CHEMISTRY

Instructor: Asisst. Prof. Dr. Saltuk Pirgalıoğlu

Textbook: William L. Masterton, Cecile N. Hurley, “Chemistry:

principles and reactions”, 8th edition, (2016), Cengage Learning

LECTURE 1

MATTER AND MEASUREMENTS

Matter: anything that has mass and occupies space. There are
three phases; liquid, solid and gas.

Solids: fixed shape and volume

Liquids: fixed volume but no rigid shape

Gas: neither fix volume nor rigid shape

Matter can be classified with respect to composition

Pure Substances: elements and compounds

Mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous

Elements

A matter that cannot be broken down into two or more

substances

Cu : copper Ag: Silver

Compounds

Compound is a pure substance that contains more than one

element. H2O is a compound. Elements are combined with a

fixed composition.

Mixtures

A mixture contains two or more substances combined in such a

way that substances retain their properties.

Homogeneous Mixtures

Uniform mixtures. Composition remains same at all points of

the mixture. Homogeneous mixtures are also referred as

solutions. A solution is made up of a solute and solvent. Most

commonly the solvent is a liquid. A solute can be solid, liquid or

gas.

Heterogeneous Mixtures
Nonuniform mixtures are those in which composition varies

throughout.

Separation Techniques

Filtration

Heterogeneous mixtures of solid-liquid can be separated by

filtration. Filter papers can be used to form barriers for solid

particles.

Distillation

Distillation is used to resolve a homogenous solid-liquid

mixture.

Chromatography

MEASUREMENTS

Units
Length

Most common system is metric system where unit is meters

1000mm = 1 m 100 cm = 1m 1000 m = 1km 10 9 nm = 1 m

Volume

Most common

Liters (L) , milli liters mL and cubic centimeters (1mL = cm 3)

SI

1000L = 1m3

1000000 mL = 1m3

1000000 cm3 = 1m3

Mass
SI unit kilograms (kg)

Common units gram (g), milli gram (mg) , kg

1000 g = 1kg 106 mg = 1 kg

Temperature

SI unit is Kelvin

Most common

Celsius (0C), Kelvin (K), Fahrenheit (0F)

TF = 1.8TC + 320

5 0C = ? 0F 1.8(5) + 320 = 41 0F

TK = TC + 273.15

10 0C = ? K TK = 10 + 273.15 = 283.15 K

Uncertainties and Significant Figures

Volume measurement
8 mL ± 1 (large graduated cylinder) 1 S.F

8.0 mL ± 0.1 mL (small graduate cylinder) 2 S.F

8.00 mL ± 0.01 3 S.F

Method of citing degree of confidence in a measurement is

often described in terms of significant figures.

Example

Using different balances weight of a sample is measured as

below. How many significant figures each have?

1.611 g 1.60 g 0.001611 kg = 1.611 g

4 S.F 3 S.F 4 S.F

Scientific notation

0.001611=1.611 ×10−3

Multiplication and division rules for significant figures

Result will have as many S.F as the smallest significant figure.

Rate of infusion is = 1.15 mg/min (example 1.3 from

textbook)

Time = 35 min

Amount = ?

mg
1.15 ×35 min ¿ 40.25 mg(written on calculator)
min

1.15 has 3 S.F and 35 has 2 S.F the answer needs to be

reported in 2 S.F

4.0 × 101 mg

Rules of rounding off

1- The digits smaller than 5 will be discarded

23.315 23.487 = 23 for 2 S.F

2- if the digits are greater than 5 add one to the last

digit 23.692 g = 24 g 2 S.F

3- if the digit is equals to 5

23.5 = 24 24.5 = 24

Addition and subtraction of S.F

92.2 + 301 + 29.574 = 423

Conversion of Units

1.28 L needs to be converted cm3

1000 c m3 3
1.28 L× =1280 c m
1L

Example 1.4

A red blood cell has a diameter of 7.5 µm what is the diameter

in inches?

1 in = 2.54 cm

1000 µm = 1mm

10 mm = 1 cm

10000 µm = 1 cm

1cm
7.5 μm× × 1∈ ¿ =3.0 ×10−4 ∈¿¿
10000 μm 2.54 cm

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 2

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
Intensive Properties

Properties that are not dependent on amount.

Extensive Properties

Properties that depend on amount. Like mass 4.02 g of sample,

volume 2L of water.

Chemical Properties

These are properties of substances which are related with

their reactivity. The properties that affect reactions involving

that substance. mercury (II) oxide decomposes into mercury

and oxygen when heated till 600 0C

Physical Properties

Properties that observed without changing the chemical

identity.
Melting point, boiling point, density and solubility can be listed

as some examples. for example boiling point of water is 100 0C.

Density

Density of a substance is the ratio of mass to volume.

mass m
Density= ∨d=
volume V

Water density = 1 g/mL or in SI units it is 1000 kg/m 3

Example

15.0 mL sample of glycerol is placed in a flask that has a

weight of 28.45g. final weight measured as 47.37 g. what is

the density of glycerol?

mTotal = 47.37 = mflask + mglycerol

mflask = 28.45g

d = m/V
Volume = 15 mL

mglycerol = ? m glycerol + 28.45 = 47.37 m glycerol = 47.37-

28.45 = 18.92 g

d = m/V

dglycerol = 18.92 g / 15.0 mL = 1.26 g/mL

Example

Sample A mass = 97.36g a cylinder with height 10.7 cm

and radius = 4.91 mm

d = m / V (g/cm3)

V = base area . height

A = πr2

1 cm
r =4.91 mm × =0.491 cm
10 mm

V =π r 2 h=3.14 ( 0.491cm )2 .10.7 cm=8.10 c m3

97.36 g
d= 3
=12.0 g /c m 3
8.10 c m
Sample B

mass = 49.20 g volume is measured by placing the sample in

10.00 mL of water (in a graduated cylinder) resulting volume is

14.09 mL. volume of the sample = 14.09 – 10.00 = 4.09 mL is

volume of the particle.

1mL = 1 cm3 4.09 mL = 4.09 cm3

49.02 g
d= 3
=12.0 g /c m 3
4.09 c m

Solubility

“Solubility is referred to as the process by which a solute

dissolve in a solvent and is ordinarily a physical change rather

than a chemical change.” Solubility is expressed as g of

substance dissolved in 100 g of solvent.

Example

Sucrose has solubility of 204g/100g water at 20 0C and 487

g /100 g water at 100 0C. A solution is prepared by mixing 139g

of sugar in 33.0g of water at 100 0C.

a) what is the min amount of water required at 100 0C?

