Fibre To Fabric Eng

Fibre
to Fabric
Code: 668
Course Coordinator
Dr. Sandhya Kumar
National Institute of Open Schooling

(An Autonomous Institution Under MHRD, Govt of India)
ISO 9001 : 2008 Certified
A-24/25, Sector 62, NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh- 201309
Fibre to Fabric
August 2017
Copies:
Price:
This book or part thereof may not be reproduced by any

person or agency in any manner.
Published by : National Institute of Open Schooling

A-24/25, Sector 62, NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh- 201309
Designed by : Multi Graphics, 8A/101 WEA Karol Bagh, New Delhi -110005
Printed at :
Welcome
Let me welcome you to this course “Fibre to Fabric”!!
This is a course that has been very thoughtfully designed
for people engaged in textiles industry and also for those
who are desirous of entering the fascinating world of
textiles. Textiles, fabrics, garments are omnipresent- we
are surrounded by them- be they the clothes that we wear,
the sofa covering or curtains, the cloth that we use to wipe
our hands as we work, the ropes that we use……. we see
them everywhere.
This course will take you on a journey from obtaining
fibres to creating beautiful yarns and then weaving the
yarns into a variety of fabrics. I hope you will enjoy
reading this course as much as we enjoyed preparing it.
Do not hesitate to write to us at [email protected]
if you need any help.
Wish you good luck in your studies and for your future!
Dr. Sandhya Kumar

Course Coordinator
Acknowledgement
Advisory Committee
Prof. C. B. Sharma Dr. Rajesh Kumar
Chairman, Director ( Academic and Vocational Education)
National Institute of Open Schooling, NOIDA, National Institute of Open Schooling,
Uttar Pradesh NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh
Course Curriculum Committee
Dr. Swapna Mishra Ms. Jyotsna Kapur Prof. Promil Pande Mr. Vikash Kumar
Director, Sector Skill Secretary, All India, Prof. and Dean, School Assistant Director
Council, Textiles, Women’s Educational of Fashion and Design, Weaver Service Centre,
New Delhi Fund Association GD Goenka University New Delhi
(AIWEFA), New Delhi
Dr. Swarnima Singh Ms. Navya Agarwal Dr. Bhupinder Kaur Ms. Vandana Jaglan
Lecturer, Satyam Entrepreneur, Product Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Fashion Institute, and Graphic Designer, Institute of Home Satyam Fashion
NOIDA Sitapur Uttar Pradesh Economics, Institute, NOIDA
University of Delhi
Dr. Amita Walia Dr. Simmi Bhagat
Associate Professor& HOD, Department of Fabric & Associate Professor, Department of Fabric and
Apparel Science, Institute of Home Economics, Apparel Science Lady Irwin College, University of
University of Delhi Delhi
Dr. Mamta Srivastava Dr. Sandhya Kumar Ms. Anitha Nair
Dy. Director Dy. Director Dy. Director
(Vocational Education), NIOS (Academic Department), NIOS (Vocational Education), NIOS
Dr. Praveen Chauhan Ms. Asheema Singh
Academic Officer, Home Science Project Coordinator
(Vocational Education), NIOS AEP, UNFPA, NIOS
Lesson Writers
Dr. Bhupinder Kaur Dr. Harshita Chaudhary
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Ms. Deepti Sethi Ms. Shumaila Naaz
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Ms. Simran Kaur Ms. Divyansha Sharma
Assistant Professor Research Scholar
(All experts from Department of Fabric and Apparel Science, Institute of Home Economics,
University of Delhi.)
Dr. Anjana Agarwal
Senior Executive Officer, NIOS
Editor Course Coordinator

Dr. Amita Walia Dr. Sandhya Kumar
Assistant Professor & HoD, Deputy Director
Department of Fabric and Apparel Science National Institute of Open Schooling, NOIDA, UP
Institute of Home Economics, University of Delhi.
Graphic Artist
Ms. Deepti Sethi, Assistant Professor, Department of Fabric and Apparel Science Institute of Home
Economics, University of Delhi.
Typesetting and Cover Design
Multi Graphics
Contents
S. No. Subject Name Page. No
1. Lesson - 1 Knowing Textile Fibres 1
2. Lesson - 2 Natural Fibres 13
3. Lesson - 3 Man-made fibres 25
4. Lesson - 4 Fibre Identification 37
5. Lesson - 5 Yarn Construction and its properties 51
6. Lesson - 6 Yarn and its types 69
7. Lesson - 7 Emerging into Fabric 83
8. Lesson - 8 Fabric Finishes 95

Knowing Textile Fibres
1
Fibre to Fabric
1.1 TEXTILE FIBRES

Have you seen fibres in your dress? Yes, probably you have. You must have seen a lungi- they
have threads at both the ends. Pull out one thread. Try to untwist this between your fingers
and thumb. The tiny hair like structure you get on untwisting the thread is a fibre. See the
figure given below and you will understand how you got the fibre in your hand.
Fig. 1.1: Fabric -Yarn - Fibre
Thus, we can say that fabric is made of yarns and yarns are made of fibres. So we can say that
a textile fibre is the smallest unit of fabric. There are many kinds of fibres that are used in a
variety of ways.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRES

Textile fibres can be classified in two ways depending on-
1. Origin of fibre- from natural sources and manufactured by man.
2. Length of fibres-short/staple fibres and long/filament fibres.
Length of man-made fibres can be controlled and made into kilometers, if required. Usually
natural fibres are short in length except silk fibre. Man-made fibres are filament fibres. You
can see the classification of fibres based on the origin along with examples in the Fig 1.2 and
the classification based on length of the fibre is briefly explained in Table 1.1.
Fig: 1.2: Classification of Fibres based on their origin
2
Table 1.1: Classification of fibres based on the length of the fibres
Type of fibres based on Characteristics Examples

length
Short length Cotton, Jute, Wool

Single fibre = ¾ of an inch
Long continuous length Silk and man-made fibres

Measured in yards or such as Polyester, Rayon,
metres. Acrylic
1.3 NATURAL FIBRES

Various fibrous materials are found in nature. Some of them are used to make fabrics and are
called textile fibres. These are obtained from natural sources such as animals, plants and minerals
and are known as natural fibres. All natural fibres differ from each other on the basis of their
source and chemical composition which, in turn, influence their properties and their end use.
Depending upon the source they are categorized as:
1. Cellulosic fibres / Vegetable fibres
2. Protein fibres / Animal fibres
3. Mineral fibres
Cellulosic fibres like cotton, jute and flax are obtained from different parts of the plants. Cotton
fibre is obtained from seeds and jute and flax come from the fibres in the stem of the plant.
Protein fibre such as wool is obtained from different animals that have hair on their body
(such as sheep and goat) and silk is obtained from silkworm. Animal fibres contain protein
hence are also referred as protein fibres. Mineral fibres such as asbestos are obtained through
mining.
3
Fibre to Fabric
Fun Time!!
Talk to people around you or research on the internet or simply use your knowledge- write
the names of four more animals whose hair is used to make wool.
1. ________________
2. ________________
3. ________________
4. ________________
1.4 MAN-MADE FIBRES

Textile fibres manufactured by using different chemicals are called man-made fibres. The
liquid solution of the chemicals is forced out with pressure or extruded as very thin long strands
or filaments of the desired length. Since the process is controlled by us, it is possible to make
filaments of different lengths according to the requirement. There are three categories of man-
made fibres depending upon their raw material-
1. Regenerated fibres- the raw material is cellulose like wood pulp or cotton linters (waste
small cotton fibres which cannot be used to make cotton yarn). This is treated with
chemicals to form a new fibre that is known as "regenerated fibre". Examples of
regenerated fibres are rayon and acetate.
2. Synthetic fibres -these are produced by using different types of chemicals under controlled
conditions. Examples of synthetic fibres are nylon and polyester.
3. Other fibres - metallic fibres like gold, silver and metals or metal coated on plastic fibres.
Portfolio Activity 1.1

Collect eight clothing items of your choice from your house such as Pant (Trousers), Bed
Sheet, Sweater, Mufler/Scarf, Saree, Shirt, Baniyan (Vest), Lungi. Try and guess the fibres
possibly used in manufacturing these articles. Use the format given below to record your
observation in the Portfolio-
S. No. Name of article Name of fibre

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
4

You shall find it interesting to learn the background or the origin of fibres. Select any two
fibres of your choice. You can use the internet or a nearby library or even by talking to
experts to find their- origin, length and end use as a fabric. Draw a simple table as shown
below to record your findings in your Portfolio.
Sl. No. Fibre Origin Length Use of the fabric

Given below are some items you will generally find in your home. Collect them and observe
fibres in terms of length of fibres. Try and name the fibre-
1. Fibre from wick (bati) used in burning a lamp
2. Filling used in razai or quilt that is used winters
3. Fibres on the surface of your sweater
4. Fibres from edge of a silk scarf
5. Fibres from a rope
S. No. Name of article Length of fibre Name of fibre

1.
Make this table in your Portfolio to record your observations.
Know Your Progress 1.1

1. Tick ( ) the correct answer in the following questions.
1. Which amongst the following is a natural fibre?
A. Asbestos B. Nylon
C. Rayon D. Polyester
2. Which part of the cotton plant is used to make cotton fibre?
A. Seed B. Stem
C. Leaf D. Fruit
3. In which category of fibres wood pulp is used as a raw material?
A. Synthetic fibres B. Regenerated fibres
C. Cellulosic fibres D. Man-made fibres
5
Fibre to Fabric
4. Natural filament fibres is

A. Rayon B. Acetate
C. Silk D. Wool
2. Match the fibres in Column A with their description in Column B.
Column A Column B
1. Jute A. Staple
2. Rayon B. Bast
3. Cotton C. Protein
4. Silk D. Synthetic
5. Nylon E. Regenerated
F. Sheep
Fill your score _______ / 18
1.5 FIBRE PROPERTIES

Well, so far you have learnt that there are natural and man-made fibres. You have also learnt
about their classification. Do you think all the fibres can be used to make a fabric? No, you are
right that all the fibres cannot be used as textile fibres. This is because fibres need to have
certain properties to be used as textile fibres. Some of these properties are essential or primary
properties and there are others that are desirable or secondary properties.
1. Primary properties
These properties need to be essentially present in a fibre, for it to be categorized as a
textile fibre. It is necessary to study these properties as they influence the manner in
which the fibres are further processed for making yarns. The primary properties are
briefly described here and you will learn more about them in other lessons in your course.
a. Fiber length to width ratio: A fibre must have sufficient length so that it can be
made into a yarn. Minimum diameter of afibre should be 1/100 of the length of the
fibre. This property is important in spinning process of yarn making which you will
study in Lesson-5.
b. Tenacity or strength: Strength of the fibre is referred to as tenacity. It is determined
by measuring the force required to rupture or break the fibre. It is important for
machine processing of the fibre.
c. Flexibility or pliability: It is ability of the fibre to move freely during handling
without breakage.
d. Fibre uniformity: Uniformity is the evenness of the individual fibre in its length
6
and diameter. Natural fibres are irregular in their length hence, need to be sorted
and graded for yarn making. Irregular fibres are weak, rough and unsuitable for
textile use.
e. Cohesiveness (spinning quality): It is the ability of the fibres to stick to each
other during yarn manufacturing. The shape and surface of the fibre determines
the cohesiveness.
2. Secondary properties
Apart from the primary properties, textile fibres also have some physical, chemical and
environmental properties which affect their performance. These are desirable properties
and influence the appearance, durability, comfort and maintenance of the fabric
manufactured. These properties are-
a. Physical properties
• Morphology - it refers to the form or shape of the fibre. These can only be
studied under a microscope as the fibres are very fine.
• Longitudinal view: It is the view of the fibre in length wise direction.
• Cross section view - it is the view when the fibre is cut in width or breadth
like a pipe.
Let us take the example of a cucumber- what you see along its length is the lengthwise
view and you see the cross-sectional view when you cut a circular slice from it.
Cross-sectional view Longitudinal view

