Навчальна дисципліна «Порівняльна лексикологія»

1. The object and subdivisions of lexicology

The object of lexicology is a word. The term word denotes the basic unit of a language resulting from the
association of

1. The object and subdivisions of lexicology

Lexicology
It’s a branch of linguistic which studies sight nature meaning and using word combination
raising some important question about interpretation and evaluation of vocabulary. In simple
words it study about words their origin and meaning.
Subdivitions of Lexicology
General-study about any word and vocabulary in general
Special- special features of 1 special language for ex.only english
Historical- closely related with etymology. study about origin development and how the words
changed over time
Discriptive- studying language in modern state.

2. The sphere of contrastive lexicology

Contrastive lexicology studies similarities and difference in lexical systems between 2 certain
languages. Because each language is unique and has some specific features and words differ in
sounds and sometimes in meaning.and you cant describe some word in another landuage by
one equal word. We need a couple of words to explain or replace word another approppreate
word in another language.

3. The tasks of contrastive lexicology, its theoretical and practical value

The contrastive analysis can be carried out at three linguistic levels: phonology, grammar and vocabulary

The main task is to find out similarities and differences in lexical systems of English and
Ukrainian . Because of course this 2 languages are different.

The theoretical value of contrastive lexicology becomes obvious if we realize that it forms the study of one of
the three main aspects of language, i.e. its vocabulary, its grammar and sound system.

Practical value

Used in translation, lexicography terminology, information processing and foreign language

teaching.

4. The connection of lexicology with phonology.

The interrelation between lexicology and phonetics becomes obvious if we think of the fact that the word as
the basic unit in lexicological study cannot exist without its sound form, which is the object of study in
phonology.

4.The connection of lexicology with phonology.

Each word has a sound form. Words consists of phonemes that are devoice of making of
their own. But forming morphemes they serve to distinguish between meaning.
Which features help us to distinguish words?
1. Qualitative and quantative character of phonemes
Its when words are writing in different way but they sound very similar or identical
Block-blog
Коза-коса
2. Fixed sequence of phonemes
When words consist of the same letters but these letters are written in different order.
Nest-sent-tens
God-dog
Сир-рис
3.Possition of stress
2 words are written identically has 2 different meanings and are read different because of
position of stress.
Minute-minute мінит (хвилина)майнит(мізерний)
 Phonemes that are used for distinguishing of words are called contrastive.
 The phonemes that contrasted in 2 words are lexicology relevant.
 Phonetics synonymos or doubets (2 different forms of the same word are appearing
through sound interchange or abcence of vovels or conconates. Уже-Вже учитель-
вчител

5.The connection of lexicology with morphology and syntax

Lexicology is closely related with morphology and syntax.

Morphology is a branch of linguistic which studies how words are formed. This branch
involves categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation.
In the grammatical system, the word is the maximum and basic morphologically
significant unit (unit-construction, as it consists of smaller units-morphemes), and the
morpheme is the minimum unit of language that carries information about meaning of the
word. (custom звичай-customs митниця)

Syntax influenses on the meaning of the sentence with a help of context.

Context – minimum stretch of the speech which nessasary in orter to determine possible
meaning of the word or sentence.
Because if you do not pay attention to the context you may translate incorectly
Blue eyes голубі очі
Feel blue почуватись погано
Help yourself допоможи собі а може і бути пригощайся
helps to analyze and recognize meaning of the sentence and interpret it more correctly.

Semasiology is science about meaning of the word

Semantic meaning of the word its direct meaning which we can found in vocabularies.

Syntax influenses on the meaning of the sentence with a help of context.

Context – minimum stretch of the speech which nessasary in order to determine possible
meaning of the word or sentence.
So semantic meaning of the word can be changed with a help of syntax and get additional
sometimes pragmatic meaning.
helps to analyze text and recognize meaning of the sentence and interpret it more correctly.

7.The connection of lexicology with pragmatics

Pragmatics- emptacise meaning not on just on the meaning which we can read in
vocabulary but on the intention of the speaker.

The key question to this is why speaker said that?

For ex. Собака- як тварина собака-як образа

Pragmatics helps to analyze and recognize meaning of the sentence and interpret it more
correctly.

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8.The connection of lexicology with phraseology and stylistics

Phraseology studies lexico-semantic conbinations of words, only set phrases and stable words.
Are represented in the mind.

Lexicology studies structure of words their origin

Stylistic – branch of linguistics which study expressive means and different stylistic devices.

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9.The stages of linguistic investigation

There are 3 stages of linguistic investigation

1.Observation – early basic phrase of all modern and linguistic and scientific ivestigations and is the centre of
inductive method (inductive from something specific to general)

2.Classification – classification of data we got from the observation

3.Generalisation- collecting all the data and formulating a conclusion, hypothesis, rule or law.

10. The Immediate constituents analysis

10. the Immediate constituents analysis

The fundamental aim of analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into 2 maximally
independent sequences or immediate constituents through revealing the hierarchical structure.
When sigmentation is not possible any further because meaning cant be found. We get Ultimate
constituonce .
Segmentation are based on specific vocabulary
This method is used in discovering of derivative structure of words.
11. The method of Distributional analysis
Distributional analysis is about understanding the position which lexical unit occupies or may occupy in the
text or in the flow of speech. It is observed that a certain component of the word-meaning is described when the
word is identified distributional. It is also observed that in a number of cases words have different lexical
meanings in different distributional patterns. The interdependence of distribution & meaning can be also
observed at the level of word-groups.
Its occurrence of lexical unit relative to another lexical which is on the same levels. Words to
words, morphemes to morphemes
Distributional anlysis helps to describe the word’s meaning. the word has
different meanings in different patterns:
for ex. Noun+adverb treat smbd well =behave well
Noun+preposition treat smbd ice cream= direct meaning
Not all the words and set phrases may gat another meaning due to this method .

12. The method of Transformational analysis

Transformational analysis in lexicological investigations may be defined as repatterning ( representing ,
reorganization ) of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of
practically identical distributional patterns . Word-groups of identical distributional structure when repatterned
show that the semantic relations between words & consequently the meaning may be different .
The rules of transformation are rather strict & shouldn't be identified with paraphrasing in the usual sense of the
term.

12. The method of Transformational analysis

Transformational analysis changes the structure of distributional scheme in order to

discover difference or sameness of practically indentical distrubutional patterns.

Types of Transformational analysis

1. permutation repattering words only in condition that all the word steems doesn’t be
changed and meaning be the same.

His work is exellent

His exellent work

2. Replacement

Substitution of component of component of distrubutional structure by a member of

strictly defined set of lexical units

3.Adition adding additional word adjective into 2 different phrases

4.Deletion procedure which showshow one word semantically subordinated to the

other.

Red tape бюрократія

 Red flower червона квітка ( if we delete from the first phrase red we get another
meaning стрiчка, at second phrase the meaning doesn’tchange

13. The method of Componential analysis

Componential analysis is an attempt to describe the meaning of words in terms of a universal inventory of
semantic components and their possible combinations.
In this analysis linguists proceed from the assumption that the smallest units of meaning are sememes or
semes .
Componental analysis is practically always combined with transformational procedures or statistical analysis
.The combination makes it possible to find out which of the meanings should be represented first of all in the
dictionaries of different types & how the words should be combined in order to make your speech sensible .
14. The word as a fundamental unit of the language
Any unit can be considered unit of the language on condition it:
 possesses external (sound) form and semantic content,
 is not created in the process of speech but used as something already existing and only reproduced in
speech.
The leading position of the word among other units is explained by the importance of the functions it performs.
And though in different languages words can be singled out of the stream of speech differently and that’s why it
may be difficult to suggest the definition common for all languages but still it is not impossible.
15. Morphemes, free and bound forms
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. All morphemes are subdivided into free
morphemes, bound morphemes, and semi-bound morphemes.
 Free morpheme is a morpheme which may stand along as a word without changing its meaning,
e.g. friendly comprises two morphemes [friend+ly]: friend- (the root, a free morpheme) and -ly (a
bound morpheme).
 Bound morpheme is a morpheme which occurs only as constituent part of a word, e.g. freedom
[free+dom].
 Semi - bound morpheme occupies an intermediate position between free and bound and it can
function both as an affix and a free morpheme
16. Root and affixational morphemes
In order to represent the internal structure of words, it is necessary not only to identify each of the component
morphemes but also to classify these elements in terms of their contribution to the meaning and function of
the larger word. According to the role they play in constructing words, morphemes are subdivided into roots
and affixes. The latter are further subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and infixes,
and according to their function and meaning, into derivational and functional.
Root morpheme is a lexical nucleus of a word and its semantic center with which no grammatical properties of
the word are connected. A root may be also regarded as the ultimate constituent element which remains after
the removal of all functional and derivational affixes and does not admit any further analysis.
17. The morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian word
The theoretical foundations of word analysis in terms of its morphological structure apply both to English and
Ukrainian languages. But English and Ukrainian belong to different types of flexional languages. English is
analytic and Ukrainian is synthetic.
In the synthetic languages the relations between words are expressed by forms of the words themselves. In
analytic languages it is the sentence that is of prime importance and grammatical meanings are expressed by
words arranged in a fixed order.
There are only seven inflectional affixes in English (all suffixes). Ukrainian has dozens of inflectional affixes
and encodes contrasts not represented in English.
Derivational affixes in Ukrainian include suffixes (realize their meaning only in connection with the root
morpheme), prefixes (they are added to the whole word and not to the root and can't transform the word into
another part of speech), postfixes (- ся serves to create reflexive verbs), infixes (are used to connect two or
more roots thus occur within a stem).
Form-creating affixes differ from derivational as they are combined with the stem of one and the same word
while derivational affixes are combined with the stem to create a new word.

18. The classification of the principal types of word-formation

Word-formation is generally defined as the branch of the science of language which studies the patterns on
which a language forms new lexical units i.e. words.
There are two ways of word-building in modern English: main and secondary.
Main ways of word-building Secondary ways of word-building
Affixation Blending
Word composition Back-formation
Conversion Stress interchange
Shortening Sound interchange
There are two principles of classification of the types of word-formation:
 Based upon the morphological structure of the word or words. Derivation - the type where the
word has only one semantic centre, the other morphemes being affixes, e.g. brotherhood.
Compounding - the type where the word has at least two semantic centres,e.g. red-hot.
 Based on the relationship of components to the new word. Morphological word-building -
creating new words using morphemes and changing the structure of the existing words after
certain linguistic patterns (derivation, compounding, shortening, sound-interchange, back-
formation, reduplication e.g. to murmur). Morphological-syntactic word-building - new
words appear through transference from one part of speech into another which implies both
a change in morphological and syntactic peculiarities of a word, e.g. молода тополя i
молода запрошувала гостей на весiлля. Lexico-syntactic word-building i.e. the formation
of new units by the process of isolation from free word-combinations, e.g. forget- me-not.
19. Affixation as a type of word-formation
Affixation is process of coining a new word by addition of a morpheme (or affix) to root morpheme. The two
primary kinds of affixation are prefixation and suffixation. Affixes are bound morphemes.
Prefix is an affix that is attached to the beginning of a word and partly indicates its meaning. Suffix is an affix
that is added to the end of a word or root, serving to form a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending.
There are two primary types of suffixes in English: a derivational suffix (such as the addition of -ly to an
adjective to form an adverb) indicates what type of word it is. An inflectional suffix (such as the addition of -s
to a noun to form a plural) tells something about the word's grammatical behavior. Suffixation is more
productive than prefixation.
Infix is a type of affix that can be inserted within the base form of a word (rather than at its beginning or end)
to create a new word or intensify meaning, e.g. “Abso-Bleedin'-Lutely”.

Derived words can be classified into groups in two ways:

1) according to the root-morpheme (e.g. woman, womanly, womanish, womanized; добро, добрий,
доброта, добряга),
2) according to the affix morpheme(e.g. swimmer, speaker, drinker; погонич, пiдпасич, керманич)
Suffixation can be used to create all principal parts of speech, except pronouns:
- nouns: teacher, kingdom, difference, вмикач, переселенець, танцюрист;
- numerals: seventh, семеро;
- adjectives: readable, денний, капроновий;
- verbs: threaten, страхати, гикати;
- adverbs: quickly, швидко, пішки, тричі
Suffixes can be added to stems of all parts of speech:
- noun : man-ly, україн-ець, хат-инк-а
- adjective: black-ish, нов-ин-а
- numeral: тр-ійк-а
- pronoun: ти-ка-ти, сам-ець
- verb: чита-льн-я, спів-ець,promot-er
- adverd: вчора-шн-ій, тут-ешн-ій
 - conjunction: але-ка-ти
- exclamation: ох-а-ти, му-ка-ти, ну-ка-ти
Suffixation is the most productive means for noun-creation. Zero-suffixation actually means
cutting off (усічення) the initial form and adding a zero-suffix. Sound- or stress-interchange can
occur: зрубати – зруб, різати – різь (з: з’) , відсікати – відсіч (к: ч).
20. Compounding as a type of word-formation
Compounding is one of the productive means of word-formation both in English and in Ukrainian. It is
characterized by the ease with which compound words are formed when need arises without becoming
permanent units of the vocabulary. A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and
functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.
In Ukrainian compounding is subdivided into:
 Stem-combining with the help of interfixes «о, е» (доброзичливий, працездатний) or without them
(триповерховий, всюдихiд);
 Word-combining or juxtaposition (Lat. juxta -near, positio - place) - combining several words or
word-forms in one complex word (хата-лабораторiя, салон-перукарня) .
Major categories of compounds in English are :
1. Noun Compounds
2. Adjective Compounds
NOUN COMPOUNDS
 Subject + action :
English: sunrise, rainfall, headache, bee-sting, frostbite, daybreak, heartbeat, rainfall
Ukrainian: небосхил, серцебиття, зорепад, сонцестояння, снігопад
 Object + action:
Ukrainian: вказує дорогу – дороговказ, душогуб, сінокіс, гречкосій,
родовід.
English: birth-control, handshake.
 Action + adverbial:
Ukrainian: ходить пішки – пішохід.
English: writing-desk (write at a desk), hiding place (hide in a place), walking stick (walk with a stick).

21. Sound-interchange as a type of word-formation

Sound-interchange (or sound gradation, or root inflexion) is one of the two non-productive types of
word-building in Modern English. The other one is stress-interchange (or change of stress).

In English lexical sound-interchange, i.e. the change of a root vowel or a root consonant, or both, used
to play a certain role in word-building in the past though it is no longer active now. In fact, sound-
gradation and change of stress which is sometimes combined with it, are absolutely unproductive
in Modern English.

Among the words formed with the help of sound-interchange we can distinguish 3 groups of words:

1. Words formed by means of vowel interchange, e.g. food > to feed, blood > to bleed, gold >
to gild; to shoot > shot, to sing> song, to write > writ);

2. Words formed by means of both vowel and consonantal interchange, e.g. bath > to bathe,
grass > to graze, breath > to breathe, cloth > to clothe, loss > to lose, life > to live, choice > to
choose, etc.

