View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.

uk brought to you by CORE

provided by Digital Repository @ Iowa State University

Apparel, Events and Hospitality Management

Apparel, Events and Hospitality Management
Publications

Spring 2014

The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and

Job Performance
Yu-Chih Chiang
Iowa State University

Susan W. Arendt
Iowa State University, [email protected]

Tianshu Zheng
Iowa State University, [email protected]

Kathy A. Hanisch
Iowa State University, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/aeshm_pubs

Part of the Cognition and Perception Commons, Experimental Analysis of Behavior Commons,
Human Factors Psychology Commons, and the Work, Economy and Organizations Commons
The complete bibliographic information for this item can be found at https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/
aeshm_pubs/117. For information on how to cite this item, please visit http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/
howtocite.html.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Apparel, Events and Hospitality Management at Iowa State University Digital Repository.
It has been accepted for inclusion in Apparel, Events and Hospitality Management Publications by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University
Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected].
The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of sleep on academic performance and job performance. A
total of 172 undergraduate students completed an on-line questionnaire and their GPAs were obtained from
the registrar's office. Data were analyzed using t-test, principal component analysis, and step wise regression.
The results were consistent with delayed sleep phrase syndrome, a common sleep problem in college students.
Also, sleep latency and sleep medicine were negatively correlated with academic performance, and sleep
quality was significantly associated with job performance. The knowledge of the impact of sleep is effective for
educators and employers in helping students with sleep problems. Educators and employers need to be
cognizant of the importance of sleep for students' success in their academic performance and job
performance.

Disciplines
Cognition and Perception | Experimental Analysis of Behavior | Human Factors Psychology | Work,
Economy and Organizations

Comments
This article is published as Chiang, Y.C., Arendt, S., Zheng, T., and Hanisch, K. The effects of sleep on
academic performance and job performance. College Student Journal 48 (1), 72-87. Posted with permission.

This article is available at Iowa State University Digital Repository: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/aeshm_pubs/117

 THE EFFECTS OF SLEEP ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
AND JOB PERFORMANCE

Yu-Chih Chiang
Susan W. Arendt
Tianshu Zheng
Kathy A. Hanisch
Iowa State University

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of sleep on academic
performance and job performance. A total of 172 undergraduate students
completed an on-line questionnaire and their GPAs were obtained from
the registrar’s office. Data were analyzed using t-test, principal compo-
nent analysis, and stepwise regression. The results were consistent with
delayed sleep phrase syndrome, a common sleep problem in college
students. Also, sleep latency and sleep medicine were negatively cor-
related with academic performance, and sleep quality was significantly
associated with job performance. The knowledge of the impact of sleep
is effective for educators and employers in helping students with sleep
problems. Educators and employers need to be cognizant of the impor-
tance of sleep for students’ success in their academic performance and
job performance.

Introduction Guilleminault, 2009). According to the Na-

Sleep is very important to a human being’s tional Sleep Foundation’s Sleep in America
health. Sleep loss not only makes people feel Poll, U.S. adults sleep about seven hours
sleepy in the daytime, it is even a possible every night, a decrease of approximately
factor for Alzheimer’s disease (Slats, Claas- two hours per night since the 19th century
sen, Verbeek, & Overeem, 2013). The effects (National Sleep Foundation, 2005). In 2008,
of sleep manifest in both health and perfor- the same organization found that Americans
mance. The relationships between sleep and expected to average 7 hr 18 min of sleep per
performance have been studied in many dif- night, but they actually only slept an average
ferent fields including human science, med- of 6 hr 40 min (National Sleep Foundation,
icine, psychology, education, and business. 2008). A common term for “loss of sleep” is
Sleep-related variables (e.g. sleep deficiency, “sleep deprivation.” Drummond and McK-
sleep quality, sleep habits) have been shown enna (2009) stated that “sleep deprivation in
to influence performance of students and humans can be broadly classified into three
workers (Lack, 1986; Mulgrew et al., 2007; categories: total sleep deprivation, partial
National Sleep Foundation, 2008; Pilcher & sleep deprivation, and sleep fragmentation (p.
Huffcutt, 1996; Rosekind et al., 2010). There- 249).” In previous studies, sleep deprivation
fore, the purpose of this study was to deter- was measured by type: long-term total sleep
mine the effect of sleep on academic and job deprivation (continually awake for more than
performance. 45 hours), short-term total sleep deprivation
(continually awake for up to 45 hours), and
Sleep and Health partial sleep deprivation (sleeping less than 5
The history of sleep research can be hours in a 24-hour period) (Pilcher & Huff-
traced back to the 19th century (Pelayo & cutt, 1996).

