity
is always desirable (it may not be in some creative innovation situations), but
only that it has certain effects.

3. Goals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest
performance.

Especially relevant here are the many studies that compared the effect
of specific hard goals such as “do your best.” People do NOT actually do their
best when they try to do their best because, as a vague goal, it is compatible
with many different outcomes, including those lower than one’s best. The
aspect of intensity that has been most studied in goal setting research is that
of goal commitment – the degree to which the person is genuinely attached to
and determined to reach the goals.
4. Commitment to goals is most critical when goals are specific and
difficult.

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 When goals are easy or vague, it is not hard be committed to it
because it does not require much dedication to reach easy goals, and vague
goals can be easily redefined to accommodate low performance. However,
when goals are specific and hard, the higher the commitment is being
required, which results to better performance.

5. High commitment to goals is attained when:

a. the individual is convinced that the goal is important;

b. the individual is convinced that the goal is attainable (or that, at least,
progress can be made toward it).

These are the same factors that influence goal choice. There are many ways
to convince a person that a goal is important:

 In most laboratory setting, it is quite sufficient to simply ask for

compliance after providing a plausible rationale for the study.

 In work situations, the supervisor or leader can use legitimate

authority to get initial commitment.

 Continued commitment might require additional incentives such as

supportiveness, recognition, and rewards.

Financial incentives may facilitate commitment and performance,

except when rewards are offered for attaining impossible goals. Here,
performance actually drops.

Participation by subordinates in setting goals (i.e., joint goal setting

by supervisor and subordinate) leads to higher commitment than curtly telling
people what to do with no explanation, but it does not lead to (practically
significant) higher commitment than providing a convincing rationale for an
assigned goal.

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 Self-set goals can be highly effective in gaining commitment,
although they may not always be set as high as another person would assign.

Commitment can be enhanced by effective leadership, Relevant

leadership techniques include:
 providing and communicating an inspiring vision;
 acting as role model for the employees;
 expecting outstanding performance;
 promoting employees who embrace the vision and dismissing those
who reject it;
 delegating responsibility (“ownership”) for key tasks;
 goal setting itself can be delegated for capable, responsible
employees;
 expressing (genuine) confidence in employee capabilities;
 enhancing capabilities through training; and
 asking for commitment in public.
Self- efficacy refers to task-specific confidence and is a key
component of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory. Bandura showed that
self-efficacy can be raised by enactive mastery, persuasion, and role
modeling – all referred to above. In organizational settings, enactive mastery
can be assured by providing people with needed experience and training and
also by selecting people based on their skills and abilities. Persuasion may
include not only verbal expressions of confidence but also giving people
information regarding what task strategies to use. The effectiveness of role
modeling depends on the attributes of the model and on the person observing
the model.

6. In addition to having a direct effect on performance, self-efficacy

influences:

a. the difficulty level of the goal chosen or accepted;

b. commitment to goals;

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 c. the response to negative feedback or failure; and
d. the choice of task strategies.

People with high self-efficacy are more likely to set high goals or to
accept difficult, assigned goals, to commit themselves to difficult goals, to
respond with renewed efforts to setbacks, and to discover successful task
strategies. Thus, the effects of self-efficacy on performance are both direct
and indirect (through various goal processes). Additionally goal choice and
commitment can be influenced through role modeling.
Feedback. For people to pursue goals effectively, they need some
means of checking or tracking their progress toward their goal. Sometimes
this self-evident to perception, as when a person walks down a road toward a
distant but visible town. In such cases, deviations from the path to the goal
are easily seen and corrected. However, take note that this is in contrast with
sales goal, whose attainment requires score of sales over a period of many
months. Here, some formal means of keeping score is needed so that people
can get a clear indication if they are movingfast enough and in the right
direction.

7. Goal setting is most effective when there is feedback that shows

progress in relation to the goal.

When provided with feedback on their own performance or that of

others, people often spontaneously set goals to improve their previous best or
beat the performance of others simply as way of challenging themselves, but
this is not inevitable. The goal set may be higher or lower than the
performance level previously achieved. The effect of performance feedback
(knowledge of score) depends on the goals set in response to it.

8. Goal setting (along with self-efficacy) mediates the effect of knowledge

of past performance on subsequent performance.

When people receive negative performance feedback, they are

typically unhappy and may also experience doubts about their ability. Those
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who can sustain their self-efficacy under such pressure tend to maintain or
even raise their subsequent goals, retain their commitment, intensify their
search for better strategies, and thereby improve their subsequent
performance. those who lose confidence will tend to lower their goals,
decrease their efforts, and lessen the intensity and effectiveness of their
strategy search. According to Bandura, changes in self-efficacy after
experiencing failure may be affected by he types of casual affirmative
statements people make.

9. Goals affect performance by affecting the direction of action, the

degree of effort exerted, and the persistence of action over time.

The directive aspect is fairly obvious. A person who has a goal to

maximize quality of performance will focus more attention and action on
quality that on, for example, quantity or speed. When there is conflict between
two or more goals, performance with respect to each goal may be
undermined. Effort is roughly proportional to the judged difficulty of the goal –
which is why difficult goals ordinarily lead to higher performance than easy
goals. Persistence refers to directed effort extended over time. Harder goals
typically lead to more persistence than easy goals, because given the
commitment, they take longer to reach and may require overcoming more
obstacles. These mechanisms operate almost automatically or at least
routinely once a goal is committed to, because most people have learned (by
about the age of 6) that if they want to achieve something they have to: pay
attention to it to the exclusion of other things, exert the needed effort, and
persist until it is achieved.