• Lustre: It is also called gloss, sheen or shine that fibres naturally possess. It is
seen when light is reflected from the surface. The fabrics made with filament
fibres are more lustrous than those made from staple fibres.
• Colour: Natural fibres possess colours like off-white and yellowish depending
upon climatic conditions, soil and environmental factors. For example, cotton
grown in different regions of our country will have a different natural colour.
This natural colour is removed by bleaching during manufacturing so that other
beautiful colours can be added to the fabrics later on.
7
Fibre to Fabric
• Elongation and elastic recovery: Elongation is the amount of stretch a fibre

can take before it breaks. Recovery is the ability of a fibre to return to its original
length after being stretched.
• Moisture absorption: It is the amount of water a fibre can absorb from the
atmosphere. It influences the comfort. So, fibres with high moisture absorption
property are preferred in hot climate like ours.
• Resiliency: It is the ability of the fibre to return to its original shape after
bending or creasing.
• Dimensional Stability: It is the ability of fibre to keep its shape and size in
the presence of moisture, with changing temperature.
• Abrasion: Wear and tear of the material by rubbing against another surface
is known as abrasion. It means that the fibre must be able to sustain force
without damage.
• Thermal properties: The reaction of a fibre to heat and flame are known as
itsthermal properties.
• Static electricity: It is the ability of the fibre to carry or transfer electric charges.
It is generated by friction when a fabric is rubbed against itself or other fabrics.
Static charge is more in the fibres with low moisture absorbency.
b. Chemical properties
• Effect of acids: Concentrated, cold or dilute hot mineral acids like sulphuric
acid destroy both cellulosic and wool fibres. However, wool remains safe from
the effect of other acids.
• Effect of alkali: Alkali does not harm cellulosic fibres but damages protein
fibres. This property is important while selecting the detergents for different
fibres.
• Effect of sunlight: Some fibres are adversely affected by strong and prolonged
exposure to sunlight, resulting in yellowing and damaging of the fibre.
c. Biological Properties
This is the behavior of a fibre towards fungi (mildew), bacteria, beetles, moths, insects
and silverfish. It is important during care and storage of the clothes. Wool and silk
are very sensitive fibres and susceptible to moth attacks. This property guides the
storage of textiles in certain climatic conditions.
You will learn about these properties in detail with respect to different fibres in the
next two lessons.
8

Mark the correct ( ) and incorrect ( ) statements in the given box-
x-
1. Lustre is the natural tendency of a fibre associated with resiliency.
2. Length to width ratio is the essential property of fibre to qualify as textile fibre.
3. Use of alkali is harmful for woolen fabrics.
4. Climatic conditions influence the colour of the fabric.
1.6 THIS IS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
9
Fibre to Fabric
10
1.7 LET US PRACTICE

1. Name two filament fibres and two staple fibres.
2. Names three natural fibres and the part of the plant they are obtained from.
3. Give at least one similarity and one difference between the following:
i. Natural and Manmade fibres
ii. Regenerated and Synthetic fibres
iii. Wool and Silk
iv. Cotton and Jute
4. Name the desirable properties of the fibres which represent-
i. Sheen
ii. Stretch
iii. Water intake
iv. Bending
v. Wear and tear
vi. Heat
5. Define the following fibre properties in one sentence each-
Resiliency, Tenacity, Cohesiveness, Abrasion, Uniformity
1.8 ANSWERS TO KNOW YOUR PROGRESS

1. 1-A
2-A
3-B
4-C
2. 2. 5. 1. 3. 4.
1. 2. 3. 4.
2. Refer to the text
Your final score is _______ / 26
11
Fibre to Fabric
PRACTICAL WORK
Practical 1.1
Objective: To examine the moisture absorbency of different fibres (cotton, wool and polyester)
Material required-
• Fabric samples of cotton, wool and polyester (one each)measuring 15 x 15 cm (6 inches
x 6 inches)
• 3 Beakers or bowls having 500 ml capacity
• Glass rod, newspaper
Procedure:
Perform the following test as per given method and record your observations in the given
table.
Moisture Absorbency:
1. Take the given 3 samples of each fibre type.
2. Weigh each sample individually on the balance in the laboratory and note the reading
3. Take 300 ml plain water in three beakers or bowls
4. Soak each sample separately, in this water for 10 minutes
5. Remove the sample from the beaker and place it flat on the newspaper
6. Allow the samples to dry for 5 minutes
7. Weigh each sample again
8. Record the reading
9. Find the difference in initial and final weight
Observation or results
S. No. Samples Initial weight Final weight Difference

1. Cotton
2. Wool
3. Polyester
On the basis of your observations, conclude which fibre has-

1. highest water absorption
2. lowest water absorption
3. no absorption
12
Natural Fibres
13
Fibre to Fabric
2.1 NATURAL FIBRES

Do you remember from the last lessonthat we getnatural fibresfrom plants and animals?Let's
fill the givenchart -
Among the fibres found in nature, cotton, linen, jute, silk and wool are
largely used as textile fibres. These fibres are not uniform in nature Fun Facts!
because of varying weather conditions and soil. On the basis of their India is the largest
chemical composition, the properties vary from fibre to fibre. Have producer of cotton
you ever noticed that you wear different fabrics in summer and fibre in the world
winters?Why are they different from each other? Yes, that is because and there are 43
of different properties they possess. Let's study the properties of species of cotton in
various fibres. Before that let us understand how these properties affect the world and some
the end use of the fabrics. cotton grows on
You have studied primary and secondary properties of the fibres. If tree
you can recall, primary properties are essential properties that are
necessary for a fibre to becalled a textile fibre whereas secondary
properties are considered as desirable properties. These properties can be further divided
into morphological, physical, chemical and biological properties.
2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBRES

A. Morphology of Natural Fibres
Morphology refers to the structure, shape and size of the fibre Fun Facts!
that affect its characterstics and performance. For example, if Flax is the earliest
you require fine fabric, you cannot choose coarse yarn like wool. known fibre. It
These properties affect other properties too, such as rod-like was used to wrap
structure of the silk fibre is the reason behind lustre of the silk mummies (dead
fabric. Let's understand how these fibres differ from each other. bodies) in Egypt.
14
Natural Fibres
Table 2.1: Morphology of Natural Fibres
Fibre Morphology
Microscopic View Diameter Length
Longitudinal Cross Sectional
View View
Cellulosic Cotton 12 – 20 ½ to 2½
Fibres microns inches
Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2
Width A few
Flax varies, inches -
1/1200 of 22
an inch inches or
more
Jute Irregular 5 to 20
diameter feet long
Protein Silk 9 -11 1000 –

Fibres microns 1300
yards
15
Fibre to Fabric
Fibre Morphology
Microscopic View Diameter Length
Longitudinal Cross Sectional
View View
Cellulosic Cotton
Wool 12 –– 70
15 20 1½½toto2½
microns 15
inches
Mineral Asbestos ----- Too fine to > 1 cm

Fibres measure
• Micron = 0.0005 mm

1. Draw a diagram of longitudinal view of wool.
2. Make a diagram of the microscopic view of cotton.
3. Write down the name of longest natural fiber.
4. Write down the name and diameter of the finest animal fiber.
Fill your score ________ / 8
B. Physical Properties
Physical properties include elasticity, resiliency, absorbency and dimensional stability.
As you already know these properties help us to decide the end use of the fibre. They also
contribute to the appearance of the fabric. We can also determine how long-lastingthe
end product will be. Let us now study the physical properties of the natural fibres.
16
Natural Fibres
Table 2.2: Physical Properties of Natural Fibres
FIBRE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Colour Lustre Strength Elasticity Resilie- Absor- Dimens-

ncy bency ional
Stability
Cellulosic Cotton White to Low Good Low Low. High Relatively

Fibres grey to off Wrinkles stable
white easily
Flax Light ivory High High Low Low. High High

to dark natural Prone to
grey lustre wrinkle
Jute Yellow to Silky High Very low Low Poor Good

brown
Protein Silk White to High Strongest Good Medium. High Good

Fibres cream to natural natural Creases
tan lustre fibre go away
slowly
Wool Yellowish Low Weak Excellent Excellent High Poor,

white or Subject to
ivory shrinkage
Mineral Asbestos white, pale High High Poor - Poor -

Fibres green,
yellow and
blue
Fun Facts!
• Linen can absorb almost 20% of its own weight of moisture and still feel dry. That's
the reason linen clothes are always cool.
• Jute is also known as Golden Fibre because of its golden and silky shine.
17
Fibre to Fabric

Mark the correct ( ) and incorrect ( ) statements in the given box-
x-
1. Jute has no lustre.
2. Wool does not get crease.
3. Silk can be obtained from nature in red colour.
4. Cotton is the strongest natural fibre.
5. Wool has good elasticity.
6. Physical properties contribute to the life of the end product.
C. Chemical Properties
In chemical properties, we study the effect of acids, alkalies, organic solvents and sunlight
on the fibre, which further affect the care and maintenance of the fabrics.
Table 2.3: Chemical Properties of Natural Fibres

FIBRE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Effect of Effect of Acids Effect of Sunlight and
Alkalies other factors
Cellulosic Cotton Resistant, no Weaken and Turns yellow in sunlight,
Fibres harmful effects degrade the fibre prolonged exposure
weakens fibre
Flax High Resistant to mild No Effect
resistance acids. Strong acids
damage them
Jute Resistant Resistant to mild No Effect
acids. Strong acids
damage them
Protein Silk Strong alkalies Gets damaged by Prolonged exposure
Fibres damage fibre mineral acids, causes breakdown
organic acids do
not damage
Wool Low Good resistance to Prolonged exposure
resistance, dilute acids. deteriorates fibre
destroys fibre Medium to poor
resistance to strong
acids.
18
Natural Fibres

1. List the name of natural fibres that get damaged by strong acids.
2. Fill in the blanks
i. _________ fibers have high resistance to alkalies.
ii. Cotton fibres are resistant to _________.
iii. With prolonged exposure of sunlight, cotton fibre turns ________.
iv. Silk cannot be washed by detergents, because it gets damaged by _______.
D. Biological Properties
Do you know?
Biological properties includes effect of micro-
organisms (bacteria and fungi) and insects on textile Jute is the most environment
fibers. This property is generally associated with the friendly fibre. It is completely
storage of textiles. bio-degradable.
Table 2.4: Biological Properties of Natural Fibres
FIBRE BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Effect of Micro Effect of Insects

organisms
Cellulosic Cotton Mildew (fungi) Damaged by

Fibres damages silverfish
Flax Mildew will grow Resistant

and damage
Jute Resistant Resistant
Protein Silk Good resistance Destroyed by carpet

Fibres beetles
Wool High resistance Damaged by moths

and carpet beetles
19
Fibre to Fabric

i. Mildew __________ flax fibre.
ii. ________ damages silk and wool but has no effect on jute.
iii. _______ and ________ attack cotton during storage.
iv. __________ is resistant to micro-organisms as well as insects.
2.3 END USES Do you know?

Properties of the fibre influence the fabric Asbestos is the only natural fiber that has
properties. These properties help us to decide property of flame resistance. That's why
its end use. Let's study the textile products that they are used in firefighting suits.
can be made from these fibres.
Table 2.5: End Uses of Natural Fibres
FIBRES MAJOR USES

COTTON Garments like tops and dresses, Bed sheets, Cushion, Curtains,
Tablecloth
FLAX Garments like tops and dresses,Sarees, Bed sheet, Table cloth,
Curtains,Cushions, Rugs backing
JUTE Curtain, chair coverings, carpets, packing bags and sacks, ropes, rugs
SILK Garments like Shirts, Tops and Dresses, Ties, Sarees, Cushion,
Curtains, surgical sutures
WOOL Sweaters, Shawls, Coats, Blankets, Carpets
ASBESTOS Safety apparels, Theatre curtains, Fire resistant blankets, Fire fighting
suits

Think of the names of two suitable fabrics for the following use and write them-
1. Scarf ______________ , ______________
2. Saree ______________ , ______________
3. Shopping bag ______________ , ______________
4. Curtains ______________ , ______________
5. Fire fighter's suit ______________ , ______________
20
Natural Fibres
21
Fibre to Fabric
2.5 LET US PRACTICE

1. Mark ( ) the correct answer
A) Which part of the cotton plant is used to make cotton fibre?
i. Seed ii. Stem iii. Leaf iv. Fruit
B) Quality of natural fibres gets affected by -
i. Soil ii. Weather iii. Breed of the animal iv. All of the above
C) Which property of cotton makes it comfortable fabric?
i. Resiliency ii. Lustre iii. Absorbency iv. Elasticity
D) Which amongst below is not a natural fibre?
i. Asbestos ii. Rayon iii. Silk iv. Jute
E) Which amongst below has maximum strength?
i. Cotton ii. Jute iii. Silk iv. Wool
2. Write the two physical properties and two end uses of wool fibre.
3. Describe the biological properties of jutefibres.
4. Describe five end uses of flax fibre.
5. Differentiate between cotton andsilk fibres on the basis of their chemical properties.
6. Why would you choose cotton fabric over jute for gifting a shirt to your friend?