72
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 73

Rosen et al. (2006) investigated the asso- Egget (2000) found that students who worked
ciation between sleep deprivation and mood more hours had lower GPAs than students
disturbance, empathy, and burnout among working fewer hours. As of yet, no known
47 (80% response rate) interns in a medical studies have been conducted to examine the
residency program. The researchers found relationships between sleep, work hours, and
an increased prevalence of chronic sleep workplace accidents in the hospitality man-
deprivation (9% to 43%), sleepiness (11% to agement field.
36%), moderate depression (4.3% to 29.8%),
and burnout (4.3% to 55.3%) by the end of Sleep and College
the internships. Simpson and Dinges (2007) Weitzman et al. (1981) defined Delayed
reviewed a number of comprehensive studies Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) as follows: 1)
that examined the effects of sleep loss on the long sleep latency on weekdays (usually fall
human immune system. They found that the sleep between 2 a.m. to 6 a.m.); 2) normal
levels of important immune-related chemical sleep length on weekends (usually sleep late
substances in blood plasma were different at and wake up late on weekends); and 3) dif-
bedtime and wake-up time. These irregular ficulty staying asleep. This sleep problem is
changes in the immune system affected both common and is present in students around the
behavioral functions (e.g., sleepiness, fatigue, world. In the U.S., 11.5% of undergraduate
and attention lapses) and physiological func- students were found to have DSPS (Brown,
tions (e.g., inflammation). Lack of sleep has Soper, & Buboltz, 2001). Australian studies
been linked to emotional and physical health found the prevalence of DSPS in students
effects including depression, burnout, obesity, (17%) to be higher than in adults (6-7%)
diabetes mellitus, hypertension, cardiovascu- (Lack, 1986; Lack, Miller, & Turner, 1988).
lar disease, stroke, and even death (Rosen, Studies related to DSPS have also been con-
Gimotty, Shea, & Bellini, 2006; Simpson & ducted in Japan, Norway, and Taiwan (Haza-
Dinges, 2007). ma, Inoue, Kojima, Ueta, & Nakagome, 2008;
Schrader, Bovim, & Sand, 1993; Yang, Wu,
Sleep and Work Hsieh, Liu, & Lu, 2003).
Shift work, also defined as working In Lack’s (1986) study, the DSPS group
non-standard hours, has been shown to im- experienced sleepiness on weekdays more
pact sleep and circadian rhythms (Wyatt, often than the non-DSPS group. In addition,
2001). This type of work schedule is common when course grades were examined, it was
in the hospitality industry (Cleveland et al., found that members of the DSPS group per-
2007). Depending on occupation, studies formed at a lower level academically when
found a stronger relationship between sleep- compared with the non-DSPS group. In a
iness and work limitations for white-collar more recent study, Trockel et al. (2000) found
workers (e.g., hospitality industry workers) that first-year college students with lower
as compared to blue-collar workers (e.g., in GPAs reported later bedtimes on weekdays
the manufacturing industry) (Mulgrew et al., and weekends and later wake-up times on
2007). A Study has also found that employees weekdays and weekends.
who did not get enough sleep and experienced
sleepiness during work hours had the highest Sleep and Academic Performance
percentage of accidents in the workplace and The relationship between sleep and ac-
often nodded off during driving indicating ademic performance was reviewed in a pre-
work safety issues (Rosekind et al., 2010). In vious study. Curcio, Ferrara, and Gennaro
the student population, Trockel, Barnes, and (2006) reviewed approximately 103 studies
74 / College Student Journal