 100 gwater
139 g sugar × =28.5 g water
487 g sugar

b) max amount of sugar that can be dissolved in the water

at 100 0C
487 g sugar
33.0 g water =161 g sugar
100 g water

c) solution is cooled to 20 0C how much sugar (if any) will

crystallize out
204 g sugar
33.0 g water × =67.3 g sugar
100 g water

Total = dissolved + precipitated

139g = 67.3g + precipitated

Precipitated = 139 – 67.3 = 72 g precipitated

Chapter 1 from the textbook is reading assignment

ATOMS, MOLECULES AND IONS

Atoms and the Atomic Theory

1808 John Dalton

 1- an element is composed of tiny particles called atoms

2- In an ordinary chemical reaction, atoms move from one

substance to another but no atom on any element

disappears or is changed into an atom of another

element.

3- Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more

elements combine.

Components of Atoms

Electrons, protons and neutrons

Electrons are negatively charged particles, have a very small

mass roughly 1/2000 that of lightest atom.

Protons and Neutrons are found in nucleus. Protons are

positively charged and neutrons are uncharged particles. Mass

of a proton is nearly equal to that of an ordinary hydrogen

atom. Mass of a neutron is slightly greater than proton.

Atomic Number

Z = no of protons.

In a neutral atom no of protons is equal to number of

electrons. Z also gives number of electrons if the atom is

neutral

Mass Number

A = number of protons + number of neutrons

Isotope

Atoms containing same number of protons but different

number of neutrons. In nature isotopes are found as a

mixture.
A
Z X

Example

Sb Z= 51 (from the table of elements) it has 73 neutrons

A = 51 + 73 = 124
124
51 Sb
 b- 9038Sr Sr-90 p = ?

Z=38 = p 38 protons

n = 90 – 38 = 52 neutrons

c- write down symbol of the element that has 54 p and 79 n

133
54 Xe

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.30 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.54 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98.91 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.6 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.2 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 208.98 209.99 222.02
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
223.02 226.03 227.03
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 44.24 146.92 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.06 243.06 247.07 247.07 251.08 252.08 257.10 258.10 259.10 260.11
Atomic Mass

C-12 = 12 amu exactly 12 amu

Isotopic Abundances

Probabilities of finding different isotopes.

Cl-35 34.97 amu 75.53% Cl-37 36.97 amu 24.47%

%Y 1 %Y2 % Y3
atomic mass Y =Y 1 × +Y 2 × +Y 3 × …………….
100 100 100

75.53 24.47
atomic mass Cl=34.97 × +36.97 × =35.46 amu
100 100

Example

Br-79 (78.92 amu) Br- 81 (80.92 amu) Br 79.90 amu what

is the abundance of the heavier isotope

Y1 Y2
79.90 amu=78.92 × +80.92 ×
100 100

Y 1 +Y 2=100

Y 1=100−Y 2

100−Y 2 Y2
79.90 amu=78.92 × + 80.92×
100 100
0.7892 × ( 100−Y 2 ) +0.8092× Y 2=79.90

78.92−0.7892 Y 2 +0.8092 Y 2=79.90

78.92+0.02 Y 2−78.92=79.90−78.92

0.02 Y 2=0.98

0.98
Y 2= =49 %
0.02

Br-81 49%

Br-79 = 100 -49 = 51%

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 3

Avogadro’s Number

NA = 6.022 × 1023

1 He atom has an atomic mass of 4.003 amu

When 6.022 × 1023 He they weight 4.003 g

1 He atom’s mass is 4.003g/6.022 × 1023 = 6.65× 10-24 g

1 H atom has an atomic mass of 1.008 amu

 6.022 × 1023 H atoms have a mass of 1.008 g = 1 mole of H

atoms

1 mole of cars means 6.022 × 1023 cars

Example

a) Atomic mass for arsenic is 74.92 amu

Then 6.022 × 1023 arsenic atoms’ mass is 74.92 g

74.92 g
1 atom × 23
=1.244 ×10−22 g
6.022×10 atoms

b) How many atoms are there in ten grams of arsenic

6.022×10 23 atoms 22
10 g× =8.038 ×10 atoms
74.92 g

c) How many protons are there in 0.15 lbs of As

453.6g = 1 lb in one arsenic atom there are 33

protons / Z=33 for arsenic

453.6 g 1 atom 33 p
0.15 lb × × × =1.805 ×1025 protons
1l b −22
1.244 ×10 g 1 atom

Periodic Table
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.30 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.54 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98.91 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.6 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.2 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 208.98 209.99 222.02
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
223.02 226.03 227.03
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 44.24 146.92 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.06 243.06 247.07 247.07 251.08 252.08 257.10 258.10 259.10 260.11

In periodic table horizontal rows are periods and

vertical columns are groups

Elements falling in groups 1,2,13,14,15,16,17,18 are main

group elements the ones between 3-12 are transition

metals. The ones right to the group 12 transition

metals are called post transition metals Ga, In, Tl, Sn,

Pb, Bi

Group 1 = alkali metals

Group 2 = alkaline earth metals

Group 17 = halogens

Group 18 = noble gasses

Molecules

Two or more atoms may combine with on another to form an

uncharged molecule.

The structure of a molecule sometimes represented by a

structural formula.

H-O-H

Condensed structural formula

CH3OH CH3NH2

Example

Give the molecular formula of ethyl alcohol CH3CH2OH

(condensed structural formula), ethylamine CH 3CH2NH2

Molecular Formula C2H6O (ethanol) C2H7N (ethylamine)

Ions

When an atom loses or gains electrons, it becomes charged,

charged particles are called ions. When electron is lost it

becomes positively charged called cation. When electron is

gained atom becomes negatively charged called anion.

Na → Na+ + e-

Ca → Ca 2+ + 2 e-

Cl + e- → Cl-

Polyatomic ions (check table 2.2)

NH4+ ammonia

OH- hydroxide

NO3- nitrate

CO32- carbonate

Transition and post transition metals can form ions with more

than one charge like iron Fe2+ or Fe 3+

Example

Try to predict the formula for ionic compound

 a) Barium and Iodine

Ba2+ I- iodine can give one electron while barium needs two

electrons to become neutral then a compound will be formed

with 1 Ba and 2 I BaI2

b) transition metal with +1 charge period 4 group 11 and

oxide ions (ions formed from oxygen)

Cu+ +1 charged, Oxide ions -2 (O2-) charged.

2Cu atoms required to combine with 1 oxygen atom.