There is another, more indirect goal mechanism – that of task

strategies or plans. Most goals require the application of task – specific
procedures in addition to attention and effort if they are to be attained. For
example, a student who wants to get an A in a psychology in particular, how
to identify what is needed for an A in this course, and how to implement this
knowledge. There are several things we have learned about the relationship
of goals and plans.
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 10. Goals stimulate planning in general. Often, the planning quality is
higher than that which occurs without goals. When people possess task or
goal – relevant plans as a result of experience or training, they activate them
automatically when confronted with a performance goal. Newly learned plans
or strategies are most likely to be utilized under the stimulus of a specific,
difficult goal.

People recognize goals require plans and seek to use what they
already know or to make new plans when they want to reach goals. Sometime
such plans are quite pedestrian. For example, to attain difficult quantity goals,
people may simple sacrifice quality – a common trade off which everyone is
familiar with. When people are given training in a new strategy, they do not
always use it consistently unless they must in order to attain goals that cannot
otherwise be attained. When tasks are complex, a number of new issues
arise. Direct goal mechanisms are less adequate than in the can of simple
tasks for attaining the goal. (Compare, for example, the efficacy of effort alone
in leading to high performance when doing pus-ups versus playing chess).
The path to goal is less clear, and there may be no relevant prior experience
or training which they can fall back on. In such cases, people are forced to
discover new strategies; sometimes they do this poorly especially if the goals
are specific and difficult. The reason appears to be that under this type of
pressure, tunnel vision inhibits effective search procedures.

11. When people strive for goals on complex tasks, they are least effective
in discovering suitable task strategies if;

a. They have no prior experience or training on the task;

b. There is high pressure to perform well; and
c. There is high time pressure (to perform well immediately).

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 Goals as mediators. Goals, along with self-efficacy, might mediate
the effects of values and personality on performance. There is a firm support
for goals and self-efficacy as mediators of feedback. Feedback is most
effective in motivating improved performance when it is used to set goals.
Feedback alone is just information. To act based on information, people need
to know or decide what it means – that is, what significance it has. In a goal-
setting context, this means knowing what a good or desirable score is from a
bad or undesirable score. If no such judgment is made, the feedback will
probably be ignored. Similarly, participation seems to motivate performance to
extent that it leads to higher goals, higher self-efficacy, or higher commitment.
More recent studies have shown evidence for goals or goals plus self-efficacy
as a mediator of personality and charismatic leadership. In other words, these
variables affect performance through their effect on goals and self-efficacy.

12. Goals (including goal commitment), in any combination with self-

efficacy, mediate or partially mediate the effect of several personality traits
and incentives on performance.

The logic behind this model is that goals and self-efficacy are
immediate regulators of much human action, and these goals and self-
efficacy, therefore, reflect the individual’s assessment of the value of
incentives and of the applicability of values and traits to specific
situations.Self-management. Goal-directed actions and choices are not
necessarily “imposed” or even encouraged by environments (e.g.,
organizational demands). People have the choice to manage their own lives
by setting their own purposes and working to achieve them.

13. Goal-setting and goal-related mechanisms can be trained and/or

adopted in the absence of training for the purpose of self-regulation.

Affect. Emotion is a type of automatic, partly subconscious,

psychological estimate – an estimate of the relationship of things to oneself.
More precisely, emotions are the form in which one experiences automatized
value judgments – judgments of objects, events, and situations (as
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consciously and/or subconsciously perceived and understood) according to
the standard of one’s values. Events and situations seen asthreatening to
one’s values give rise to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety,
dissatisfaction), whereas events and situations seen as furthering one’s
values produce positive emotions (e.g., happiness, satisfaction, love). In goal-
setting contexts, the immediate value standard is one’s goal; that is, the level
of performance desired or sought. Thus, goal achievement leads to
satisfaction, while goal failure leads to dissatisfaction. At first glance, there is
an interesting and non-intuitive finding that pertains to the relation of goals to
satisfaction. High goals lead to less performance satisfaction, on the average,
than easy goals.

This seems paradoxical in the sense that higher goals are more
motivating than lower goals in terms of effort and performance. The
explanation is that high goals require higher standards of attainment
compared to low goals, making self-satisfaction harder to achieve. This is
why, if people could set their own goals without penalty, they would set them
lower rather than higher. However, in the real world, more rewards accrue to
people who set high goals for themselves than those who set low goals (e.g.,
personal pride, better jobs, higher income, more options), thus including
people not to set their goals too low. At the same time, higher goals require
more effort, ability, and risk than lower goals, thus limiting the number of
people who set their goals high. As noted earlier, people choose goals based
both on what is important to them and what they think they are capable of.

14. Goals serve as standards of self-satisfaction, with harder goals

demanding higher accomplishment in order to attain self-satisfaction than
easy goals. Goals can also be used to enhance task interest, reduce
boredom, and promote goal clarity. When used to punish or intimidate people,
however, goals increase stress and anxiety.