related to sleep loss, learning capacity, and Focusing on the relationship between
academic performance; samples included sleep hours and GPA, Kelly et al. (2001) used
students of different education levels, from a sample consisting of 147 college student
elementary school to university. Most (31 out volunteers (99% response rate) enrolled in a
of 37) studies involved elementary or high psychology course, collecting GPAs and data
school students. The researchers concluded about sleep length using a self-report ques-
that sleep loss was negatively correlated tionnaire. Based on self-reported sleep length,
with academic performance. They found that participants were divided into three groups:
sleep-deprived students performed poorly short sleepers (6 or fewer hours in a 24-hour
on learning capacity skills such as attention, period), average sleepers (7-8 hours in a 24-
memory, and problem-solving tasks, and hour period), and long sleepers (9 or more
that the lack of sleep therefore affected their hours in a 24-hour period). The researchers
academic performance. Moreover, sleep loss found that the mean GPA of short sleepers
resulted in daytime sleepiness that was also was 0.5 points lower than that of long sleep-
correlated with poor academic performance. ers (2.74 and 3.24, respectively). In another
Sleep studies with college students have study, Horton and Snyder (2009) found a sim-
examined cognitive performance and GPA. ilar result in that hospitality students’ GPAs
In an experimental study involving 44 college were affected by physical wellness factors,
student volunteers (68% response rate) from such as amount of sleep.
five psychology courses, Pilcher and Walters
(1997) concluded that sleep-deprived partici- Sleep and Job Performance
pants had lower scores on cognitive tasks than Job performance has been defined as “the
non-sleep-deprived participants. However, level of productivity of an individual em-
Pilcher, Vander Wood, and O’Connell (2011) ployee, relative to his or her peers, on several
found no significant effects of sleep depri- job-related behaviors and outcomes” (Babin
vation on cognitive performance when sleep & Boles, 1998, p. 82). Others have defined
deprived individuals worked on tasks in pairs job performance as “the total expected value
rather than individually. to the organization of the discrete behavioral
Two studies showed a significant relation- episodes that an individual carries out over
ship between lower GPA and lack of sleep a standard period of time” (Motowidlo &
among college students (Kelly, Kelly, & Kell, 2003, p. 82). The influence of sleep on
Clanton, 2001; Trockel et al., 2000). Trockel job performance has been discussed through
et al. (2000) studied the correlation between clinical cases, national reports, and the finan-
health-related variables and academic per- cial cost of poor sleep habits. Snyder (2003)
formance among 243 randomly selected showed that nocturnal awakenings were nega-
first-year college students. Variables includ- tively correlated with individual productivity.
ed sleep habits, academic performance, and Mulgrew et al. (2007) found a significant rela-
several other health-related variables (e.g., tionship between sleepiness and job outcomes
stress, exercise, and work hours). Academ- among 428 Canadian subjects (86% response
ic performance was measured using mean rate) with a partial or complete upper airway
GPA and collected data were analyzed using obstruction.
Spearman’s correlation analysis and stepwise In 2008, the National Sleep Foundation
regression analysis. The researchers found (2008) reported the results of their annual
significant relationships between lower GPA survey covering sleep, performance, and the
and sleep-related variables. workplace in the United States. Completed
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 75

surveys were obtained from 170 randomly early hours, late hours, overnight hours) were
selected healthy Americans (17% response common in this industry; and the university
rate) through telephone interviews. It also where the study was done had a hospitality
reported that 12% of the respondents admit- management program and students were re-
ted to being late to work due to sleepiness or quired to have work hours in the industry.
sleep problems. Therefore, the following research questions
Organizations and businesses need to un- are addressed:
derstand the importance of employee sleep, 1) How does sleep affect academic perfor-
otherwise they may lose money. Rosekind mance of undergraduate students?
et al. (2010) assessed the cost of poor sleep
to employers. Employees at a number of 2) How does sleep affect job performance
companies in the United States participated of undergraduate students?
in the study; 4,188 of them (16% response 3) Is the relationship between sleep and
rate) completed an online questionnaire. The academic performance different for
questionnaire included demographic items, undergraduate students working in the
sleep-related items, work performance items hospitality industry compared to those
(e.g., memory, attention, and safety), and working in other industries?
the Work Limitations Questionnaire (WLQ)
4) Is the relationship between sleep and
which was used in a related study (Mulgrew
academic performance different for
et al., 2007). Based on WLQ calculations,
undergraduate students working in the
the researchers concluded that decreased
hospitality industry compared to those
individual productivity resulting from poor
who are not working?
sleep patterns cost each company an average
of $1,967 per employee. The effects of sleep 5) Is the relationship between sleep and
patterns on job performance have been stud- job performance different for un-
ied in terms of sleep hours and sleep quality. dergraduate students working in the
Snyder (2003) showed that individuals who hospitality industry compared to those
slept more than 9 hours had the highest pro- working in other industries?
ductivity level. Rosekind et al. (2010) found
that employees who slept poorly had poorer Method
job performance than those who slept well. This research study was designed to ana-
However, no known study to date has focused lyze the relationship between sleep and two
on the effects of sleep as it relates to job per- kinds of performance, academic performance
formance among college students. and job performance, among undergraduate
Research Questions students. A self-report questionnaire was
The purpose of this study was to explore used in this study to measure sleep-related
the effects of sleep on academic performance variables, academic performance, and job
and job performance of undergraduate stu- performance of undergraduate students. Insti-
dents, and to compare results between those tutional Review Board approval was received
who are working in the hospitality industry, before any data collection started.
those who are working in other industries, and Population and Sample
those not working. The hospitality industry The population selected for this study was
was selected for the following reasons: hospi- undergraduate students at a public university
tality jobs have atypical work schedules (e.g. located in the Midwest; this university was
76 / College Student Journal

