HE/IE 732 DAM ENGINEERING III – APPURTENANT STRUCTURES

Siphon Spillways

Introduction
The discharge over an overflow spillway is a function of the head measured over its
crest. Enclosing the crest and making the resulting conduit flow full can substantially
increase this effective head. The head on the spillway is then the difference in elevation
between the reservoir surface and the spillway outlet. However, the flow near the crest
of the spillway would then be under a negative pressure. In other words, the conduit
becomes a siphon. All necessary precautions must be taken to ensure that the vacuum
is maintained and that it does not become so excessive as to cause cavitation. The
maximum negative pressure at the spillway crest is theoretically 10 m of water at sea
level. Allowing for the vapor pressure of water, loss due to turbulence, etc., the
maximum net effective head is rarely more than about 7.5 m. This corresponds to a
velocity of √ (2x9.81x7.5) ≈ 12m/s. which means that the initial velocity in any siphon
cannot exceed about 12 m/s at the inlet. The essence of the hydraulic design of siphon
spillways, therefore, lies in ensuring maximum discharge capacity without harmful
negative pressures.

Types of Siphon
Siphons can be classified in several ways
I. According to the configuration
A. Hood or Saddle siphon (as shown in Figure 1)
B. Volute siphon (as shown in Figure 2)
II. According to the operating head
A. Low head siphon, operating at net head (difference between the upstream and
downstream water levels) less than atmospheric pressure, i.e., about 10 m.
B. High head siphon exceeding the above value

Figure 1 Typical saddle siphon

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Figure 2 Typical siphon volute.

III. According to arrangement of priming

A. Water seal type
B. Tilted outlet
C. Baby siphon
D. Tudel or stepped type, etc.
IV. According to regulation
A. Unregulated
B. Air-regulated

Figure 3 Siphon with step. Figure 4 Siphon with a baby siphon.

Hydraulic Action
Advantages of siphons over simple weirs, gated weirs and gated orifices are:
- automatic control of head water level within close limits,
- Concentration of flow within restricted space,
- operation without mechanical parts,
- independence from outside power supply, and
- low maintenance costs.
Some disadvantages are:
-the discharge is inhibited or reduced if obstructed by debris or ice, and

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-the sudden increase of discharge on priming might cause fluctuations in head

water level and flash floods downstream.

In a hood or saddle siphon (Fig. 1) the crest is set at the FRL (Full Reservoir Level). It
has a bell-mouth entry and exit, and a water seal to prevent air from entering from the
downstream. When the water rises above FRL, i.e., above the crest, the discharge
passed down through the lower limb carries away air in the throat. This action is similar
to the weir overflow. With increase in the head and discharge, more and more air is
dragged out resulting in fall in pressure. The difference between the atmospheric
pressure on the outside and reduced pressure in the siphon creates more flow and a
higher pressure drop until the entire throat starts flowing full, when it is said to have
primed. To stop the siphonic action, there is an air inlet pipe with its mouth at FRL or a
higher elevation. As soon as the water in the reservoir goes below the desired elevation,
air rushes through this pipe into the siphon and breaks the vacuum, stopping the flow.
The air inlet pipe is called a deprimer.

Various devices are used to induce early priming of the siphon. The two most commonly
used are the step or deflector (Fig. 3) and the baby siphon (Fig. 4).

In a volute siphon, shown in Figure 2, the lip of the funnel is kept at FRL and a number
of volutes (like the blades of pumps or turbines) are placed on the funnel to induce a
spiral motion of water passing along them. When the water rises above FRL, it spills,
over the circumference of the lip of the funnel and flows along the volutes with a spiral
motion, forming a vortex in the vertical pipe. This induces a strong suction pool creating
a powerful vacuum, which sets the siphon in action. To stop the siphonic action, air is let
in through small pipes taking off from the crown of the dome with their inlet opened at
FRL.

Hydraulic Design Considerations

The following characteristics are relevant in the hydraulic design of siphon spillways:
-Discharging capacity
-Priming depth
-Regulating flow
-Stabilizing function
-Effect of waves in the reservoir
-Cavitation
-Vibration

Discharging Capacity

The flow in the throat section of a saddle siphon can be idealized as a free vortex, so
that
VR = V1 R 1 = V2 R 2 = cons tan t ----------------------------------------(1)
where
V = Velocity of flow
R = Radius
Subscript 1refers to quantities at the crest and subscript 2 refers to the crown of the
siphon.

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--------------------------------------------------------------------(2)
Referring to Figure 1, discharge through an elemental area dA formed by a strip dR and
throat width b is

--------------------------------------(2a)
and hence

---------(3)
Since, the maximum value of V1 is 12 m/s,

--------------------------------------------(4)
and the average velocity will be

---(5)
This velocity should be the same at all sections along the siphon barrel unless there is
expansion or contraction of the section. However, when the siphon is running full, the
velocity is given by the total head H (from reservoir level up to the tail water level or
crown of the outlet section, as the case may be),

---------------------------------------------------------(6)
μ siphon-coefficient accounting for various losses such as inlet, friction, bend, etc.