3. Words formed by means of consonantal interchange often accompanied by changes in

spelling, e.g. grease [ ] – сало, жир > to grease[ ] – змазувати (жиром); house[ ] > to
house[ ] – 1. поселити; 2. жити (вдома) 3. вміщати; price[ ] – ціна > to prize[ ] – 1. високо
оцінювати; etc.
It should be mentioned that sometimes sound-interchange is accompanied by affixation where vowel
gradation is accompanied by the addition of the -th suffix. : deep > depth, wide > width, broad >
breadth, long > length, strong > strength,

22. Stress-interchange as a type of word-formation

Stress-interchange (or change of stress, or semantic stress, or morphological stress) is another non-
productive type of word-building in Modern English.
Change of stress is mostly observed in
 verb-noun pairs (e.g. ´transport – to trans´port; ´accent – to ac´cent; ´attribute – to att´ribute;
´compound – to com´pound; ´conflict – to con´flict; ´contest – to con´test; ´contrast – to con´trast; ´
export – to ex´port; ´object – to ob´ject; ´perfume – to per´fume)
 verb-adjective pairs (e.g. to pro´strate – ´prostrate; to ab´sent – ´absent; to abs´tract – ´abstract; to fre
´quent – ´frequent).
The difference in stress often appeared after the verb was formed and was not therefore connected with
the formation of the new word. It could be brought about by analogy or purely phonetical reasons. Change of
stress mostly accompanied either the formation or the borrowing of the word.
23. Backformation as a type of word-formation
Back-formation is the process of forming a new word (a neologism) by removing actual or supposed affixes
from another word. Put simply, a back-formation is a shortened word (such as edit) created from a longer
word (editor). Verb: back-form (which is itself a back-formation). Also called back-derivation.
The term «back-formation» was coined by Scottish lexicographer James Murray, the primary editor of the
Oxford English Dictionary from 1879 until 1915.
The process has given us common verbs such as : afflict (from affliction), enthuse (from enthusiasm), laze
(from lazy), aggress (from aggression), televise (from television), housekeep (from housekeeper).
In many cases of back-formation a presumed affix is removed which is in fact not truly an affix, as in the
following words, where the -or, -ar, and -er are not the agentive suffix, but part of the root:
 orator - -er> orate
 peddler + -er> peddle
 escalator + -er> escalate
 editor + -er> edit,
 sculptor + -er> sculpt
 hawker + -er> hawk
These mistakes are called back-formations. Note that some of them are colloquial or marginal, while
others are fully accepted.
24. Lexicalization as a type of word-formation
The lexicalization of grammatical form is a term used to denote the creation of an independent word from
one of word-forms. Thus a number of English nouns in the plural form underwent lexicalization and acquired
independent forms and meaning: arm - рука, arms - зброя; colour - колiр, colours - прапор. Synchronically -s
in such words is regarded not as a grammatical inflexion expressing plurality but as a special case of
affixation. It is not used in modern English to coin new words.
25. Reduplicatives
Some compounds have two or more constituents which are either identical or only slightly different. The
difference between the two constituents may be in the intial consonants, as in walkie-talkie, or in the medial
vowels, e.g. criss-cross (хрест навхрест). Most of the reduplicatives are highly informal or familiar, and many
belong to the sphere of child-parent talk.
The most common uses of reduplicatives (sometimes called ‘jingles’) are:
 to imitate sounds, e.g. rat-a-tat [knocking on door], tick-tock [of clock], ha-ha [of laughter], bow-wow
[of dog].
 to suggest alternating movements, e.g. seesaw, flip-flop, ping- pong.
 to disparage (применшати) by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation(вагання)
etc.: higgledy-piggledy, hocus-pocus, wishy-washy, dilly-dally, shilly-shally.
 to intensify, e.g. teeny-weeny, tip-top.
Ukrainian linguists single out such compounds as:
  synonymic unities, e.g. пане-брате, стежки-доріжки, часто-густо;
 semantic unities, e.g. батько-мати, руки-ноги, хліб-сіль, діди-прадіди;
 appositional (прикладання) unities, e.g. машина-амфібія, дівчина-смуглянка.
26. Abbreviations (Clippings, Acronyms, Blends)
Abbreviation is a kind of generalization process. For a word or a word-combination to become an abbreviation
it has to be frequently used, quite popular and have a rather complicated structure. We can distinguish three
highly productive ways : clippings, acronyms and blends.
Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables. The clipping
seems often to start from the graphic form.
The surviving fragment is usually initial:
 AD from AD+vertisement
 DEMO from DEMO+nstartion
 EXAM from (academic) EXAM+ination (but not the verb examine or examination in the medical
sense)
Less commonly the clipped form has resulted from discarding the initial part of a word, as in:
 PHONE from tele+PHONE (but not MICrophone which is clipped MIKE)
 PLANE from air+PLANE
Occasionally syllables have been discarded at both ends of a word, as in:
 FLU from in+FLU+enza
 FRIDGE from re+FRIGE+rator

Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words that make up a name. New acronyms are freely
produced especially by scientists and administrators and particularly for names of organizations.
Acronyms can remain essentially “alphabetisms” such as CD (compact disk) or VCR (video cassette
recorder) where the pronounciation consists of the names of letters. More typically, acronyms are pronounced
as single words, as in NATO, NASA, or UNESCO. These examples have kept their capital letters, but many
acronyms lose their capitals to become everyday terms such as laser (light amplification by simulated
emission of radiation), radar (radio detecting and ranging), scuba ( self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus) or zip code (zone improvement plan).

Blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the
other word – smog (smoke + fog) bit (binary + digit), brunch (breakfast + lunch), motel (motor + hotel).
27. Conversion as a type of word-formation
Conversion (functional shift or zero derivation)(from Lat. ‘turn around’) is a characteristic feature of the
English word-building system. It is an affixless derivation consisting in making a new word from an existing
word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining
unchanged. Conversion is a particularly English way of word building and it is explained by the analytical
structure of modern English and by the simplicity of paradigms of English parts of speech.
28. The lexical meaning of the word and its semantic structure
In linguistics the branch of the study concerned with the meaning of words is called semantics. In semantic
analysis, there is always an attempt to focus on what the words conventionally mean rather than on what a
speaker might want the words to mean on a particular occasion.
Linguistic semantics deals with the conventional meaning conveyed by the use of words and sentences of a
language.
At present there is no universally accepted definition of meaning. This complex phenomenon has been studied
by many linguists . The suggested approaches can be grouped as follows:
 Analytical or referential definition of meaning: consider meaning to be the relation between the
object or notion named, and the name itself ( referential approach).
 Functional or contextual definition of meaning: defines the meaning as the situation in which the
word is uttered ( functional approach)
The essential feature of the referential approach to meaning is that it distinguishes between three components,
which is also called basic triangles:
1. the sound form: e.g. bird [bɜːd];
2. the concept: the essential properties of this object which are reflected in human mind, i.e. mental
concept emerging from associations: ‘a feathered animal with wings’.
3. the actual referent (the part or aspect of reality): the object which the word names, i.e. real thing
which existence is consciously noticed: the actual bird;
29. The denotative and connotative meaning of the word
Connotation is the emotional and imaginative Denotation is the strict dictionary meaning of a
association surrounding a word. When word has word.
additional meaning
Hollywood place in USA(related with movie
Hollywood- smth glamour and bright industry

Fox- sly person Fox- animal

Home- cozy place Home place of living

29
The notional content of the words is expressed by the denotative meaning. The term denotatum (Lat.
denotatum, pl. denotata - означуване) is used in different meanings. When we speak about denotative meaning
we consider it to be the notional nucleus of meaning (поняттєве ядро значення) . This component of meaning
is abstracted from stylistic, pragmatic, modal, emotional, subjective, communicative and other shades.
The emotional content of the word i.e. its capacity to evoke or directly express emotions is rendered by
connotative component of meaning. Connotation (Lat. connotation from connoto - маю додаткове
значення) is an emotional , evaluative or stylistic component of a linguistic unit of regular (узуальний,
закріплений в системі мови) or occasional character.
Connotative meaning is emotional implications and associations that a word may carry which supplement
denotative and grammatical content of a lexical unit, e.g. slim, scrawny, and svelte all have related
denotational meanings ‘thin’ but different connotational meanings: ‘(of a person or build) gracefully thin;
slender’, ‘(of a person or animal) unattractively thin and bony’, ‘(of a person) slender and elegant’.

30.Semantic change. Polysemy.

Semantic changе- its study about how changed some words and got additional
meaning or even meanings over the time or some different situations.

For ex. Nice in 13 century meant as “foolish” then got the meaning “shy” then in up
to 18 century it had meaning “dainty”вишуканий. And after than got the seanse
“delightful, agreeable” приємний чудовий

Polysemy is the association of one word with two or more distinct meanings, and a polyseme is

a word or phrase with multiple meanings.
 Book-

 a bound collection of pages

 to book a hotel room,appartament

The meaning of a word can be direct or figurative. Direct meaning (also literal meaning) is the usual or most
basic sense of a word without metaphor or exaggeration. Figurative meaning is a transferred, metaphorical
meaning of a word or expression, in contrast to its direct meaning.
MONOSEMANTIC word conveys only one meaning. Monosemantic words are mainly scientific terms, e.g.
biochemistry, cybernetics, molecule, radar, tungsten, barium, etc.
Most English words convey several concepts and thus possess the corresponding number of meanings. The
existence within one word of several connected meanings forms a polysemantic (багатозначне) word.

31.Semantic change. Metaphor

Semantic changе- its study about how changed some words and got additional
meaning or even meanings over the time or some different situations.
Metaphor is a result of semantic process
A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes an object or action in a way that
isn’t literally true, but helps explain an idea or make a comparison without using
commecting words like or as in but with using is . It is used to express more detailed or
brighter description of situation or person or give the reader a more of death
experience.
For ex. – life is a dream. my sister is a devil

For ex. – life is a dream. my sister is a devil

32. Semantic change. Metonymy

Semantic changе- its study about how changed some words and got additional
meaning or even meanings over the time or some different situations.
 Metonymy- it is form of figurative language when some subject is called by another name
but everyone understand and associate it with this name

For ex. White House declared= US Government or President declared

Not building !!! building can`t declare! People can!

33. Litotes. Irony. Euphemisms

Litotes- When you want to say something less categorical through the using of general
indirect designation of the notion sometimes we use negation.

Not bad – good

It is not my favorite- I don’t like it

Не заперечую- дозволяю

Не важко- легко

Irony- its when we say positive characteristic but mean negative.Word with positive
connotation has opposite characteristic.

He is so clever- він такий тупий

Euphemism- mild expression of unpleasant phrases, when we don’t want to offend

someone we use some words which mild expression

Senior sitizen- old person

Passed away- died

34.Synonyms. Classifications of synonyms. Sources of synonymy.

Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, differing in sound form, and
possessing one or more identical or nearly identical (similar) denotational meanings.

Classification of synonyms

Ideographic synonyms denote different shades of meaning or degrees of a

given quality. They sometimes called relative synonyms,(означає різні видтінки
або ступені значення, напр. слова які видрізняються на глибиною
величиною і тд і тп.)
For example: large, great, huge, tremendous, colossal

Stylistic synonyms are differ in usage and style,

e.g. doctor (official), doc (familiar)

examination (official), exam (не офіційне.)

Contextual (context-dependent) synonyms are similar in meaning in

certain context. Слова які можуть звучати як синоніми лиш в певному
контексті

For example, the verbs to buy and to get would not generally be taken
as synonyms, but they are synonyms in the following context:

I’ll go to the shop and buy some bread/ I’ll go to the shop and get some bread.

Total synonyms can replace each other in any given context without the slightest
alteration in denotative or emotional meaning and connotations.
Examples of this type can be found in special literature among terms belonging to this
or that branch of knowledge.
It must be noted that it is a very special kind of synonymy: neither ideographic
nor stylistic oppositions are possible here.

Phraseological synonyms.  lies at the bottom of considering different dialect names for the
same plant, animal, etc. Галузь шо вивчає чого так називають в народі тварин чи рослин.
наприклад, the cornflower(волошка) is so called because it grows in cornfields (бо росте
на кукурудзяному полі); some people call it bluebottle (синя пляшка) according to the
shape and colour of its petals.(через її пелюстки)

Sources of synonyms

a) Borrowings from French, Latin and Greek are the most numerous, e.g. to
question (Fr.) – to interrogate (L) – to ask (native); devoid (Fr.) – vacuous (L) –
empty (native); guidance (Fr.) – instruction (L) – teaching (native), etc.
b) b) Dialectical words which come from local dialects and are used in the English
vocabulary as regular, e.g. girl: lass, lassie; radio:: wireless; long ago:: long
syne, etc.
c) c) Word-forming process which is productive in the language at a given time of
its history. Нові значення слів утворились в певний час та утворив
нові значення за допомогою афіксації конверсії скорочення и тд…
від тих слив шо вже були в мові The words already existing in the
language develop new meanings and are formed by affixation, conversion,
compounding, shortening and form synonyms to those already in use, e.g. to
enter – to come in (phrasal verbs), to verbalize – to word (conversion),
popular – pop (shortening).
 d) Euphemisms and vulgarisms employed for certain stylistic purposes вони
вживаються лиш за певних стилістичних цілей, e.g. in one’s birthday suit
(naked), in the family way (pregnant) – euphemisms; mug (face), bloody
(devilish) – vulgarisms.

e) e) Synonyms connected with the non-literal figurative use of words

in pictorial language, синоніми що вживаються з словами лиш в
переносному значенні

e.g. walk of life дорога жіття(occupation, profession), star-gazer (dreamer).

35.Antonyms. Classifications of antonyms. Criteria of antonyms.

Antonyms-  are words with opposite meanings. They are defined as words of the
same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meaning

For example, good and bad.

Всі антоніми це пари слів наз. Антонімічні пари

Types of Antonyms:
1.Relational Antonyms: These are the sets of word pairs which are responsible for
showing the relationship between two opposites which wouldn’t exist without the
other. Є декілька слів антонімів до одної пари якими можна описати
протиставлення и вони не можуть існувати одні без інших.

For example:

Hello-Goodbye

Front – Back

Graded Antonyms: These are the sets of word pairs which are responsible for
showing variation between the two opposites such as little and big are antonyms but
you will observe a lot of changes before you get to the opposite meaning. Let’s
understand this with the help of following examples, Huge, Big, little, full-size,
slight, petite etc., Some other examples are as follows (якшо простими словами
багатозначні слова можуть мати не один, а кілька пар антонімів (до кожного
із значень чи до їх частини можна замінити цю пару слів але саме значення
лишиться приблизно то саме) є декілька пар слів антонімів..

following examples: little and big- Huge, Big, full-size, slight, petite, tiny etc.,

· Sad: Happy

Complementary antonyms[

A complementary antonym, is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings,

where have no degree of meaning. There is only availability of two opposite in a
possible manner. (є лиш одна пара слів якою можна це описати)

For example,

· Dead: Alive
· Male- female

· On: Off
Це ще одна якась класифікація яку я знайшла
Classifications of Antonyms

Antonyms can be divided into two groups: those which are formed with the help of
negative affixes (derivational) and those which are of different roots.

The most productive antonym-forming negative prefixes are un- (unhappy,

unimportant), mis-(misfortune, misunderstanding). In the Ukrainian language that is the
prefix не-(неправда, неволя). The prefix без- is also rather productive: безстрашний,
безлад).

Antonym-forming suffixes impart to the word the meaning of the presence or absence
of the quality or feature indicated by the root. The most productive antonym-forming
suffixes are –ful,-less: fruitful – fruitless; hopeful – hopeless.

The second group (antonyms proper) includes words of different roots: day – night;
rich – poor, радість – горе, дружити – ворогувати.

Considered in meaning antonyms can be divided into absolute, phraseological and

complex.

Absolute antonyms are diametrically opposite in meaning and remain antonyms in

any word-combinations. These are mostly found among negative affix-formed
antonyms. 

Phraseological antonyms. When they become components of phraseological groups

or compound words they sometimes lose their absolutely antonymic nature.

e.g.: to give –to take: to give a book – to take a book but to give way will not have to
take way as its antonym.

_________________________________________________

37. Classifications of phraseological units.Synonyms in

phraseology.Antonyms in phraseology.
Classifications of Phraseological Units (the classification proofed by Vinogradov research)

- standardised word combinations - standardised word combinations, i.e. phrases

characterised by the limited combinative power of their components, which retain their
semantic independence: to meet the request/requirement, подавати надію, страх бере,
зачепити гордість, покласти край; (характеризуються обмеженою комбінативною силою їх
компонентів, які зберігають свою смислову незалежність)

- phraseological unities, i.e. phrases in which the meaning of the whole is not the sum of
meanings of the components but it is based on them and the motivation is apparent: to stand to
one’s guns, передати куті меду, прикусити язика, вивести на чисту воду, тримати камінь
за пазухою; (значення фрази зовсім інше означає ніж кожне слово в ній)

- fusions,(злиття) i.e. phrases in which the meaning cannot be derived as a whole from the
conjoined meanings of its components: tit for tat, теревені правити, піймати облизня,
викинути коника, у Сірка очі позичити. (фрази в яких значення не походить від значення
компонентів)

-Phraseological unities are very often metaphoric. The components of such unities are not
semantically independent, the meaning of every component is subordinated to the figurative
meaning of the phraseological unity as a whole.(складові фрази не є семантично незалежні
значення кожного слова підпорядковано переносному значенню кожного слова з фрази
окремо)
e.g.:

Nick is a musician. He plays the first fiddle.- Play the first fiddle- грати першу скрипку як
музикант

It is his wife who plays the first fiddle in the house. play the first fiddle- бути головним

Synonyms in Phraseology

Synonymy in phraseology has been greatly enriched by various processes of the meaning shift,
by the influx of foreign words and phrases. Синонімія у фразеології значно збагатилася різними
процесами зміни значення, припливом іноземних слів і фраз .
Absolute synonyms which have the same meaning and connotation are comparatively rare.
Абсолютні синоніми, що мають однакове значення та відтінок, є порівняно рідкісними. e.g.: over head
and ears = up to the neck; по вуха
a pretty kettle of fish = a nice pair of shoes; a very difficult and annoying situation
байдики бити – давати горобцям дулі.
Relative synonyms denote different shades of different degrees of common meaning: показує
різні варіанти і ступені фрази яка має то саме кінцеве значення e.g.: to come to a
conclusion; to jump at a conclusion; to leap at a conclusion.

Antonyms in Phraseology
Antonyms can be opposed to each other in their concrete meanings. Антоніми можуть
протиставлятися один одному в їх конкретних значеннях.

e.g.: вбити собі в голову – викинути з голови, набитий гаманець – вітер у кишенях
свистить.

The elements of the phraseological units-antonyms are expressed by the same part of speech.
Елементи фразеологічних одиниць-антонімів виражаються однією і тією ж частиною мови.

e.g.: safe and sound – dead and gone; dead from the neck up – as wise as a serpent, макітра
розуму – пустий лоб.