chosen because it is the only public university study. The job performance section was ad-
in the area with a hospitality management pro- opted from a reliable instrument (Cronbach’s
gram. A list of 23,990 undergraduate student alpha = .81) of job performance evaluation
e-mail addresses was obtained from the regis- (Brown & Arendt, 2011).
trar’s office. Before sampling, 8,079 students, Expert panel review and pilot study.
who had missing data, were removed from the To clarify the accuracy and meaning of each
list (e.g., GPA or course credits). The list was item, the questionnaire was reviewed by three
then divided into two groups by gender and educators who have expertise in fields related
systematic sampling was used to select every to this study. The questionnaire was revised as
sixth student from the two lists. This assured suggested by the review panel. A pilot study
that gender representation was similar to that was completed with undergraduates in a hos-
of the university at large. Systematic sam- pitality management course not included in the
pling was used instead of random sampling final study sample. For this pilot study, 68 stu-
because the list was already in random order dents pre-tested the on-line questionnaire and
based on student identification number (Ary, were then invited to provide feedback using a
Jacobs, & Sorensen, 2009). A total of 2,651 form designed for that purpose. Based on the
undergraduate students were selected for this feedback, it appeared that students understood
study, 1,537 males and 1,114 females. the questions. Some technical problems with
the on-line questionnaire occurred during the
Data Collection pilot study and these were fixed (e.g., page
Instrument development. An online flow issues and one coding mistake).
questionnaire was chosen as the method Final instrument. An on-line final ques-
for data collection given the popularity and tionnaire with a cover letter was developed
convenience of the Internet for students. The using SurveyGizmoTM software. The 48-item
questionnaire had four sections as follows: self-report questionnaire was divided into
demographics, sleep habits and sleep quality, four sections. The first section, demograph-
academic performance, and job performance. ics, contained eight items: student ID, email
The demographic section was created by the address, gender, age, race/ethnicity, academic
researchers and was developed based on a major, classification status (e.g., freshman,
review of related literature. The demographic senior), and workplace.
information was used to determine if the sam- The second section, focusing on sleep
ple was similar to the population and to enable habits and sleep quality, had 22 items. These
analysis of the data by sub-groups. For the items measured the following: sleep habits,
sleep habits and sleep quality section, all items sleep hours, sleep latency, sleep disturbances,
were adopted from the Pittsburgh Sleep Qual- usage of sleeping medicine, daytime dysfunc-
ity Index (PSQI). The PSQI has been found to tion, and sleep quality. Sleep habits and hours
be reliable (Cronbach’s alpha = .80) and valid were scaled in time periods. For the rest of the
and has been used in previous sleep quality measured items, with the exception of sleep
research (Backhaus, Junghanns, Broocks, quality, a 5-point Likert type scale ranging
Riemann, & Hohagen, 2002; Carpenter & from 1 to 5 (1 = never to 5 = always) was
Andrykowski, 1998). Student cumulative GPA used. For the sleep quality scale, the anchors
and semester GPA were used to measure aca- for the scale were different (1 = very bad to 5
demic performance. Trockel et al. (2000) also = very good). In the current study, the Cron-
used cumulative GPA and semester GPA as a bach’s alpha for this section was .78 which
measurement of academic performance in their showed good reliability (Ary et al., 2009).
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 77