Cu2O

c) ammonium and phosphate ions

NH4+ PO43-

(NH4)3 PO4

Names of Compounds

Ionic Compounds
Write down name of the metal + nonmetal(ide)

N3- nitride O2- oxide S2- sulfide Se2- selenide

H- hydride Cl- chloride Br- bromide

- When a nonmetal forms two oxoanions the suffix -ate is

used for the one with more oxygen, suffix -ite is for the

other

NO3- NO2-

NO3- = nitrate NO2- = nitrite

- Nonmetals with more than two oxonaions, prefix -per is

used for largest number of oxygen, -hypo fewest number

of oxygen

ClO4- ClO3- ClO2- ClO-

ClO4- perchlorate ClO- hypochlorite ClO3- chlorate

ClO2- chlorite
Example

Name the compounds

CaS = calcium sulfide

FeCl2 = Fe+2 Cl- = iron(II) chloride

Al(NO3)3 = aluminum nitrate

Binary Molecular Compounds

When two nonmetals combine with each other, the product is

most often binary molecular compound.

N2O5 =dinitrogen pentaoxide

1 mono, 2 di, 3 tri, 4 tetra, 5 penta, 6 hexa, 7 hepta, 8 octa, 9

nona, 10 deca

NO2 = nitrogen dioxide

NO = nitrogen oxide

CO = carbon monoxide

Acids

HCl (g) = hydrogen chloride

H+(aq) Cl- (aq) hydrochloric acid

HNO3

The one with ate (more oxygen) turned to be -ic

Nitric acid

ClO4- perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid

ClO- hypochlorite ion HClO hypochlorous acid

ClO3- chlorate ion HClO3 chloric acid

HClO2 chlorus acid

HCl (g) hydro chloride

HCl (aq) hydrochloric acid

HBr (g) hydrogen bromide HBr(aq) (H+ Br-) hydrobromic

acid

HI hydriodic acid

CHAPTER 2 READING HOMEWORK

William L. Masterton, Cecile N. Hurley, “Chemistry: principles

and reactions”, 8th edition, (2016), Cengage Learning

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 4

Mass Relations in Chemistry; Stoichiometry

Mole

In a mole of anything we have Avogadro’s number of species.

Mole of atom that means 6.022×1023 atoms

Mole of roses it means 6.022×1023 roses

Molar mass

It is the mass of 1 mole of any atom or molecule

MM of NaCl = 22.99 g/mol + 35.45 g/mol = 58.44 g/mol

MM H2O = 2(1.008) + 16 = 18.02 g/mol

MM CO2 = 12 + 2(16) = 44 g/mol

Example

Acetylsalicylic acid C9H8O4

a) Mass in grams of 0.509 moles of acetylsalicylic acid

MM. n (number of moles) = mass

MM of C9H8O4 = 9(12.01)+ 8(1.008) + 4(16) = 180.15 g/mol

180.15 g
0.509 moles ASA × =91.7 g
1 mole ASA

b) How many moles in 28.00g in ASA?

1 mole
28.00 g ASA × =0.1554 mol ASA
180.15 g

c) How many molecules of C9H8O4 in 12.00g of ASA? How

many carbon atoms?

1 mole 1molecule of C 9 H 8 O 4 1 mole
180.15 g 9 C atoms 6.022× 1023

1 moleASA 6.022× 1023 22

12.00 g ASA × × =4.011 ×10 ASA molecules
180.15 gASA 1 moleASA
9 C atoms
4.011 × 1022 ASA molecules × =3.610 × 1023 C atoms
1molecule

Moles in Solution; Molarity

molarity (M) = moles/volume (mol/L)

in a solution containing 1.2 moles of A in 2.50L

 [ A ] = 1.20 mol =0.480 mol ∨0.480 M
2.50 L L
n
M=
V

Example

A bottle containing 75.0 mL of nitric acid is labeled as

6.0M (mol/L)

a) How many moles of nitric acid are in the bottle?

1L 6.0 moles
75.0 mL× × =0.45 mol
1000 mL 1L

b) A reaction needs 5.00 g of nitric acid how many

mL of solution is required?

MM of HNO3 = 63.02 g/mol M = 6.0 mol/L

1mol 1L 1000 mL
5.00 g× × × =13 mL
63.02 g 6.0 moles 1L

c) 10 mL of water are added to the solution calculate

final molarity. Assume volumes are additive

Addition of water will change total volume of solution but

it will change amount of nitric acid.

Nitric acid amount = 0.45 mol

75.0 mL + 10.0 = 85.0 mL = 0.0850L

 n 0.45 mol
M= = =5.3 M
V 0.085 L

Mass Relationships in Chemical Formulas

Percent composition from formula

H2O MM H = 1.008 g/mol MM O = 16.0 g/mol

MM H2O = 2 ×1.008+16.0=18.016 g /mol

2× 1.008
Mass% of H = 18.016
×100 %=11.19 % H

16.0
Mass % of O = 18.016
×100 %=88.81 % O

In 100 g of sample 11.19g H and 88.81g O

Example

Iron(III) oxide MM Fe2 O3 = 159.7 g/mol

a) What are the mass percents of iron and oxygen?

2mol Fe 55.85 g Fe
1 mol Fe2 O 3 × × =111.7 g Fe
1 mol Fe 2 O 3 1mol Fe
111.7 g
mass % Fe= ×100 %=69.94 %
159.7 g

Mass% oxygen = 100 – 69.94 = 30.06%

b) How many g of iron can be extracted from 1.000 kg?

69.94g Fe/100g Fe2O3

69.94 g
1.000 ×103 g× =699.4 g Fe
100 g
How many metric tons of hematite ore 66.4% Fe2O3 must

be processed to obtain 1 kg of Fe?

1000 g 100 g Fe2 O 3 100 g of ore 1 ton −3
1 kg Fe × × × × =2.15 ×10 metric tons of ore is required
1 kg 69.94 gFe 66.4 g Fe 2 O 3 1 ×106 g

Simplest Formula

H2O2 simplest formula for H2O2 is HO

Propylene C3H6 simplest formula CH2

Example

A 30.00g mass of white crystal is used in water purification

contains 4.731 g aluminium, 8.436 g sulfur and 16.83 g of

oxygen. Find the simplest formula

4.731 g 0.1753
mol Al= =0.1753 mol =1
26.98 g /mol 0.1753

8.436 g 0.2630
mol S=
32.07 g /mol
=0.2630 mol
0.1753
=1.5 multiply each by2

16.83 g 1.052
mol O= =1.052mol =6
16.0 g/mol 0.1753

Al2S3O12 simplest formula

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 5

Example
CHO + O2 → CO2 + H2O

5.00 g 7.33g 3.00 g

Amount of C in grams found in CO2 is equals to the amount

of C in acetic acid.
12.01 gC 2 ( 1.008 ) gH
44.01 gCO 2 18.02 gH 2O

12.01 gC 2g 0.167
Mass of C=7.33 g CO 2 × =2.00 g C =0.167 mol C =1
44.01 g CO2 12 g/mol 0.166
2 ( 1.008 ) gH 0.336 g 0.333
mass of H=3.00 g H 2 O × =0.336 g H =0.333 molH =2
18.02 g H 2 O 1.008 g /mol 0.166
2.66 g 0.166
mass of O=5.00 g−( 2.00 g+ 0.336 g )=2.66 g O =0.166 mol O =1
16.0 g /mol 0.166
simplest formula=C H 2 O

MM Acetic acid = 60,052 g/mol what is the molecular formula for acetic acid?