1. Longitudinal view of wool 2. Microscopic view of cotton
22
Natural Fibres
3. Silk is the longest fiber found in nature and can be 1000- 1300 yards long.
4. Silk is the finest natural fiber with diameter of 9-11 microns.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

1. Cotton, flax and jute
2. i) Cellulosic fibers
ii) Alkalies
iii) Yellow
iv) Alkalies
1. i) Damages
ii) Carpet beetle
iii) Mildew and silverfish
iv) Jute
1. wool, silk
2. cotton, silk
3. jute, cotton
4. flax, jute, silk
5. asbestos only
Your final score is________ / 58

1. Collect the 10 sample of various fabrics (size -3"x3") and record your observations
on the basis of -
• Lustre
• Strength - when dry
• Strength - when wet
• Resiliency
Paste the collected fabrics (3"x3") and write their properties in your portfolio.
23
Fibre to Fabric

Visit any factory in nearby area, where you know cotton yarns are being made.
1) Ask the questionsgiven below and record the answers-
a) From where do you get cotton fibre?
b) What are the natural colours of fibres you receive?
c) What is the size of the fibres that you receive?
d) How do you manage the cotton waste being produced?
e) Where do you send the yarn that you make?
2) Collect at least five different samples of cotton fibres. Put different fibres in different
packets and paste them in your portfolio. Make a table in your portfolio as given below-
S. No. Sample No. Colour Fibre length
1 Example- Sample 1 Off white 1.25 inch
24
Man-made Fibres
25
Fibre to Fabric
3.1 WHAT ARE MAN-MADE FIBRES?

As the name suggests these fibres are made by man using chemicals.
Manmade fibres are of two types:
i. Regenerated fibres
ii. Synthetic fibres
iii. Others like Metallic fibres
Let us find out more about man-made fibres.
(i) Regenerated fibres

These are made from natural cellulose obtained from
cotton linters or wood pulp as shown in Fig. 3.1 and 3.2.
This natural raw material is regenerated with the help of
chemicals. Rayon is an example of regenerated cellulose
fibre.
You know that all regenerated fibres are made up of raw
material obtained from the natural sources such as cotton
fibres (linters) and wood pulp. Certain chemicals are added
Fig. 3.1: Wood Pulp
into it to produce these fibres.
a. Rayon
It is a regenerated fibre and is
produced from the extract of the
wood pulp or cotton linters and some
chemicals. It has the same comfort
property as natural fibers. Rayon is
moisture absorbent, breathable,
comfortable to wear has lower elastic
recovery and can be easily dyed. It is
used for making dresses, linings,
blankets and bed sheets.
b. Acetate
Fig.3.2: Formation of Regenerated fibres
Acetate fibres are manufactured with
wood chips or cotton linters and then processed to
make fibres. It is generally used as a lining in jackets, Facts to Know
coats and blazers etc. They are also used for making Rayon, was the first
dress and curtains. man-made fiber created
in 1910 and it was
called ‘artificial silk’.
26
Man-made Fibres

1. Fill the blanks with the suitable word given at the end of each sentence
i. Nylon is a ______________ fibre. (Man-made/Natural)
ii. Cotton is a ____________ fibre (Man-made/ Natural)
iii. Wood pulp and cotton linters are used to make __________________________ fibres
(Regenerated/Synthetic)
Fill your score _________ / 6
(ii) Synthetic fibres

On the other hand, synthetic fibres are
obtained from chemical substances as shown
in Fig. 3.3 (like coal and petro chemicals)
Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic (Cashmilon) are the
example of synthetic fibre.
Fig. 3.3: Formation of Synthetic fibres
Process of making man-made fibres

The filament yarns are spun by the chemical spinning process. To
understand this recall how a 'halvai' makes 'sevian'. He makes a
dough of 'besan', passes it through holes into hot oil, the 'besan'
takes the solid form of 'sevian'. The chemical spinning process is
similar to this. A spinning solution of the raw materials is made and
passed through the holes of a spinnerette (looks like a bathroom
shower) as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4: Bathroom shower head
(looks like Spinnerette)
Now, you know synthetic fibres are chemically produced. Let us discuss about different
synthetic fibres with their properties and end uses.
a. Nylon
Nylon is made by using chemicals. It is very elastic and Facts to Know
has a strong tendency to return to its original shape • Nylon was invented
after being stretched. It is used to manufacture to replace Silk
raincoats and shower curtains, as the fabric does not
• Nylon is the world’s
absorb moisture. It melts at high ironing temperatures.
first Synthetic
It is used to make tent fabrics, ropes, tyre cords etc.
fabric.
Products of nylon are shown in Fig. 3.5
27
Fibre to Fabric
Fig. 3.5: Nylon Products (Ropes and Fish Nets)
b. Polyester
Polyester is a most versatile synthetic fibre. In apparel shirts, pants, suits, saree
and scarves are made. In the home, polyester is commonly used as a filling for pillows,
carpets and mattresses. Polyester is also used for making sewing threads shown in
Fig. 3.6
Fig. 3.6: Sewing Threads
c. Acrylic
Acrylic fibres are light weight, soft and durable. They Facts to Know
have low absorbency. Excellent resistance to Acrlyic fibre is commonly
sunlight, and insects. It conducts heat making the known by different Trade
fabric warm and is used in making sweaters, shawls, names such as Acrilan,
fur, blankets and carpets. Orlon and Zefan.
d. Spandex
Lycra is a trade name for spandex Facts to Know
manufactured by Du Pont. Spandex is a
synthetic fiber known for its excellent • Spandex can be stretched up to
elasticity. It is stronger and more durable 500-600% more than its
than natural rubber. It turns yellow and original length without
loses elasticity at higher temperatures. breaking
Spandex is used in combination with other • Spandex/ Lycra fabrics are
fibres. It is used for making swimwear, great for making sports wear
slacks, nets and laces.
28
Man-made Fibres
Other fibres include metallic fibres, like gold, silver and copper or metal coated or metal
coated on plastic fibres. Example: Lurex and Zari threads.

Look for dhoti and a synthetic sari in your home. Soak them in water for 15 minutes. Now
squeeze and dry them under the sun. Write your observations on the basis of which fabric
dries faster.
Record in portfolio. What does this activity tell you about the properties of the synthetic
fabric?
3.2 PROPERTIES OF MAN-MADE FIBRES

1. Physical properties of fibres
A. Morphology of Fibres
Morphology includes the structure, shape and size of the fibre that affects its
characterstics and performance. Let's understand how these fibres differ from each
other.
Table 3.1: Morphology of Fibres
FIBRE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

MORPHOLOGY
Longitudinal Section (L.S) Cross Section (C.S)
RAYON
Fig. 3.7: Uniform diameter with Fig. 3.8: Highly irregular in shape
striations
ACETATE
Fig. 3.9: Uniform diameter and has

lines running parallel to the length of Fig. 3.10: Irregular shape.
the fibre
29
Fibre to Fabric
NYLON
Fig. 3.11: Transparent rod of uniform Fig. 3.12: It appear fine, smooth and
diameter with speckles translucent
POLYESTER
Fig. 3.13: Fibre appears as

transparent rods of uniform diameter Fig. 3.14: It is round in shape
with a speckles
ACRYLIC
Fig. 3.15: Transparent rods of Fig. 3.16: Flat peanut cross section with
uniform diameter with irregular speckles
striations
SPANDEX
Fig. 3.17: Appear as a group of fibres Fig. 3.18: Multi filament fused together
fused together with spots forming dog bone shape.
30
Man-made Fibres
B. Physical properties of Fibres

Let's study the physical properties of the man-made fibres.
Table 3.2: Physical properties of Fibres
Fibre Physical properties

Tenacity Elasticity Resiliency Moisture Abrasion
absorption resistance
RAYON Fair Good Low Good Good

ACETATE Poor Good Fair Fair Poor
NYLON Strongest Very elastic Excellent Very low Excellent
among all return back to its
fibres original shape
POLYESTER Extremely No Effect Good Very low Good
strong
fibre
ACRYLIC Satisfactor No Effect Good Low Good
y strength
SPANDEX Poor Loses elasticity Good Very low Good
strength at high
temperatures
2. Chemical and biological properties of fibres

In chemical properties, we study the effect of acids, alkalies, sunlight on the fibre while
on biological properties we will discuss about effect of micro organism, and insects.
Table 3.3: Chemical and biological properties of fibres
Fibre Chemical properties Biological and

environmental
Effect of acid Effect of Effect of Effect of Effect of
alkalis sunlight micro insects
organisms
RAYON Damaged by Same as No effect Damaged Damaged by
concentrated alkalis acids by mildew silver fish
ACETATE Damaged by Cold Same as Poor No effect No effect
acid acids resistant
NYLON Damaged by Cold No effect Poor Damaged Damaged by
acid resistant by mildew moth
31
Fibre to Fabric
Fibre Chemical properties Biological and

environmental
Effect of acid Effect of Effect of Effect of Effect of
alkalis sunlight micro insects
organisms
POLYESTER Damaged by Same as No effect No effect No effect
hot acid acids
ACRYLIC No effect Damage No effect No effect No effect
by hot
alkalis
SPANDEX Damaged by No effect Turns yellow No effect No effect
alkali at high
temperatures
Do You Know
• Shape and luster of Man-made fibres can be controlled because they are manufactured.
• Poor or low conductivity of these fibres results in building up of static charges. This
leads to the clinging of clothes and in extreme cases can produce electrical shocks and
sparks

.
1. State True or False and if the statement is false give reason.
i. Nylon is used to make fishing nets
______________________________________________
ii. Wood and chemicals are mixed to make polyester
______________________________________________
iii. Nylon dries quickly
______________________________________________
2. Mark ( ) on the correct answer:
A. An example of regenerated fibers is
i. Rayon
ii. Cotton
iii. Wool
iv. Silk
32
Man-made Fibres
B. A synthetic fibre called artificial silk is

i. Nylon
ii. Polyester
iii. Rayon
iv. Spandex
C. Acrylic fibre has property similar to
i. Silk
ii. Cotton
iii. Rayon
iv. Wool
D. Raincoats and umbrella are made up of
i. Wool
ii. Cotton
iii. Nylon
iv. Rayon
E. Which fibre has maximum elasticity?
i. Rayon
ii. Acrylic
iii. Spandex
iv. Nylon
3. Match the following words given in column A with the correct answer given in
column B
Column A Column B
Rayon Used for making parachutes and Ropes
Polyester Prepared by using wood pulp
Spandex Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
Nylon Also called as Lycra
Wool like appearance
33
Fibre to Fabric
3.4 LET US PRACTICE

1. Explain any two physical properties of Nylon.
2. Explain any two chemical properties of Rayon.
3. Give examples of the products made by Nylon.
4. Why is Spandex used for sports wear?
5. Dimple wants to buy skipping rope. Advice Dimple which material she should select and
give reason to support your answer.
Fabric Reason
Spandex
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
34
Man-made Fibres
6. Manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping ‘conservation of forests'. Comment

7. Rohit wants to buy shirts for winters. Suggest what all fabrics he can take from the list
given below. And also support your answer with reason.
Fabric Reason
Nylon
Acetate
Spandex
Fur
Acrylic
Rayon