Goal-setting dilemmas. If hard or difficult goals lead to higher

performance and lower satisfaction than easy goals, there is obviously a
problem of how to get people (or oneself) to be both happy and productive.
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There are obvious benefits and penalties of trying for too little in life as well as
for trying for too much. Obviously, the key principle here is personal context.
Life goals must be based on what you really want out of life (not on what other
people want for you) and on your true capabilities. If you want to pursue
challenging goals, these goals do not have to be attained all at once, but can
be pursued over an extended time period. Lower sub-goals can be set as
steps to a longer term and higher goal. Partial success can be credited by
others and oneself. Failure can be treated or framed as a learning experience,
not as proof of incompetence. New skills can be acquired as needed, and jobs
can be chosen, when possible, to match your aspirations and abilities.

Another dilemma is how to structure reward systems in

organizations. If incentives were offered for goals that could not be reached,
lower motivation and performance resulted as compared to hourly payment or
piece-rate pay. This might suggest that moderate goals would be ideal;
however, moderate goals in work situations do not stay moderate for long
because people improve their strategies and skills over time. Thus, a difficult
juggling act would be required to maintain an effective system. Another
possibility would be to set goals to motivate people but pay for performance,
regardless of goal level. This would be similar to a piece-rate system.
Alternatively, multiple goals levels could be set, from moderately easy to
almost impossible, and pay could be proportional to the highest level attained.
This would guarantee some reward even for moderate attainments but would
stimulate higher attainments as well. Incentives can be dangerous if they
encourage tunnel version and thereby the neglect of important non-goal
activities.

People with growth mindset, where there is room for improvement

of performance, with a positive perceived self-efficacy, where he or she has
high confidence on his or her capabilities, and has set specific achievable
goals, have high possibility to attain in life.

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ASSESSMENT

Answer the following questions.

1. Who are you or what would you become.

a. in five years

b. in ten years

c. in twenty years

2. What are your motivation for your envisioned self:

a. in five years

b. in ten years

c. in twenty years

3. Outline your plans on how you will make your envisioned self into reality:

a. in five years

b. in ten years

c. in twenty years

4. How do you feel after doing this exercise?

5. What is your perception on goal setting?

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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

1. Jack Canfield Quote Hunt. Using Canfield’s quote on success at the

beginning of this lesson, identify the elements of Bandura, Dweck, and
Locke’s Theories. Give explanation to your answer.

2. Self-efficacy College. Make a collage of your own perceived self-

efficacy using Dr. Albert Bandura’s four sources of influence for the
development maintenance of self-efficacy.

3. Graphic Organizer. Make an artistic graphic organizer to differentiate

fixed mindset from growth mindset of Dr. Carol Dweck. Highlight the
definition, description, characteristics, examples of situations where
each mindset are developed, and their advantages and disadvantages.

4. Goal Setting Plan. Make a goal setting plan (short term for one
semester only) based on what you learned from Locke’s goal setting
theory.

5. Dream Board. Make your dream board, five years after college
graduation.

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References

Bandura, Albert, 1994, “Self-efficacy,” In V.S. Ramachaudran (Ed.),

Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic
Press, (reprinted in H. Friedman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Mental Health, San
Diego: Academic Press, 1998).

Brown, Joel, 2016. “34 Thought Provoking Jack Canfield Quotes.” In Addicted
2 Success. Assessed October 30, 2017.
https://addicted2success.com/quotes/34-thought-provoking-jack-canfield-
quotes/.

Canfield, Jack, 2017. “Maximizing Your Potential,” Self-Esteem Seminars.

Accessed October 30, 2017. http://jackcanfield.com/about-jack-canfield/.

Kendra, Cherry, 2017. “Albert Bandura Biography: His Life, Work and
Theories,” Verywell. Accessed October 30, 2017, https://www.verywell.com/
albertbandura-biography-1925-2795537.

Kendra, Cherry, 2017. “Albert Bandura Quotes: His Thoughts on Self-efficacy,

Social Learning, Social Cognition, and more,” Verywell, Accessed October 30,
2017, https://www.verywell.com/albert-bandura-quotes-2795687.

Locke, Edwin, 1996. “Motivation through Conscious Goal Setting,” Applied

and Prevetive Psychology Vol. 5:117-124.1996. Accessed October 30, 2017.
http://www/sehity.com/uploads/4/2/2/4/42243697/locke_-_1996_-_motivation
_through_conscious_goal_setting.pdf.

Locke, Edwin, n.d. “Edwin Locke: Introduction,” Accessed October 31, 2017,
http://www.edwinlocke.com/.

Macmillan Publishers, n.d. “Jack Canfield,” Accessed October 30, 2017.

https://us.macmilla.com/author/jackcanfield.

Mindset, n.d. “Carol Dweck,” Accessed October 30, 2017,

https://mindsetonline.com/abouttheauthor/.

Stanford Profiles, “Carol Dweck: Lewis and Virginia Eaton Professor and
Professor, by courtesy, of Education,” Accessed October 31, 2017,
https”profiles.stanford.edu/carol-dweck?tab=bio.

The Great Canadian Psychology, n.d. “Biography: Dr. Albert Bandura,”

Accessed October 30, 2017, https://www/psych.ualberta.ca/GCPWS/Bandura/
Biography/Bandura_bio1.html.