MM CH2O = 12.01g + 2(1.008)g + 16 = 30 g/mol

MM Acetic acid/MM CH2O = 60/30 = 2

Molecular formula for acetic acid = C2H4O2

Mass Relations in Reactions

Writing and balancing chemical equations

2N2H4 (l) + N2O4 (l) → 3N2 (g) + 4H2O (g)

Example 3.9 (from textbook)

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)

a) 1.34 mol N2 reacts how many moles of ammonia are formed?

 2 mol N H 3
1.34 mol N 2 × =2.68 molN H 3
1mol N 2

b) How many grams of H is required to form 2750 g of ammonia

1 molN H 3 3 mol H 2 2.016 g H 2
2.75 ×103 gN H 3 × × × =488 g H 2
17.03 g 2 mol N H 3 1 mol H 2

Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield

Example

2Sb (s) + 3I2(s) →2SbI3 (s)

a) What is the limiting reactant and theoretical yield when 1.2 mol Sb and 2.4

mol I2 are mixed?

2 mol Sb I 3
1.20 mol Sb× =1.20 mol Sb I 3 since 1.20 < 1.60 Sb is the limiting
2mols Sb
reactant
2 mol Sb I 3
2.40 mol I 2 × =1.60 mol Sb I 3
3 mols Sb

Theoretical yield is 1.20 mol SbI3

b) What is the limiting reactant and theoretical yield when 1.20g of Sb and

2.40g of I2 is mixed. What mass of excess reactant is left when reaction is

complete?

1 mol Sb 2 mol Sb I 3
1.20 g Sb × × =0.00985 mol Sb I 3
121.8 g Sb 2mol Sb

1 mol I 2 2 mol Sb I 3
2.4 g I 2 × × =0.006304 mol Sb I 3 Limiting reactant is I2 and
253.8 g I 2 3 mol I 2

theoretical yield is 0.006304 mol Sb I 3

 1 mol I 2 2 mol Sb 121.8 g Sb
2.4 g I 2 × × × =0.768 g Sb is the amount that was consumed∈the reaction
253.8 g I 2 3 mol I 2 1 mol Sb

Excess amount of Sb = 1.20g Sb – 0.768g Sb = 0.43 g Sb excess

Experimental yield; percent yield

experimental yield
percent yield= × 100 %
theoretical yield

Example

According to calculations 1.71 mol MgI 2. Percent yield was found to be 84.5%

how many grams of mgI2 did he produce?

actual yield
84.5 %= ×100 %
1.71mol

Actual yield = 1.44 mol MgI2

278.1 g Mg I 2
1.44 mol Mg I 2 × =402 g Mg I 2
1 mol Mg I 2

Reading Assignment CHAPTER 3 From textbook

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 6

REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

Precipitation Reactions

H─O─H

When the attraction towards positively charged part of water

(H) and negatively charged part of water (O) is stronger than

the attraction between the ions that form the ionic compound,

compound dissociates into its ions in water.

Solubility Chart (white cells are soluble, green cells are insoluble, highlighted

species are exceptions.

NO3- Cl- SO42- OH- CO32- PO43-

Group1 + NH4+            
Mg(OH)
GROUP2     BaSO4 2    
AgCl
Transition + Pb2+ PbCl PbSO4
Hg2+   Hg2Cl2 Ag2SO4      

Example

Predict what will happen when the following pairs of dilute aqueous

solutions are mixed.

Cu(NO3)2 (NH4)2SO4
Cu(NO3)2 →CU2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq)

(NH4)2SO4 → 2NH4+ (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)

CuSO4 NH4 NO3 both are soluble no precipitate formation

FeCl3 and AgNO3

Fe(NO3)3 AgCl (s) will precipitate

Net Ionic Equations

Na2CO3 → 2Na+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCl 2 → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-

(aq)

Na+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) Ca2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) these ions will be present in

the medium when solutions are mixed.

2Na+ (aq) +CO32- (aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) → 2Na+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + CaCO3 (s)

The net ionic equation

Ca2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) → CaCO3 (s)

Example

NaOH and Cu(NO3)2 are mixed write down net ionic equation for any precipitation

that can occur.

Na+ OH- Cu2+ 2NO3-

Cu2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s)

Stoichiometry

Example

NaOH and Fe(NO3)3

NaOH → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

a) Write down net ionic equation

Na+ OH- Fe3+ 3NO3-

Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH- (aq) → Fe(OH)3 (s)

b) What volume of 0.136 M iron(III) nitrate is required to produce 0.886g of precipitate?

MM Fe(OH)3 = 106.87 g/mol
1 mol e 3+¿ 1mol Fe (N O 3 )3
0.886 g Fe(OH )3 × ×1 mol F × ¿
106.87 g 1mol Fe (OH )3 3+¿ 1L
1 mol F e × =0.0610 L¿
0.136 molFe ( N O 3 )3

c) 50mL 0.200 M NaOH and 30 mL of 0.125M Fe(NO3)3 are mixed how many

grams precipitate will be formed?

mol
n NaOH =0.05 L ×0.2 =0.01 mol NaOH
L
mol
n Fe(N O ) =0.03 L× 0.125 =0.00375 mol
3 3
L

Product for NaOH

H−¿ 1 mol Fe(OH )3

0.01 mol NaOH ×1 mol O × ¿
1 mol NaOH 3 mol O H =0.00333 mol Fe(OH )3 ¿
−¿

Product for Fe(NO3)3

e 3+¿ 1 mol Fe(OH )3

0.00375 mol Fe(N O 3 )3 ×1 mol F × 3+¿
¿
1 mol Fe( N O 3)3 1 mol F e =0.00375 molFe (OH )3 ¿
NaOH is limiting reagent and theoretical product is 0.00333 mol Fe(OH) 3
106.87 gFe(OH )3
0.00333 mol Fe(OH )3 × =0.356 gFe(OH )3
1 molFe( OH )3

Acid-Base Reactions

An Arrhenius acid is a species that produces H+ ions in water

An Arrhenius base is a species that produces OH- ions in water

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) strong acid

HB(aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + B-(aq) weak acid

NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) strong base

NH3 (aq) + H2O ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq) weak base

H+ (aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O strong acid - strong base

1) HB(aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + B-(aq)

2) H+ (aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O

Net equation

HB(aq) + OH-(aq) → B-(aq) + H2O weak acid – strong base

1) NH3 (aq) + H2O ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

2) H+ (aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O

Net reaction

H+ (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) strong acid – weak base

Titration

Equivalence point is the point where amount of added reagent

is just enough to consume all the sample.