1 i. Man-made
ii. Natural
iii. Regenerated
1 i. True
ii. False (Made from petrochemical products)
iii. True
2 i. Rayon ii. Rayon
iii. Wool iv. Nylon
v. Spandex
3.
Column A Column B
Rayon Prepared by using wood pulp
Polyester Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
Spandex Also called as Lycra
Nylon Used for making parachutes and Ropes
Your final score is ________ / 24
35
Fibre to Fabric
PRACTICAL WORK
Practical 3.1
Visit three families in your neighborhood and enquire about the kind of clothes they use, the
reason for their choice and advantages of using them in terms of durability and maintenance.
Make a short report and write it down in your Portfolio
Family Clothes/fabric Advantages of Durability Maintenance

they use using
36
Fibre Identification
37
Fibre to Fabric
4.1 FIBRE IDENTIFICATION TESTS

Fibre identification tests help us to identify the basic component of the textile fibre such as
cellulosic, protein or synthetic fibres. In the previous lessons you have already learnt about
properties of natural and man-made fibres.
As a weaver or manufacturer, you visit the market to buy yarns. Are you sure you always get
what you ask for? If you ask for wool and the seller gives you acrylic, how will you know?
Think!
As a consumer, you buy fabric from market without knowing its fibre content. Do you know
the properties of the fabric you have bought? May be not, as you do not know the fibre content.
What will you do now? Think!
Yes, you are thinking right. If you know how to perform some tests you can identify the fibre.
Now you know why it is important to know and to be able to perform these textile identification
tests.
There are four tests used to identify textile fibres:
1. Visual examination
2. Microscopic test
3. Burning test
4. Chemical test
4.2 VISUAL EXAMINATION

The first step in the identification of a textile fibre is inspection of fabric for appearance and
hand feel. Appearance refers to the look for example - shiny or dull. Hand feel refers to how a
fabric feels in hand, for example - warm or cool. Texture- rough, smooth can be examined through
appearance as well as hand feel.
To perform this test:
• Hold a fabric in hand and feel it. Rub it between your
fingers and observe (as shown in Fig. 4.1).
• Check for warmth, smoothness and hand feel.
• The vegetable fibres are usually cooler to touch than
animal or man-made fibres.
• Man-made fibres are smoother and shinier as
compared to natural fibres. Silk is an exception
which has natural lustre.
Fig. 4.1: Hand feel of a fabric
38
Facts to know
Finishes can be given to fabrics to alter the characteristic visual features.
Therefore, visual examination is not a confirmatory test for any of the textile fibres.
Table 4.1: Observation table for Visual Examination
Dull Lustrous Cool Warm Smooth Soft
Cotton √ √ √
Silk √ √ √ √
Wool √ √
Man-made √ √ √
You can observe from the Table 4.1 that all these parameters overlap. For example, if we see
the parameter of smoothness, both silk and man-made fibres are smooth. So, although visual
examination is not a confirmatory test for identification of textile fibres it is useful as it gives
an indication of the fibre type.

Score yourself- give 2 marks for every correct answer.
1. Recall the properties that you have studied. Which fibre is-
i) dull and cool
ii) dull and warm
iii) warm and smooth
iv) smooth and cool
v) lustrous and soft
4.3 MICROSCOPIC TEST

Each natural fibre and the group of man-made fibres have certain specific characteristics which
help in their identification. You have read about longitudinal view of fibres in fibre morphology
of natural and man-made fibres (refer to Lessons 2 and 3).
39
Fibre to Fabric
For microscopic tests:

• A slide is prepared to be viewed under a compound microscope
(as shown in Fig. 4.2). The fibres are mounted on a glass slide to
obtain views of the longitudinal sections of the fibres.
• Single fibres are unravelled from their respective yarns and
mounted on slides with a drop of glycerine.
• After carefully lowering the cover-slip on this fibre mount
(ensuring that no air bubble is formed), it is viewed under the
microscope.
Fig. 4.2: Compound
microscope
Table 4.2: Observations table for Microscopic Test
Fibre Observation Longitudinal Structure

Cellulosic Fibres
Cotton Under the microscope cotton will resemble a
spirally twisted tube with rough surface. The
thin cell wall of the fibre has turns of natural
twists or convolutions. The fibre appears flat,
twisted and ribbon-like.
Fig. 4.3: Cotton – flat, twisted

ribbon-like with convolutions
Rayon Rayon fibres have a glass like lustre under the
microscope and appear to have a uniform
diameter when viewed longitudinally. The fibre
is characterised by lengthwise lines called
striations.
Fig. 4.4: Rayon - striations

Protein Fibres
Silk The ‘raw silk’ under the microscope shows
double rod like filaments, covered with lumps
of gum which appear as dots in the microscopic
view. The ‘pure white silk’ is cylindrical or rod
like in appearance. It is a narrow fibre with no
markings and the smooth surface reflects light.
Fig. 4.5: Silk – rod like
filaments
40
Wool Wool fibre is irregular and roughly cylindrical.

The outer layer consists of overlapping scales
[as shown in Fig. 4.6(b)] which gives wool its
cohesive quality.
Fig. 4.6(a): Wool –

overlapping scales
Fig. 4.6b) scales

Man-made Fibres
Nylon While there are variations in the production of
nylon, the basic microscopic appearance is
generally fine, round, smooth and translucent
(semi-transparent). If nylon is semi-dull or dull,
it will appear speckled under the microscope
due to the presence of delustrant.
Fig. 4.7: Nylon – speckled

appearance
Acrylic Like other man-made fibres the longitudinal
view is straight and smooth with a uniform
diameter.
Fig. 4.8: Acrylic – smooth

Polyester Polyester fibres are smooth and straight, rod-
like. Sometimes polyester fibres have speckled
(spotted) appearance due to presence of a
delustrant. They have a uniform diameter.
Fig. 4.9: Polyester – speckled

appearance
Source of Fig. 4.3-4.6(a), 4.7-4.9: http://what-when-how.com/forensic-sciences/types/
41
Fibre to Fabric

Open your almirah and search for fabrics which are made of cotton, silk, wool and man-
made fibres. Visually examine the fabrics and note your observations in the given format.
Record this table in your portfolio.
S. No. Fibre Observation

1. Cotton Texture:
Appearance:
Any other:
2. Silk Texture:
Appearance:
Any other:
3. Wool Texture:
Appearance:
Any other:
4. Man-made Texture:
Appearance:
Any other:
Texture: soft, rough, hard, smooth, slippery, embossed, etc.

Appearance: shiny/lustrous, dull
Any other: cool, warm

1. Give one word answers:
i. A test which does not require any special equipment for fibre identification
ii. A test which views the longitudinal section of fibres for its identification
iii. A fibre with striations in the longitudinal view
2. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answers:
i. In visual examination of the fibre ____________ and ____________ are observed.
ii. The fibre with overlapping scales in the longitudinal view is _______________ .
iii. Under the microscope, longitudinal view of cotton shows a ribbon like structure
with ______________
42
4.4 BURNING TEST

Burning behaviour comprises behaviour of the fibre when approaching flame, removed from
flame, its odour and residue. This is a simple and reliable means of identifying the category
(cellulosic, protein or synthetic) of a fibre. Broadly speaking,
• Cellulosic fibres have a similar burning behaviour. They emit the odour of burning paper
and have a residue which is grey ash. These fibres also exhibit an afterglow/spark that
makes a fibre continue to burn.
• Protein fibres on the other hand do not burn readily, are self-extinguishing and have an
odour of burning hair or feathers. The residue obtained is a bead which is brittle and can
be crushed.
• Man-made fibres curl away from flame and melt. This is why you are advised not to wear
man-made fibres while burning crackers on Diwali or working in kitchen. The smell is
chemical and the residue is a bead which is non-crushable.
For burning test:
• Take the sample near flame (as shown in Fig. 4.10) and
observe the reaction of fibre when it is approaching the
flame.
• Followed by this you record the observation of fibre
when it is in the flame and after removing from the
flame.
• The odour produced while burning and the residue
formed after burning is also observed.
Fig. 4.10: Burning Test
Table 4.3 will help you to take observations while performing the burning test on different
textile fibres.
Table 4.3: Observation table for Burning Test
Fibre class Approaching In flame Removed Odour Residue

flame from flame
Cellulosic fibres
Cotton Does not shrink Burns Continues Smell of Light, grey in
away, ignites on quickly burning with burning colour, fluffy
contact an after glow paper ash
Rayon Does not shrink Burns Continues Smell of Light
away, ignites on readily burning with burning feathery ash
contact an after glow paper in a very
small
amount
43
Fibre to Fabric
Protein Fibres
Silk Curls away from Burn Self Smell of Black bead
flame slowly extinguishing burning which is
and hair easily
sputters crushable
Wool Curls away from Burns Self Smell of Black bead,
flame slowly extinguishing burning crisp and
hair easily
crushable
Man-Made Fibres
Nylon Fuses, melts and Burns Self Man- Hard, tough
shrinks away slowly extinguishing made black/brown
from the flame and melts odour bead
Acrylic Fuses, melts and Burns Continues to Acidic Hard, black
shrinks away rapidly burn and odour bead,
from the flame and melt. Hot crushable
sputters molten drops
fall while
burning
Polyester Fuses, melts and Burns Self Smell of Hard, tough
shrinks away slowly extinguishing chemicals black/brown
from the flame and melts bead
Safety Tips
• Perform tests under supervision of an expert only.
• Wear a laboratory coat to prevent any accident.
• Be careful when dealing with burner.
• Hold the fibres using a holder only.
• Keep a beaker of water near the testing slab to prevent accidents.
• Tie up your hair.
4.5 CHEMICAL TEST

Chemical tests confirm the fibre type. These are performed only in laboratories. As the name
suggests it requires chemicals for testing. Is it so that any chemical can be used for textile fibre
testing?
No, there are some specific chemicals used for textile fibre testing. These are selected on the
basis of chemical reactivity of the textile fibres. Some fibres dissolve completely (solubilise) in
certain chemicals whereas others disintegrate or have no reaction (as shown Fig: 4.11). These
are also termed as "solubility tests".
44
Fig: 4.11 Fibres on addition of chemicals
To perform chemical test:

• Fibre sample is added to test tube and required chemical is added.
• The solution is heated if required and it is observed weather the fibre dissolves or
disintegrates or shows no change.
• On the basis of the observation inference is made.
Table 4.4 will help you perform chemical test on unknown textile fibres and identify them.
Note the observations:
Table 4.4: Observation table for Chemical Test
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
Cellulosic Fibres
a) Take the fibre and dip it in 30- The fibre chars and Cellulosic fibre
50% sulphuric acid. Heat dissolves
b) Take the fibre and dip it in 60% Fibre dissolves Rayon confirmed
sulphuric acid solution in a test or
tube and leave it for 5-10 minutes
Fibre does not Cotton confirmed
at room temperature
dissolve
(may disintegrate)
45
Fibre to Fabric
Protein Fibres
a) Boil the fibre in 5% solution of Fibre dissolves Protein fibre

Sodium Hydroxide
b) Cool the above solution and add White/No precipitate Silk confirmed
lead acetate to it Black precipitate Wool confirmed
Man-made Fibres
a) Add the fibre in 85% of formic Fibre dissolves Nylon confirmed

acid at room temperature
b) Add the fibre in Dimethyl Fibre dissolves Acrylic confirmed

Formamide (DMF) solution. Heat
slightly
c) Add the fibre to Meta-cresol Fibre dissolves Polyester confirmed

solution. Heat
Points to keep in mind for fibre identification tests

• The first step in identification should be burning test, as this will indicate broad
categories of the fibres (cellulosic, protein or synthetic). This should be followed by
microscopic and chemical tests.
• The chemical test sequence for addition of chemicals must be followed to avoid errors.
The reason is that nylon and acrylic both get dissolved in meta-cresol - this can lead
to incorrect inferences. Same is true for rayon and cotton. Rayon will also dissolve in
60% sulphuric acid leading to incorrect identification.
Safety Tips
• Perform these tests under supervision of an expert only.
• Wear a laboratory coat to prevent any accident, such as spilling the chemicals.
• Hold the test tube with help of a holder only. Wash test tubes after use.
• Be careful when dealing with chemicals.
• Use individual droppers for different chemicals. Never interchange droppers and avoid
accidents.
• Wear gloves to avoid any allergic reactions or burns.
• Tie up your hair.
46