36. Homonyms. Classifications of homonyms. Sources of homonyms.

Homonyms that is a words that sounds and spells the same or just sounds the same and spells differently, and
has different meanings.
for example: present (a gift) and present (to introduce) desert (to abandon) and desert (arid region)
It is clasificied to:

Homophones- 2 or more words which have the same pronunsiation but have different meanings. They may or
may not be spelled the same way
For ex. Write -right
Homographs- they share the same spelling.They may or not may have the same pronunsiation.
For ex. present (a gift) and present (to introduce)
Heteronyms- they share the same spelling but have different pronunsiation.
Live v. to be alive лів
Live adg, having life лайв

Sourses of Homonyms
 Phonetic changes 2 words which were pronunsed differentlu may develop indentical
sound form
Knight [nait] {nait} Night {night}

 Split plysemy different meanings of the same word move so far away from each other
that they come to be regarded as 2 separate units

 Conversion which serves the creating of grammatical homonyms

(e.g. iron залізо →to iron прасувати, work робота→ to work працювати,  etc.);
  Borrowing A borrowed word may, in the final stage of its phonetic adaptation, duplicate
in form either a native word or another borrowing запозичення може на завершальній
стадії фонетичної адаптації дублюватись у такі ж формі рідного слова, або іншого

запозичення.
e.g. ritus (обряд) Lat. → rite(обряд)  n. – Eng. write v. – right adj.;

 Shortening is a further type of word-building which increases the number of homonyms

(e.g. fan, n. in the sense of "an enthusiastic admirer of some kind of sport or of an actor,
singer" “захоплений шанувальник якогось виду спорту або актора, співака” is a shortening
produced from fanatic. Its homonym is a Latin borrowing fan. n.
which denotes an implement for waving lightly to produce a cool current of air. (що позначає
прилад для легкого помахування для отримання холодного потоку повітря)

The noun rep, n. denoting a kind of fabric has three homonyms made by shortening різновид
тканини має три омоніми, утворені від цього слова:
 repertory → rep, n., representative → rep, n., reputation → rep, n.);

___________________________________________________________________________

38. Special literary vocabulary: neologisms; archaisms

Archaisms are words which are no longer used in everyday speech, which have been replaced by their
synonyms.Слова шо не використ. вже Бо їх замінили на інші такі самі по значенню
perchance (perhaps), betwixt (between)
Neologisms, words which have recently appeared in the language.
Smartphone, Fake, brunch, freelance, to google.., selfie.

№39 Special Colloquial vocabulary (dialects, slang).

Dialect
 is a variety of a language spoken in a particular geographical area or by a particular
group of people. 
 Dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
 Dialects can be divided into two categories
 A standard dialect is supported by institutions (слова які затверджені і підтримані
установами)
 non-standard dialect Is not supported by institutions(слова шо можуть вживати люди але
вони ніде не зазначені як діалекти)
 Welsh English
 Cockney (working-class London and surrounding areas)
 Estuary (middle-class London, Home Counties and Hampshire)
  East Angle
 Hiberno-English (Irish English)
 Standard Canadian English.
 Western American English.

Slang 
 is an informal nonstandard variety of speech which consists of newly created and rapidly
changing words and phrases.
 Slang is distinguished by its vocabulary.
is typically is used by a people of common social group For ex. (taxi drivers, jazz musicians, or
professional criminals, police officers, teenagers etc.)

Examples:

Station Cat: is the officer who finding any excuse possible to avoid work.(офіцер шо шукає любий
привід уникнути роботи)
Dine and dash: it’s eating and then running off without paying the bill.(той хто поїв в ресторані не
заплатив і звалив)
Chimping: When you stand around looking at the display after taking a photo(коли ви після того як
пофоткались збираєтесь купою коло фотіка і дивитесь в об’єктив як ви вийшли)
Uncle Bob: Specific to wedding photographers, an ‘Uncle Bob’ is the guest who comes with his (or
her?) own very fancy camera, gets in the way, lectures to the photographer how things should be
done(чудік шо приходить на весілля з своїм фотіком і розказує фоторгафу як вин має фоткати і шо він
це може зробити краще)
Pigeon – poor poker player(Той кому не везе в покері)

Навчальна дисципліна «Теорія перекладу»

40. The definition, subject and tasks of translation theory as a science.
The science of translation studies and should study the translation process.
The purpose of studying the discipline is to study students the general theoretical and
methodological issues of translation, means of correct (adequate) translation of various
language units and phenomena of English into Ukrainian and vice versa, lexical-grammatical,
semantic and stylistic aspects of translation
Translation is the process whereby a text in one language is transferred into a second
language. Adequate and complete translation determines the correct, accurate and complete
transfer content of the original meaning and its language form.
Profession of translator and interpreter requires a perfect knowledge of two languages -
source languageand target language in all aspects - lexical, grammatical, stylistic, historical,
cultural and many others.
A translator converts written material, such as newspaper and magazine articles, books,
manuals, documents,
interpreter, who converts spoken material, such as speeches, presentations, depositions and the
like, from one language into another.
 Adequate and complete translation determines the correct, accurate and complete transfer
content of the original meaning and its language form.
Tasks
In order to successfully translate English text , you need four conditions:
1. Knowledge of a certain minimum of the most commonly used words
2. Knowledge of the basics of English grammar
3. Basic knowledge about the techniques of translation
4. Familiarity of the translator with the area of knowledge to which this text belongs( розуміти
до якої сфери і типу належить текст)

41. Translation as a peculiar type of communication.

Communication is one of the most important proceses in our life. But what to do if your
interlocutor(співрозмовник) speaks another language?
Translation process and the translator come to the rescue! (На допомогу приходить
прекладач та процес перекладу)
Translation has existed for a long time.
For example, When people met who didn’t know language they speak, they had find
someone who could speak both languages. It was passible because Some people grew up in
bilingual environment, because they lived in a border area or moved to another country or their
parents spoke different languages.
Nowadays there are no field which would never face the need for translation.Political
relations, science,education,medicine,tourism,business area and even entertainment sometimes
need a qualified translation. Because with the help of this type of communication the borders
are expanded(розширяються кордони) and many important decisions are made over the
world.

42. “Translation” and “interpretation”: the difference between the notions.

Translation is the process whereby a text in one language is transferred into a second
language.
Interpreting is the process of translating spoken material In oral way consecutively or
simultaniesly.
A translator converts written material, such as newspaper and magazine articles, books,
manuals, documents,
etc., from one language into another.
interpreter, who converts spoken material, such as speeches, presentations, depositions
and the like, from one language into another.
Moreover, the best translators are not good interpreters and likewise, truly great
interpreters are not much for translation. And while many professional training programs
require interpreters to develop some skill in translation, professionally trained translators often
have no exposure to the skills of interpretation.

43. Semiotic approach to translation.

As a field of translation studies, the semiotics of translation constitutes an interdisciplinary approach to
the translation process.
Semiotics is an investigation into how meaning is created and how meaning is
communicated. Дослідження як створюється значення і як передається значення.
Its origins lie in the academic study of how signs and symbols (visual and linguistic) create
meaning. Витоки науки полягають у тому як знаки і символи ( візуальні і лінгвістичні)
створюють значення наприклад ми можем побачити візуально слово і дізнатись

Semiotics studies the production, transmission, exchange and interpretation of messages consisting in one
or more signs. The use of symbols in the target language which will create the same effect and have the
same impact and meaning on the target receivers as they had on the source receivers, that's the main
point of semiotic in translation.
44. Communicative approach to translation.
The idea that translation is a means of establishing communication between representatives of different
cultures and that a translator is a mediator in communication gave birth to another approach to
translation which we call “communicative- functional approach”. Every important message is immediately
translated into lots of languages so that information around the world is successfully conveyed. Thus, the
communicative function of translation is useful in a process of transferring messages and information
from one language to another.
45. Equivalence as the reproduction of a source language text by the target language means.
Translation is a procedure which leads from a written source language text to an optimally equivalent target
language text and requires the syntactic, semantic, stylistic and text pragmatic comprehension by the translator
of the original text. Equivalence is crucial for respective and precise translation so there sense is transferred in
the most truthful way.
46. Levels of equivalence.

1. Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST (source text) and
that of the TT(target text);
 
2. Class-shifts, when a SL(source language) item is translated with a TL(target language) item which
belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be translated with a noun;
 
3. Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank;
 
4. Intra-system shifts, which occur when 'SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond
formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in
the TL system' . For instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.

47. Unit of translation.

Unit of translation is the linguistics level at which ST is recodified in TL.
3 categories of the units:

1 - Simple units: the number of units equals number of words. Replacement of words will not lead to a change
in the sentence structure.

2 - Diluted units: These units contain several words which in turn shape a lexical unit, since they pursue a
single idea.

3 - Fractional units: "A fraction of a word" is what this type of UTs (units of translation) are consisted of.

48. Types of translation.

1. Technical translation. This is for translating the documents that share the distinction of being for a
specific and limited target audience and usually have a limited shelf-life.
2. Scientific translation. Deals with documents in the domain of science: articles, theses, papers.
3. Financial translation. Deals with documentation relating to the likes of finance, banking, and stock
exchange activity.
4. Legal translation. Deals with legal documents, administrative texts, technical documents, and a number
of other texts in addition to reports and minutes of court proceedings.
 5. Judical translation. Close to the legal translation, refers to the task of translation undertaken in a court
setting. Judicial translators specialize in translating documents such as letters rogatory, minutes of
proceedings, judgements, expert opinions, deposition, minutes of interrogation sessions etc.
6. Juridical translation. Refers to legally-binding documentation such as laws; regulations and decrees;
general sales and purchase conditions etc. The juridical translator must have a solid legal background in
addition to their linguistic training.
7. Certified translation. These are usually documents which require legal validation and are thus referred to
as “certified” or “sworn”. A certified translator or sworn translator may use their signature to
authenticate official translations.
8. Literal translation. The translator must first try to render the semantic content of the original text, and
then in addition deal with a number of other difficulties, such as: polysemic (багатозначність), the
author’s own particular literary style, rhythm, meter and the innate balance of the phrase.

49. Literal translation and its peculiarities.

Literal translation. The translator must first try to render the semantic content of the original text, and then in
addition deal with a number of other difficulties, such as: polysemic (багатозначність), the author’s own
particular literary style, rhythm, meter a’nd the innate balance of the phrase.
50. Verbal translation and its peculiarities.
Verbal translation is about interpreting the information orally. It is delivered live, either in unison with
(simultaneous) or immediately after (consecutive) the original speech -- with no help from scripts, dictionaries,
or other reference materials.
An interpreter's only resources are experience, a good memory, and quick reflexes.
Interpretation takes place on the spot. The process can occur in person, over the phone, or via
video.  Interpreters must capture tone, inflections, voice quality, and other unique elements of the spoken word
and then convey these verbal cues to the audience.
51. Word-for-word translation, the main points.
Word for word translation or literal translation is the rendering of text from one language to another one word
at a time with or without conveying the sense of the original text. In translation studies, literal translation is
often associated with scientific, technical, technological or legal texts.
Literal translation can also denote a translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does
not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry.
Literal translation of idioms results quite often in jokes and amusement.
52. The interlinear way / method of translating.
The interlinear  way/method of translating is a term for a faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups
and sentences at the level of some text. (це коли має бути переданий лиш сенс)
The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units(sentences, super syntactic
units, passages).
Since the way of translating provides a faithful rendering of sense only, it permits various transformations of
the language units like reduction, extension, addition etc.
53. The research of machine translation.
Machine translation (MT) is a process whereby a computer program analyzes a source text and, in principle,
produces a target text without human intervention.
 MT usually cannot produce a good translation of text, because recognition of whole phrases and their closest
counterparts in the TL(target language) is needed.
In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing
and post-editing.
54. Functional classification: Literary and informative translating.

Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry; their main function is to produce
an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost,
on their artistic quality and the translator’s primary task is to reproduce this quality in the translation.
Informative translation deals with rendering into the TL nonliterary texts, the main purpose of which is to
convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader.

55. Descriptive and antonymic translating.

Depending on the notion expressed by the source language word/ lexeme it may be conveyed in the target
language sometimes through a word-combination or even through a sentence descriptively (i.e. indulge робити
собі приємність у чомусь, віддаватися втіхам; окраєць crust of a loaf). The descriptive way of conveying the
sense of language units implies their structural transformation which is necessary to explain their meaning.
The antonymic translating is employed for the sake of achieving faithfulness in conveying the content or
expressiveness when an affirmative in sense or structure language unit (word, word-combination or sentence) is
conveyed as a negative in a sense or structure but identical in content language unit or vice versa (no time like
the present лови момент; немає лиха без добра every dark cloud has a silver lining).
56. A concept of untranslatability. The loss of meaning.
Untranslatability is the property of text or speech for which no equivalent can be found when translated into
another language. An untranslatable text is a lexical gap.
The problem of untranslatability arises because of the cultural differences between the people speaking the
original language text and those speaking the language of the target language text.
To resolve this issue, the translator is supposed to copy it in the target language text (transliteration), and then
give some description for it as a footnote.
57. A short historical outline of European and Ukrainian translation.
The translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek in the 3rd century BC is regarded as the first major translation
in the western world. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators became a meeting point for European scholars
who travelled and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and
medical works from Arabic and Greek into Latin.
The first “fine” translations into English were produced by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century.
Tudor poets and Elizabethan translators adapted themes by Horace, Ovid, Petrarch and others, while inventing a
new poetic style in 16th century.
In 18th century there was still not much concern for accuracy. Whatever translators did not understand in a
text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted.
As for the 19th century, the policy became “the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text (except for bawdy
passages), with the addition of extensive explanatory footnotes”.
A new discipline named “Translation Studies” appeared in the second half of the 20th century. Interpreting was
seen as a specialised form of translation and became a separate discipline in the mid-20th century.
Contemporary translators contribute to the enrichment of languages. When a target language lacks terms that
are present in a source language, they borrow those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Translation
Studies have become an academic inter-discipline that includes various fields of study. The internet has fostered
a worldwide market for translation and localisation services. To be a translator is a profession, and implies a
thorough knowledge of the subject matter. There were tools created to speed up the translation process, such as
computer-assisted translation and machine translation.
58. Types of translation techniques. Ways of achieving aquivalence. General scope.
1. Borrowing is a translation technique that involves using the same word or expression in original text in
the target text.
Example: The gaucho was wearing a black sombrero and a worn bombacha.
2. Calque. When a translator uses a calque, he or she is creating or using a neologism in the target
language by adopting the structure of the source language.
Example: The German word handball is translated into Spanish as balonmano.
3. Мeans a word-for-word translation. A literal translation can only be applied with languages which are
extremely close in cultural terms. It is acceptable only if the translated text retains the same syntax, the
same meaning and the same style as the original text.
Example: Quelle heure est-il? ⇒ What time is it?
4. Transposition involves moving from one grammatical category to another without altering the meaning
of the text. This translation technique introduces a change in grammatical structure.
Example: The President thinks that ⇒ Selon le Président
 5. Modulation is about changing the form of the text by introducing a semantic change or perspective.
Example: Maybe you’re right. ⇒ Tu n’as peut-être pas tort.
6. Equivalence or reformulation. This is a translation technique which uses a completely different
expression to transmit the same reality. Through this technique, names of institutions, interjections,
idioms or proverbs can be translated.
7. Adaptation is a cultural element which replaces the original text with one that is better suited to the
culture of the target language. This achieves a more familiar and comprehensive text.
Example: baseball ⇒ football

59. Translation transcription.

Transcription- is reproducing the sound form of a foreign word with the help of phonemes
into a target the language. Due to the differences in some sounds in Ukrainian and English,
there are usually several variants of transcription. Usually remain(приживаються) in the
language those words that sound most natural for the language of translation (New ᅠ York ᅠ – ᅠ
Нью-Йорк, ᅠ Manchester ᅠ – ᅠ Манчестер.)

The Words may be transcribed:

names of persons,

geographical objects,

institutions, установ, ᅠ

organizations,

seas, lakes, oceans,

companies,

hotels, restaurants,

newspapers, magazines.

60. Transliteration.

60.Transliteration.

Transliteration, means a way of transmitting words and letters of one language by letters of
another (literally) according with the table correspondences symbols (перекладається ᅠ
побуквенно ᅠ згідно ᅠ з ᅠ таблицею ᅠ відповідностi символів буквена ᅠ імітація ᅠ форми ᅠ
початкового ᅠ слова ᅠ)

Transliteration ᅠ differs from transcription in its simplicity(простотою) ᅠ and ᅠ

possibility ᅠ introduction ᅠ additional sighns Транслітерація перекаладається так
як пишеться а не читається! (. ᅠ For ex. ᅠ Audi ᅠ – ᅠ «Ауді»; ᅠ Porsche ᅠ – ᅠ «Порше”
Big ᅠ Ben ᅠ – ᅠ Біґ ᅠ Бен; ᅠ Hotel ᅠ Ritz ᅠ – ᅠ Готель ᅠ «Рітц», ᅠ Aphrodite ᅠ – ᅠ Афродита

who speak another language. Essentially, translation of a foreign word involves interpreting its meaning.
Transliteration, on the other hand, makes a language a little more accessible to people who are unfamiliar with
that language’s alphabet. Transliteration focuses more on pronunciation than meaning, which is especially
useful when discussing foreign people, places, and cultures. The term transliteration is defined as a process of
replacing or complementing the words or meanings of one language with meanings of another as sometimes the
exact equivalence or exact meaning might not exist.

61.Calque translation.