Example

Consider the weak acid H2X is titrated with NaOH.

a) Write net ionic equation

H2X (aq) + 2OH- (aq) → X-2 (aq) + 2H2O

b) Molarity of H2X ? 29.45 mL of 0.187 M NaOH to neutralize

15.00 mL of H2X sample

mol NaOH H −¿ 1 mol H 2 X
0.0 2945 L× 0.187 ×1 mol O × −¿ ¿
L 1 mol NaOH 2 mol O H =0.002754 mol H 2 X ¿
n 0.002754 mol
M= = =0.1836 M
V 0.015 L

c) 29.45 mL of 0.187 M NaOH is added. To a solution of H 2X

prepared by adding 0.242 g in enough amount of water to

make a 25.00 mL solution.

d)

mol NaOH H −¿ 1 mol H 2 X

0.0 2945 L× 0.187 ×1 mol O × −¿ ¿
L 1 mol NaOH 2 mol O H =0.002754 mol H 2 X ¿

MM = m/mol
0.242 g
MM= =87.9 g/mol
0.002754 mol

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Zn(s) + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2 (g)

Zn is oxidized gave electrons

H2 is reduced received electrons

Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e- oxidation half reaction

2H+ + 2e- → H2 (g) reduction half reaction

Reading Assignment Chapter 4

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 7

GASES

Volume, Amount, Temperature, Pressure

Ideal gases Kelvin is used as temperature unit!

Height recorded by Torricelli at sea level atmospheric

pressure is 760 mm or 76 cm (mercury barometer)

Atmospheric pressure is 76cm Hg or 760mmHg

1.013 bar = 1 atm = 760mmHg = 14.7 psi = 101.3 kPa =

101300 Pa

1 bar = 105 Pa

Ideal Gas Law

1. Volume is directly proportional to the amount.

V = k1.n (constant T,P)

2. Volume is directly proportional to absolute

temperature (K)

V = k2T (constant P,n)

3. Volume is inversely proportional with Pressure

k3
V=
P

At constant T and n
n ×T
V =constant ×
P

PV = nRT

R is ideal gas law constant

 How the value of R is calculated?

At standard temperature (00C or 273.15 K) and pressure (1 atm) STP

volume of any gas is 22.4L

PV 1.00 atm 22.4 L Latm

R= = =0.0821
nT 1 mol 273 K molK

R = 8.31 J/molK = 8.31 Pa m3/ molK

Final and Initial State Problems

P1V1 = nRT1 initial state

P2V2 = nRT2 final state

P1V 1 T1
=
P2V 2 T2

At constant n,V

P1 T 1
=
P2 T 2

At constant n,T

P1V 1
=1
P2V 2
P1 V 2
=
P2 V 1

Example

V of tank = 15.0L tank is a container with fixed volume so the volume

will be constant throughout the process

P = 0.915 atm

T = 25 0C =298 K

mpropane = 24.7 g

a) If T is increased to 55 0C will the valve open (1.200 atm)?

P1 T 1
=
P2 T 2

0.915 atm 298 K

=
P2 (55+273)K

(55+ 273) K
P 2= × 0.915=1.01 atm
298 K

Valve will not be opened.

b) Temperature increased to 200 0C some propane is released by

pressure valve. What is amount of propane released in grams?

24.7 g
n1 = =0.56 mol propane
44.1 g /mol

P 1 n1 T 1
=
P 2 n2 T 2
0.915 atm 0.56 (25+ 273 ) K
=
1.2 atm n2 ( 200+273 ) K

0.56 ( 25+273 ) K 1.2atm

n2 = × =0.463 mol
( 200+273 ) K 0.915 atm

g
0.463 mol × 44.1 =20.4 g
mol

mtotal = m2 + mreleased 24.7g = 20.4g + mreleased mreleased =24.7g-20.4g= 4.3g

Example

2.50g of sulfur hexafluoride is filled into an evacuated 500.0

mL container at 83 0C what pressure in atm is developed?

PV =nRT P = nRT/V T = 83 +273 = 356 K V =0.5L

146.07 g
n=2.50 g × =0.071 mol
1mol

Latm
0.071 mol ×0.0821 ×356 K
molK
P= =1 atm
0.5 L

Molar Mass and Density

PV =nRT

1 m 1
PV × = RT ×
m MM m

V m RT m
P × × MM= × × MM
m V MM V

P . MM =dRT
 dRT
MM=
P

Molar mass equation using ideal gas law

Example

Acetone has a density of 1.96 g/L at 95 OC and 1.02 atm

a) How many moles of acetone are there in 1.00L flask

under these conditions.

PV =nRT

1.02atm. 1.00 L = n . 0.0821 Latm/molK. (95+273)K

1.02 atm× 1.00 L
n= =0.0338 mol
Latm
0.0821 ×(95+273) K
molK

b) What is the MM of acetone ?

dRT
MM=
P
Latm
1.96 g/ L× 0.0821 ×368 K
molK
MM= =58.0 g /mol
1.02 atm

c) CxHyOz + O2 → CO2 + H2O 1.000g of acetone is

burned

2.27g CO2 and 0.932 g H2O is formed

 12.01 gC 1 mol
2.27 g × =0.619 g C 0.619 g C × =0.0515 mol
44.01 g C O 2 12.01 g

2(1.008) gH 1 mol
0.932 g × =0.104 g H 0.104 gH × =0.103 mol
18.02 g H 2 O 1.008 g

1 mol
mO2 = 1.000 – 0.619 – 0.104 = 0.277g O 0.277 g × 16 g =0.0173 mol

0.0515 mol
C: =3
0.0173 mol

0.103 mol
H: =6
0.0173 mol

0.0173 mol
O: =1
0.0173 mol

Simplest Formula

C3H6O

MM of acetone = 58.0 g/mol

MM of simplest formula = 3(12.01) + 6 (1.008) + 16.00 = 58.08

= 58.1 g/mol

MM simplest formula = MM of acetone

Factor = 1

Molecular formula = simplest formula

C3H6O
 CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 8

Gas Mixtures

RT RT RT RT
Ptot =n tot =( n A +nB ) =n A +n B =P A + P B
V V V V

RT
P A =n A
V

RT
PB =n B
V

PA and PB stand for partial pressure A and partial pressure B

Dalton’s Law of partial pressures:

PT =P A + P B

Wet Gases; partial pressure of water

Example

V = 152 mL of H2 is collected, T =25 0C, 758mmHg.

a) Partial pressure of hydrogen

PH2O(at 25 0C) = 23.76 mmHg

Ptot = PH2O + PH2

 PH2 = 758 mmHg – 23.76 mmHg = 734mmHg

b) Number of moles of hydrogen collected

PV = nRT

1 atm
734 mmHg × =0.96 atm
760 mmHg

V = 0.152 L T = 25 + 273 = 298 K

0.96 mol ×0.152 L
n= =0.00600mol
Latm
0.0821 × 298 K
molK

Mole Fractions

RT
P A =n A
V

RT
PB =n B
V

P A nA
=
PB n B

PA nA
= =x A mole fraction of A
P tot ntot

P A =Ptot x A

Ptot =Ptot x A + Ptot x B =Ptot x A + Ptot (1−x¿¿ A) ¿

x A + x B =1

Example
When 1 mole of methane is heated with 4 moles of oxygen

following reaction occurs:

CH4 (g) +2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

All methane is converted. Calculate mole fractions. If P tot

=1.26atm calculate partial pressures.