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 Lesson 3: Less Stress, More Care

The American Psychological Association (2017) has these statements

about stress: “Stress is often described as a feeling of being overwhelmed,
worried, or run-down. Stress can affect people of all ages, genders, and
circumstances and any uncomfortable emotional experience accompanied by
predictable biochemical, physiological, and behavioral changes.” Some stress
can be beneficial at times, producing a boost that provides the drive and
energy to help people get through situations like exams or work deadlines.
However, an extreme amount of stress can have health consequences and
adversely affect the immune, cardiovascular, neuroendocrine and central
nervous system.

Since stress is inevitable to life, we have to learn how to handle and

cope up with it. More so, we have to be familiar with other approach to a
healthy lifestyle, which is self-care.

What to expect

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain the effect of stress to one’s health;

2. examine cultural dimension of stress and coping; and

3. design a self-care plan.

Stress and Human Response

The American Institute of Stress (AIS) has distinguished different types

of stress and the human response to it.

Hans Selye defined stress as the body’s nonspecific response to any

demand, whether it is caused by or results in pleasant or unpleasant stimuli. It
is essential to differentiate, between the unpleasant or harmful variety of
stress termed distress, which often connotes disease, and eustress, which
often connotes euphoria. Eustress is stress in daily life that has positive

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connotations, such as marriage, promotion, baby, winning money, new
friends, and graduation. On the other hand, distress is stress in daily life that
has negative connotations such as divorce, punishment, injury, negative
feelings, financial problems, and work difficulties (AIS 2017).

During both eustress and distress, the body undergoes virtually the
same nonspecific responses to the various positive or negative stimuli acting
upon it. However, eustress causes much less damage than distress. This
demonstrates conclusively that it is how an individual accepts stress that
determines ultimately whether the person can adapt successfully to change
(AIS 2017).

Selye hypothesized a general adaptation or stress syndrome. This

general stress syndrome affects the whole body. Stress always manifests
itself by a syndrome, a sum of changes, and not by simply one change (AIS
2017).

The general stress syndrome has three components:

1. The alarm stage – represents a mobilization of the body’s defensive

forces. The body is preparing for the “fight or flight” syndrome. This
involves a number of hormones and chemicals excreted at high levels,
as well as an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and
respiration rate, among others.

2. The stage of resistance – the body becomes adaptive to the

challenge and even begins to resist it. The length of this stage of
resistance is dependent upon the body’s innate and stored adaptation
energy reserves and upon the intensity of the stressor. Just as any
machine wears out even if it has been properly maintained, the same
thing happens with living organisms – sooner or later they become the
victim of this constant wear and tear process. The acquired adaptation
is list if the individual is subject to still greater exposure to the stressor.
The organism then enters into the third and final stage.

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 3. The exhaustion stage – the body dies because it has used up its
resources of adaptation energy. Thankfully, few people ever
experience this last stage.

Stress diseases are maladies caused principally by errors in the body’s

general adaptation process. They will not occur when all the body’s regulatory
processes are properly checked and balanced. They will not develop when
adaptation is facilitated by improved perception and interpretation. The
biggest problems with derailing the general stress syndrome and cause
disease are an absolute excess, deficiency, or disequilibrium in the amount of
adaptive hormones. For example, corticoids, Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH), and growth hormones are produced during stress. Unfortunately, if
stress is induced chronically, our defense response lowers its resistance since
fewer antibodies are produced and an inflammatory response dwindles(AIS
2017).

In the article “Understanding Stress Response” of the Health Harvard

Journal (2017), it further discussed chronic stress and human body response:

“Chronic stress is unpleasant, even when it is transient. A stressful

situation – whether something environmental, such as a looming work
deadline, or psychological, such as persistent worry about losing a job – can
trigger a cascade of stress hormones that produce well-orchestrated
physiological changes. A stressful incident can make the heart pound and
breathing quicken. Muscles tense and beads of swear appear.”

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 This combination of reactions to stress is also known as the “fight-or
flight” response because it evolved as a survival mechanism, enabling people
and other mammals to react quickly to life-threatening situations. The carefully
orchestrated yet near-instantaneous sequence of hormonal changes and
physiological responses helps someone to fight the threat off or flee to safety.
Unfortunately, the body can also overreact to stressor that are not life-
threatening, such as traffic jams, work pressure, and family difficulties. Over
time, repeated activation of the stress response takes a toll on the body.
Research suggests that chronic stress contributes to high blood pressure,
promotes the formation of artery-clogging deposits, and causes brain changes
that may contribute to anxiety, depression, and addiction. More preliminary
research suggests that chronic stress may also contribute to obesity, both
through direct mechanisms (causing people to eat more or indirectly
(decreasing sleep and exercise) (Health Harvard 2017).

The stress response begins in the brain. When someone confronts an

oncoming car or other danger, the eyes or ears (or both) send the information
to the amygdala, an area of the brain that contributes to emotional processing.
The amygdale interprets the images and sounds. When it perceives danger, it
instantly sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus (Health Harvard 2017).

When someone experiences a stressful event, the amygdala, an area

of the brain that contributes to emotional processing, sends a distress signal
to the hypothalamus. This area of the brain functions like a command center,
communicating with the rest of the body through the nervous system so that
the person has the energy to fight or flee. (Health Harvard 2017).