Calque- (literal translation) (дослівний переклад)i s a method of translating new words

(terms), when the equivalent of a simple or (more often) complex word (term) of the source
language in the target language is chosen, as a rule, the first equivalent in the dictionary,
(коли при перекладі перекладаєш слова за першим значенням яке пише в словнику и не
заморочуєшся)

Calque can be applied only when formed in this way translational ᅠ equivalent
does not violate norms ᅠ of using words in Ukrainian language.(або любої мови на яку
перекладаєш)

Different Types of Calque

 Paronymous calque or loan word: is the result of an incorrect correspondence between two words that
have similar forms or etymologies but that have evolved differently in their respective languages to the
point that they now have different meanings (semantic transfer).At times it happens because, between
two words etymologically related in English, but with a slight difference in meaning, the irrelevant one
is chosen.It is also possible that the error comes from the calque of the grammatical category.
 Orthographic calque: normally appears in the transliteration of the names of people, places, and
ethnicities. Spelling and writing conventions of the source language that make little or no sense in the
target language are copied without too much consideration.
 Typographic calque: takes place when typographical conventions that only exist in the source
language are transferred to the new language. For example, English’s employment of capital letters has
started to creep into Spanish, as well as the use of italics for emphasis and certain uses of quotation
marks (a word between quotation marks is marked and the translator must figure out why it is marked).
 Syntactic or structural calque: is the product of erroneous connection between the elements of a
sentence or phrase (“in order to” = “en orden a” instead of “para”; “to find guilty = “encontrar
culpable” instead of “declarar culpable”). The result is the creation of a third language; in this instance,
Spanglish.

62. Lexicological aspects of translation. Translating of idiomatic/phraseological and stable expressions.

Idiomatic or phraseological expressions are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences
having mostly the meaning, which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts. An
indispensable feature of idiomatic (phraseological) expressions is their figurative, i.e., metaphorical nature and
usage. It is this nature that makes them distinguishable from structurally identical free combinations of words.
The following ways of faithful rendering the idiomatic/phraseological expressions:
1. By Choosing Absolute/Complete Equivalents

This is the method of translating by which every componental part of the source language idiom is retained in
the target language unchanged. Translating with the help of equivalents is resorted to when dealing with idioms
which originate from the same source in both the languages in question.
These sources may be:
 Greek or other mythology: a labour of Sisyphus – сізіфова праця (важка і марна праця);
Pandora’s box – скринька Пандори/Пандорина скриня (джерело всіляких лих);
  ancient history or literature: to cross (pass) the Rubicon – перейти Рубікон (прийняти важливе
рішення); I came, I saw, I conquered – прийшов, побачив, переміг;
 the Bible or works based on a biblical plot: to cast the first stone at one – першим кинути у когось
каменем; prodigal son – блудний син.

2. Translation of Idioms by Choosing Near Equivalents

The meaning of a considerable number of phrase idioms and sentence idioms originating in both languages
from a common source may sometimes have, unlike absolute equivalents, one or even most of their components
different, than in the target language. ( to make a long story short – сказати коротко; a lot of water had run
under the bridge since then – багато води спливло відтоді; as pale as paper – блідий мов стіна; one’s own
flesh and bone – рідна кровинка;)
3. Translation by Choosing Genuine Idiomatic Analogies

An overwhelming majority of English idiomatic expressions have similar in sense units in Ukrainian.
(he that mischief hatches mischief catches – хто іншим лиха бажає, сам лихо має/хто іншим яму копає,
сам у неї потрапляє; to have the ready tongue – за словом у кишеню не лізти; there is no use crying over
spilt milk – що з воза впало, те пропало; bear a dead horse – товкти воду в ступі.)
4. Translating Idioms by Choosing Approximate Analogies

Some source language idiomatic and stable expressions may have a peculiar nature of their componental parts
or a peculiar combination of them and thus form nationally peculiar expressiveness and picturesqueness of
componental images. The latter constitute some hidden meaning, which is mostly not understandable enough
for the foreigner to catch it.
As a result, their lexical meaning can be expressed in a descriptive way: (the sow loves bran better than roses
– кому що, а курці просо; more power to your elbow – ні пуху, ні луски!;)
5. Descriptive Translating of Idiomatic and Set Expressions

The meaning of a considerable number of idiomatic as well as stable/set expressions can be rendered in a
descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of meaning contained in the sourcelanguage idiom, it can be
expressed in the target language in some ways such as: by a single word (out of a clear blue of the sky –
раптом), with the help of free combinations of words (to run amock – нападати зненацька на першу-ліпшу
людину), when the lexical meaning of an original idiomatic expression is based on a nationally specific
notion/structural form (yes man – людина, що з усіма згоджується, тільки підтакує (підтакувач))
63. Transformations of some idioms in the process of translating.
Many phraseological expressions as unities may reflect national features of the Source Language (reference to
traditions, customs, events, geographical position). Being nationally distinct cannot have in the Target
Language traditionally established equivalents or loan variants. As a result, most of them may have more than
one version in the Target Language.
Faithful translatoin of national idioms/phraseologisms is mostly achieved as deliberate transformations
performed first at the interlinear level and then at literary level:- he, that doesn't respect, isn't respected: хто
інших не поважає - сам поваги не має;
Transformations become absolutely inevitable when the English idioms contain a passive voice structure, the
introductory it/there, or some other analytical constructions (with the auxiliary verbs do, does).
64. Grammar transformations in translation. General scope.
Grammar transformations are morphological or syntactical changes in translated units.
They are subdivided into the following types:
1. Grammar substitution, when a grammar category of the translated unit is changed.
2. Word order change
3. Sentence partitioning is the replacement of a simple sentence in the source text with a complex
sentence, or a complex sentence with several independent sentences in the target text for structural,
semantic or stylistic reasons.
4. Sentence integration is a contrary transformation. It takes place when we make one sentence out
of two or more, or convert a complex sentence into a simple one.
 5. Grammar compensationis a deliberate change of the grammar category by some other grammar
means.

65. Grammar problems of translation. Formal differences between a source text and a target text.
Source language and target language texts differ formally due to a number of reasons of both objective and
subjective character. Objective reasons are caused by the divergence in the language systems and speech
models. Subjective reasons can be attributed to the speaker’s choice of a language form.
Thus, systemic dissimilarity of forms takes place when one of the languages lacks some grammar category and,
therefore, has no corresponding form. On the other hand, there are linguistic phenomena that exist in both
languages but differ in some details, which also causes difficulties in translation. Objective reasons for formal
dissimilarities include differences in word combination norms and models that make up language traditions.
Subjective reasons for formal alterations in the target text are accounted for by a communicator’s (or
translator’s) personal intention, emphasis or preference. These reasons include the communicative structure of
the utterance, that is, emphasis on the logically stressed word that can lead to the change of syntactic structure.
66. Grammatical aspects of translation. Translating the article.
Languages differ in their grammatical structure and they differ in the use of those categories that seem to be
similar. This naturally results in the necessity to introduce some grammatical changes in the translated version
of any text

In Ukrainian there are no articles. Articles express certainty / uncertainty is expressed by other
means of speech:

 Тут неозначений артикль виступає у своєму історично первинному значенні "один". Або новий
ще можна
 Неозначений артикль також вимагає перекладу, коли він стоїть перед власними іменами, які
використовуються метонімічно:

The- цей,той

She is a Mrs. Erlynne.

Це якась місіз Ерлін.

(1) The Definite Article (The). "The" is called the definite article. It defines its noun as
something specific (e.g., something previously mentioned or known, something unique,
something being identified by the speaker).
(2) The Indefinite Article (A, An). "A" and "an" are called the indefinite articles. They
define their noun as something unspecific (e.g., something generic, something mentioned
for the first time).

67. Asyndetic noun clusters, ways of rendering their meaning into Ukrainian.
Asyndetic noun clusters are word-groups consisting of two, three or more nouns (functionally equivalent to
word-groups) like yarn production, yarn production figures; the House of Commons debate; mother and child
care. New Deal and Great Society programs,'
Irrespective of the number of components in these clusters or their structure, they are always in subordinate
relation to each other, i.e., they function as adjunct (attributive component) and head (nucleus). The former
occupies the left-hand (initial) position and the latter - the right-hand (closing) position in the cluster.
There can be suggested some ways of faithful translation of asyndetic noun/substantival clusters into Ukrainian.
Each of these ways may be predetermined by one of the following three factors: 1) by the lexical meaning of
the component parts; 2) by their structural form and 3) by the meaning of the cluster as a whole.
Translation of two componental asyndetic NN-structure clusters may start:
 with the head noun: board MEMBERS - ЧЛЕНИ правління; economy REGIME - РЕЖИМ економії;
policy CHANGE - ЗМІНА політики;
  beginning with the adjunct (додаток) (functioning as an adjective) or with the head (functioning as a
noun): DINNER-time BREAK - ОБІДНЯ перерва/ПЕРЕРВА на обід; SCHOOL REFORM -
ШКІЛЬНА реформа/РЕФОРМА школи; CURRENCY REFORM - ГРОШОВА реформа/РЕФОРМА
грошової системи;
 the meaning of some asyndetic substantival clusters with compound adjuncts can be rendered into
Ukrainian in a descriptive way as well: nine-men defence - захист із 9 гравців (спорт); two-thirds
majority - більшість у дві третіх голосів;.

68. Translating of English verbals and verbal constructions. General scope. 252
Common English and Ukrainian the infinitive and participles forms of the verb are characterized by identical
functions in the sentence. Some of their lexico-grammatical meanings are considerably broader in English than
in Ukrainian and include the combined tense, aspect and voice forms of the infinitive as well as of the present
participle derived respectively from the intransitive and from transitive verbs (cf. to live -to be living, to have
lived; but: to do - to be done, to be doing; doing -being done, having been done, etc.)
To render faithfully some of these lexico-grammatical meanings (semes) of English verbal paradigms into
Ukrainian is, naturally, not always possible. An exception make, however, the simple paradigms, which usually
have semantic and structural equivalents in both languages.
The ways of rendering the meanings of verbals are predetermined by some factors which include a) the
structural form of the verbal and b) the function of the verbal in the sentence, where it may be either a single
part of the sentence or a component of an extended complex part of the sentence.
69. Ways of rendering the lexico-grammatical meanings and functions of the English infinitive. 253
Translation of the English infinitive is greatly predetermined by its form and sometimes by its function in the
sentence. The infinitive functioning as a single part of the sentence, i.e., not being a component of a secondary
predication complex, has usually corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian.
The latter are a single infinitive or infinitival phrase when the infinitive functions as:
1. The subject: It was pretty nice to get back to my room. - Було так приємно знову дістатися до своєї
кімнати.;То get Irene out of London...- «Вивезти Айріні за місто...
2. The simple nominal predicate: «A gentleman to strike а lady!» - «Щоб чоловікові вдарити /бити
жінку!»; His son - descend to this! - Його синові... так опуститись!
3. Part of a compound modal or aspect predicate /or predicative: No, you couldn't have called her beautiful
- Hi, її не можна було назвати гарною.; "We are bound to win our next game", their coach
promised" - Нашу наступну гру ми зобов'язані виграти- пообіцяв тренер.
4. The Object (simple, extended or expanded): Julia found it very pleasant to sit then in the shade looking
at the river. - Джулії дуже подобалось тоді сидіти в затінку і дивитися на річку/воду.
5. An attribute (which is less often used in Ukrainian) as in the sentence below: «Can I give you anything
to eat or to drink? » - «Дати вам щось поїсти чи попити? »
Attributive infinitives can also be conveyed with the help of attributive subordinate clauses: Ми склали
список речей, щоб узяти з собою/які візьмемо з собою. - We made a list of things to be taken...
6. An adverbial modifier (usually of purpose, result or consequence) may be conveyed in Ukrainian with
the help of an infinitival щоб-phrase, a prepositional noun or a noun word-group: She wanted time to
think over. - Їй треба було часу для обдумування/ обміркувати це.

These were the main Ukrainian semantic equivalents for single English infinitives performing different
functions in the sentence.

70. English modal verbs having not always modal verbs equivalents in Ukrainian. 334c
There are four modal verbs in English, which practically lack direct lexical equivalents in Ukrainian:
1. SHALL – depending on the intention of the speaker, the modal verb shall may express in combination
with the notional infinitive the following main meanings:
  will or intention with the verb хотіти or through the logical stress on the verb. Shall I tell you
how I felt as a mate of my high school students? – Розповісти вам, як я дорослий, почувався
учнем в одному з коледжів?
 promise or promised assurance, consent: Shall we say four pounds a week? – Погодишся
(працювати) за чотири фунти на тиждень?
 warning, threat, demand, compulsion, obligation or order which is usually conveyed in
Ukrainian through the imperative (наказові) verb forms: I shall want your account of how this
happened. – Вимагаю звіту про те, як ви таке допустили.; You shall not stay another hour in
my house. Get out! – Щоб я за годину тебе тут не бачив. Геть звідси!
2. WILL as a modal verb together with infinitive may express different meanings, the main of which are
volition, insistence, determination, intention. The modal verb WILL may be endowed in different
contextual environment with various meanings, the main of them being the following:
 volition, demand or assurance which is expressed in Ukrainian through the corresponding verb,
stative or logical/emphatic stress: “I will be another kind of president”, said Constantinescu. – “Я
буду/обіцяю бути зовсім іншим президентом”, – заявив Константинеску.
 WILL as well as assurance or promise: Trench: “I will save you the trouble.” – Тренч: “Я вже
допоможу вам вибратися з цієї халепи.”
 determination, perseverance or promising threat which is often rendered through lexically
explicit Ukrainian verbs, expressing also the future tense at the same time: I will prosecute you
myself. – Я сам вас судитиму.
 willingness, consent (in conditional clauses after the following conjunction if): If you will tell me
all about it in a chatty way, I can communicate it to Lady Roxdale. – Якщо ти захочеш мені
розповісти про це щиро, я перекажу тоді все леді Роксдейл.
 polite request which may be expressed as follows: I want you to do a most terrible favour. Will
you? Will you please? – Я хочу, щоб ви мені зробили страшенно велику послугу. Зробите?
Благаю, зробіть.
 supposition which is usually expressed in Ukrainian with the help of modal words or by means of
the subjunctive mood of the predicate verb: This will be the place where they reposed. – Це
напевне/мабуть і є те місце, де вони перепочивали.
 resistance to an action referring to the present or to the future, which is observed only in
English. Consequently, it has no corresponding modal expression in Ukrainian. Cf.: Help him,
please, the door will not unlock. – Допоможіть, будьласка, йому. Двері ніяк не відмикаються.
 preference, choice and other meanings as in the set expressions «I’d rather/I would/I’d sooner»
which are usually rendered into Ukrainian with or without the help of the subjunctive mood forms
plus such adverbs of manner as «краще, радніше/ліпше»: He will die as he lived. – Горбатого
(тільки) могила виправить. He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet. – Хочеш рибки –
ліз у воду./Лежатимеш на печі – не їстимеш калачі.
3. WILL and WOULD are used in many set/idiomatic expressions having both subjunctive and non-
subjunctive meaning: He would give a penny for the young fellow’s thought. – Він багато дав би, щоб
дізнатися, що цей молодик задумав. You’d make a saint swear. – Ти навіть святого виведеш/вивів
би з рівноваги.
4. SHOULD as a modal verb is very often used both in reference to present and to future. It conveys a
variety of meanings some of which may be close to the meanings of the modal verbs ought to, have to,
to be to, must. The most common direct meaning of the modal verb SHOULD in Ukrainian
corresponds to the statives СЛІД, ТРЕБА, or to the modal word and phrase ПОТРІБНО/Є
ПОТРЕБА.

These equivalents are also mostly employed in order to express the following meaning of the modal verb
should:
  obligation/moral obligation, necessity: What do you think he should do? – І що, по-твоєму, йому
слід/треба робити?
 regret, grief, sorrow: I shouldn’t have said that. – Мені не слід/не треба було цього казати.
 advice/recommendation, admonition: You shouldn’t have consulted me, Esme. – Тобі не
треба/не слід було радитися зі мною, Есме.
 surprise, indignation or pleasure are mostly rendered in Ukrainian through the logical emphatic
stress, intonation, particles or through some modal verbs: God forbid that I should ever say a good
word for you! – Боронь Боже мені сказати/щоб я коли-небудь сказав хоч одне добре слово за
тебе!
 reproval or protest, disappointment, etc., which may be expressed in Ukrainian with the help of the
modal words or statives треба, слід, потрібно or with the help of some modal particles. Cf.: I
don’t know why sometimes I should be sneered at. – Не збагну, чому це іноді з мене треба
покепкувати/поглузувати.

71. Ways of translating the Participles (дієприкметник) and Participial Constructions. 269
Objective Present participle constructions may be translated into Ukrainian in the following ways:
1. With the help of the object subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction що or by the adverbial
connectors як, коли: ...he heard her moving about the room. – ... він чув, як вона ходила по кімнаті.
2. With the help of the adverbial subordinate clauses of time, purpose, manner, etc., : I had seen him
last September coming across the square towards the bar of the Continental... – Я бачив його
минулого року у вересні, коли він переходив майдан до бару в ресторані Континенталь...
3. With the help of an object subordinate clause or with the help of a semantically equivalent
substantival word-group: I heard someone weeping. – Я чув, як хтось плакав/чийсь плач.
4. With the help of the finite form of the verb, i.e., with the help of the simple verbal predicate: I can see
you marrying after a drink too many. – Ти, бачу, як підіп’єш, то ще станеш женихатися тут.