2 mol O2
1 mol C H 4 ×
1 mol C H 4
=2 mol O2 isreacted . then 2 moles of O2 remains (4-

2=2moles)

2 mol H 2 O
1 mol C H 4 × =2 moles H 2 O produced
1 mol C H 4

1 mol C O 2
1 mol C H 4 × =1 molC O 2
1 mol C H 4

After the reaction we have 2 moles of O 2, 2 moles of H2O and

1 mole of CO2 in the medium. ntot = 5moles

xO2 = 2molO2 / 5mol = 0.4 xH2O 2/5 = 0.4 xCO2 = 1/5 =0.2

PO2 = Ptot. xO2 = 1.26 atm. 0.4 =0.504 atm

PH2O = Ptot. xH2O = 1.26 atm. 0.4 =0.504 atm

P CO2 = Ptot. x CO2 = 1.26 atm. 0.2 =0.252 atm

Reading Assignment CHAPTER 5 from the textbook

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND PERIODIC TABLE

An atom is a structure with positively charged nucleus in the

middle and electron cloud around

Quantum Numbers

First quantum numbers given with the symbol n, is of primary

importance in determining the energy of an electron.

n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ….

An electron for which n = 1 is said to be in the first principal

energy level. If n=2 second principal energy level and so on.

Second Quantum numbers, ℓ sublevels (s,p,d,f)

ℓ = 0,1,2 …. (n-1)

Quantum no ℓ 0 1 2 3
sublevel s p d f

ns<np<nd<nf increase in energy in this order if n is constant

n=2 ℓ =1 → 2p

Third quantum number, mℓ

Third quantum number gives information about electron energy

level in terms of its orbital.

mℓ = - ℓ ….0…. ℓ

ℓ=2 mℓ = -2 -1 0 1 2 5 orbitals

Fourth Quantum Number, ms; electron spin

ms shows spin direction of the electrons. Clockwise or

counterclockwise is possible.

ms + ½ or – ½ this number is not related to other quantum

numbers
Pauli exclusion principle

No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four

quantum numbers. This principle also tells us that only two

electrons can be found in an orbital.

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 9

Example

Consider the following sets of quantum numbers. Which ones

could not occur? For the valid sets identify the orbital

involved

a) 3,1,0,+1/2 valid 3p

b) 1,1,0,-1/2 b is not valid ℓ cannot be equal to n

c) 2,0,0,+1/2 valid 2s

d) 4,3,2,+1/2 valid 4f

e) 2,1,0,0 not valid ms can only be +1/2 or -1/2

Example
 a) What is the capacity for s, p, d and f sublevels

s ℓ=0 then mℓ = 0 that means 1 orbital for s sublevel

and max 2 e- can be in each orbital so the capacity is 2

e-

p sublevel ℓ=1 mℓ =-1 0 1 that means there are 3

orbitals 2 e- 6 electrons max

d sublevel ℓ=2 mℓ =-2 -1 0 1 2 5 orbitals 10 e-

f sublevel ℓ=3 mℓ =-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 7 orbitals 14 e-

b) What is the capacity of electrons for the 4 th principal

energy level

n=4 ℓ= 0 1 2 3 (ℓ= 0) 2e - (ℓ= 1) 6e- + (ℓ= 2) 10e- + (ℓ= 3)

14e- = 32 e-

Atomic orbitals; Shapes and sizes

s, p orbitals

s orbitals’ shape is spherical and increases as energy levels

increase 1s<2s<3s
Electron Configurations in Atoms

1s22s22p5 Fluorine’s electronic configuration

10 Ne 1s22s22p6

12 Mg 1s22s22p63s2

20 Ca 1s22s22p63s23p64s2

30 Zn 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10

36 Kr 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6

26 Fe 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6

16 S [Ne]3s23p4

28 Ni 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d8 [Ar] 4s23d8

Orbital Diagrams of Atoms

5B 1S2 2S2 2P1

(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑) ( ) ( )

6C 1S2 2S2 2P2

6 C 1S2 2S2 2P2

(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑ ) (↑ ) ( )

8 O 1S2 2S2 2P4

(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑ ) (↑ )

Example

26 Fe

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d

(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓)(↑↓)(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓)(↑↓)(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓)(↑ )(↑ )(↑ )(↑ )

Electron Arrangements in Monoatomic Ions

7N (1s22s22p3) + 3e- → 7N3- (1s22s22p6)

8O (1s22s22p4) + 2e- → 8O2- (1s22s22p6)

11 Na(1s22s22p63s1) → 11Na+ (1s22s22p6) + e-

26 Fe (1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6) → 26 Fe2+ (1s22s22p63s23p63d6) + 2e-

26 Fe2+ (1s22s22p63s23p63d6) → 26 Fe3+ (1s22s22p63s23p63d5) + e-

Example

Give the electronic configuration of Br-

35 Br- 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5+1 = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6

Periodic Trends in the Properties of Atoms

Atomic Radius

Ionization Energy

M(g) → M+ (g) + e-

Electronegativity

Ability to attract electrons.

Reading Assignment Chapter 6

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 10

COVALENT BONDING
Valance electron distribution of some atoms

ethylene acetylene

Writing Lewis structures

1- Draw a skeleton of the species joining the atoms by

single bonds

2- Count the number of valance electrons (VE)

3- Count the number of valance electrons available (AE)

AE = VE – 2(bond number)

4- Count the number of electrons required to fill out an

octet for each atom (except H) in the skeleton (NE)

AE = NE skeleton is correct

AE < NE
2 electrons short then single bond to double bond

4 electrons short one single to triple bond or two single

bonds to double bond

Hydrogen and halogens never form double bonds

Formal Charge

methanol

if such molecule existed they would be

called isomers but this molecule is not existing.

Cf = VE – unshared electrons – ½ shared electrons

Cf = VE – unshared electrons – number of bonds

C: Cf = 4VE - 0 – 4bonds = 0

O: Cf = 6VE – 4 -2bonds = 0

Molecular Geometry

Cl-Cl H-Cl linear

Linear bent

Geometry of molecules are estimated by valance-shell

electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model.