The hypothalamus is a bit like a command center. This area of the

brain communicates with the rest of the body through the automatic nervous
system, which controls involuntary body functions like breathing, blood
pressure, heartbeat, and the dilation or constriction of key blood vessels and
small airways in the lungs called bronchioles. The automatic nervous system
has two components, the sympathetic nervous system and the
parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system functions

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like a gas pedal in a car. It triggers the fight-or-flight responses, providing the
body with a burst of energy so that it can respond to perceived dangers. The
parasympathetic nervous system acts like a brake. It promotes the “rest and
digest” response that calms the body down after the danger has passed
(Health Harvard 2017).

After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates

the sympathetic nervous system by sending signals through the automatic
nerves to the adrenal glands. These glands respond by pumping the hormone
epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) into the bloodstream. As epinephrine
circulates through the body, it brings on a number of physiological changes.
The heart beats faster than normal, pushing blood to the muscles, heart, and
other vital organs. Pulse rate and blood pressure go up. The person
undergoing these changes also starts to breathe more rapidly. Small airways
in the lungs open wide. This way, the lungs can take in as much oxygen as
possible with each breath. Extra oxygen is sent to the brain, increasing
alertness. Sight, hearing, and other senses become sharper. Meanwhile,
epinephrine triggers the release of blood sugar (glucose) and fats from
temporary storage sites in the body. These nutrients flood into the
bloodstream, supplying energy to all parts of the body (Health Harvard 2017).

All of these changes happen so quickly that people are not aware of
them. In fact, the wiring is so efficient that the amygdale and hypothalamus
start this cascade even before the brain’s visual centers have had a chance to
fully process what is happening. That is why people are able to jump out of
the path of an incoming car even before they think about what they are doing.
As the initial surge of epinephrine subsides, the hypothalamus activates the
second component of stress response system known as hypothalamic
pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. This network consists of hypothalamus, pituitary
gland, and the adrenal glands. The HPA axis relies on a series of hormonal
signals to keep the sympathetic nervous system – the “gas pedal” – pressed
down. If the brain continues to perceive something as dangerous, the
hypothalamus release corticotrophin – releasing hormone (CRH), which
travels to the pituitary gland, triggering the release of ACTH. This hormone

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travels to the adrenal glands, prompting them to release cortisol. The body
thus stays revved up and on high alert. When the threat passes, cortisol levels
fall. The parasympathetic nervous system – the “brake” – then dampens the
stress response (Health Harvard 2017).

Persistent epinephrine surges can damage blood vessels and arteries,

increasing blood pressure and rising risk of heart attacks or strokes. Elevated
cortisol levels create physiological changes that help to replenish the body’s
energy stores that are depleted during the stress response. But they
inadvertently contribute to the buildup of fat tissue and to weight gain. For
example, cortisol increases appetite, so that people will want to eat more to
obtain extra energy. It also increases storage of unused nutrients as fat.
Chronic low-level stress keeps the HPA axis activated, much like a motor that
is idling too high for too long. After a while, this has an effect on the body that
contributes to the health problems associated with chronic stress (Health
Harvard 2017).

Techniques to Counter Chronic Stress

Several techniques to counter chronic stress were presented in the

same article (Health Harvard 2017):

1. Relaxation response. Dr. Herbert Benson, director emeritus of the

Benson – Henry Institute for Mind Body Medicine at Massachusetts General
Hospital, has devoted much of his career to learning how people can counter
the stress response by using a combination of approaches that elicit the
relaxation response. These include deep abdominal breathing, focus on a
soothing word (such as peace or calm), and visualization of tranquil scenes,
repetitive prayer, yoga, and tai chi.

Most of the research using objective measures to evaluate how

effective the relaxation response is at countering chronic stress have been
conducted in people with hypertension and other forms of heart disease.
Those results suggest the technique may be worth trying, although for most
people it is not a cure at all. For example, researchers at the Massachusetts

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General Hospital conducted a double-blind, randomized controlled trial of 122
patients with hypertension, ages 55 and older, in which half were assigned to
relaxation response training and the other half to a control group that received
information about blood pressure control. After eight weeks, 34 of the people
who practiced the relaxation response – a little more than half – had achieved
a systolic blood pressure reduction of more than 5 mm Hg. and were therefore
eligible for the next phase of the study, in which they could reduce levels of
blood pressure medication they were taking. During that second phase, 50%
were able to eliminate at least one blood pressure medication – significantly
more than in the control group, where only 19% eliminated their medication.

2. Physical activity. People can use exercise to stifle the building of

stress in several ways. Exercise, such as taking a brisk walk shortly after
feeling stressed, not only deepens breathing but also helps relieve muscle
tension. Movement therapies such as yoga, tai chi, and qi gong combined
with fluid movements, with deep breathing, and mental focus, all of which can
induce calm.

3. Social support. Confidants, friends, acquaintances, co-workers,

relatives, spouses, and companions all provide a life – enhancing social net,
and may increase longevity. It is not clear why, but the buffering theory holds
that people who enjoy close relationships with family and friends receive
emotional support that indirectly helps to sustain them at times of chronic
stress and crisis.