Subjective present participle constructions/complexes are mostly transformed in Ukrainian into a

complex sentence (складнопідрядні) introduced by the one-member indefinite-personal principal clause
(неозначені займенники) or by the infinitive performing the same syntactic function or with the help of
diyepryslivnyks. The introductory indefinite personal/principal clauses and infinitives are: Кажуть/Як
кажуть; Повідомляють; Повідомляється, що; Очікується, що/Очікують, що: He had been seen…
pressing his warm lips to the marble brow of an antique statue. – Бачили, ... як він притулявся своїми
теплими вустами до мармурового чола античної статуї.
72. Translation of the Gerund and Gerundial Complexes. 295
Translation of the gerund performing its nominal or verbal functions in the sentence usually does not create
great difficulties. Care should be taken, however, when identifying the nature of the –ing form verbal, which
may influence its way of translation. Thus, the -ing form moving in the sentence below, where it has an
attributive function, may be taken by mistake for the present participle. In reality, however, it has the nature of
a gerund which is also proved by its syntactic function: Chester liked a moving day to be dry and fair. –
Честеру подобалось, що в день переїзду була суха гарна погода.
The main means of conveying the meaning and function of the passive gerund are the following:
1) a noun or a corresponding nominal subordinate clause: I am indebted to Miss Betsey for having been
born on a Friday. – Я зобов’язаний міс Бетсі за своє народження саме в п’ятницю/що я
народився саме в п’ятницю.
2) a verbal word-group or a subordinate clause: … the need for being loved began to wrestle with her
pride. – 1. …потреба бути коханою увійшла в конфлікт з її погордою. 2. Потреба в тому, щоб
її кохали, зіткнулася з її погордою.
3) an infinitival sentence introduced by the conjunction or an object subordinate clause: Only to think
of being married to such a girl. – 1. Подумати тільки, щоб одружитися з такою дівчиною. 2.
Подумати тільки, щоб така дівчина та вийшла за нього заміж.
4) a subordinate clause and no other means:… she felt a strange certainty of being watched. – ... у неї
була якась/майже впевненість, що за нею спостерігають
73. Ways of Conveying the Passive Voice Constructions. 370c
English passive constructions are far from always transplanted to Ukrainian language. Some ways of expressing
the passive voice in both languages may coincide in form and structure: She was faintly disturbed by what
mother had said. – Вона була дещо стурбована тим, що сказала її мати. Others should be transformed, in
order to achieve faithfulness in translation: In the U.N. peace plan is implemented, frozen Serb assets in the
USA would be released. – Якщо план мирного врегулювання ООН буде здійснений, заморожені рахунки
Сербії у США будуть відпущені. English passive forms referring to present tense have mostly no structural
equivalents in Ukrainian where the verb to be (є) is usually omitted and the past participle acquires other
morphological (e.g. finite form) and semantic expression: Rescue efforts are being hampered dozens of
aftershocks, below-freezing temperatures. – Рятувальним роботам перешкоджають повторні поштовхи і
температура, що падає нижче нуля. One more faithful Ukrainian transformation of this passive sentence
construction may be achieved by way of conveying it through the so-called middle voice form or -ся/-сь
verb: Рятувальні роботи ускладнюються повторними підземними поштовхами і температурою, що
падає нижче нуля.

74. Identification of the pseudo-internationalisms referred to as «the false friends of the translator».
Pseudo internationalisms are words pairs that have similar spelling and pronunciation but different meaning.
The similarity leads to false associations, wrong usage or misunderstanding, or in the best case distortion of
context, imprecision, disregard for the right stylistic colouring. Pseudo internationalisms (false cognates, faux
amis, deceptive doubles, paronyms) regard to a sphere of linguistics where problems of translation, learning and
contrastive semantic studies interface. Contrastive analysis of both related and not related languages presents a
large corpus of similar or identical lexemes – words similar in spelling, pronunciation and often in meaning.
False friends of translator.

Words which look very similar but have different meaning. The meaning depends
from country and language ( gift in English подарок gift in German отрута) в укр
неділя день тижня в рос. Тиждень) this may be cased because of borrowings ,
which over the time and changed meaning because of cultural impact.

75. Translation of loan internationalisms.

Інтернаціоналізм — слово, що виникло спочатку в одній мові і потім з неї запозичене в більшість
інших мов світу для позначення цього поняття. Так, спеціальні терміни більшості наук, назви
технічних пристроїв (мікроскоп, телефон, супутник, Інтернет), громадських інститутів
(поліція, республіка, академія), спортивна лексика (насамперед слово спорт), різного
роду «екзотизми» (самурай, томагавк тощо) — є інтернаціоналізмами. Інтернаціоналізми (окрім
останнього випадку) рідко бувають стовідсотковими, так як у ряді мов для них часто створюються
не запозичення, а кальки.

Loan internationalism. Word that appeared firstly in one language and than was borrowed in majority
of other languages.
Depending on their nature, as well as on their denotative meaning and their sphere of functioning, international
loan units can be rendered into Ukrainian in one of the following three ways:
a) by direct translation of the componental parts without changing considerably their structural form cf.:
coefficient of efficiency – коефіцієнт корисної дії; literal/verbal translation – буквальний/дослівний
переклад, etc.
b) with the help of componental translation and some replacements, omissions or substitutions arising from
the national peculiarities of the target language, i.e, depending on its stylistic mode of usage: foreign
trade – зовнішня торгівля, living standards – життєвий рівень, etc.
c) with the help of descriptive translation: digital computer – цифрова обчислювальна машина; common
fraction (mathem.) – простий дріб.

76. Units of nationally based lexicon and ways of their translation.

The choice of the way of approach to expressing the denotative meanings of the units of specifically national
lexicon is strictly predetermined by some definite factors to which belong first of all the semantic and structural
complexity (or similarity) of the units of the culturally biased specific lexicon of the source language.
The meaning of specifically national units of lexicon can be conveyed by the following methods:
1. By transcription or Transliteration Exclusively. The units of the nationally specific lexicon, whose
meanings are rendered at the phonological level, usually belong to genuine internationalisms and
comprise social and political units of lexicon in the main (cf. lord, lady, mister, shilling, kozak, hryvnia,
etc.):
2. By Transcription or Transliteration and Explication of Their Genuine Nationally Specific
Meaning.
An additional explication of genuine nationally specific meaning becomes necessary when the
unit/notion of the culturally biased lexicon is introduced in the target language for the first time or when
it is not yet known to the broad public of the target language readers/ listeners. The explanation may be
given either in the translated passage/speech flow, where the culturally biased unit is used, or in a
footnote -when a lengthy explication becomes necessary.
3. By Descriptive Explaining/Explication Only.
The orthographic form of a considerable number of sense units belonging to the nationally specific
lexicon of the source language can not be always rendered into the target language. That happens mostly
when the transcription/transliteration can not be helpful in expressing the sense of the culturally biased
national unit, or when it might bring about an unnecessary ambiguity in the target language
narration/text.
4. By Translation of Componental Parts and Additional Explication of Units of the Nationally
Biased Lexicon.
The proper meaning of some specific units of the national lexicon can be faithfully rendered by way of
regular translation of all or some of their componental parts and explication of the denotative meaning
pertaining to the source language unit.
5. By Ways of Word-for-Word or Loan Translation.
When the componental parts making up the units of the nationally specific lexicon are at the same time
the main transparent bearers of their proper sense, expressed through their meaning, a faithful
translation of such sense units may be achieved either by way of word-for-word translation or by way of
loan translation.
6. Translating by Means of Semantic Analogies.
Some peculiar notions in both the languages may be identical or similar/analogous in their meaning and
functioning. It happens due to the existence of common routine or habitual actions, common
occupations, social services, food, etc., in the contrasted language communities. Yet, the connotative
divergences and sometimes the spheres of use may not always fully coincide in the target language

77. Translation of metaphors and phraseological units and stable expressions.

Питання 62 - друга частина запитання, ідентичні, окрім метафори.
Procedures of metaphors translation:
1. The same image is reproduced in Target L ‘provided that it is comparable in frequency and use in the
appropriate register’. One word metaphors are more commonly translated by this method, while
translation of complex metaphors or idioms depends on cultural overlap.
2. Source L image can be replaced with a standard Target L image provided that it is culturally compatible
in Target L, and ‘presumably coined by one person and diffused through popular speech’. Stereotyped
metaphors should be converted to sense whether they exist in Target L or not.
3. The metaphor can be translated as a simile while retaining the image. This modifies the shock of
metaphor, ‘particularly if Target L text is not emotive in character’. This procedure can be used for any
type of word, and original metaphor.
4. The metaphor can be translated as simile along with its sense (or metaphor plus sense).
 5. The metaphor can be converted into sense. This procedure can be applied in any type of text, and
preferred when Source L to Target L image replacement is extra broad in terms of sense.
6. A rather radical approach is to delete the metaphor along with sense component if it is redundant. A
caution is that Source L text should not be ‘authoritative’ or ‘expression of writer’s personality’. The
translator should make decision after weighing what is more important and less important in the text.
7. Sometimes translator wants to make sure that image will be understood properly so he adds a gloss as
well. Thus he transfers same metaphor along with its sense. E.g “The tongue is a fire” can be translated
as follows “A fire ruins things; what we say also ruins things”. This may suggest lack of confidence in
metaphor’s power and clarity, but it can be useful if metaphor is repeated.

78. Antonymic translation. Reasons for antonymic translation.

Antonymic translation is a complex transformation when a source language construction is shifted to a target
language construction, whose components are of opposite meanings.
Three types of antonymic transformations:

substituting a word with its antonym or conversive. замінивши слово своїм антонімом або розмовним.
1.

substituting a negative sentence with an affirmative one and vice versa: I never heard of it! –Вперше чую!

заміна негативного речення ствердним і навпаки:

2.

shifting the position of a negative component: зміщення позиції негативної складової:

3. I don’t think I can do it. – Думаю, я не зможу цього зробити.

The antonymic device is empolyed in the following cases:

 when in the target language there is no direct equivalent for the sense unit of the source
language.
 When the sense unit of the source language has two negations of its own which
create anaffirmation: In those clothes  she was by no means non
elegant.  (S.Maugham)  У  цьому  вбранні  вона  була  досить  елеґантна.

 In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness in narration: I don't think  it will hurt you,
baby. Думаю,  вам  воно  не  зашкодить,  люба.

 In order to avoid the use of the same or identical structures close to each other in a text
(stylistic aim and means): Mrs. Strickland was  a woman of character.  Місіс Стрікленд була
жінкою  не без характеру  (тобто, була жінка  з характером).

Навчальна дисципліна «Лінгвокраїнознавство країн основної іноземної мови»

79 Linguistic Country Studies as a Science.
I think that competent studying of foreign language not possible without basic knowledge about the
country where native speakers live. Such science as linguistic country studies helps students to deep in
culture customs and history of countries where lives native speakers of the language Because its natural
that people from different countries have different mentality way of life holidays and even jokes.. In our
case it is studying of English-speaking countries. The main purpose of this science is to provide language
competence during the process of communication translation and interpreting..

80. Basic Notions and Terms of Linguistic Country Studies.

Education by means of a foreign language presupposes knowledge of the culture, history, religions and
traditions of the country of the studied language.
The theories of "Linguistic culture" emphasize that this direction, combines, on one hand, language training,
and on the other - gives certain information about the country of the language being studied.
The basic notions of country studies are: background notions, non-equivalent vocabulary, connotative
vocabulary, backround vocabulary, verbal symbols,and false friends of translator.
1. background notions
traditionally its common for common for all comunicators knowledge. Its common information which
provides mutual understanding in the process of communication. Якась загальна інфа яка відома
людям які спілкуються між собою.
It is divided into 3 parts:
1.General Human загально-людські
2.Regional регіональні
3.country-specific knowledge країнознавчі знання

For country-studies most of all are important country-specific knowledge. Its about way of life,
customs,culture of certain country and what distinguishes them from behavior of people of other nationality.
2. non-equivalent vocabulary
its words or phrases from one language which have not full equivalents in lexicology of the second
language( target language) це слова шо не мають точного відповідника в іншій мові при перекладі!
 It can be: names of cities,companies,geographical names,names of organisations
 Words which means subjects of material culture (предмети матеріальної культури)
напр.вишиванка,писанка,тризуб,коломийка,
 Random gaps words рандомнi слова(лакуни) whish doesn’t have appropriate equivalent without
any reason in another language доба 24 hours ,іменинник – man who celebrating a birthday..

 Connotative vocabulary Words which express your own feelings to the subject or person. Its
characterizes emotional situation of communication and attitude to each other. Це якесь
додаткове значення слів за допомогою яких ми виражаємо своє ставлення до предмета чи
людини /укр мова більш забарвлена такими rfhjxсловами ніж англ( до цього ше відносяться
пестливі слова-їсточки питоньки воріженьки) fox просто лисиця звір fox-хитра людина
 Background vocabulary words vhich have the same denotative meaning but have different
assotiations слова які мають таке саме значення пряме в 2 мовах але сприймаються по різному
різними національностями. For ex.
You say I cant stay at home in summer ( for our country it is ok ) but In some tropical countries like
Vietnam people stay at home during the day because its too hot)
 Verbal symbols its some specific words which create assotiation and create s a certain image in
our mind. A lot of such symbols come from myths legends and fairytales. But you must notice
that 1 indentical symbol may associate with 2 different notions.кароче шо в одній країні може
означати шось добре в другі наоборот

False friends of translator.

Words which look very similar but have different meaning. The meaning depends from country and
language ( gift in English подарок gift in German отрута) в укр неділя день тижня в рос.
Тиждень) this may be cased because of borrowings , which over the time and changed meaning
because of cultural impact.
The mentioned knowledge encompasses mastering:
- background vocabulary: realia, terminology, notions relevant to the country;
- equivalent and non-equivalent vocabulary and its relation to corresponding units of the native language;
- specificity of non-verbal behavior and habits of native speakers;
- regional characteristics of the country represented in the language, etc.
81. Variants of English.
 British English is the English language as spoken and written in the United Kingdom or, more broadly,
throughout the British Isles. English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-
 Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest
Germany and the northern Netherlands.
 American English is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States and widely
adopted in Canada. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States and is the common
language used by the federal government.
 Australian English is a major variety of the English language, used throughout Australia. Although
English has no official status in the constitution, Australian English is the country’s national.
 Canadian English is the set of varieties of English native to Canada. According to the 2011 census,
English was the first language of approximately 57% of the population, the remainder of the population
were native speakers of Canadian French (22%) or other languages (21%). Canadian English is the
product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. The first
large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important,
was the influx of loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States – as
such, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Washington, D.C., Virginia, and
West Virginia.
 Indian English. English public instruction began in India in the 1830s during the rule of the East India
Company (India was then, and is today, one of the most linguistically diverse regions of the world). The
view of this language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating
it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India, albeit with an
Indian twist, popularly known as Indian English.
 Philippine English is any variety of English (similar and related to American English) native to the
Philippines, including those used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos. English is
taught in schools as one of the two official languages of the country, the other being Filipino (Tagalog).
Before, Spanish was considered to be the language of power and influence. However, in 1898, when the
Spanish gave the United States control of the nation, the English language, although initially not
favored, became widely used in a matter of years.
 Ugandan English, or Uglish (pronounced you-glish), is the dialect of English spoken in Uganda. As
with similar dialects spoken elsewhere, Ugandan English has developed a strong local flavor. The
speech patterns of Ugandan languages strongly influence spoken English.

82. English Language Picture of the World.

Linguistic picture of the world is the division of the world and the consolidation of this division primarily by
verbal means of the natural language.
English is crucial in modern world and is considered to be a universal language of every field of our existence.
Without global English, the inter-relational proximity of different nations would have been very remote indeed,
requiring translators that often feed a sense of “separateness” among diplomats. If anything, global English is
helping diverse nations become closer together by eradicating previously problematic linguistic barriers to
better trade, security and cultural relations.
In the reality of science and technology, English has also helped the global exchange of research data and
innovative ideas.
Given the established dominance of English in the global ecosystem, the subject "English Language" is
becoming more and more needed thus involved into educational programs as the priority subject.
83. Timeline of the UK History.
The United Kingdom is an island nation located in the Atlantic Ocean just off the coast of France. It is actually
a union of four countries including England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.
The islands that are today the United Kingdom were invaded by the Romans in 55 BC.
After the Roman Empire weakened, the islands were invaded by the Saxons, the Vikings, and finally the
Normans.