Ideal geometries

A central atom and other atoms bonded to the central atom.

In ideal geometries central atom does not have unpaired

electrons.

Ideal geometries with 2-6 electrons around the central

atom Figure 7.11 shows molecular geometries for 2-6

electrons around central atom.

AX3

AX2 Linear AX5 Trigonal bipyramid

AX3 Trigonal Planar BF3 AX6 Octahedron

AX4 Tetrahedron CH4

Effect of Unshared pairs on molecular geometry

AX2E2 Bent
 AX3E Trigonal pyramid

AX2E Bent

AX3E Trigonal pyramid

AX2E2 Bent

Multiple Bonds

A multiple bond behaves like a single bond

O=C=O AX 2 Linear

Check table 7.15 for molecular geometrices of molecules with

unshared electrons

Polarity

Polar. As a result of an unsymmetrical distribution of

electrons, the bond or molecule contains positive and a

negative pole and is therefore a dipole.

Nonpolar. A symmetrical distribution of electrons leads to a

bond or molecule with no positive or negative poles.

F-Be-F non polar

polar

CHCl3 polar

CCl4 nonpolar

O=C=O Same terminal atoms

Linear (symmetric)

Nonpolar

O-S=O

AX2E

Same terminal atoms

No symmetry then polar

 CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 11

Atomic Orbitals; Hybridization

1s 2s 2p

(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑ )

When fluorine bonds with H to form HF the last orbital

receives the shared electron.

1s 2s 2p

(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓)

Be (↑↓) (↑↓) ( )( )( ) sp hybrid orbital sp

hybridization

B (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑ ) ( ) ( ) sp2 hybrid orbital

1s 2s 2p
C (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑ ) (↑ ) ( ) sp 3 hybridization sp3

hybrid orbitals

(↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓) (↑↓)

Number of electron Pairs Hybrid Orbitals

2 sp

3 sp2

4 sp 3

5 sp 3d

6 sp 3d2

Example

Give the hypridization of carbon in CH3Cl, phosphorus PH3 and

sulfur SF4

m(number of bonds) = 4 n= (unshared pairs) = 0 m+n=

4+0 = 4 4 electron pairs. sp3 hybridization AX4

 m= 3 n= 1 pair unshared electrons (2electrons)

m + n = 3+1 = 4 AX3E sp3

m = 4 n = 1 m + n = 5 AX 4E sp3d

hybridization

Multiple bonds

For hybridization only single bonds are included.

m = 2 n = 1 m + n = 3 sp 2 hybridization

AX2E

Sigma and Pi Bonds

Single bonds are sigma bonds. Double and triple bonds contain

1 sigma bond and rest of the bonding is made by pi bonds.

Reading Assignment is CHAPTER 7 from your textbook

THERMOCHEMISTRY

Principles of Heat Flow

System: is that part of the universe on which attention is

focused.

Surroundings: anything that is found outside of the system

boundaries

System + Surroundings = Universe

State Properties

50.0 g of H2O (l) at 50 0C and 1 atm. (a state of the system)

When system is heated

50.0 g of H2O (l) at 80 0C and 1 atm (final state after heat

introduced)

Certain quantities called state properties depend only on the

state of the system not on the way the system reached that

state.
ΔX = Xfinal – Xinitial

Direction and Sign of Heat Flow

Driving force for heat transfer is temperature difference.

Heat flows from hot to cold. Sign of heat flow (q) is positive

when heat is transferred to the system and negative when

heat is lost to the surroundings.

H2O (s) → H2O (l) q > 0 endothermic reaction where

reaction system receives heat

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) q<0 reaction

system evolves heat to the surroundings. This reaction is an

exothermic reaction.

Magnitude of Heat Flow

SI unit is Joules

Calories. 1cal = 4.184 J 1kcal = 4.184 kJ

1 cal is the required amount of energy to raise temperature of

1 g water by 1 0C
Heat capacity : is the amount of heat required to increase a

substance’s temperature by 1 0C C → J/0C

Specific heat capacity: is the amount of heat required to

increase unit mass of a substance’s temperature by 1 0C

c → J/g 0C

cwater = 4.18 J/g 0C

heat transferred to a substance can be calculated

q = mass × c × ΔT

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 12

Example

1.40 mol of liquid water is cooled down from 100.0 to 30.0 0C

compare the heat given with 1.40 mol steam cooling down from

200.0 to 110.0 0C
Cwater(l) 4.18 J/g0C Cgas(l) = 1.87 J/g0C

q = m c ΔT ΔT = Tf - Ti

18.02 g
1.40 mol H 2 O =25.2 g
1 mol

Liquid water

ΔT = 30 0C – 100 OC = -70 0C

q = 25.2g (4.18J/g0C) (-70 0C) = -7.37×103 J

Steam

ΔT =110 OC - 200 OC = -90 0C

q = 25.2 g (1.87 J/g0C) (-90 0C) = -4.24 × 103 J

Measurement of Heat Flow; Calorimetry

 qsystem = 0 due to insulation

qsystem = qreaction + qwater

0 = qreaction + qwater,

qreaction = - qwater

Ccal = mwater . cwater

qreaction = - Ccal ΔT

Example

CaCl2 (s) → Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)

50.0 g water.

Tinitial = 25.00 0C Tfinal = 28.51 0C mCaCl2 = 1g

a) Calculate q for the reaction system

qreaction = - qwater

Ccal = mwater . cwater Ccal = 50g (4.18J/g0C)

qreaction = - Ccal ΔT
qreaction = - 50.0g (4.18J/g0C) (28.51 0C -25.00 0C )= -734J

b) How much CaCl2 must be added to raise the

temperature of the solution by 9.00 0C

qreaction = - qwater

qreaction = - Ccal ΔT= -50.0 g (4.18J/g0C)(9.00 0C) = -1.88×103 J

1 g CaC l 2
−1.88 ×10 3 J =2.56 g
−734 J

Since there was 1.00 in the water 2.56 – 1.00 = 1.56g must be

added.

Bomb Calorimeter

bomb is a stainless steel vessel that can stand high pressures of gases (most commonly oxygen is filled for

combustion).

qreaction = - ( qcalorimeter + qwater)

Ccal should be decided or it will be provided. Heat

evolved by the reaction is taken by calorimeter and

water.
 Example

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g)

Ccal = 5.15 kJ/0C is provided for calorimeter material

only not including the water.