The Cultural Dimension of Stress and Coping

Ben Kuo (2010) reviews studies on cultural dimensions of stress and

coping. His study, “Culture’s Consequences on Coping: Theories, Evidences,
and Dimensionalities,” published in the Journal of Cross – Cultural
Psychology had the following findings:

Stress and coping research constitutes one of the most intensively

studied areas with health, social, and psychological research because of its
broad implications for understanding human well-being and adaptation. Early

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thesis on stress and coping, the interwoven relationship of culture and stress
responses was implicated, conceptually. The thesis postulated that a person’s
internalized cultural values, beliefs, and norms affect the appraisal process of
stressors and factors delimit the coping options available to an individuals
regardless of culture, ethnicity, and race, but members of different cultures
might consider and respond to stressors differently with respect to coping
goals, strategies, and outcomes.

Kuo’s study identified and revealed compelling evidence for cultural

variations and specifications on coping based on theoretical and empirical
findings generated over the last two decades’ cultural coping research. Based
on the broad problem-versus-emotion-focused coping nomenclature, repeated
studies have pointed to the prevalence of “emotion-focused,” “indirect,”
“passive,” or “covert,” “internally target,” or “secondary control,” coping
individuals of Asian backgrounds, as well as, to a lesser extent, among
individuals of African and Latino backgrounds. Specifically, the avoidance,
withdrawal and forbearance coping methods are common among African-
Americans and African-Canadians. Additionally, spiritual and religious coping
and coping through family support are common among individuals of Latino /
Latina backgrounds (Kuo 2010).

Furthermore, emotion-focused coping has been shown to be beneficial

(e.g., reducing distress) for Asian-Americans and Asian-Canadians in dealing
with various stressors, including family conflicts and racial discrimination.
Problem-focused coping has also been found to be effective for Asian-
Americans and Asian-Canadians in responding to male gender conflicts,
racial discrimination, and cross-cultural adjustment. For non-Asians, emotion-
focused coping was shown to be negative in increasing stress for African-
American adult caregivers but problem-focused coping was shown to be
negative in exacerbating stress for Hispanic-American college students in
facing family conflicts. As evident, the existing knowledge on the adaptive
quality of different coping strategies is currently incomplete and inconclusive
and necessitates further research (Kuo 2010).

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 The current review also highlighted the salience of “collective coping”
approaches among culturally diverse individuals, including Asians, African-
Americans, and Latino-Americans, based on more recent research. This
distinctive domain of coping represents the collective and interdependent
characteristics of many ethnic minorities which is a critical aspect of coping,
overlooked by both the extant coping and the cultural coping literature until
recently. As has already been demonstrated in a number of recent published
studies, to fully represent and account for the coping system of ethnic minority
individuals, an integrated approach incorporation conventional and culture-
based collective coping measure is imperative (Kuo 2010).

Finally, this review also points to coping’s link to: (a) broad societal
climate, such as collectivism-individualism and independent-interdependent
cultural norms, (b) individuals’ acculturation and ethnic identity; (c) primary /
internally versus secondary / externally controlled orientations; (d)
accessibility and attitudes toward seeking social and family support; and (e)
degrees of religious / spiritual beliefs and identifications. Together, these
findings further underscore the significance of person-cultural environment
interaction in the coping process and provide corroborating evidence in
support of the contextual and transactional theories of coping (Kuo 2010).

However, the said synthesis need to be interpreted with caution in view

of several limitations. First, it should be noted that the way in which types of
coping were defined, categorized, and measured varied quite significantly
from study to study and would likely have skewed the findings and the
conclusions drawn and reduced the comparability across studies.

Second, the relationship between coping methods and coping

outcomes is not straightforward but is moderated by a constellation of
contextual and personal factors as suggested by the theoretical models
reviewed earlier. Empirical data, in fact, have evidenced the effects of a
person’s perceived “intensity” and “controllability” of the stressor and cultural
orientations (e.g., acculturation, self-construals) on coping. Lastly, it should be
recognized that an individual’s actual coping system often compromises a
complex and diverse range of coping behaviors. For instance, Chinese-
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Canadian adolescents were found to engage in collectivistically based coping,
in conjunction with individualistically based coping when dealing with
interpersonal conflict, adjustment stress, and gender role-related stress.
Those qualitatively and functionally opposite coping strategies should not
automatically be construed as mutually exclusive within culturally diverse
individuals (Kuo 2010).

Self-care Therapy

A positive way to counter stress is self-care therapy. Nancy Apperson

(2008) of Northern Illinois University has provided steps for self-care:

1. Stop, breathe, and tell yourself: “This is hard and I will get through
this one step at a time.” During an unexpected event or crisis, we are faced
with dealing with a new reality and it takes time to incorporate what happened
into our everyday lives. Identify the steps you need to take first, write them
down, and focus on each step one at a time. If you look at everything you
have to do, you will become overwhelmed. Remember you can only do one
thing at a time and focus exclusively on that one thing.

2. Acknowledgement to yourself what you are feeling. All feelings are

normal so accept whatever you are feeling. Once you recognize, name, and
accept your feelings, you feel less out of control. You can then find a
comfortable place to express your feelings. During periods of extreme stress
and grief, it is very hard to hold back your feelings, particularly your tears and
anger. This is normal so describe this as grieving or sadness or anger. You
are not falling apart. You are grieving or falling angry or sad. It is important
during this time of intense feelings to own your feelings and NOT hurt yourself
or lash out at someone else.