You need to collect different cut pieces of fabric. For this you can request any family member
to lend you old clothes for cutting small sample pieces. Try to collect one sample each of
cotton fabric, silk fabric and any man-made fabric. Light a candle and hold the strip of sample
with help of a tong or a plucker for safety. Take these strips of fabric close to the flame, burn
the sample and record your observations in the given table and write in your portfolio.
Fibre Approaching In flame Removed Odour Residue

Sample flame from flame
Cotton
Silk
Man-made

1. Identify the category of textile fibre on the basis of the observations:
i. Burns readily in flame
ii. Gives off an odour of chemical
iii. Forms black bead like residue which is easily crushable
2. If you have to identify an unknown fibre, in which sequence will you use the following
given chemicals:
(a) Dimethyl formamide solution (b) Metacresol solution
(c) 30-50% Sulphuric acid (d) 5% Sodium hydroxide
(e) 85% Formic acid
47
Fibre to Fabric
4.7 LET US PRACTICE

1. If you buy a fabric from market and would want to know which fibre it is made up of,
how will you identify it?
2. Visual examination is not a confirmatory test. Justify the statement.
3. Give details of chemical test for protein fibres.
4. What is the difference in inferences of burning test for natural and man-made fibres?

i) cotton
ii) wool
iii) silk
iv) synthetic
v) silk
1. i. Visual Examination
ii. Microscopic Test
iii. Rayon
2. i. Appearance and Hand Feel
ii. Wool
iii. Convolutions
1. i. Cellulosic fibres
ii. Synthetic fibres
iii. Protein fibres
2. (c) (d) (e) (a) (b)
48
PRACTICAL WORK
Practical 4.1
Microscopic Test
Material required: Visuals of longitudinal view of textile fibres for identification. Textile fibres
to be identified are -
i. Cotton
ii. Rayon
iii. Wool
iv. Silk
v. Nylon
vi. Polyester
vii. Acrylic
Procedure: Recall the longitudinal views of fibres under the microscope. Identify the given
fibres.
Observation: Record your observations in the given format
Sample No. Observation Sample identified

(Draw the longitudinal view seen)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
49
Fibre to Fabric
Practical 4.2
Burning Test
Material required: Fibre samples- cotton, rayon, wool, silk, acrylic, nylon, polyester, flame
source (Bunsen Burner, Spirit Lamp), Tong / Forcets, Match Box, Beaker for water.
Procedure:
1. Hold the tiny pieces of fabric or yarns drawn out from the fabric, with a pair of tongs.
2. Slowly approach the flame and observe the burning behaviour.
3. Observe the smell and the residue formed.
Observation: Record your observations in the given format
Sample Observation Sample

No. identified
Approaching In Removed Odour Residue

flame flame from
flame
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Note: Remember the safety tips discussed in the lesson.
50
Yarn Construction and its properties
51
Fibre to Fabric
5.1 WHAT IS A YARN?

Try and pull out a thread from a fabric. What do you find?
You will find long strands coming out of it. Try and open them
as given in the Figure 5.1. What do you find? You will find
that those long strands are made up of bundles of short length
fibres. This thread which is made up of fibres is called as a
yarn. So, can we define yarn now? Yes.
Yarn is an assemblage of fibres

twisted together having
substantial length and relatively
small cross section Fig. 5.1: Fabric formed by yarns
and fibres
(Source:https://www.google.co.in/
imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org)
Do You Know?
What is a thread?
A thread is a long fibre made of different
materials mostly used in sewing. It could be
cotton, nylon, silk, polyester, rayon, or wool
(Figure 5.2).
Thus, a thread is always a yarn, but a yarn
may not always be thread
Fig. 5.2: Threads

(Source: www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fcdn.pixabay.com)
5.2 WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF YARN?

Properties of yarns affect the behavior of the fabric. The two main properties of yarn are -
yarn twist and yarn count.
A. Yarn twist
Take some long length fibres (You have read in the
previous lesson that they are filament fibres!!). Now
hold one end of the bunch of fibre strand. Revolve the
other end with your other hand. What are you doing?
Do you see any change happening? You are twisting
the fibres together and will find that the fibres form
a spiral position around the yarn central axis (Figure
5.3). So, yarn twist can be defined as - Fig. 5.3: Twisted yarn
(Source: www.google.co.in/
imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fc1.staticflickr.com)
52
Yarn twist is the spiral arrangement of fibres around the axis of the yarn.
B. Direction of twist
Twist binds the fibres together and increases the strength of the yarn. It is very much
similar to the way the cotton wicks of lamps are made. Twist can be of two types, according
to the direction in which the fibres are twisted. It can be 'S' twist or 'Z' twist (Figure
5.4).The Z twist is more common.
Left handed or Right handed or

clockwise twist anti clockwise
is Z twist twist is S twist
Fig. 5.4: S and Z twist

(Source:https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org)
C. Amount of twist
Now, you have learned that fibres are twisted together to form a yarn. But, do you know
that the amount of twist inserted can also vary?
The amount of twist inserted in the yarns is generally expressed as

twists per inch (tpi)
Yarns with high amount of twist, have a higher tpi value and yarns with low amount of
twist have a lower tpi value (Figure 5.5).
It you notice, the yarns used for making jackets and
coats are much finer than the yarns used for making
sweaters. Do you know how these finer yarns are
made? The fineness of the yarn can be increased by
inserting more amount of twist in it. Thus, we can
say, higher the twist, the finer, stronger and compacter
will be the yarns. The yarns with low twist tend to be
soft, fluffy, warmer and have low strength.
Fig. 5.5: Yarns with high and low twist
53
Fibre to Fabric

Take a hank (lachhi) of yarn. Gather it up and hold it in both hands. Keep the top in stationary
position using one hand and rotate the lower part in clockwise direction using the other
hand. What do you see? Repeat the same activity, by twisting the lower part in anticlockwise
direction. Record your observations in box given below.
Anti- Clockwise twist
………
twist
Clockwise twist
………
twist

1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words
i. Fibres are twisted together to form a ………………..
ii. ……………… is the spiral arrangement of fibres around the axis of the yarn
iii. 'Z' direction of twist is also called as …………handed twist.
iv. 'S' direction twist is also called as …………..handed twist.
v. Finer yarns have ……………. twist.
vi. Soft and fluffy yarns have ……………..twist.
54
D. Yarn Crimp
Observe the yarns in Figure 5.6. Do you see any difference
between them? Yes, yarn B appears to have a wave formation,
whereas yarn A appears to be straight and smooth. This
difference is because of the presence of crimp in the yarn B.
Thus,
Yarn crimp can be defined as the waviness along the

length of the yarn.
Fig. 5.6. Straight and
crimped yarn
Some natural fibres e.g. wool, have a natural crimp.
Wool, obtained from

sheep has natural
crimp
Fig. 5.7: Natural crimp in wool fibres

(Source:https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fc2.staticflickr.com)
In synthetic fibres like polyester, nylon etc, crimp

can be introduced by passing the filament between
the rollers having teeth (Figure 5.8). Crimp in
fibres helps in forming a compacter yarn. Wavy
texture of the fibres helps them to entangle better
with each another.
Fig. 5.8: Crimping of synthetic yarn
5.3 EFFECT OF YARN PROPERTIES ON THE END PRODUCT

Properties of yarns also affect the properties of end product. Twist of yarn can be used to
create interesting effects.These are more visible when the yarn is converted to fabric. Effects
can be made by having a combination of yarns with different twist levels (low, medium, high),
or by using yarns with different direction of twist.
For example, Crepe yarns, which have high amount of twist, are used to make fabrics like
chiffon, georgette, etc, which have crinkled surfaces.
55
Fibre to Fabric
5.4 HOW TO MAKE YARNS?

Do you know that making a yarn is a complex procedure and involves many processes?
Various steps are involved in making a yarn. The fibres (both staple and filament) are made to
pass through a series of machines, and are eventually converted into a yarn. We know that the
fibres like cotton, wool, silk are obtained from different sources and the method of making
yarn for each of these fibres is also different.
A. Process of making cotton yarn

Harvested and collected cotton fibres are compressed and made in the form of bales
which are large and compact cotton packages.
Table 5.1 Process of making cotton yarn
S. No. Process Purpose Pictorial Depiction

1. Cleaning Bales of cotton contain
and impurities and unwanted
opening matter like seeds, dry leaves,
lint, dirt etc. These impurities
are removed during the
cleaning operation. The bales
are loosened and further
disentangled by the process of
Figure 5.9
opening.
2. Carding The fibres sometimes get
matted and stick to each other.
Carding machine arranges the
fibres in a parallel manner and
removes the short length fibres
that can not be used. The
carded web of fibres is turned
into a soft rope called sliver.
Figure 5.10
3. Combing It is an optional step used for

making high quality yarns
which are smooth, fine and
even. Carded slivers are
combed to separate short fibres
from the long fibres. It
produces combed sliver, made
up of longest fibres.
Figure 5.11
56
4. Drawing Carded or combed slivers are

pulled between the rollers,
producing longer and thinner
slivers.
Figure 5.12
5. Spinning The drawn slivers are given the

desired amount of twist and are
further wound on packages.
Figure 5.13
6. Winding Yarns are wound onto various

packages of desired size, weight
etc depending on the end use.
Some of the common yarn
packages for fabric
construction are- balls, reels or
bobbins, hanks, cones, etc
Figure 5.14
B. Process of making wool and worsted yarn

As you have read earlier, the wool fibre is obtained from sheep and other animals. The
quality of the wool produced will vary according to the sheep's health, breed, diet,
surroundings etc.Various steps are involved in making a woolen and worsted yarn.
(Source: https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org
https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicdomainpictures)
57
Fibre to Fabric
Table 5.2 Process of making wool and worsted yarn
S. No. Process Purpose Pictorial depiction

1. Shearing Shearing is the process of
removal of fleece by hand or
by using chemicals and
machines.
Figure 5.15
2. Sorting and The fleece is sorted and

grading graded according to colour,
texture, fineness and length
of the fibre.
Figure 5.16
3. Scouring The fleece is then treated

with warm, alkaline soap
solution to remove grease,
perspiration and other
impurities.
Figure 5.17
4. Carbonizing Dilute solution of sulphuric

acid is used to burn away
the vegetable matter,
impurities (like seed, leaves,
twigs etc) which are
entangled in the fleece.
Figure 5.18
58
5. Carding Carding is further done

using wire teethed cylinders
to remove the short length
fibres and to further
straighten the fibres. It also
cleans up the fibres and
separates them.
Figure 5.19
6. Combing This is an additional step

(Optional) required in case of worsted
yarns. The step of combing
further helps in making the
fibres parallel to each other.
In this process, the short
length fibres along with
impurities are further
Figure 5.20
removed.
7. Drawing It is an advanced operation
(Optional) which is done only to
worsted yarns. In this the
yarns are made compacter
and thinner. Combed slivers
are further twisted in this
process.
Figure 5.21
8. Spinning The carded or combed

slivers are further twisted,
thinned and are wound on
packages.
Figure 5.22
9. Winding After spinning, a specific

length of yarn is wound in
the form of packages called
balls, reels, hanks, cones,
etc. The packages are made
depending on the weight or
length of yarn and its end
Figure 5.23
use.
(Source: https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org
https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fc1.staticflickr.com
59
Fibre to Fabric
Recall! Do You Know!!