Tinitial = 20.00 0C Tfinal = 29.82 0C

Water in calorimeter is 1kg

How much heat is evolved by the reaction?

qcal = 5.15 kJ/0C (29.82 0C - 20.00 0C)= 50.6kJ

qwater = 1000g (4.18J/g0C) (29.82 0C - 20.00 0C)= 4.10×104 J = 41
kJ

qreaction = -(50.6 +41) = 91.6kJ

Enthalpy

Under constant pressure the heat flow for the reaction

system is equal to the difference in enthalpy (H) between

products and reactants. The enthalpy change is designated as

ΔH.
qreaction at constant pressure = ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants

Endothermic reactions ΔH is positive shows that products

have higher enthalpy than reactants

Exothermic reactions ΔH is negative shows that products have

less enthalpy than reactants.

CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 13

Thermochemical Equations

NH4NO3 (s) → NH4+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) ΔH = + 28.1 Kj

ΔH is calculated for dissolution of 1 mol NH4NO3

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g) ΔH = - 185 Kj

Rules of Thermochemistry

1- The magnitude of ΔH is directly proportional to the

amount of reactant and product

−185 kJ −185 kJ −185 kJ

1mol C l 2 1 mol H 2 2mol HCl

Example
Combustion of Methane

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ΔH = -890.3 kJ

a) Calculate ΔH when 5.00g of CH4 with an excess of

oxygen

1 mol C H 4 −890.3 kJ
5.00 g× × =−278 kJ
16.04 g 1 mol C H 4

b) Calculate ΔH when 2.00 L of CH4 at 49 0C and 782

mmHg react with excess oxygen

PV =nRT n = PV/RT

V = 2.00 L T = 490C + 273 = 322K

P = 782mmHg × (1atm/760mmHg) = 782/760 atm

782/760 atm × 2.00 L
=0.0778 mol
0.082 Latm
×322 K
molK

−890.3 kJ
0.0778 mol × =−69.3 kJ
1 mol

V and n is directly proportional when T P are constant

2. ΔH of a reaction is equal in magnitude but opposite

in sing to ΔH of a reverse reaction.

 Example

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) ΔH = -571.6 kJ

Calculate ΔH for the equation

H2O (l) → H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g)

2 H2O (l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) according to rule 2 ΔH = +571.6 kJ

H2O (l) → H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) according to rule 1 ΔH = +571.6/2 kJ

= 285.8 kJ

3. the value of ΔH for a reaction is the same whether it occurs in

one step or in a series of steps.

Example

CO is a poisonous gas. It can be obtained by burning carbon in a

limited amount of oxygen. Given

(1) C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ΔH = -393.5 kJ

(2) 2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) ΔH = -566.0 kJ

C + ½ O2 → CO ΔH = ?

Try to obtain the equation by combining the given equations

(2CO2 → 2CO + O2) / 2 ΔH = +566.0 kJ /2 = 283.0 kJ

C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 ΔH = -393.5 kJ

C(s) + ½O2 (g) → CO (g) ΔH = -110.5 kJ

ΔH = ΔH1 + ΔH2

Enthalpies of Formation

ΔHf0

The standard molar enthalpy of formation of a compound is equal to

change when one mole of the compound is formed at a constant

pressure of 1 atm and a fixed temperature, ordinarily 25 0C from the

elements in their stable states at that pressure and temperature.

Ag (s) + Cl2 (g) → AgCl2 (s) ΔH = -127.1 kJ

ΔHf0 AgCl2(s) = -127.1 kJ/mol (250C)

Table 8.3 list of enthalpies of formation at 250C

ΔH0 = ∑ ΔHf0 (products) - ∑ ΔHf0 (reactants)

Example
C6H6 (l) +15/2 O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g)+ 3H2O (l) ΔH0 = -3267.4

kJ

a) Calculate the heat of formation of benzene

-3267.4 = [3(-285.8kJ/mol) + 6(-393.5kJ/mol)] – [ (0) +

ΔHf0 C6H6)]
[3(-285.8kJ/mol) + 6(-393.5kJ/mol)]+ 3267.4 = ΔHf0 C6H6

ΔHf0 C6H6 =+ 49 kJ/mol

The First Law of Thermodynamics

ΔEsystem = - ΔEsurroundings

ΔEsystem = q + w

Piston cylinder contains gas

Reading Assignment Chapter 8

If the system is selected as the gas in cylinder work is done

on the system.
 CHEMISTRY

LECTURE 14

SOLUTIONS

Concentration Units

Molarity

Molarity (M) = moles solute/liters solution

n(mol)
C (concentration)=
V ( L)

Dilution

Can be defined as preparing less concentrate solutions from

more concentrate solutions.

nsolute (concentrated) = nsolute (dilute solution)

McVc = MdVd

Example
CuSO4 solution of 40.00g in 500.0 mL solution. an experiment

requires 0.1000 M solution

a) What is the molarity of CuSO4 stock solution?

M = n/V

1molCuS O 4
40.00 g CuS O 4 × =0.2506 mol
159.6 g

M = 0.2506 mol / 0.5L = 0.5013 M

b) How would you prepare 1.500 L of 0.1000 M solution

from the stock solution?

McVc = MdVd

0.5013M. Vc = 0.1mol/L 1.500 L

mol
0.1 ×1.500 L
L
V c= =0.2992 L
mol
0.5013
L

Mole Fraction

XA = moles A/ total moles = nA/ntot

XA + XB + XC + XD +……….. = 1

Example

H2O2 is commercially available as 30% by mass solutions.

What is the mole fraction of hydrogen peroxide in that

solution?

A solution of 100 g can be selected as a basis.

30g H2O2 70g H2O

30 g
nH O = =0.882 mol
2 2
34.02 g /mol

70 g
n H O= =3.88 mol
2
18.02 g /mol

ntot = 0.882 mol + 3.88 mol = 4.76

0.882mol
XH2O2 = 4.76 mol
=0.185

Mass Percent; Parts per Million; Parts per Billion

mass solute
mass percent of solute= 100 %
total mass of solution
They are used when solute is very small as with trace

impurities in water concentration is often expressed in ppm

or ppb.

Drinking water cannot contain more than 5 × 10 -8 g arsenic in

1 g water

5× 10−8 gsolute 6
× 10 =0.05 ppm
1 g sample

5× 10−8 gsolute 9
× 10 =50 ppb
1 g sample

Molality (m)

moles solute
molality ( m )=
kilograms solvent

Example

A solution is prepared by adding 2.00 mg NaCl, 6.00g

glucose and 112g water is added

a) What is the molality of the glucose solution

 moles solute
molality ( m )=
kilograms solvent

1 mol
6.00 g glucose =0.0333 mol
180.16 g /mol

0.0333
m= =0.297 m
0.122 kg

b) How many ppm Na does the solution contain

msolution =0.00200 g NaCl+6.00 g glucose+ 112 g water=118 g solution
0.00200 g NaCl
ppm= × 106=17 ppm
118 g solution

END OF LECTURE 14 and the SEMESTER