3. Find someone who listens and is accepting. You do not need

advice. You need to be heard. Sharing our story is how we begin to accept
whatever happened and integrate it into our new reality. It may be that you
just need to let go of your expectation of how things should be and taking
about your feelings and beliefs is the beginning of that process.

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 4. Maintain your normal routine as much as possible. Making
everyday decision – decidingto get dressed, doing the dishes, or going to
work – gives you a sense of control and feels comforting as it is a familiar
activity. Be realistic with what you can do and remember everything right now
will take you longer to do. Avoid making major decision based on the stress
you feel right now.

5. Allow plenty of time for a task. You will not be as productive as you
normally are. Accept how much you are able to do right now and recognize it
will not be this way forever. During periods of extreme stress, prolonged
stress, or after a crisis, your ability to concentrate and focus on tasks is
diminished and it will take time for your concentration to return so give
yourself extra time and be gentle and accepting of yourself and what you can
do.

6. Take good care of yourself. Remember to:

a. Get enough rest and sleep. Sleep at least six hours and more than
nine hours. If you are having difficulty sleeping, listen to peaceful or
slow music and/or do progress relaxation before you go to sleep.
Sleep helps our body heals and strengthens our immune system.

b. Eat regularly and make healthy choices. Skipping meals,

particularly breakfast, contributes to fatigue, mood swings, and poor
concentration. Healthy food choices (not high in simple sugars)
maintain blood sugar level, energy, and concentration of the body.

c. Know your limits and when you need to let go. Some problems are
beyond our control. If something cannot be changed, work at
accepting it for what it is. Resist the urge to fix unfixable or try to
control the uncontrollable. Sometimes a mantra helps: “it is what it
is, I just need to accept it”. For things within your control, remember
that change takes time. If you are holding on and need to let go,
journal about it.

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 d. Identify or create a nurturing place in your home. A rocking chair, a
nice view, and a soothing music are important components to a
nurturing place. Twenty minutes of spending in a rocking chair
reduces both your physical pain and anxiety. It is like giving yourself
a hug. Music and nature sounds nurture our being and lifts our
spirits.

e. Practice relaxation or meditation. Go to your nurturing place and

listen to guided relaxation tapes. Time spent in meditation or prayer
allows your mind and body to slow down and let go of the stress.
Take a mental vacation in the midst of stress by relaxing your body,
shutting you eyes, and visualizing yourself in your favorite vacation
spot or quite haven.

f. Escape for a while through meditation, reading a book, watching a

movie, or taking a short trip.

Self-compassion Therapy

Self-compassion is another way to counter stress. Kristin Neff (2012)

has discussed self-compassion in her article, “The Science of Self-
Compassion.”
“Self-compassion entails being warm and understanding toward
ourselves when we suffer, fail, or fell inadequate, rather than flagellating
ourselves with self-criticism. It recognizes that being imperfect and
experiencing life difficulties is inevitable, so we soothe and nurture ourselves
when confronting our pain rather than getting angry when life falls short our
ideals. We clearly acknowledge our problems and shortcomings without
judgment, so we can do what is necessary to help ourselves. We cannot
always get what we want. We cannot always be who we want to be. When
this reality is denied or resisted, suffering arises in the form of stress,
frustration, and self-criticism. When this reality accepted with benevolence,
however, we generate positive emotions of kindness and care that help us
cope. Self-compassion recognizes that life challenges and personal failures

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are part of being human, an experience we all share. In this way, it helps us to
feel less desolate and isolated when we are pain.
Self-compassion Phrases

Neff provided self-compassion phrase when feeling stress or emotional

pain, perhaps when you are caught in a traffic jam, arguing with a loved one,
or feeling inadequate in some way. It is helpful to have set of phrases
memorized to help you remember to be more compassionate to yourself in
the moment. You can take a deep breath, put your hand over your heart, or
gently hug yourself (if you feel comfortable doing so), and repeat the following
phrases:

● This is a moment of suffering.

● Suffering is a part of life.

● May I be kind to myself.

● May I give myself the compassion I need.

These phrases capture the essence of the three components of self-

compassion. The first phrase helps to mindfully open to the sting of emotional
pain. (You can also just simply say “This is really hard right now” or “This
hurts”). The second phrase reminds us that suffering unites all living begins
and reduces the tendency to feel ashamed and isolated when things go wrong
in our lives. The third phrase begins the process of responding with self-
kindness rather than self-criticism. The final phrase reinforces the idea that
you both need and deserve compassion in difficult moments. Be experimental
with the phrases. Other phrases that may feel more authentic in a given
situation are: “May I accept myself as I am,” “May I forgive myself,” or “May I
learn to accept what I cannot change”(Neff 2012).

Self-compassion and Emotional Well-being

One of the most consistent findings in the research literature is that

greater self-compassion is linked to less anxiety and depression. Of course, a
key feature of self-compassion is the lack of self-criticism, and self-criticism is
known to be an important predictor of anxiety and depression. However, self-

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compassion still offers protection against anxiety and depression when
controlling for self-criticism and negative effect. Thus, self-compassion is not
merely a matter of looking on the bright side of things or avoiding negative
feelings. Self-compassionate people recognize when they are suffering, but
are kind toward themselves in these moments, acknowledging their
connectedness with the rest of humanity. Self-compassion is associated with
greater wisdom and emotional intelligence, suggesting that self-compassion
represents a wise way of dealing with difficult emotions. For instance, self
compassionate people engage in rumination and think suppression less often
than those low in self-compassion. They also report greater emotional coping
skills, including more clarity about their feelings and greater ability to repair
negative emotional states. Self-compassion appears to bolster positive states
being as well. By wrapping one’s pain in the warm embrace of self-
compassion, positive feelings are generated that help balance the negative
ones (Neff 2012).