Effect of acid on wool (Lesson-2) Combing and drawing are additional
Wool can withstand the action of acids. Thus, steps required only for preparation of
dilute solution of sulphuric acid is safe to use worsted yarns.
during carbonizing process without damaging
wool fibre.
Short length wool fibres (less than 3") are used to produce woollen yarns and are spun without
undergoing combing operation.
Wool yarns are fuzzy, thick, bulky and loosely twisted. They are used for making blankets,
sweaters etc.
Fairly long length wool fibres (more than 3"), which have finer diameters are converted to
worsted yarns. They are taken from the carding machine to the combing machine
(Figure 5.24)
Worsted yarns are twisted tighter, are thinner and are used for making coats and other
fabrics like gabardine, tweed etc.
Fig. 5.24
C. Process of making silk yarn

Silk, as you have read, is obtained from the cocoons of the silk
worm. The silk worm produces liquid secretions and spins it
around itself. These secretions solidifies when it comes in contact
with the air and forms a cocoon (Figure 5.25). Various processing
steps are involved, which include:
Fig. 5.25: Cocoon with spun

silk filament fibre
60
Table 5.3: Process of making silk yarn
S. No. Process Purpose Pictorial depiction

1. Sorting The cocoons are sorted according
to size, colour, shape and texture.
Figure 5.26
2. Softening of Silk filaments are bound together

sericin by gummy substance called
sericin. After sorting, cocoons
are put through a series of hot
and cold water to soften the
sericin. This helps in unwinding
of filament as a continuous
thread. Figure 5.27
3. Reeling The cocoons are then brushed

gently to seek out the ends the
filaments. The ends of the silk
filaments are combined and
passed through a guide before
winding them onto a reel. The
method of unwinding the filament
from the cocoon is called reeling. Figure 5.28
4. Throwing A slight twist is imparted to the silk filament strands. This is

done to hold the filaments together. The yarn produced is called
thrown yarn.
5. Spinning The filaments yarns are further given a twist to form the yarn.
6. Degumming Sericin gum remains on the silk fibre throughout reeling and
throwing. However, before finishing, the gum is removed by
boiling the silk yarn in soap and boiling water. Removal of the
gum improves colour, hand, and texture of the silk while making
it ready for dyeing, finishing etc.
7. Weighting Silk loses about 25% of its weight while degumming. In the
process of weighting, this loss of weight is replaced through
treatment by small amount of metals like tin, lead etc in water
solutions.
(Source: https://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org)
61
Fibre to Fabric

1. Fill in the missing gaps in the arrows given, with respect to the steps involved in
making cotton, wool and silk yarn.
i. Steps involved in making cotton yarn
ii. Steps involved in making wool yarn
iii. Steps involved in making silk yarn
iv. Steps involved in making worsted yarn
2. Give one word answers for the definitions given in column A.
S. No. Column A Column B

i. Process of removal of sericin gum from silk
ii. Method of unwinding the filament from the cocoon
iii. Process of removal of the cellulosic impurities from
wool by treatment with acid
iv. An optional step for removing short fibres and
making worsted yarns
v. Process of removal of fleece of the sheep
62
5.5 YARN COUNT/ YARN NUMBERING SYSTEM

Yarn count is an indicator of the fineness or thickness of the yarn.
It is a numerical expression of yarn. There are two systems- direct and indirect.
A. Direct yarn number

Direct yarn number determines the weight of a fixed length of yarn. In this system, the
length of the yarn is kept fixed, while the weight varies. This system is commonly used
for filament yarns. Denier and tex are the two units which comprise direct yarn number.
• Denier- It is equal to the weight in grams of 9000 meters of the yarn. Silk and man-
made fibre yarns are usually measured using the denier system.
• Tex- It is equal to the weight in grams of 1000 meters of the yarn.
In the direct system, the count of the yarn is directly proportional to the yarn diameter.
That is, lower the number, finer is the yarn. For example, if a yarn A is 8 denier (8d), while
the yarn B is 10denier (10d) , then the yarn B will be thicker than yarn A.
B. Indirect yarn number

Indirect yarn number determines the length of a fixed weight of yarn. In this system, the
weight of the yarn is kept fixed, while the length varies according to its fineness.There
are many kinds of indirect yarn numbers which are commonly used for spun yarns. They
are cotton, wool,worsted and metric count.
• Cotton count (Ne or s): It is the number of 840 yard hanks that weigh one pound.
So, for example, 32s means that 32 hanks of 840 yards of cotton weigh one pound
New Words! Do You Know!!

Hank- a coil or lachhi of cotton, wool 20s - Coarse yarns
or any other fiber which has been 20 to 60s - Medium yarns
loosely wound
60s -Fine yarns
Cotton sewing threads used for
general purposes are 50s or 60s.
• Woolen count: It is the number of 300 yard hanks that weigh one pound.
• Worsted count: It is the number of 560 yard hanks that weigh one pound.
63
Fibre to Fabric
• Metric count: It is the number of 1km (1000metres) hanks that weigh 1kg. It is
used for synthetic threads and is symbolized by Nm.
In the indirect system, the count of the yarn is indirectly proportional to the yarn
diameter. Thus, high count means that the yarn is of greater fineness. For example, if a
yarn C is 20s, while the yarn D is 40s, then the yarn D will be finer than the yarn C.

1. Write T for the statements that are true and F for those that are false.
i. Yarn with cotton count 20s are finer than yarns with count 60s.
ii. Denier and tex are two units which comprise direct yarn number.
iii. Yarn with 6 denier count is thicker than the yarn with 4 denier count.
iv. Yarn count is an indicator of yarn fineness or thickness.
v. In indirect count, the count of the yarn is directly proportional to the yarn
diameter.
• Fuzz, dust generated during handling of short fibres while making yarn,
may result in respiratory problems. Remember to wear mask while working.
• Accumulated dust, fiber lint should be cleaned frequently for upkeep and
maintenance of the machinery.
• Ensure proper ventilation and clean surroundings.
• Wear safety goggles to prevent fiber dust penetration in eyes. In case of eye
irritation, consult a doctor immediately.
• Remember to wash hands after work.
• Wear protective clothing and headgear to prevent contact of the fiber dust
etc with the skin.
64

• Yarn
• Yarn properties
• Yarn count
65
Fibre to Fabric
• Steps in Yarn making
5.7 LET US PRACTICE

1. Differentiate between the following:
i. S and Z twist
ii. High twist and low twist yarn
iii. Wool and worsted yarn
iv. Direct and indirect yarn count
2. Explain the process of making cotton yarn.
66
3. What are the steps involved in making silk yarn. Explain them in detail.
4. Justify the following statements:
i. Yarn twist can be used as a tool to create interesting variations in fabrics.
ii. Worsted yarns are smoother and stronger than woolen yarns.
iii. Indirect yarn count is indirectly proportional to the yarn diameter.

i. Yarn ii. Twist
iii. Right iv. Left
v. High vi. Low
1. Fill in the missing gaps in the arrows given, with respect to the steps involved in making
cotton, wool and silk yarn.
i. Cleaning and opening, Combing, Drawing, Winding
ii. Sorting, Scouring, Carbonization, Spinning, Winding
iii. Sorting, Reeling, Throwing, Degumming, Weighting
iv. Shearing, Scouring, Carbonization, Combing, Drawing, Spinning
2. Give one word answers for the definitions given in column A.
i. Degumming ii. Reeling
iii. Carbonization iv. Combing
v. Shearing
i. False ii. True
iii. True iv. True
v. False
67
Fibre to Fabric
PRACTICAL WOK
Practical 5.1
Collect some cotton, wool, worsted and silk yarns from the market. Paste the samples and
record your observations in the portfolio in the given format.
Feel* Appearance ** Sample of yarn
Cotton yarn
Wool yarn
Worsted yarn
Silk yarn
*Feel- Rough, smooth

**Appearance- Fuzzy, hairy, uniform, shiny, dull
68
Yarn and its types
69
Fibre to Fabric
You have learnt what a yarn is. Write the definition of yarn here-
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF YARNS ACCORDING TO LENGTH

A yarn is an intermediate product that is made from fibres and is used to manufacture fabrics.
Yarns can be made either from short length staple fibres or from filament fibres. There are two
types of yarns, i.e., spun yarns and filament yarns (Fig.6.1).
Fig. 6.1: Classification of Yarns according to Length
A. Spun Yarn
It consists of staple fibres assembled and bound together by
twist (Fig. 6.2). All natural fibres are staple in length except
silk which is a filament fibre. The manmade fibres are made
staple by cutting them into short lengths
Fig.6 2: Spun Yarn
70
Yarn and its types
B. Filament Yarn
Filament Yarn are long continuous fibre strands of indefinite length (Fig. 6.3). They can
be either monofilament (one fibre) or multifilament (a number of filaments). Filaments
may be smooth or textured (crimped in some way) (Fig. 6.4).
Fig.6.3: Filament Yarn Fig. 6.4: A. Mono Filament Yarn B. Multi Filament Yarn
Now we know that the major difference between spun and filament yarn is the length of
the fibres used. But there are some other differences as well. These are presented in the
Table below.
Table 6.1: Spun Yarn vs. Filament Yarn
Spun Yarn Filament Yarn

 Short fibres twisted into continuous  Long continuous, smooth, closely
strand, has protruding ends packed strands
 Dull, fuzzy look  Smooth, lustrous
 Good absorbency  Poor absorbency

1. Match the fibres in Column A with their description in Column B
A B
1. Filament fibres i. Spun yarn
2. Short fibres ii. Long continuous, smooth, closely packed strands
3. Mono filament iii. Natural filament
4. Multifilament iv. Single filament
5. Silk v. Textured or un textured
vi. Cotton spun yarn
71
Fibre to Fabric

Collect five fabric samples, take out their yarn and untwist them. Determine whether the
yarn is spun or filament. Use the table given below to record your observations and paste
the samples in your Portfolio.
S. No Spun Yarn/ Filament Yarn Sample
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Collect samples of following yarns (thread reels) from the market. Paste them in your
portfolio.
S. No Yarn Yarn sample
1. Mono Filament Yarn
2. Cotton Spun Yarn
3. Multi Filament Yarn
4. Natural Filament Yarn
5. Polyester Spun Yarn
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF YARN ACCORDING TO YARN STRUCTURE

Let’s understand how yarns can be classified according to their structure. Yarns may be classified
as simple and complex or novelty yarns (Fig.6.5).
72
Yarn and its types
Fig. 6.5: Classification of Yarn according to Yarn Structure
6.3 SIMPLE YARN

A simple yarn is alike throughout. A novelty yarn has unlike parts; it is irregular at regular
intervals. Simple yarns are classified as single, ply and cord (Fig.6.6).
Fig. 6.6: Single, ply and cord yarns
A Single yarn is the product of the first twisting operation that is performed by the spinning
machine.
A ply yarn is made by a second twisting operation, which combines two or more singles. Each
part of the yarn is called a ply. For example two ply, three ply, four ply (Fig. 6.7). Plying tends to
increase the diameter, strength and quality of the yarn. The direction of twisting is designated
as S or Z, just as in single yarns. Normally the folding twist is in the opposite direction to that
of the single yarns.
73
Fibre to Fabric
Fig. 6.7: Ply Yarn
A cord yarn is made by third twisting operation which twists ply yarns together (Fig. 6.8).