The third section, academic performance, Data Analysis

had four items. The first two asked how many The data were exported in SPSS Version
cumulative credits the student had earned, and 19.0 (2010), a statistical analysis software
how many semester credits the student was program. Mean or mode imputation was used
taking at the time of the study. As a measure to replace missing data; this technique is fre-
of academic performance, the other two items quently used (Batista & Monard, 2003). For
were the student’s cumulative GPA, and se- comparison, participants were divided into
mester GPA. three groups based on their employment sta-
The fourth and final section, job perfor- tus: those who were working in the hospitality
mance, contained 14 items. Five items were industry, those who were working in other
related to the nature of the job: presence or industries, and those who were not working.
absence of managerial/supervisory responsi- Working in the hospitality industry was de-
bility, work shift, getting enough sleep, paid fined as employment in the restaurant industry
work hours, and length of employment in or the lodging industry (e.g., campus dining/
current job. Nine items asked about perfor- university dining, quick service restaurant,
mance-related components, including atten- family restaurant, commercial cafeterias, caus-
dance, lateness, absenteeism, safety, work al restaurant, casual upscale dining restaurant,
completion, motivation, attitude towards cus- fine-dining restaurant, health care foodservice,
tomers, judgment, and quality of work; these hotel) (Powers & Barrows, 2006).
items used a 5-point Likert type scale ranging Descriptive statistics were used to analyze
from 1 = never to 5 = always. In the current the demographic information. T-tests were
study, the Cronbach’s alpha for this section used to compare the relationships among
was .70 which showed acceptable reliability sleep, academic performance, and job per-
(Ary et al., 2009). formance between various student groups.
Procedures. A recruitment email with the Principal component analysis was used to find
link to the online questionnaire was sent to factors for the ten sleep disturbance items. To
2,651 systematically sampled undergraduate improve interpretation, oblimin rotation was
students in the middle of the fall semester. used when there were correlations between
The data collection period was four weeks. items (Field, 2009). Only factors with eigen-
To increase response rate, a reminder was values greater than one were retained, as rec-
emailed to those who had not yet responded to ommended by Kaiser (1960). Principal com-
the questionnaire by the third week of the data ponent analysis revealed three distinct factors
collection period, as is recommended (Dill- of the sleep disturbance variable: physical
man, Smyth, & Christian, 2007). To validate sleep disturbances, environmental sleep dis-
self-reported data, student GPA and credits turbances, and medical sleep disturbances. Fi-
were obtained from the registrar’s office. Stu- nally, a total of seven sleep-related variables
dent identification numbers and email address were used in stepwise regression as follows:
were required for linking GPA and credits sleep latency, physical sleep disturbances,
with responses. To ensure no individuals environmental sleep disturbances, medical
could be personally identified, student iden- sleep disturbances, usage of sleeping medi-
tification numbers and email addresses were cine, daytime dysfunction, and sleep quality.
immediately removed from the full dataset The backward method of stepwise regression
and used only for acquiring GPA and credits. was used to determine whether sleep-related
variables were significantly related to aca-
demic performance and job performance. In
78 / College Student Journal