The English conquered Wales in 1282 under Edward I. The two countries became unified in 1536.
Scotland became part of the British crown in 1602. The union became official in 1707.
Ireland became a part of the union in 1801. However, many of the Irish rebelled and, in 1921, the southern part
of Ireland was made a separate country and an Irish free state.
In the 1500s Britain began to expand its empire into much of the world. After defeating the Spanish Armada in
1588, England became the world's dominant sea power. Britain first grew into the Far East and India and then
to the Americas.
In the early 1800s the UK defeated France in the Napoleonic Wars and became the supreme European power.
In the 1900s, the United Kingdom became less of a dominant world power. It continued to lose control over
colonies and was weakened by World War I. However, under the leadership of Winston Churchill, the United
Kingdom was the last western European nation to oppose Germany in World War II and played a major role in
defeating Hitler.
The United Kingdom played a major role in the history of the world, taking a leading role in developing
democracy and in advancing literature and science. At its peak in the 19th century, the British Empire covered
over one-fourth of the surface of the earth.
84. Timeline of the US History.
The area that is today the United States was inhabited for thousands of years by various tribal peoples.
The first European to arrive in the area was Christopher Columbus and the first to make landfall was Ponce de
Leon who landed at Florida.
France laid claim to the interior of the United States, while Spain claimed what is now the Southwest.
The first English settlement was the Virginia Colony in the Jamestown in 1607. A few years later, in 1620, the
Pilgrims arrived and founded Plymouth Colony.
Eventually England would have 13 colonies in eastern North America.
By the 1700s the American colonies were growing unhappy with what they called "taxation without
representation". In 1776, the United States declared its independence from England. The American
Revolutionary War for independence would follow and, with the help of France, the colonies defeated England.
In 1861, the United States experienced a civil war when the southern states tried to secede from the Union.
They were defeated after a bloody war and the country remained together. The country continued to
industrialize and in the 1900s became one of the world's industrial leaders.
In both World Wars the United States tried to remain neutral but ended up on the side of the United Kingdom
and the Allies. In World War II, it was the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese that forced the US to enter
the war. The US developed nuclear weapons and used 2 of them to bomb Japan, effectively ending the war and
starting a cold war with the communist Soviet Union.
In the late 1900s the United States became one of the world's superpowers. The other superpower was the
Soviet Union. Both countries had nuclear weapons. The two countries fought a Cold War for many years where
battles were fought by spies, by a race for the most weapons, and in proxy wars like the Korean War, the
Vietnam War, and Soviet-Afghanistan War.
85. Timeline of the Canadian History.
Canada was originally settled by the First Nation people and the Intuit many thousands of years ago. Europeans
arrived briefly in 1000 AD, but didn't return until 1497 when John Cabot explored the Atlantic Coast for Great
Britain.
Later explorers from other countries would arrive including Jacques Cartier from France who explored the St.
Lawrence River and surrounding areas.
The first permanent settlements were French. Led by Samuel de Champlain, the French established Port Royal
and Quebec City in the early 1600s.
After the Seven Years War most of Canada became part of the British Empire.
In 1840, the Act of Union created the United Province of Canada. Canada continued to expand and in 1867
was officially proclaimed the Canadian Confederation.
There were four provinces in the Confederation including Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Ontario.
Soon British Columbia, Rupert's Land, and the Northwest Territory all became part of Canada.
Britain, however, still maintained control over Canada's foreign affairs. In 1831, through the Statute of
Westminster, Canada became a fully independent nation.
86. Timeline of the Australian History.
Australia was first inhabited perhaps 40,000 years ago by aboriginal peoples.
During the Age of Exploration, the land was discovered and mapped by many Europeans including the
Spanish, Dutch and English. However, Australia wasn't really explored until 1770 when Captain James Cook
explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain. He named it New South Wales.
The first colony was established at Sydney by Captain Arthur Phillip in 1788. It was initially considered a penal
colony. This was because many of the first settlers were criminals. Britain would sometimes send their
criminals to the penal colony rather than jail. Oftentimes, the crimes that people committed were small or even
made up to get rid of unwanted citizens.
Slowly, more and more of the settlers were not convicts. Sometimes you will still hear people refer to Australia
as being started by a penal colony.
Six colonies were formed in Australia: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829;
South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. These same colonies later became the states of
the Australian Commonwealth.
On January 1, 1901 the British Government passed an act to create the Commonwealth of Australia.
In 1911, the Northern Territory became part of the Commonwealth.
The first federal Parliament was opened at Melbourne in May 1901 by the Duke of York. Later, in 1927, the
center of government and parliament moved to the city of Canberra. Australia took part in both World War I
and World War II allied with Great Britain and the United States.
1986 - Australia becomes fully independent from the United Kingdom.
87. Timeline of the New Zealand History.
The first people to arrive in New Zealand were ancestors of the Māori. The first settlers arrived from Polynesia
between 1200 and 1300 AD.
The first European to arrive in New Zealand was the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642.
The Englishman Captain James Cook arrived here in 1769.
By the 1830s, the British government was being pressured to reduce lawlessness in the country and to settle
here before the French, who were considering New Zealand as a potential colony. On 6 February 1840 at
Waitangi, William Hobson — New Zealand’s first Governor — invited assembled Māori chiefs to sign a treaty
with the British Crown.
In the 1870s, the government helped thousands of British people start a new life in New Zealand. Railways
were built and towns sprang up or expanded.
In 1882, the first shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand made it successfully to England, proving that
exporting chilled meat, butter and cheese was possible. New Zealand became a key supplier to Britain.
In 1893, New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant all women the right to vote. Not long after,
New Zealand was the first country to offer state pensions.
New Zealand was keen to show its loyalty to the British Empire and sent troops to fight for Britain in the South
African War in 1899. It was the first war New Zealand soldiers were sent overseas to fight.
New Zealand became an independent Dominion in 1907. Thousands of New Zealanders served and died
overseas in the First World War. New Zealand troops fought overseas again in the Second World War in
support of the United Kingdom (UK). However, the fall of Singapore shook New Zealanders’ confidence that
Britain could guarantee the country’s security. It was the United States that protected New Zealand against
Japan during the war in the Pacific.
As a sign of friendship with the United States, New Zealand fought in Korea in the 1950s and in Vietnam in
the 1960s.
Britain was an important and assured market for our farm products. But when Britain joined the European
Economic Community (EEC) in 1973, New Zealand lost that important market. Luckily, New Zealand had
already begun diversifying its export trade.
New Zealand has become a culturally diverse country. Particularly from the 1980s, a wide range of ethnic
groups have been encouraged to settle there and New Zealand is now much more multicultural.
Hindi is the fourth most common language in New Zealand, after English, Māori and Samoan.
88. Economy of the USA.
The United States of America is a union of 50 states in North America. It is one of the world's largest
economies and is considered a mixed economy. That means it operates as a free market economy in consumer
goods and business services. But, even in those areas, the government imposes regulations to protect the good
of all. It operates as a command economy in defense, in some retirement benefits, in some medical care, and in
other areas. 
The government receives most of its revenue from income taxes. Most of its spending goes toward three large
expenses: Social Security benefits, military spending, and Medicare. 
The Federal Reserve System is the nation's central bank.
89. Economy of the UK.
The United Kingdom has a fiercely independent, developed, and international trading economy that was at the
forefront of the 19th-century Industrial Revolution. The country emerged from World War II as a military
victor but with a debilitated manufacturing sector. Postwar recovery was relatively slow, and it took nearly 40
years, with additional stimulation after 1973 from membership in the European Economic
Community (ultimately succeeded by the European Union [EU]), for the British economy to improve its
competitiveness significantly.
The United States remained a major investment and trading partner, and Japan also became a significant
investor in local production. American and Japanese companies have often chosen the United Kingdom as their
European base. 
During the 1980s the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher pursued the privatization, or
denationalization, of publicly owned corporations that had been nationalized by previous governments.
Privatization, accompanied by widespread labour unrest, resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of jobs in the
coal-mining and heavy industrial sectors. Although there was some improvement in the standard of
living nationally, in general there was greater prosperity in the South East, including London
The United Kingdom has relatively limited supplies of economically valuable mineral resources. By contrast,
the United Kingdom has relatively large energy resources including oil, natural gas, and coal.
The manufacturing sector as a whole has continued to shrink both in employment and in its contribution to the
GDP. The decline in manufacturing largely accounted for the rapid rise in unemployment in the early 1980s.
90. Economy of Canada.
The early settlement and growth of Canada depended on exploiting and exporting the country’s vast natural
resources. During the 20th century, manufacturing industries and services became increasingly important. By
the end of the 20th century, agriculture and mining accounted for less than 5 percent of Canada’s labour force,
while manufacturing stood at one-fifth and services, including transportation, trade, finance, and other
activities, employed nearly three-fourths of the workforce. 
Canada’s economy is dominated by the private sector. During the 1990s some nationalized industries were
privatized. Canadian agriculture is firmly private, but it has come to depend on government subsidies.
Less than one-twelfth of Canada’s land area is suitable for crop production. Although agriculture employs less
than 4 percent of the Canadian labour force, it is vital to the national economy, producing large volumes of food
for both the domestic and export markets and providing raw materials for food processing, wholesale, and retail
industries.
Almost half of Canada’s land area is covered with forest, the accessible portions of which provide abundant
resources for lumber, pulp, and paper. The most valuable forest region for timber production is the west coast,
where the climate is conducive to the growth of giant trees with excellent lumber. Canada’s forest industry has
to struggle constantly against the threats of fire, insects, and disease though.
Canada has rich fishing grounds off both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Canada is rich in mineral
resources. Although there are some metallic mineral and fossil fuel deposits in sedimentary rocks in the
Western Cordillera, the largest volume of coal and petroleum has so far been found in the interior plains of
western Canada. Mining has been a key factor in the development of Canada’s northlands.
Canada is richly endowed with hydroelectric power resources. It has about one-sixth of the world’s total
installed hydroelectric generating capacity. 
91. Economy of Australia.
Australia’s established world reputation has long been that of a wealthy underpopulated country prone to
natural disasters, its economy depending heavily on agriculture (how they say “riding on the sheep’s back”) and
foreign investment.
Wheat, beef, lamb, dairy produce, and a range of irrigated crops also became important, but the key
significance of farming and grazing was not challenged. Australia remains the world’s leading producer
of wool, regularly supplying nearly one-third of the global total.
Most of Australia’s soils are mediocre or poor by world standards. Australia is regularly described as the driest
of the inhabited continents, and vast areas of the country are unsuitable for agricultural production.
Native flora and fauna have been dramatically undervalued. When Europeans began colonizing Australia in
1788, nearly one-tenth of the continent may have been covered by forest, and two-fifths by woodlands,
including savanna woodlands. It seems likely that less than half of the forested area had commercial potential. 
Hydroelectric generation is limited by highly variable river volumes and a predominantly level topography. 
Inexpensive wind power, offers great opportunities. Solar and tidal energy are other obvious options for
alternative power sources in Australia. 
The mining industry accounts for a small but vital contribution to the Australian economy. The most
economically important mineral reserves are located in Western Australia (iron ore, nickel, bauxite, diamonds,
gold, mineral sands, and offshore natural gas), Queensland (bauxite, bituminous [black] coal, lead, mineral
sands, zinc, and silver), New South Wales (bituminous coal, lead, zinc, silver, and mineral sands), and Victoria
(lignite and offshore oil and natural gas).
92. Economy of New Zealand.
New Zealand’s economy is developed, but it is comparatively small in the global marketplace. In the late 19th
and early 20th centuries, New Zealand’s standard of living, based on the export of agricultural products, was
one of the highest in the world, but after the mid-20th century the rate of growth tended to be one of the slowest
among the developed countries.
New Zealand’s farming base required a relatively complex economy. Highly productive pastoral farming,
embracing extensive sheep grazing and large-scale milk production, was made possible by a temperate climate,
heavy investment in land improvement, and highly skilled farm management by owner-occupiers, who used
one of the highest ratios of capital to labour in farming anywhere in the world.
Most minerals, metallic and nonmetallic, occur in New Zealand, but few are found in sufficient quantities for
commercial exploitation. The exceptions are gold, coal and natural gas.  New Zealand’s energy comes from
both fossil fuels and renewable resources such as hydroelectric, wind, and geothermal power. 
Tourism is an important part of New Zealand’s economy. Most of the country’s visitors originate
from Australia, the United Kingdom, the United States, and China. Since the late 1990s there has been a
significant increase in the number of international students.
93. Political System of the USA.

After the United States declared its independence from Great Britain, the country set out to organize their own
political system. In doing this, they were inspired by the French philosopher, Montesquieu. Montesquieu’s idea
was that power must be divided into a legislative, an executive, and a judicial branch. 
In the United States, the Congress is the national parliament. The Congress functions as the legislative branch
of the U.S. government. The President functions as the executive branch, and the courts (The Supreme Court),
in turn, function as the judicial branch.  The role of the Congress is to pass laws, and the President’s role is to
implement such laws after they have been passed. Finally, the role of the courts is to interpret laws and make
judgments in court based on these interpretations.
94. Political System of the UK.
British politics can seem very confusing – there are lots of different political parties and branches of
government, and even though they have a monarchy they are also a democracy.
The United Kingdom is a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy. This means that while a
monarch – in this case, Queen Elizabeth II – is the head of state, she is not the head of government. She does
not get to make most of the decisions about how the government is run; that job belongs to the Prime Minister.
The English monarchy used to have absolute power, but that was a long time ago – over 800 years in fact. 2015
was the 800th anniversary of the Magna Carta, or the Great Charter. This document spelled out the rights and
responsibilities of King John of England and the ruling class in 1215. The Magna Carta is regarded as the first
statement of citizen rights in the world.
England is the most powerful country of the four and the British Government works for the Queen, who is an
English monarch. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland are all ultimately beholden to English law. However,
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland all have governing bodies that work exclusively on issues in their own
countries.
The UK’s government has three basic types of power: legislative, executive, and judiciary.
Legislative power is the power to make new laws or remove old ones. This power is held by Parliament, which
is made up of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly,
and the Northern Irish Assembly also have legislative powers; however, they do not have as much authority as
Parliament.
Executive power – the power to implement and enforce laws – is controlled by the British government, which
works on behalf of the Queen, as well as the devolved governments of Scotland and Wales and the Northern
Ireland Executive.
Judiciary power, which is the power to prosecute those who break the law, is kept independent of the legislature
and the executive. The highest court in the UK is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
95. Political System of Canada.
In Canada, there are 3 levels of government. 
 Federal government (the Government of Canada) - Responsible for things that affect the whole country,
such as citizenship and immigration, national defence and trade with other countries.
 Provincial and territorial governments (for example, the Province of Ontario) - Responsible for things
such as education, health care and highways.
 Municipal (local) governments (cities, towns, and villages in Ontario) - Responsible for firefighting, city
streets and other local matters. If there is no local government, the province provides services.

At the federal level, there are 3 parts of government

 Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, is Canada's formal head of state. The Governor General represents the
Queen in Canada and carries out the duties of head of state.

 The House of Commons makes Canada's laws. Canadians elect representatives to the House of

Commons. These representatives are called Members of Parliament (MPs) and usually belong to a
political party. The political party that has the largest number of MPs forms the government, and its leader
becomes prime minister.

 The prime minister is the head of government in Canada. The Prime Minister chooses MPs to serve as
ministers in the cabinet. There are ministers for citizenship and immigration, justice and other subjects. The
cabinet makes important decisions about government policy.

 The Senate reviews laws that are proposed by the House of Commons. Senators come from across
Canada. The prime minister chooses the senators.

At the provincial level:

 The Lieutenant Governor represents the Queen.

 The Legislative Assembly makes law. In Ontario, elected representatives are called Members of

Provincial Parliament (MPPs).

At the municipal level:
 The Province of Ontario defines the structure, finances, and management of the local governments of
cities, towns and villages.

 Residents of the municipality elect the mayor and council members to lead the local

government. Committees of councillors discuss budget, service and administrative issues that are then
passed on to the council for debate. Citizens, business owners and community groups can present their
concerns to councillors at committee meetings.

 Municipalities may also be part of a larger county or regional government (for example, York Region).

96. Political System of Australia.

Australia has a mixed system of government; it is a representative democracy and a constitutional monarchy. It

is also a federation of states.
In a representative democracy, citizens choose candidates to represent them in a parliament. In
Australia, federal elections are held approximately every 3 years to select members of parliament to represent
Australians and make laws on their behalf.
In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch does not have absolute power—they must follow the
country’s constitution. The Australian head of state is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The Queen appoints
the Governor-General to act on her behalf.
A federation is a group of states that have joined together to form a single country. In 1901, 6 British colonies
united to form the country of Australia. The colonies became Australian states and a federal Parliament was
created with the power to make laws about national matters such as defence, immigration, trade and foreign
affairs. The Australian Constitution—the set of rules by which Australia is run—sets out how the federal and
state parliaments share the power to make laws.

The Australian Constitution defines 3 groups—the Parliament, the Executive and the Judiciary—and describes
how they share power. The separation of powers helps to ensure that no group has all the power, by giving each
group their own area of responsibility:

 Parliament (the Legislature) makes and changes the law.

 Executive puts the law into action.
 Judiciary settles disputes about the law.
97. Political System of New Zealand.
New Zealand has a parliamentary form of government based on the British model. Legislative power is vested
in the single-chamber House of Representatives (Parliament), the members of which are elected for three-year
terms. The political party or coalition of parties that commands a majority in the House forms the government.
Generally, the leader of the governing party becomes the prime minister, who, with ministers responsible for
different aspects of government, forms a cabinet. The cabinet is the central organ of executive power. Most
legislation is initiated in the House on the basis of decisions made by the cabinet; Parliament must then pass it
by a majority vote before it can become law. The cabinet, however, has extensive regulatory powers that are
subject to only limited parliamentary review.
New Zealand derives from the common law of Britain certain statutes passed before 1947 by the British
Parliament. 
98. System of Education in the USA.