If the siphon barrel is of constant cross section without constriction or expansion,

---------------------------(7)
Where ki etc. are loss coefficients for inlet, friction, bend and outlet.

It may be necessary to limit the head in some manner to prevent V from exceeding the
value specified in Equation 5 (average velocity). This can be done either by increasing
the outlet loss by constricting the outlet section or by decreasing the total head by raising
the elevation of the outlet.

When the outlet section is constricted, the exit velocity V0 is given by

--------------------------------------(8)
Where Va is the average velocity. The required outlet area Ao can then be calculated
from V0. The above procedure can also be represented by a single relationship

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-------------------(9)
The discharge in the volute siphon can also be calculated in the same way by assuming
that the flow entering the funnel at the lip (see Fig. 5) takes a circular path.

Figure 5 Calculation of discharge in a volute siphon.

---------------------------------(10)
where
Cd = Coefficient of discharge = 0.7
a = Area of the annular space
If the area at the outlet section is Ao and H is the operating head available,

--------------------------------(11)
Cd may be assumed to be 0.70, however, model observations have shown this to be as
high as 0.85.

The discharge characteristics of siphon are summarized in a nondimensional form as

shown in Figure 6, applicable for all air-regulated siphons. Initially, the discharge rises
slowly as relative to upstream head. When priming occurs, the curve flattens,
representing a wide range of discharge for a small difference in head.

This is the range within which the siphon will operate flowing full of air-water mixture,
until the upstream level falls below the depriming head. To avoid hunting it is desirable
for the curve in the operating range to gently rise with increase in the discharge. If the
upstream level rises beyond this operating range, the siphon will run to black water (a
term used to define flow without air), when the discharge will increase in proportion to
only √H. Generally, the siphon should be designed such that the black water condition is
not reached.

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Figure 6 Discharge characteristics of an air regulated siphon.

Illustrative Examples
1. A reservoir requires a spillway to surplus a maximum discharge of 450 m3/s with its FRL 20 m
above the tail water elevation.
a. If an overflow spillway with a WES crest profile is used with crest elevation 5 m below
the FRL, what should be the length of such a spillway?
b. If a siphon spillway is used, with a constant cross section 5 m in depth and formed by
radii of 5 m and 10 m, what should be the width of such a siphon?
c. If the total head loss through the siphon (excluding velocity head at outlet) is 10 m, how
far above or below the tail water level should the siphon discharge in order to avoid
cavitation?
Solution
a. For overflow spillway, the coefficient of discharge may be taken as 2.20.

b. With R1 = 5 m and R2 =10 m, average velocity allowed through the siphon is given by
Equation 5,

and hence the required crest width is

Thus, using a siphon spillway affects a reduction of width by about 40%.

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c. Applying energy equation from the reservoir surface to the siphon outlet end, the
operating head H will be

The siphon outlet should be placed (20 - 13.53) = 6.47 m above the tail water elevation.

2. A siphon spillway of constant rectangular cross section 4mwidex2.5m high has configuration as
shown in Figure below. The total length of the siphon is 80 m. Various loss coefficients are:
- inlet 0.12
-outlet 1.0
-σ (bend loss coefficient) 0.75
-friction factor 0.018

Figure Siphon spillway configuration—Illustrative example.

Determine (a) the maximum discharge, (b) whether cavitation would occur for that discharge, and
if so, the safe discharge for avoiding cavitation, and (c) the required constriction of the outlet
section to restrict that discharge.

Solution
a. The gross operating head = El 111.25 - El 81.25 = 30 m.

Max discharge equals 10 x 15.87 = 158.7 m3/s

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b. The average velocity should not exceed that given by Equation 5.

Since the velocity in (a) of 15.87 m/s is considerably larger than 9.19 m/s, there would be danger
of cavitation. The discharge should, therefore, not exceed 9.19 x 10 = 91.9 m3/s.

c. Required outlet area to restrict the discharge to 91.9 m3/s is given by Equation 9.

If the width of the outlet section is retained the same, then the depth of the section should be
reduced from 2.5 m to (4.28/4) = 1.07 m.

Priming Depth
The priming action of a siphon depends on the power of its air evacuation. On the inlet
side, this is easily done by keeping the lip of the hood below the reservoir level. To
prevent the entry of air from downstream and ensure smooth priming, it is necessary to
provide a water seal in the downstream leg as shown in Figure 1. In a saddle siphon,
other factors that facilitate low priming are a narrow throat, a large radius at the crest,
and a critical depth of submergence at the outlet exit. The entrainment of air by a falling
nappe within the siphon barrel is expressed in terms of depth of free fall H1, water
velocity V, jet geometry (b), (p), (t), and water discharge Qw.