Fill in the blanks
(i) When two or more single yarns are twisted together, it is known as …………. yarns.
(ii) When two or more ply yarns are twisted together, they are known as ……….. yarns.
(iii) Simple yarns are classified as …......…., ….......…. and …….....….
(iv) Cord yarns are made by………… twisting operation.
6.4 COMPLEX/ NOVELTY YARNS

Novelty yarns may be defined as yarns that are
irregular at regular intervals. The spinning
process can produce decorative effects by varying
the amount of twist or by twisting yarns of
different diameter. Novelty yarns are composed
of core, effect and binder (Fig 6.9).
• Core - It provides the structure and strength
to the novelty yarn.
• Effect - It creates the decorative effect.
• Binder - It binds the base and effect yarn if Fig 6.9 Components of Novelty yarn
required.
74
Yarn and its types
Novelty yarns can give fabrics almost limitless textural effects of various colour combinations
(Table 6. 2).
Table 6.2 Complex/Novelty Yarns
S. No Complex/Novelty Yarns
1. Slub yarns – have soft, untwisted areas at
frequent intervals throughout their length. They
may be single or ply yarn varying in amount of
twist at intervals.
Fig. 6.10: Slub Yarn
http://www.msyarn.com/english/slub_yarn.htm
2. Spiral yarns – are made by winding a coarse

yarn over a fine yarn.
Fig. 6.11: Sprial Yarn

http://clothing120.weebly.com/blog/archives/10-2014
3. Nub, Knot or Spot yarn - are made by twisting

the effect ply around the core ply many times
within a very short space, causing bumps or
knots at intervals.
Fig. 6.12: Knot Yarn
http://www.msyarn.com/english/knot_yarn.htm
75
Fibre to Fabric
4. Chenille yarn – The term chenille is French for

caterpillar. The effect is achieved by a core of
two yarns plied together and firmly holding
short tuffs of soft-twisted yarns between the
twists. The result is a yarn with a velvette like
effect.
https://www.yarn-paradise.com/velvet-chenille-burgundy
Fig. 6.13: Chenille Yarn
5. Boucle, loop or curl yarn - is accomplished by
allowing one of the piles to remain slack during
the twisting operation causing it to twist on
itself and form a loop. It resembles karakul
wool.
Fig. 6.14: Boucle Yarn http://www.stitchpiecenpurl.com/boucle.htm
6.5 END USES OF NOVELTY YARNS

Do you know that fabrics manufactured from novelty yarns are not only used in apparel, but
also in home textiles? Yes, novelty yarns are used for making dress material, clothes, scarves,
curtains, rugs and furnishing fabrics. It improves the appearance of the fabric. Also, these
yarns improve the texture and feel. The lustre may be improved by using metallic yarns. Novelty
yarns provide us a huge variety of surface ornamented fabrics at a low cost (Fig 6.15).
Fig. 6.15 Fabrics manufactured using novelty yarns

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/fancyyarns/fancy-yarns-final
76
Yarn and its types
Limitations of Novelty yarns

Novelty yarns are weak and have poor abrasion resistance. Fabrics manufactured from novelty
yarns are generally not durable. Thus, they should be avoided for manufacturing those fabrics
where durability and long wear is required.

Fill in the blanks
(i) Novelty yarns are used to produce………….effects.
(ii) Examples of complex yarns are…………….and ……………..
(iii) Slub novelty yarn has soft ………..areas at frequent intervals.
(iv) Chenille yarn creates ………like effect.
(v) Boucle yarn resembles……… wool.
6.6 YARN BLENDING

Do you know that yarn can also be manufactured by mixing natural and manmade fibres? Yes,
that is possible by blending of fibres. You must have heard names like terrycot and cotswool.
They are made from more than one type of fibre. While spinning of yarn two types of fibres are
mixed, pulled and twisted together to form a blended yarn. A blend is a mixture of fibres, twisted
together into a yarn. Do you know why two fibres are mixed together? Blending is done for
several reasons:
• To improve spinning, weaving, and finishing efficiency.
• To obtain better texture, hand, or fabric appearance.
• For economic reasons.
• To produce fabrics with better performance. This is an important reason for blending. In
end uses where durability is very important, nylon or polyester blended with cotton or
wool provide strength and resistance to abrasion. Polyester when blended with cotton
contributes to strength and wrinkle resistance while cotton produces comfort and
absorbency. When polyester is added to wool it gives strength and wool gives warmth,
resiliency and absorbency.
77
Fibre to Fabric
Do you Know
Some Commonly Available Blended yarns
• Terrycot- Polyester and Cotton
• Terrywool- Polyester and Wool
• Cottonsilk- Cotton and Silk
• Cotswool- Cotton and Wool
• Polyviscose- Polyester and Viscose
• Cottonspandex- Cotton and Spandex

Collect five samples of blended yarns available in market. Paste the sample and record
composition of yarns in your portfolio.
S. No Blended Sample Composition
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

How will you communicate with a shopkeeper while collecting the blended yarn? Write
the conversation you had with the shopkeeper while collecting samples of blends.
Shopkeeper: How Can I help you?
You: Have you got any blended yarns?
Shopkeeper: Yes, we have
You:
Shopkeeper:
You:
Shopkeeper:
78
Yarn and its types
6.8 LET US PRACTICE

1. Differentiate between the following:
i. Simple and Complex yarn
ii. Spun and Filament Yarn
2. Draw a Schematic diagram to represent 3 ply, 6 ply and cord yarn.
3. List out various novelty yarns. Discuss their end uses and limitations.
4. What are the benefits of yarn blending.
79
Fibre to Fabric

A B
1. Filament fibres i. Long continuous, Smooth, closely packed

2. Short fibres strand
ii. Spun yarn
3. Mono filament
iii. Single filament
4. Multifilament
iv. Textured or Un textured
5. Silk
v. Natural Filament

(i) Ply
(ii) Cord
(iii) Single, Ply, Cord
(iv) Third
(i) Decorative
(ii) Slub/Boucle/Chenille/Knot/Spiral
(iii) Untwisted
(iv) Velvet
(v) Karakul
Your final score is __________ / 30
80
Yarn and its types
PRACTICAL WORK
Practical 6.1
From given ten yarn samples find out whether the yarn is simple or complex by untwisting
them record your observation whether simple, single, ply or cord. Record your observations
and draw the diagram in your portfolio.
S. No Yarn sample Observations Diagram
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
81
Fibre to Fabric
Practical 6.2
Let's make ply/cord yarns. Follow the steps described below. Paste sample of yarns and draw
the diagram in your portfolio.
S. No Yarn Method Sample Diagram
1. 2 Ply Two ply or double ply

yarn can be made by
twisting two separate
single yarns or one long
single strand plied by
holding both ends
together
2. 4 Ply Four ply are also known
as cable yarns. These are
usually made by plying
two strands of two-ply
yarns together.
3. Cord Yarn Cord yarn is a multiple
strand yarn. Take 2 or 4
ply yarns and twist
together. These are
generally used for making
ropes
Practical 6.3
Identify 5 textile products which are made from novelty or complex yarns. Click their pictures
using your phone camera and paste them in your portfolio.
S. No Name of Textile Product Pictures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
82
Emerging into Fabric
83
Fibre to Fabric
7.1 FABRIC
Fabric is a compact structure made by arrangement of fibres and yarns.
Fig. 7.1: Fabric
Fabrics can be constructed by various methods. Figure 7.2 shows you the different methods
in a pictorial form that will make it easy for you to remember.
Fig. 7.2: Fabric construction methods
84
7.2 WEAVING
In weaving, fabric is made by interlacing two sets of yarns at right angles to each other.
*Fabric made by weaving is called woven fabric.
Have you ever seen a 'folding bed' being made? On the frame, one set of tape is fixed lengthwise.
Another set of tapes are interlaced width wise over and below the previous set of tapes. This
kind of an interlacement gives an even check effect. The weaving of a fabric is also done in a
similar way, except for the fact that yarns are used for interlacing and a loom* is used to hold
the thread instead of a frame.
Loom is a device for making fabric by weaving yarn.
Fig. 7.3: Construction of folding bed
Common terms in weaving

There are some weaving terms which are
frequently used, few of them are labelled in Fig.
7.4
Warp: These are also called as ends or TANA.
These yarns runs in length wise direction of the
fabrics and are parallel to the selvedge.
Weft: These are also called as picks/fillings or
BANA. They are perpendicular to the warp
yarns.
Selvedge: These are the edges that run parallel Fig. 7.4: Weaving terms
to warp yarns. It gives strength to the edges of the fabric.
Thread Count: It is referred as the total number of warp and weft yarns per square inch of a
woven fabric. Fabrics with higher thread count have higher durability than those with lower
thread count.
You must have seen dhoti and dupatta, they are the examples of woven fabrics.
85
Fibre to Fabric
7.3 TYPES OF WEAVES

Clothes that you use in daily lifehave different woven designs which is due to different types of
weaves used in them.
Fig. 7.5: Types of weaves
A. Basic Weaves
Let us now find out more about the basic weaves, their characteristics, how it is made
and the fabrics that made with different weaves. The details are in table 7.1 below.
Table 7.1: Basic weaves

Basic Characteristics Weave image Types Fabric
Weaves
Plain  It is the  Rib Weave Dupatta,
Weave simplest and  Basket saree
inexpensive Weave
weave.
 Weft yarn
goes
alternately
under and
over the
warp yarns
1. Warp
 Closer the
yarns, higher 2. Weft
will be the
thread count
86
Basic Characteristics Weave image Types Fabric

Weaves
Twill  It has a clear  Herringbone Denim-jeans

Weave diagonal line  Diamond fabric,
on the front gabardine-
 Right hand
side of the suits and
fabric.  Left hand
coat fabric.
 It is a very  Pointed
strong weave
1. Warp
2. Weft
Satin  It has a  Sateen Chenille

Weave beautiful weave fabric,
shiny surface shantoon.
 Warp yarns
are more
visible than
fillings on the
right side of
the fabric.
 These visible
yarns are 1. Warp
called floats.
2. Weft
 It is not as
strong as
plain or twill
weave.
B. Decorative weaves
In the previous section, you have learnt about the basic weaves. But we see many fabrics
which have complex patterns on them. These are made by using decorative weaves. Let
us find more about these weaves. You can see all the details in Table 7.2
87
Fibre to Fabric
Table 7.2: Decorative weaves
Decorative Characteristics Images Fabrics

Weaves
Dobby  Contain simple Dresses, shirts,

geometric designs. handbags
 More textured than
plain weave.
Pile  Produce fabrics with Velvets, towels,

raised surface. corduroy,
 Extra sets of warps or carpets
filling yarns are
woven over ground
fabric to form loops.
 loops may be left
uncut, or they may be
cut to expose yarn
ends
Leno  Also known as Gauze Dresses
weave
 two warp yarns are
twisted around the
weft yarns
 provide a strong yet
sheer fabric
Jacquard  Used to create Brocade for
complicated designs dress, saree,
 detailed images of curtains.
objects such as
flowers and birds can
be made
88
7.4 KNITTING
Have you seen your mother making sweaters? There is normally one ball of yarn which is
interlooped to get a fabric. This technique is called knitting.
Fig. 7.6: Knitting
In construction of knitted fabric, loops are formed. New loops are drawn through these
previously formed loops.
Fig. 7.7: Loop Formation
• Course: The series of loops that are connected horizontally are called as courses.
• Wales: The series of loops that are connected vertically are known as wales.
Fig. 7.8: Courses and Wales
89
Fibre to Fabric
Knit fabrics are mainly used for hosiery products such as t-shirts, socks etc.
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.9: (a) Knitted t-shirt (b) Knitted socks
7.5 NON-WOVEN FABRICS

These fabrics are made directly from fibres without weaving or knitting. Fibres are held
together by mechanical forces, resin or heat. The starting materials for non-woven fabrics are
fibres (staple and filament).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7.10: (a) Non-woven fabric (b) Non-woven bags (c) Non-woven mask
7.6 OTHERS
A. Net
They are open-mesh fabrics with geometrical shapes. Net fabric has open spaces between
the yarns. You notice it being used very commonly for mosquito nets and now-a-days in
dresses also.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7.10: (a) Mosquito net (b) and (c) Net fabric
90
B. Lace
Lace is a fabric which consists of decorative designs. Beautiful designs can be created
through lace making. It is a very important trimmings that is used to decorate a garment.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7.11: (a) Lace top (b) Lace dress (c) Lace fabric
7.7 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEAVING AND KNITTING

S. No Weaving Knitting
1 Fabric is produced by interlacing Fabric is produced by interlooping

minimum two sets of yarns minimum one yarn.
2 Requires a loom Requires knitting needles or a machine
3 Horizontal and vertical yarns are Horizontal and verticals loops are called
called weft and warp respectively courses and wales respectively
4 Example: dupatta, saree Example: T-shirt, socks
91
Fibre to Fabric

1. Fill in the blanks with suitable answers:-
i. Interlacement of two sets of yarns at right angle is called __________.
ii. The process in which only one set of yarns is interlooped to get a fabric is called
____________.
iii. Total number of yarn per square inch of fabric is _________.
iv. Non-wovens are directly made from __________.
2. Select and write correct answer:
(i) Minimum _____ set of yarns are required for weaving.
a. 1 b. 2
c. 3 d. 4
(ii) Horizontal lines in knitted fabric are known as _____________
a. Warp b. Wales
c. Courses d. Weft
(iii) Open-mesh fabrics with geometrical shapes are called _______________
a. Non-woven b. Knitting
c. Net d. Lace
(iv) Decorative weave with raised surface is _______________.
a. Rib weave b. Leno weave
c. Satin weave d. Pile weave
(v) Weave which has clear diagonal lines on the front side of fabric is ______________.
a. Twill weave b. Jacquard weave
c. Satin weave d. Basket weave
3. Label the diagram given below
92

Collect 10 fabric samples and paste them in your portfolio. Identify the correct category
and record them in the given table.
S. No. Samples Weaving Knitting Non-woven Lace Net

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
93
Fibre to Fabric
7.9 LET US PRACTICE

1. Define the following terms in one line each
a. warp b. wales
c. selvedge d. pile weave
2. Write 3 differences between weaving and knitting.
3. Explain twill weave with the help of a diagram.
4. Non-woven are different from weaving and knitting. Support your answer with reasons.