Prior to higher education, American students attend primary and secondary school for a combined total of 12
years.  Around age six, U.S. children begin primary school, which is most commonly called “elementary
school.” They attend five or six years and then go onto secondary school.
Secondary school consists of two programs: the first is “middle school” or “junior high school” and the second
program is “high school.” A diploma or certificate is awarded upon graduation from high school. After
graduating high school (12th grade), U.S. students may go on to college or university. College or university
study is known as “higher education.”
American students have to submit your academic transcripts as part of your application for admission to
university or college. Academic transcripts are official copies of your academic work. In the U.S. this includes
the “grades” and “grade point average” (GPA), which are measurements of academic achievement. Courses are
commonly graded using percentages, which are converted into letter grades.
The school calendar usually begins in August or September and continues through May or June.
The academic year at many schools is composed of two terms called “semesters.” (Some schools use a three-
term calendar known as the “trimester” system.) Still, others further divide the year into the quarter system of
four terms, including an optional summer session. 
A student who is attending a college or university and has not earned a bachelor’s degree, is studying at the
undergraduate level. It typically takes about four years to earn a bachelor’s degree. The first two years of study
they are generally required to take a wide variety of classes in different subjects, commonly known as
prerequisite courses: literature, science, the social sciences, the arts, history, and so forth. This is so they
achieve a general knowledge, a foundation, of a variety of subjects prior to focusing on a specific field of study.
Each course is worth a certain number of credits or credit hours. This number is roughly the same as the
number of hours a student spends in class for that course each week. A course is typically worth three to five
credits.
A full-time program at most schools is 12 or 15 credit hours (four or five courses per term) and a certain
number of credits must be fulfilled in order to graduate. 
99. System of Education in the UK.

The education system in the UK is divided into four main parts:

1. PRIMARY EDUCATION;
The year groups at primary School level are:
 Year R (Reception) (age 4 – 5)
 Year 1 (age 5 - 6)
 Year 2 (age 6 - 7) The year when SATs testing takes place for Key Stage 1
 Year 3 (age 7 - 8)
 Year 4 (age 8 - 9)
 Year 5 (age 9 - 10)
 Year 6 (age 10 - 11) The year when SATs testing takes place for Key Stage 2
2. SECONDARY EDUCATION
Under the UK school system, all students study English, Maths, Sciences, a Humanity and a Modern
Language. Besides these subjects, each school has a list with optional subjects and students may choose
a few.
In some schools, students sit Common Entrance Exam in year 7. There are 3 examination sessions, in
November, January and May/June.
Starting at Year 10 and Year 11 students prepare for GCSE exams that are taken after two years
(General Certificate of Secondary Education).

In the UK school system, during the GCSE programme, students study between 9 and 12 subjects. Some
of them are compulsory , some are chosen by each student according to their abilities and preferences.
The chosen subjects and the GCSE results are very important for their Further Studies (A-Level or IB)
and for their University admission.
3. FURTHER EDUCATION
Further education may be used in a general sense to cover all non-advanced courses taken after the
period of compulsory education. It is post-compulsory education (in addition to that received at
 secondary school), that is distinct from the education offered in universities (higher education). It may
be at any level from basic skills training to higher vocational education.
4. HIGHER EDUCATION.
There are three main levels of HE course:
 Postgraduate courses leading to higher degrees, diplomas and certificates which usually require a
first degree as entry qualification.
 Undergraduate courses which include first degrees, first degrees with qualified teacher status,
enhanced first degrees, first degrees obtained concurrently with a diploma, and intercalated first
degrees.
 Other undergraduate courses which include all other higher education courses, for example SVQ or
NVQ: Level 5, Diploma , HND, HNC and SVQ or NVQ.

Children in the UK have to legally attend primary and secondary education which runs from about 5 years old
until the student is 16 years old.
The education system in the UK is also split into "key stages" which breaks down as follows:
 Key Stage 1: 5 to 7 years old
 Key Stage 2: 7 to 11 years old
 Key Stage 3: 11 to 14 years old
 Key Stage 4: 14 to 16 years old

100.System of Education in Canada.

Canada has a strong and well-funded system of public education, largely managed provincially. Consequently,
some aspects of the education system can vary between provinces. However, as education is overseen by the
federal government, the standard of education remains consistently high throughout the country.
There is both a public and private education system in Canada. Private education and other schooling systems
— for example, religious schools — are also available at all three levels.
The education system is divided into three levels:
 Primary
 Secondary
 Post-secondary

101.System of Education in Australia.

Like other countries, the education system of Australia is mainly divided into three broad areas - Primary
School, Secondary/Senior Secondary School and Tertiary Education.
Primary School: It runs for seven or eight years, starting from Kindergarten
Secondary School: It starts from the years 7 to 10 or 8 to 10 and runs for three or four years
Senior Secondary: It starts from the years 11 and 12 and runs for two years.
Tertiary Education: It includes both higher education and Vocational education and training (VET)

102.System of Education in New Zealand.

There are three types of schools in new Zealand:

 State or public schools (schools owned and funded by the government with usually a very small
donation encouraged)
 State integrated schools (schools with a special character), and
 Private schools (schools that charge set fees for a term or year)

The education system for schools is made up of 13 Year levels. Primary education starts at Year 1 and goes to
Year 8 (around 5–12 years of age). Secondary education goes from Year 9 to Year 13 (around 13–17 years of
age).

103.National Symbols of the USA.

1. The American flag is often called «The Stars and Stripes» (other names «Old Glory» and «The Star-
Spangled Banner»).
It has 13 horizontal stripes,7 red and 6 white which stand for the original 13 states (thirteen British colonies that
declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain and became the first states in the Union). In the top
left hand corner there are 50 white stars on a blue background: one star for each state.

2. Seal of the United States.

The Great seal is used as the national coat of arms of the United States. It is officially used on documents such
as United States passports, military insignia, embassy placards, and various flags.

3. National anthem: «The Star-Spangled Banner»

Francis Scott Key wrote the lyrics to the anthem as a poem in 1814, after he witnessed the British Navy
bombarding ships during the Battle of Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland during the War of 1812.
The song became the official national anthem in 1931, replacing several other songs commonly sung at public
events.
4. National Motto – In God We Trust
In 1956, President Dwight Eisenhower declared “In God We Trust” as the official national motto of the United
States of America. This motto supplanted “E Pluribus Unum” that had been in use since the initial 1776 design
of the Great Seal of the United States. The motto first appeared on the 1864 two-cent coin.
5. National bird – Bald Eagle
In 1782, the Continental Congress adopted the Great Seal of the United States, which depicts a bald eagle
holding 13 olive branches in one talon and 13 arrows in the other. The olive branch stands for the power to
make peace, while the arrows stand for the power to make war. The bald eagle was chosen because of its long
life, great strength, and majestic looks, and because it was believed to exist only on this continent at the time.

6. National mammal – North American Bison

The bison was officially made the National Mammal in May 2016 and designated during a ceremony at
Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota in November.

6. National floral emblem – Rose

The rose was designated as the official flower and floral emblem of the United States of America in 1986.
The rose is a symbol of love and beauty, as as well as war and politics, all over the world. Several of the 50
states have also adopted the rose as their official state flower, including New York, Oklahoma, Georgia, Iowa,
and North Dakota.

7. National tree – Oak Tree

The mighty oak tree was designated as the official national tree of the United States of America in 2004.
With more than 60 species of oak grow in the United States, it is cherished for its beauty, abundant shade, and
top-quality lumber.

104.National Symbols of the UK.

1. Union Jack or Union Flag
The flag of England is represented by a red cross on a white background.

2. National Anthem
"God Save the Queen" (alternatively "God Save the King" depending on the gender of the reigning
monarch) is the royal anthem in a number of Commonwealth realms, their territories and the British Crown
dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown, and it may originate in plainchant; but an attribution to the
composer John Bull is sometimes made.
3. National Motto:
 Dieu et mon droit , meaning "God and my right", is the motto of the Monarch of the United Kingdom
outside Scotland. It appears on a scroll beneath the shield of the version of the coat of arms of the
United Kingdom. It was adopted as the royal motto of England by King Henry V (1386–1422).
 "In my defens God me defend" is the motto of both the royal coat of arms of the Kingdom of Scotland
and royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom used in Scotland.
4. Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom
The royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, is the official coat of arms of the British monarch. These arms
are used by the Queen in her official capacity as monarch of the United Kingdom. Variants of the royal arms
are used by other members of the British royal family, by the British Government in connection with the
administration and government of the country, and some courts and legislatures in a number of Commonwealth
realms.

5. National Flower – Tudor Rose

6. National Animal – Lion

7. National Tree – Oak Tree

King Charles II escaped parliamentarians after his father was executed and hid in an old oak tree. Since then,
this escape has been called the Royal Oak and is a well-known account for many locals.
Also England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own Saint Patrons as:
 St. George
 St. Andrew
 St. David
 St. Patrick

105.National Symbols of Canada.

1. The National Flag of Canada often simply referred to as the Canadian flag, or unofficially as the Maple
Leaf consists of a red field with a white square at its centre , in the middle of which is featured a stylized, red,
11-pointed maple leaf charged in the centre.It is the first flag to have been adopted by both houses of
Parliament and officially proclaimed by the Canadian monarch as the country's official national flag.

2. Arms Of Canada
Royal Coat of Arms of or formally as the Arms of Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canadais, since
1921, the official coat of arms of the Canadian monarch and thus also of Canada. It is closely modelled after the
royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to
those derived from the British version.
3. National Anthem – “O Canada”
The original lyrics were in French; an English translation was published in 1906. "O Canada" had served as a
de facto national anthem since 1939, officially becoming the country's national anthem in 1980 when Canada's
National Anthem Act received royal assent and became effective on July 1 as part of that year's Dominion Day
(today's Canada Day) celebrations.
4. National Motto - A mari usque ad mare (English: From sea to sea) is the Canadian national motto. The
phrase comes from the Latin Vulgate translation of Psalm 72:8 in the Bible.
6. National Animal – Beaver (official symbol since 1975) and Canadian Horse (official symbol since 2002)

7. National Tree - Maple Tree and Maple Leaf

Since 1965, the maple leaf has been the centrepiece of the National Flag of Canada. The maple tree was
officially proclaimed national arboreal emblem of Canada on 25th April, 1996. According to many historians,
the maple leaf began to serve as a Canadian symbol as early as 1700.
Also 2 official sports – Lacrosse and Ice Hokey.
106.National Symbols of Australia.
1. National Flag was proclaimed in 1953.
The flag of Australia is based on the British maritime Blue Ensign – a blue field with the United Kingdom flag
(Union Jack) in upper quarter – augmented with a large white seven-pointed star (the Commonwealth Star) and
a representation of the Southern Cross constellation, made up of five white stars – one small five-pointed star
and four, larger, seven-pointed stars.

Australia has other official flags, including the Australian Aboriginal flag and the Torres Strait Islander
flag. Both of these flags were proclaimed on 14 July 1995.

2. National Anthem - "Advance Australia Fair" was written by Peter Dodds McCormack in 1878.
1901 to 1974 - Australia's national anthem - God Save the King/Queen.
1973 - competition for a new national anthem.
Advance Australia Fair was proclaimed the national anthem by the Governor-General on 19 April 1984.
3. National Coat of Arms (Commonwealth Coat of Arms) was introduced on 19 September 1912.
A shield, depicting symbols of Australia's six states, is held up by the native Australian animals, the kangaroo
and the emu. The seven-pointed Commonwealth Star surmounting the crest also represents the states and
territories, while floral emblems appear below the shield.
4. National Colours – Green and Gold
Green and gold were proclaimed the national colours on 19 April 1984, together with the national anthem.
Gold represents sand, grain, fleece and mining. Green represents trees and crops.
5. National floral emblem - golden wattle, Acacia pycnantha.
It was proclaimed by the Governor-General on 19 August 1988.
National Wattle Day is celebrated on 1 September. It is around this time of year that the golden wattle starts to
bloom.

6. National gemstone - Opal

107.National Symbols of New Zealand.

1. National Flag
Based on an 1869 version of the British blue ensign, it was adopted as the country’s official flag in 1902.

2. Сoat of arms of New Zealand

The New Zealand coat of arms was adopted in 1911 and standardised in 1956. Elements of the design reflect
the importance of overseas trade, farming and mining.

3. National Anthem
New Zealand has two national anthems: ‘God save the Queen [or King]’ first came into use in 1840. ‘God
defend New Zealand’ was adopted as a national hymn in 1940 and in 1977 given equal status with ‘God
save the Queen’.
4. National colours - red ochre, black and white/silver since 1975
The national Māori flag, official since 1990, also uses these colours with attached symbolism.

108.Holidays in the USA. 108.Holidays in the USA.

1.New year
People celebrates it on the 1st January it not so widely celebrated as Christmas. People celebrate
at midnight with Friends or with family and see annual President`s speech. It also held dance
parties. The biggest celebration in the USA is held on the Times Square. People sing songs
dance ,set up the fireworks and enjoy.
2.Christmas December 25
Christmas is one of the biggest holiday in the USA. Christians go to Church to celebrate the
birth of Jesus at Christmas. They sing Christmas Carol and there are many events where the
story of Christmas is told.
People in America like to decorate the outsides of their houses with lights and sometimes even
statues of Santa Claus, Snowmen and Reindeer(то оті олені). Some cookies and glass of milk
are often left out as a snack for Santa on Christmas Eve!
Towns and cities often decorate the streets with lights to celebrate Christmas. Perhaps the most
famous Christmas street lights in the USA are at the Rockefeller Center in New York where
there is a huge Christmas Tree with a public ice skating rink in front of it over Christmas and
the New Year.
3.Easter
People celebrate that Jesus was raised from the dead three days after his crucifixion.
Most Christian religions observe Lent prior to Easter Sunday.
Here are some ideas about Easter customs and traditions in US: -
 In the New Orleans, it is a trend of conducting an annual Easter carnival called
'Mardi Gras', which features lot of fun activities like parade, jazz music bands and
a bumper party.
 A must play Easter game for American kids is Easter egg roll.
 A special dish for Easter springtime in USA is baked ham, potatoes and
vegetables. Another most demanding recipe is hot cross buns.It was in the early
1700's, when for the first time, eggs were dyed and the credit for starting this
practice in America can be attributed to Pennsylvania Dutch (German) settlers.
 As a part of Easter traditions in the US, sunrise services are held and the prime
motive is to include various Christian religious groups in this event.
 Painting the Easter eggs and then conducting Easter egg hunt games for the kids
is what most American parents do on the Easter week.
Independence Day 4th July
Independence Day, also called Fourth of July  in the United States, 
The day when the Declaration of the Independence was signed 4th of July 1776.
The delegates from the 13 colonies adopted the Declaration of
Independence, a historic document drafted by Thomas Jefferson.And America
became independent from the British colonization.
Independence Day is commonly associated
with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball
games, family reunions, political speeches, and ceremonies, in addition to various
other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of
the United States. 

Thanksgiving Day 4th Thursday of November

Traditionally celebrates the giving of thanks for the autumn harvest. Traditionally includes the
sharing of a turkey dinner. People in the US to give thanks for what they have.
Families and friends get together for a meal, which traditionally includes a roast turkeу,
potatoes, vegetables, cranberry клюква sauce, and pumpkin pie.
Thanksgiving Day is one of the busiest periods for travel in the USA. This can cause congestion
and overcrowding. Seasonal parades and busy football games can also cause disruption to local
traffic. In most areas, these festivities also mark the opening of the Christmas shopping season.
Halloween
is not a public holiday. It falls on October 31 and most businesses follow regular
opening hours in the United States. Halloween is usually celebrated amongst family,
friends and, sometimes, co-workers.
Many children dress up in fancy costumes and visit other homes in the neighborhood.
At each house, they demand sweets, snacks or a small gift. 
This is known as playing 'trick-or-treat' and is supposed to happen in a friendly spirit
Some families carve lanterns with 'scary' faces out of pumpkins or other vegetables or
decorate their homes and gardens in Halloween style. These were traditionally
intended to ward off evil spirits. 

Others holidays:
Honors Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., civil rights leader, third Monday of January.

Labour day Honors and recognizes the American labor movement.

The holiday is observed on the first Monday in September.

Columbus Day.Honors Christopher Columbus, whose exploration of the Americas (in

the years 1492 to 1504) marked the beginning of the European exploration and
colonization of the Americas. celebrates on the second Monday in October,

"Presidents' Day" the third Monday in February. A day honoring all American
presidents. 

1. New Year`s Day – January 1st

2. Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. - The holiday is observed on the third Monday of January.
Honors Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., civil rights leader, combined with other holidays in several states.
Some cities and municipalities hold parades.
 3. Washington's Birthday - The Uniform Holidays Act, 1968, shifted the date of the commemoration of
Washington's Birthday from February 22 to the third Monday in February (between February 15
and 21, meaning the observed holiday never falls on Washington's actual birthday).
4. Memorial Day is observed on the last Monday in May. Honors the nation's war dead from the Civil
War onwards;
5. Independence day – July 4
Celebrates the adoption of the Declaration of Independence from British rule.
6. Labor Day is observed on the first Monday in September. Honors and recognizes the American labor
movement.
7. Columbus Day is observed on the second Monday in October, and is one of two federal holidays
where stock market trading is permitted. Honors Christopher Columbus, an explorer of the Americas
who was actually in search of a route to India. In some areas it is instead a celebration of Indigenous
Peoples, or Italian culture and heritage; traditionally October 12.
8. Veterans Day – November 11
Honors all veterans of the United States armed forces. It is one of two federal holidays where stock
market trading is permitted.
9. Thanksgiving Day is observed on the fourth Thursday in November. Traditionally celebrates the
giving of thanks for the autumn harvest and includes the sharing of a turkey dinner.
10. Christmas Day – December 25.

109.Holidays in the UK.