Self-compassion, Motivation, and Health

Research supports the idea that self-compassion enhances motivation

rather than self-indulgence. For instance, while self-compassion is negatively
related to perfectionism, it has no association with the level of performance
standards adapted for the self. Self-compassionate people aim just as high,
but also recognize and accept that they cannot always reach their goals. Self-
compassion is also linked to greater personal initiative – the desire to reach
one’s full potential. Self-compassionate people have been found to have less
motivational anxiety and engage fewer self-handicapping behaviors such as
procrastination than those who lack self-compassion. In addition, self-
compassion was positively associated with mastery goals (the intrinsic
motivation to learn and grow) and negatively associated with performance
goals (the desire to enhance one’s self-image) found on the study of Deck in
1986. This relationship was mediated by lesser fear of failure and perceived
self-efficacy of self-compassionate individuals. Thus, self-compassionate
people are motivated to achieve, but for intrinsic reason, not because they
want to garner social approval (Neff 2012).

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Self-compassion versus Self-esteem

Research indicates that self-compassion is moderately associated with

trait levels of self-esteem as one would expect, given that both represent
positive attitudes toward the self. However, self-compassion still predicts
greater happiness and optimism as well as less depression and anxiety when
controlling for self-esteem. Moreover, the two constructs differ in terms of their
impact on well-being. Also, self-esteem had a robust association with
narcissism while self-compassion had no association with narcissism. In
contrast to those with high self-esteem, self-compassionate people are less
focused on evaluating themselves, feeling superior to others, worrying about
whether or not others are evaluating them, defending their viewpoints, or
angrily reacting against those who disagree with them. Self-esteem is thought
to be an evaluation superiority/inferiority that helps to establish social rank
stability and is related to alerting, energizing impulses and dopamine
activation. While self-esteem positions the self in competition with others and
amplifies feelings of distinctness and separation, self-compassion enhances
feelings of safety and interconnectedness (Neff 2012).

Self-compassionate Letter

An example of self-compassion exercise is the self-compassionate

letter. This exercise has been used in therapeutic programs. Below are the
steps in doing the self-compassionate letter exercise as provided by Neff
(2012):

1. Candidly describe a problem that tends to make you feel bad about
yourself, such as a physical flaw, a relationship problem, or failure
at work or school. Note what emotions come up – shame, anger,
sadness, fear – as you write.
2. Next, think of an imaginary friend who is unconditionally accepting
and compassionate; someone who knows all your strengths and
weaknesses, understands your life history, your current
circumstances, and understands the limits of human nature.

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 3. Finally, write a letter to yourself from that perspective. What would
your friend say about your perceived problem? What words would
he or she use to convey deep compassion? How would your friend
remind you that you are only human? If your friend were to make
any suggestions, how would they reflect unconditional
understanding?
4. When you are done writing, put the letter down for a while and
come back to it later. Then read the letter again, letting the words
sink in, allowing yourself to be soothed and comforted.

Less Stress, Care More

We should be in control of the stress that confronts us every day.

Otherwise, when we are overwhelmed by stress, it can be detrimental to our
health. Self-care and self-compassion are two ways to positively confront
stress. We should love and care for our self more and more each day.

ASSESSMENT

1. Self Stress Assessment

To handle life stress is to identify sources of life stress. Arizona State

University adopted “The Social Readjustment Scale” of T.H. Holmes and R.H.
Rahe to come up with the “College Student’s Stressful Event Checklist.” Use
the Event Checklist to assess your stress level as college student. Follow
these instructions for your guidance:

1. Get a copy of the “College Student’s Stressful Event Checklist” from

the Arizona State University available through Research Gate. Use the
link provided:
(https://www/researchgate.net/file.PostFileLoader.html=57361005f7b67
ee8fb041dc2&assetKey=AS
%3A361336895754242%401463160837813)

2. Answer the questionnaire honestly. To put the checklist in our context,

change the third item about “Divorce between parents,” to “Separation
between parents.”

3. Write your score and its interpretation inside the box

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 4. Circle all events you identified.

5. During class session, pair with a classmate and share two to three life
events you circled. Observe confidentially after sharing.

Enrichment

1. Reaction Paper. Make a reaction paper about the article, “Stress and
Filipino” by Michael L. Tan from the Philippine Center for Investigate
Journalism. (2006).The article is available through this link:
http://pcij.org/stories/stress-and-the-filipino/. Use the lesson on social
and cultural dimension of stress in making your reaction paper.

2. Self-Care Plan. Design for your self-care plan for the whole school
year.

3. Reflection Paper. Make a self-compassionate letter and make

reflection paper about it.

Summary

This chapter dealt largely with descriptions of stress free persons, as well as
suggestions and techniques It also presented many on how to cope with it.
You can now manage the demands created by stressful events that are
appraised or exceeding a person’s resources. To manage the stressful events
and by way of applying and understanding of it, there is now better health
outcomes included optimism, psychological control, self-esteem and social
support.

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