the backward method, a predicted variable received 145 responses in the first two weeks
explaining the smallest part of the model was and an additional 62 responses after the re-
removed in each step. This method decreased minder was sent. However, 34 students an-
the possibility of missing predictors (Field, swered less than half of the questionnaire so
2009). those questionnaires were not analyzed. An
additional 22 respondents missed only 1 to 14
Results questions, so the missing data was replaced
A total of 206 responses (7.8% response using mode imputation which is a frequently
rate) were collected from the on-line ques- used technique (Batista & Monard, 2003).
tionnaire with 48 items. The researchers Therefore, 172 questionnaires were usable
(6.5% response rate) for data analysis.
Table 4.1 Demographics of Sample Descriptive Statistics
(N=172) Demographics of sample. Table 4.1
Characteristic n % shows the demographics of the sample. A ma-
Gender jority of the participants were female (60.5%)
Female 104 60.5 and most were Caucasian (83.7%). The most
prevalent age range of participants was be-
Male 68 39.5
tween 18 and 24 years (96.5%). Most of the
Age
participants had a major other than hospitality
18-24 166 96.5
management or events (96.5%). The most
25-34 4 2.3 common class rank was seniors (37.8%). A
35-44 2 1.2 majority of the participants (54.1%) were em-
Race/Ethnicity ployed in industries other than the hospitality
African-American (non-His- industry; about a third (32%) of the partici-
3 1.7 pants were not working.
panic)
Asian/Pacific Islanders 14 8.1 Sleep habits and sleep hours. Table 4.2
Caucasian (non-Hispanic) 144 83.7
presents the sleep habits and sleep hours
of participants. On weekdays, the greatest
Latino or Hispanic 9 5.2
percentage of participants went to bed be-
Others 2 1.2
tween 12am and 12:59am (36.0%) and got
Academic Major up between 7am and 7:59am (37.8%). On
Hospitality management or
6 3.5 weekends, the greatest percentage of partic-
events
ipants went to bed between 2am and 4:59am
A major other than hospitality (36.6%) On weekends, the greatest percent-
166 96.5
management or events
age of participants got up either between 9am
Classification Status and 9:59am (26.2%) or between 10am and
Sophomore 46 26.7 10:59am (26.2%). Most participants (33.1%)
Junior 61 35.5 took 5 to 15 minutes to fall asleep. Half of
Senior 65 37.8 participants (50.0%) reported actual sleep
Employment hours between 7 to 8.5 hours. A majority of
Working in the hospitality
participants (65.7%) reported they needed 7
24 14.0 to 8.5 hours to function best.
industry
Working in other industries 93 54.1 Credits and grade point average (GPA).
Not working 55 32.0
According to the report from the registrar’s
office, the mean number of cumulative credits
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 79

Table 4.2 Sleep Habits and Sleep Hours (N=172)

Characteristic n % Hours of sleep to function best

Go to bed on weekdays less than 3 hours 2 1.2
9pm-9:59pm 3 1.7 3-4.5 hours 3 1.7
10pm-10:59pm 23 13.4 5-6.5 hours 20 11.6
11pm-11:59pm 48 27.9 7-8.5 hours 113 65.7
12am-12:59am 62 36.0 9-10.5 hours 34 19.8
1am-1:59am 24 14.0
2am-4:59am 11 6.4
11am-1:59pm 1 0.6 among students in the sample was 55.90 (SD =
Get up on weekdays 29.18). The mean number of semester credits
5am-5:59am 7 4.1 was 14.30 (SD = 2.64). Mean cumulative GPA
6am-6:59am 28 16.3 was 3.11 (SD = 0.60) and mean semester GPA
7am-7:59am 65 37.8 was 3.10 (SD = 0.72). Comparing the official
8am-8:59am 48 27.9
9am-9:59am 17 9.9 data with self-reported data, a majority of
10am-10:59am 4 2.3 participants accurately reported their semester
8pm-10:59pm 1 0.6 credits, cumulative GPA, and semester GPA.
2am-4:59am 2 1.2 Employment status. Among students
Go to bed on weekends who were working (n = 117), most of them
10pm-10:59pm 5 2.9 had worked one to two years at their current
11pm-11:59pm 25 14.5
12am-12:59am 24 14.0
jobs (39.3%) and averaged 11 to 20 hours
1am-1:59am 51 29.7 (57.3%) per week (Table 4.3). Twenty-five
2am-4:59am 63 36.6 participants (21.4%) had managerial or super-
5am-7:59am 2 1.2 visory responsibilities. A majority worked the
2pm-4:59pm 2 1.2
day shift (53.8%). Over three-fourths of par-
Get up on weekends
ticipants (77.8%) agreed or strongly agreed
5am-5:59am 2 1.2 that their work schedules allowed them to get
6am-6:59am 2 1.2
7am-7:59am 12 7.0 enough sleep.
8am-8:59am 30 17.4
9am-9:59am 45 26.2 Comparison Between Groups
10am-10:59am 45 26.2 Sleep. As shown in Table 4.4, participants
11am-1:59pm 35 20.3 who were working in the hospitality industry
2pm-4:59pm 1 0.6
reported a higher frequency of trouble falling
Time to fall asleep
asleep due to feeling too cold than those who
Less than 5 min 25 14.5 were not working (M = 2.46 and M = 1.93,
5-15 min 57 33.1
16-30 min 40 23.3 respectively). Participants who were working
31-45 min 28 16.3 in the hospitality industry also reported more
46-60 min 17 9.9 often having trouble staying awake in class
1hr-1hr15min 4 2.3 than those who were not working (M = 3.13
1hr16min-1hr30min 1 0.6
and M = 2.60, respectively). A higher frequen-
Actual sleep hours
cy of waking up in the middle of the night or
less than 3 hours 0 0.0
3-4.5 hours 8 4.7
early morning was reported by participants
5-6.5 hours 74 43.0 who had a job as compared to those who did
7-8.5 hours 86 50.0 not have a job (M = 2.91 and M = 2.56, re-
9-10.5 hours 4 2.3 spectively). In addition, those with a job more
often reported feeling too cold to sleep than
80 / College Student Journal