New Year
People celebrate at midnight 1th of January with Friends or with family.and People watch
on TV annual Quean`s speech. Some people go to the new year party, or in London people
gather around the statue of eros to welcome the new year.
People cook delicious food drink alcohol and dance a lot. Some people spend time with
family and watch new year`s movies.
Christmas
In the UK (or Great Britain), families often celebrate Christmas together, so they can watch
each other open their presents
Most families have a Christmas Tree (or maybe even two!) in their house for Christmas.
The decorating of the tree is usually a family occasion, with everyone helping. Christmas Trees
were first popularised the UK by Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria. 
Most villages, towns and cities are decorated with Christmas lights over Christmas. Often
a famous person switches them on. The most famous Christmas lights in the UK are in Oxford
Street in London. Every year they get bigger and better. 
Children believe that Father Christmas or Santa Claus leaves presents in stockings or
pillow-cases. These are normally hung up by the fire or by the children's beds on Christmas
Eve. Children sometimes leave out mince pies це такий м’ясний пудинг and brandy or
whiskey for Santa Claus to eat and drink when he visits them. 
In the UK, the main Christmas Meal is usually eaten at lunchtime or early afternoon on
Christmas Day. It's normally roast turkey, roast vegetables and vegetables like carrots & peas
горох, stuffing фарширований and sometimes bacon and sausages. It's often served with bread
sauce. Traditionally, and before turkey was available, roast beef or goose was the main
Christmas meal. 
In the UK, it doesn't snow very often, but people always want to know if it will be a
'White Christmas'. The British definition, used by the UK Meteorological Office (who say if
it has been a White Christmas in the UK or not!), is that a single snow flake has been seen
falling in the 24 hours of Christas Day! This doesn't happen a lot in the UK!!!
 Boxing Day
It is celebrated in the day after Christmas 26th of December. It is a day to open Christmas boxes
and share gifts. It is a day when families get together.
St. Patrick's Day
St. Patrick’s Day o bserves of the death of St. Patrick, the patron saint of
Ireland. The holiday has evolved into a celebration of Irish culture with parades,
special foods, music, dancing, drinking and a whole lot of green. For example in
Chicago the rever is colored in green. Adults usually chill in pabs and drink green
beer.The shamrock is a symbol of the holiday.It is believed that if you find a four
leaf it brings you good luck.
Easter
People celebrate that Jesus was raised from the dead three days after his crucifixion.
Most Christian religions observe Lent prior to Easter Sunday.Many people decorate
easter eggs share chocolate eggs and participate in easter eggs competitions. It is time to
rest and and for festivals.
The Queen Official Birthday
- birthday of queen Elizabet second is celebrated on the second Sunday of June. That
day is reffered ‘the Trooping of the color’ (це така офіційна церемонія і парад)
Early May Bank Holiday
The First Monday of May is s bank holiday
It probably originated as a Roman festival honoring the beginning the
summer season. In more recent times it has been as a day to campaign for
celebrate workers rights.

Harvest festival
Is in September. Children Put fruts and vegetables in boxes and sell them.
Harvest festival is traditionally held on the Sunday near or of the Harvest Moon. 
in Britain people bring in produce from the garden or farm. The food is often
distributed among the poor and senior citizens of the local community or used to raise
funds for the church, or charity.
Bonfire night(Guy Fawkes' Night)
 is celebrated on 5 November and the night skies are filled with colour. 
English Catholics were angry because King James I was treating them badly. In
November of that year, a group of men made a plan to blow up the Houses of
Parliament in London. It was planned for 5 November. and the leader of the group was
called Guy Fawkes. The men put 36 barrels of gunpowder in the Houses of Parliament
and waited for the king to arrive. But one of the member of the band told than to the
king. So police found gunpowder before in started. Guy was tortured and King ordered
for people Bonfire on this night of 5 November.Since than
All over Britain there are firework displays and bonfires with models of Guy Fawkes,
which are burned on the fire. The Guy is made of old clothes and the clothes are filled
with newspaper

1.
 2. St Patrick’s Day (Northern Ireland only): is a cultural and religious celebration held on 17 March, the
traditional death date of Saint Patrick , the patron saint of Ireland.

Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Christian feast day in the early 17th century. The day
commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, and celebrates the heritage and
culture of the Irish in general
3. Good Friday is a Christian holiday commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus and his death at Calvary. It
is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum. Good Friday is observed with fasting
and church services.

4. Easter Monday (Wales, England and Northern Ireland only): Easter Monday is the day after Easter
Sunday and is a public holiday in some countries. Easter Monday is celebrated in the Catholic church
and also called the Monday of the Angel "because we recall the meeting of the angel with the women
who arrived at Jesus’s tomb.

5. Early May Bank Holiday: May Day is a public holiday, in some regions, usually celebrated on 1 May
or the first Monday of May. It is an ancient festival marking the first day of summer, and a current
traditional spring holiday in many European cultures. Dances, singing, and cake are usually part of the
festivities.International Workers' Day is also called "May Day", but it is a different celebration from the
traditional May Day.

6. Spring Bank Holiday: Statutory bank holiday from 1971. Replaced Whit Monday, which had been a
public holiday since 1871, and whose date varied according to the date of Easter.

7. Summer Bank Holiday (Wales, England and Northern Ireland only): Statutory (законодавчі) bank
holiday from 1971. Replaced the first Monday in August (formerly commonly known as "August Bank
Holiday") which had been in use from 1871.

8. St Andrew’s Day (Scotland only): is the feast day of Andrew the Apostle. It is celebrated on 30
November. Saint Andrew's Day is Scotland's official national day.

9. Christmas Day: 25 December

10. Boxing Day is a holiday celebrated the day after Christmas Day, occurring on the second day of
Christmastide. Though it originated as a holiday to give gifts to the poor, today Boxing Day is primarily
known as a shopping holiday. Boxing Day is on 26 December.

A bank holiday is a national public holiday in the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies. The term
refers to all public holidays in the United Kingdom be they set out in statute, declared by royal proclamation or
held by convention under common law. The term "bank holiday" refers to the fact that banking institutions
typically close for business on such holidays.
110.Holidays in Canada.
1. New Year - Friday, January 1

2. Good Friday - Commemorates the crucifixion of Jesus, on the Friday before Easter.

3. Easter Monday - Variable date between March 23 and April 26. Celebrates the resurrection of Jesus.

Not a statutory holiday in any province or territory; however, in Quebec employers must give either
Good Friday or Easter Monday as a statutory holiday, though most give both days.
4. Victoria Day - Celebrates the birthday of the reigning Canadian monarch; however, the date does not
change with the change of monarch, being instead fixed on the birthday of Queen Victoria. (Monday
before May 25)

5. Canada Day - July 1, Celebrates Canada's 1867 Confederation and establishment of dominion status.
 6. Labour Day – Celebrates economic and social achievements of workers on 1 Monday in September

7. Thanksgiving Day – second Monday in October. A day to give thanks for the things one has at the close
of the harvest season. Statutory holiday in most jurisdictions of Canada.

8. Remembrance Day - November 11, Commemorates Canada's war dead. Anniversary of the armistice
ending World War I in 1918.

9. Christmas Day - December 25

10. Boxing Day - December 26, A holiday with mixed and uncertain origins and definitions. Many
employers across the country observe Boxing Day as a paid day off

111.Holidays in Australia.
1. New Year's Day – January 1
2. Australia Day is the official national day of Australia. Observed annually on 26 January, it marks the
1788 landing of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove and raising of the Union Flag by Arthur Phillip. In
present-day, celebrations aim to reflect the diverse society and landscape of the nation and are marked
by community and family events, reflections on Australian history, official community awards and
citizenship ceremonies welcoming new members of the Australian community.
3. Good Friday commemorates the crucifixion of Jesus, on the Friday before Easter
4. Easter Monday - variable date between March 23 and April 26. Celebrates the resurrection of Jesus.
5. Anzac Day is a national day of remembrance in Australia and New Zealand that broadly commemorates
all Australians and New Zealanders "who served and died in all wars, conflicts, and peacekeeping
operations" and "the contribution and suffering of all those who have served". Observed on 25 April.
6. Christmas Day – December 25
7. Boxing Day December 26, A holiday with mixed and uncertain origins and definitions.

112.Holidays in New Zealand.

1. New Year’s Day: 1 January

2. Waitangi Day is the national day of New Zealand, marks the anniversary of the initial signing – on 6
February 1840 – of the Treaty of Waitangi, which is regarded as the founding document of the nation.
The first Waitangi Day was not celebrated until 1934, and it was made a national public holiday in
1974.

3. Good Friday commemorates the crucifixion of Jesus, on the Friday before Easter

4. Easter Monday - variable date between March 23 and April 26. Celebrates the resurrection of Jesus

5. Anzac Day is a national day of remembrance in Australia and New Zealand that broadly commemorates
all Australians and New Zealanders "who served and died in all wars, conflicts, and peacekeeping
operations" and "the contribution and suffering of all those who have served". Observed on 25 April.

6. Queen’s Birthday or the King's Official Birthday, is the selected day in some Commonwealth realms
on which the birthday of the monarch is officially celebrated in those countries. It does not necessarily
correspond to the date of the monarch's actual birth.

7. Labour Day celebrates economic and social achievements of workers on 1 Monday in September

8. Christmas Day: 25 December 

 9. Boxing Day: 26 December is a holiday celebrated the day after Christmas Day, occurring on the second
day of Christmastide

113.Literature in the USA.

1. Harper Lee was born on April 28, 1926, in Monroeville, Alabama. Died in 2016, February 19.
Best novel – To Kill a Mockingbird - The unforgettable novel of a childhood in a sleepy Southern town
and the crisis of conscience that rocked it. "To Kill A Mockingbird" became both an instant bestseller
and a critical success when it was first published in 1960. It went on to win the Pulitzer Prize in 1961
and was later made into an Academy Award-winning film, also a classic.
2. F. Scott Fitzgerald was the most famous writer of the Jazz Age—a term that he popularized. The
novelist, essayist, screenwriter, and short story writer was known as much for his lavish (пишним)
lifestyle as his literary works.
Best Work: The Great Gatsby (1925) is one of the great classics of twentieth-century literature. The
story is of the fabulously wealthy Jay Gatsby and his new love for the beautiful Daisy Buchanan, of
lavish parties on Long Island at a time when The New York Times noted "gin was the national drink
and sex the national obsession," it is an exquisitely crafted tale of America in the 1920s.
3. Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens), was an American writer, businessman, publisher and
lecturer. He progressed from his day job as pilot of a Mississippi riverboat to legend of American
literature. His work shows a deep seriousness and at the same time, it is hilariously satirical, as seen in
his many quotes on all aspects of life.
Best novel - The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which is regularly referred to as ‘the great American
novel. A nineteenth-century boy from a Mississippi River town recounts his adventures as he travels
down the river with a runaway slave, encountering a family involved in a feud, two scoundrels
pretending to be royalty, and Tom Sawyer's aunt who mistakes him for Tom.
4. J.D. Salinger was borned in 1919 January 1, died in 2010 January 27.
Best novel - The Catcher in the Rye is J.D. Salinger 's classic novel of teenage angst and rebellion was
first published in 1951. The novel was included on Time's 2005 list of the 100 best English-language
novels written since 1923. It was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best
English-language novels of the 20th century.
5. Ray Douglas Bradbury, American novelist, short story writer, essayist, playwright, screenwriter and
poet, was born August 22, 1920 in Waukegan, Illinois. Died in 2012, June 15
Best novel - Fahrenheit 451 is the classic dystopian novel of a post-literate future, stands alongside
Orwell’s 1984 and Huxley’s Brave New World as a prophetic account of Western civilization’s
enslavement by the media, drugs and conformity.
Bradbury’s powerful and poetic prose combines with uncanny insight into the potential of technology to
create a novel which, decades on from first publication, still has the power to dazzle and shock

Other famous writers – Stephen King (It, The Shining, The Green Mile), Suzzane Collins ( Hunger
Games), Ernest Hemingway (The Old Man and The Sea, A Farewell To Arms), Edgar Allan Poe
( poems “To Helen” (1831), “The Raven” (1845), and “Annabel Lee” (1849); the short stories of
wickedness and crime “The Tell-Tale Heart” (1843) and “The Cask of Amontillado” (1846); and the
supernatural horror story “The Fall of the House of Usher” (1839)),

114.Literature in the UK.

1. Jane Austen (1775 - 1817) Austen’s novels are famous for their social commentary on a woman’s place
and marriage prospects in the late 18th century into the early 19th century, as well as the manners and
virtues of the time. She published six major novels, including Pride and Prejudice and Emma.

2. Charlotte Brontë (1816 - 1855) The most famous of the three Brontë sisters, who were all writers.
Charlotte’s most famous novel, Jane Eyre, is about a governess who falls for her employer. It was
 first published under a pseudonym. The character of Jane Eyre was considered very independent for a
woman of that time period.

3. William Shakespeare (1564 - 1616) Considered the greatest author in the English language,
Shakespeare wrote plays and poetry that have been translated into every major living language. His
plays are performed more often than those by any other playwright and continue to be heavily adapted
for stage and screen. His most famous plays include Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and Macbeth.

4. George Orwell (1903 - 1950) Orwell was a novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic, whose works were
social criticisms that represented his personal views and support of democratic socialism. He is most
famous for his novels Animal Farm and 1984.

5. J.K.Rowling (1965-present) Famed the world over for her series about the teenage wizard, Harry
Potter, J K Rowling has seen the youth market turn upside down in a magical style. After an award-
winning series which was turned into films that have been among some of the highest grossing films in
the UK. Rowling now publishes books for adults under the pen name Robert Galbraith.

Other most famous writers: Lewis Carroll's - Alice in Wonderland (1865), Oscar Wilde - Portrait of Dorian
Gray (1890), Agatha Christie - Murder on the Orient Express.
115.Literature in Canada.
1. Margaret Atwood has been awarded the Booker prize, Scotia bank Giller Prize, Arthur C. Clarke
Award and Princess of Asturias Award for literature. Her novel The Handmaid’s Tale won her the
Arthur C. Clarke Award, 2985 Governor General’s Award and was chosen the finalist for Booker prize.
2. Lucy Maud Montgomery. One of her most brilliantly written and appreciated work is Anne of Green
Gables.The books have been made into various films and animated television series.
3. Robertson Davies wrote 30 books in total throughout his lifetime. His best book ‘What’s bred in the
nine’ was shortlisted for the Booker prize.
4. Yann Martel is the author of Life of Pi, which was made into a Hollywood movie. This book also won
the Man Booker Prize and was an international bestseller published in more than 50 territories. The
book portrays the relationship between an Indian boy and a tiger as they are stuck together on a
shipwreck and the journey they make.
5. Margaret Laurence was the founder of Writers trust of Canada which encourages Canada’s writing
community. She was Canada’s most esteemed and beloved author. Best known for her book, The
Stone Angel, it was made into a featured film directed by Kari Skogland.

116.Literature in Australia.
1. Thomas Keneally won the 1982 Booker Prize with Schindler’s Ark – the moving story of a German
entrepreneur who saves countless Jews from the death camps. The movie version was called Schindler’s
List. He has written 30 novels as well non-fiction and plays.
2. Pamela Travers was an Australian-British author and Shakespearean actor, known by her pseudonym,
P. L. Travers, soared to fame with her Mary Poppins series of children's books. Disney later bought the
rights to her Mary Poppins series and released a film version. It was later made into a Broadway play,
too.
3. Markus Zusak has enjoyed worldwide success with this novel, The Book Thief. The New York Times
described it as ”Harry Potter and the Holocaust” as Death himself narrates this World War II-based
story.
4. Bryce Courtenay. His first novel, The Power of One, rapidly became one of Australia’s best-selling
books by a living author. He was among Australia’s most beloved authors because of the connection he
forged with his readers. He gave away over 2,500 books a year to people on the street. His
 novel Jessica is a heart-wrenching tale, and epic love story, of a girl in outback Australia and the events
that follow.
5. Patrick White became in 1973, the first Australian to receive the prestigious Nobel Prize in Literature
for The Tree of Man. Over the course of his illustrious career, White published 12 novels, eight plays,
and three short-story collections

117.Literature in New Zealand.

1. Dame Edith Ngaio was a crime writer and theatre director. Marsh is known as one of the "Queens of
Crime", along with Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, and Margery Allingham. The Ngaio Marsh
Award is awarded annually for the best New Zealand mystery, crime and thriller fiction writing.
Works: Tied Up in Tinsel, Singing in the Shrouds, Death in Ecstasy, Final Curtain, Last ditch
2. Janet Frame was internationally renowned for her work, which included novels, short stories, poetry,
juvenile fiction, and an autobiography, and received numerous awards including being appointed to the
Order of New Zealand.
Following years of psychiatric hospitalisation, Frame was scheduled for a lobotomy that was cancelled
when, just days before the procedure, her debut publication of short stories was unexpectedly awarded a
national literary prize.
3. Frank Sargeson was a short story writer and novelist. Sargeson has been credited with introducing
everyday New Zealand English to literature. He was the most important and influential New Zealand
short-story writer in the 1930s and 1940s, publishing over forty short stories in this time, and his work
continues to be recognised as a major influence on New Zealand literature.
4. Margaret Mahy was an author of children's and young adult books. She was one of thirty writers to win
the biennial, international Hans Christian Andersen Medal for her "lasting contribution to children's
literature".
Among her children's books, A Lion in the Meadow and The Seven Chinese Brothers and The Man
Whose Mother was a Pirate are considered national classics.

Cassia Joy Cowley is an author best known for her children's fiction, including the popular series of books
Mrs.