---------------------------(12)
where
Qa = Air discharge
Qw = Water discharge
t = Thickness of the rectangular jet
b =Width of the rectangular jet
H1 = Depth of fall of the rectangular jet
p = Perimeter of the jet exposed to atmosphere
Vmin = Minimum velocity to entrain air (appx 1.1 m/s)
The above equation indicates the relative influence of various parameters on the rate of
air entrainment within the siphon barrel and thus, on the rapidity of the priming.

Bollrich (1994) states that priming depth is approximately 0.16 to 0.20 times the vertical
dimension of the waterway at the crest, i.e., Hp = 0.16–0.20d.

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In a volute siphon, priming depth decreases with the increase in the number and height
of volutes, a decrease in the angle of their take-off from the lip, a decrease in the rise of
the dome and in the slope of the funnel, and an increase in the height of the funnel.

However, it is observed that most of the factors that favor a low priming depth adversely
affect the coefficient of discharge.

Flow Regulation
One of the prime disadvantages of the siphon spillway is the sudden release of
discharge on priming and the sudden stoppage of this discharge on depriming, leaving
any effort of flow regulation.

Air regulated siphons offer a relatively flatter discharge curve to ensure a wide range of
discharge for small rise in upstream water level. However, discharge and water level in
the downstream increase rapidly.

In the case of spillways with a battery of siphons, at least partial regulation of flow in the
downstream is possible (i.e., adding or stopping discharge in steps) by manually closing
or opening of air inlet valves of some siphons. However, this must be done with due
regard to inflow in the reservoir. Another method is to install siphons at different crest
levels such that their priming/depriming occurs in stages, with increasing/decreasing
upstream water levels.

Stability of Functioning
An examination of Figure 6 shows that once the siphon primes, the increase in the
discharge is substantial as compared to the increase in the upstream water level. A
stage may be reached when the outflow through the siphon exceeds the inflow, at which
time the upstream water level may start depleting leading to depriming. This results in
reduction of discharge and increase in the upstream water level and priming again. This
is called hunting or instability of siphonic action and is undesirable.

The phenomenon of hunting of the siphon has been extensively studied on hydraulic
models. The hunting of the siphon is influenced by the elevation of the lip of the siphon
entry hood from the crest Hh, with reference to the priming depth Hp. For Hh ≤ Hp, violent
hunting was evident. It has been recommended that

--------------------------------------(13)

Prediction of Cavitation
Siphons operating at high head may cavitate. An approximate velocity in excess of about
12 m/s is a condition for the onset of cavitation. Bollrich (1994) has suggested a more
precise method based on the vortex-core theory. According to this theory, the tension pk
inside the core of a single vortex rotating with a velocity Vi equal to the flow velocity can
be expressed as

------------------------------------------(14)
where

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hvac = vacuum pressure head, i.e., the difference between the atmospheric
pressure (corresponding to the elevation of the structure with respect to
msl), and the vapour pressure pv

------------------------------------------------(14a)
The critical values of the pressure and the velocity are at the inner side (crest) of the
siphon. Referring to Figure 1 and the general expression for discharge through siphon,

------------------------(15)
Where hl = head loss due to entrance, bend, friction etc, from the entrance up to the
crest. Because of the proper bell-mouth entrance and the relatively shorter length
involved, this loss of head is suggested to be only

---------------------------------------(16)
Hp is taken equal to zero as a worst case.
Thus, Equation 15 can be written as

-------(17)

----------------------------------(18)
Where

-----------------------------------------------------(18a)
From which hvac can be evaluated in terms of Q.
Also, Vi = Q/a and hence

-------------------------------------------------------------(19)
Thus Pk/g = -hvac – Vi2 /2g can be expressed as a function of Q2,

-----------------------------------------------------------------(20)
Assigning various values to Pk/γ gives corresponding values of discharge Q.
Generally,
Pk/g =10m corresponds to the beginning of local cavitation.
The entire procedure is explained next with reference to the siphon spillway of Illustrative
Example.

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Illustrative Example
3. Determine the discharge through the siphon spillway of Example 2 corresponding to the
condition of beginning of local cavitation.
Solution

For the limiting value of Pk/g = -10m, Q = 74.95m3/s

Thus, the maximum discharge should be restricted to about 75 m3/s. With this, the velocity Vi at
the crest would be Q/a = 75/7.66 = 9.8 m/s and the average velocity Va = 75/10 = 7.5 m/s.

Vibration
There may be a potential danger of vibration when a siphon operates with a large
quantity of air that is gulped intermittently and then carried through the structure in
discrete large pockets. The intermittent admission of air and turbulent flow through the
siphon mean that the structure of the hood must be capable of withstanding fluctuating
suction pressures. There could be a dynamic interaction between the structure and the
two-phase flow of air and water. However, any instance of severe vibrations on the
saddle siphons has not come to the light.

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