1. (i) Weaving (ii) Knitting
(iii) Thread count (iv) Fibres
2. (i) b (ii) c
(iii) c (iv) d
(v) a
3. (a) Selvedge (b) Warp (c) Weft
PRACTICAL WORK
Practical 7.1
Take plain sheets of paper 8 x 8” size in two colours. Make the following weaves:
a. Plain waeave
b. Twill weave
c. Satin weave
Paste these sheets in your Portfolio.
94
Fabric Finishes
95
Fibre to Fabric
8.1 WHAT IS A FINISH?

Have you seen a fabric that comes from a loom? It is generally rough to feel, dirty with stains
and is known as 'greige' (pronounced as gray) cloth. The 'markin' fabric which we buy for
making quilt covers is off-white and is a gray fabric. Whereas most of the other fabrics that
we buy from a shop are smooth, neat and clean. Why and what happens in between? Yes, a
finish has been applied. Therefore, we can say that
A finish is anything that is done to a fabric after weaving or knitting, to change it's
appearance, hand and performance.
When a finish is applied, say on cotton, it might become shinier,

stronger or resist shrinking on washing. Similarly, other finishes 'Gray goods' is the term
may make the fabric softer or stiffer; water or stain resistant; used for fabrics that
coloured or designed. come directly from the
loom and is not given any
Textile finishes are important as they- finish.
• improve the appearance of the fabric through dyeing and
printing;
• improve the texture/feel of the fabric- make it softer, crisper;
• make the fabric more useful or suitable for end use- crease resistance, waterproof,
fireproof, mothproof;
• improve the draping ability of fabrics.
8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FINISHES

Finishes can be classified as:
a) Temporary and Durable
b) Routine (Basic) and Special
Routine finishes are applied to almost all fabrics with an aim to improve their appearance.
Special finishes are applied with a specific purpose or end use in mind.
We come across the problem of fabric losing its stiffness after washing or the fabric crushing
badly after wearing. What do you do in such a case? You starch the fabric and iron it after every
wash. This is called a temporary finish. That means, these finishes last only till washing or
drycleaning but some finishes stay on the fabric for its entire life, eg., resistance to crease or
the wash 'n' wear finish. These are not affected by washing, drycleaning or ironing. These
finishes are called durable finishes and they cannot be applied at home. Some of the finishes
which are durable could also be special or routine.
96
Fabric Finishes

1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words-
i) A finish is applied to the fabric to improve its ________, _______, and ________
ii) Finishes can be classified as temporary or _______ and routine or _______.
iii) A finish that is applied after every wash is called ________ finish.
iv) When a finish is applied to almost all fabrics it is termed as ________ finish.
v) The rough, dirty and stained fabric received from a loom is called ________.
2. Select the most appropriate answer-
i) What does finishing do to a fabric?
a) Turns yarn into fabric
b) Turns fibre into yarn
c) Recycles a fabric used earlier
d) Adds value to the fabric after manufacturing
ii) Finishes on fabrics
a) improve the feel of the fabric
b) decrease cost
c) improve yarn count
d) make a fabric finer
8.3 SOME COMMON FINISHES

Let us now discuss the basic characteristics of different finishes that can be applied on a
fabric.
A. Routine Finishes
i) Scouring/cleaning
Fabrics received as gray cloth have a lot of impurities such
as oils, waxes and dirty stains acquired during construction
of the fabric, naturally present in them. Complete removal
or cleaning of these impurities is important before applying
any other finish. This cleaning is called scouring and is done
to all fabrics with the help of soap solutions and chemicals.
After cleaning, the fabric becomes smooth, neat and more
absorbent.
Fig. 8.1: Scouring - cleaning of
cotton fibres
97
Fibre to Fabric
ii) Bleaching
Fabrics made using natural fibres, are not white in colour.
To remove the natural colour and make them white
bleaching is done. This is also necessary in case of
discolouration or stains occurred during manufacturing
process. Suitable bleaching agents are used to remove the
colour from the fabric. Bleaching is done for cottons,
woollens and silks. Synthetics do not need bleaching as
they are naturally white. Bleaching has to be done very
carefully as the chemical which can destroy the colour may
also damage the fabric to some extent. Hydrogen peroxide
is a universal bleach which can be applied to all kinds of
fabrics. Fig. 8.2: Common Bleach
iii) Stiffening
Stiffening means the fabric which is generally limp
becomes stiff when a stiffening agent is applied. How do
you stiffen your cotton clothes at home? Yes, you use maida
starch or rice water. For stiffening silk, gums are used.
Stiffening gives body, smoothness and lustre to the fabric.
This practice is sometimes used to cheat the customer.
You must have observed that sometimes if you rub a fabric
between your hands, some white powder comes out and
the rubbed fabric becomes limp. It is because the fabric
has been over starched. Many time inferior fabrics are over Fig. 8.3: Starched cuff
starched to look dense and better.
iv) Calendering
Calendering is a mechanical finish. It is essentially an ironing process that adds
sheen to the fabric.
Fig. 8.4: Calendering
98
Fabric Finishes
B. Special Finishes
i) Mercerisation
Cotton is a dull, rough fabric and shrinks after
washing. Mercerization is done by stretching the Do you know!
fabric and passing it through chemicals (sodium Few cotton fabrics shrink,
hydroxide). After mercerization the fabric becomes when you soak then
strong, lustrous and dyes well as it is now more overnight.
absorbent. This finish also prevents the shrinking of
the fabric in the later stages. It is a durable finish. This is because they are
Now-a-days this finish has become almost a routine not mercersied.
finish for all cottons. Threads used for stitching are
also mercerized.
Fig. 8.5: Mercerized Yarn
ii) Water proofing

Fabrics to be used as raincoats, umbrellas, and tents have to be treated with chemicals
to give them a property which makes them water proof. The finish is called
waterproofing and it is a durable finish.
Fig. 8.6: Waterproof finish
99
Fibre to Fabric
iv) Dyeing and Printing

In the market, you see fabrics in plain colours or colourful designs apart from white
ones. This process is called dyeing and printing. Dyeing gives a solid colour to the
fabric whereas printing is an application of dye at specified areas to create a design.
Fig. 8.7: Dyeing yarns Fig. 8.8: Printing

i) Scouring is a finish used to clean the fabric.
ii) Bleaching has no damaging effect on fabric.
iii) Threads can also be mercerised.
2. Fill in the blanks by choosing correct words from the bracket.
i) Mercerisation is a ________ finish. (temporary/durable)
ii) Water proofing is a ________ finish. (routine/special)
iii) Calendering is a process of ________. (ironing/washing)
3. Name the finish required to achieve the following qualities in the fabrics.
i) a) Strong and lustrous cotton b) It should dye well.
Finish required ..................................................................................
ii) a) Fabric should not absorb water b) Water should not be able to pass through it.
Finish required ..................................................................................
iii) a) Fabric becomes stiff b) It develops a crisp hand feel
Finish required ..................................................................................
iv) a) Natural colour of fabric is removed b) Fabric becomes white
Finish required ..................................................................................
100
Fabric Finishes
8.5 LET US PRACTICE

1. What is textile finish? Why is it necessary to apply on fabrics?
2. How does a gray fabric differ from a finished fabric?
3. Describe any two basic finishes and their application.
4. The sewing thread Ritu bought had the label 'mercerised'. Give the advantages of
'mercerisation'.
5. 'Dyeing is finishing with colour'. Explain.

1. (i) appearance, hand and performance
(ii) basic, special
(iii) temporary
(iv) routine
(v) gray goods
2. (i) d
101
Fibre to Fabric
(ii) a
1. (i) T
(ii) F
(iii) T
2. (i) durable
(ii) special
(iii) dyeing
3. (i) merecrization
(ii) water proofing
(iii) stiffening
(iv) bleaching
Your final score is _______ / 40

1. Visit following places in your area where
A. Dyeing of thread or fabric is done.
B. Printing of fabric is done.
C. Starching of fabric or garment is done.
D. Any other places where other finishes are done.
2. Write your observations as per the following table:
S. Type of Type of fibre/ Finishing Any other on site

No. finish fabric used agents used information
A
B
C
D
102
Fabric Finishes
3. Find out the following safety measures-

• What is source of water used in finishing?
• How they ensure the quality of the raw material like starch/ chemical?
• Where they throw the effluent (remaining water after use)?
• What precaution they take for themselves while indulging in finishing work?
• What is source of information to know the procedure and chemical etc?
• Do they know some organization to have safety certification for different
finishes?
• What health risks they may have while working in current situations?
103
Fibre to Fabric
PRACTICAL WORK
Practical 8.1
Take any cotton garment (pillow case, shirt, handkerchief) from your home and starch it using
rice water / arrow root solution / ready to use starch.
1. Dry the article
2. Iron it
3. Record the procedure that you have used
104

Fibre To Fabric Eng

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fibre To Fabric Eng

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fibre To Fabric Eng

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fibre

National Institute of Open Schooling

This book or part thereof may not be reproduced by any

Published by : National Institute of Open Schooling

Dr. Sandhya Kumar

Editor Course Coordinator

S. No. Subject Name Page. No

1. Lesson - 1 Knowing Textile Fibres 1

2. Lesson - 2 Natural Fibres 13

3. Lesson - 3 Man-made fibres 25

4. Lesson - 4 Fibre Identification 37

5. Lesson - 5 Yarn Construction and its properties 51

6. Lesson - 6 Yarn and its types 69

7. Lesson - 7 Emerging into Fabric 83

8. Lesson - 8 Fabric Finishes 95

1.1 TEXTILE FIBRES

Fig. 1.1: Fabric -Yarn - Fibre

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRES

Fig: 1.2: Classification of Fibres based on their origin

Table 1.1: Classification of fibres based on the length of the fibres

Type of fibres based on Characteristics Examples

Short length Cotton, Jute, Wool

Long continuous length Silk and man-made fibres

1.3 NATURAL FIBRES

1.4 MAN-MADE FIBRES

Portfolio Activity 1.1

S. No. Name of article Name of fibre

Portfolio Activity 1.2

Sl. No. Fibre Origin Length Use of the fabric

Portfolio Activity 1.3

S. No. Name of article Length of fibre Name of fibre

Make this table in your Portfolio to record your observations.

Know Your Progress 1.1

4. Natural filament fibres is

Fill your score _______ / 18

1.5 FIBRE PROPERTIES

Cross-sectional view Longitudinal view

• Elongation and elastic recovery: Elongation is the amount of stretch a fibre

Know Your Progress 1.2

1.6 THIS IS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

1.7 LET US PRACTICE

1.8 ANSWERS TO KNOW YOUR PROGRESS

2. Refer to the text

Your final score is _______ / 26

S. No. Samples Initial weight Final weight Difference

On the basis of your observations, conclude which fibre has-

2.1 NATURAL FIBRES

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBRES

Table 2.1: Morphology of Natural Fibres

Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6

Protein Silk 9 -11 1000 –

Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10

Mineral Asbestos ----- Too fine to > 1 cm

Know Your Progress 2.1

2. Make a diagram of the microscopic view of cotton.

3. Write down the name of longest natural fiber.