Table 4.3 Employment Status

Hospitality (n=24) Others (n=93) Total (n=117)
Characteristic
n % n % n %
Have managerial or supervisory responsibility
Yes 9 37.5 16 17.2 25 21.4
No 15 62.5 77 82.8 92 78.6
Work shift
Day shift 8 33.3 55 59.1 63 53.8
Evening shift 8 33.3 17 18.3 25 21.4
Overnight shift 1 4.2 1 1.1 2 1.7
Different shifts 7 29.2 20 21.5 27 23.1
Work schedule allows enough sleep
Strongly disagree 1 4.2 1 1.1 2 1.7
Disagree 3 12.5 4 4.3 7 6.0
Neutral 5 20.8 12 12.9 17 14.5
Agree 11 45.8 54 58.1 65 55.6
Strongly agree 4 16.7 22 23.7 26 22.2
Average work hours each week
Less than or equal to 10 hours 1 4.2 32 34.4 33 28.2
11-20 hours 19 79.2 48 51.6 67 57.3
21-30 hours 4 16.7 7 7.5 11 9.4
31-40 hours 0 0.0 5 5.4 5 4.3
More than 40 hours 0 0.0 1 1.1 1 0.9
Started current job
Less than 6 months ago 9 37.5 29 31.2 38 32.5
6 months to less than a year ago 3 12.5 14 15.1 17 14.5
1-2 years ago 10 41.7 36 38.7 46 39.3
3-4 years ago 1 4.2 10 10.8 11 9.4
More than 4 years ago 1 4.2 4 4.3 5 4.3

did those without a job (M = 2.23 and M = of participants (79.2%) who were working
1.93, respectively) (Scale 1=never, 2=rarely, in the hospitality industry worked 11 to 20
3=sometimes, 4=usually, 5=always). hours. This percentage was 27.6% higher
Work shift and work hours. As shown than among participants who were working
in Table 4.3, among participants who had a in other industries with 11 to 20 work hours
job (n = 117), a higher percentage of those (51.6%).
who were working in the hospitality industry Job performance. Table 4.5 shows the
worked evening shift (33.3%), overnight shift mean and standard deviation of job perfor-
(4.2%), or rotating shifts (29.2%) than those mance overall and for each item for partici-
who were working in other industries (18.3%, pants working in the hospitality industry and
1.1%, and 21.5%, respectively). A majority in other industries. Participants employed
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 81

Table 4.4 Comparison of Sleep-related Variables

Industry working in Hospitality (n=24) Others (n=93) No work (n=55) Total (N=172)
Variables
Meana SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Items
Sleep latency 2.88 1.08 2.60 1.08 2.65 1.08 2.66 1.08
Sleep disturbances 2.13 0.63 2.14 0.59 2.04 0.53 2.11 0.58
Nocturnal awakenings 2.75 1.29 2.95 1.12 2.56 1.00 2.80 1.11
Use bathroom 2.04 1.00 2.02 1.06 2.13 1.07 2.06 1.05
Trouble breathing 1.54 0.98 1.52 0.92 1.47 0.90 1.51 0.91
Cough or snore 1.83 0.96 1.77 1.04 1.75 1.14 1.77 1.06
Feel too cold 2.46* 0.93 2.17 0.89 1.93* 0.88 2.13 0.90
Feel too hot 2.54 1.10 2.43 0.95 2.36 1.04 2.42 1.00
Have dreams 2.83 1.27 3.03 1.26 2.90 1.27 2.96 1.26
Have pain 1.71 1.00 1.59 0.82 1.51 0.84 1.58 0.85
Roommate 1.71 1.12 1.95 1.16 1.75 1.11 1.85 1.13
Noisy environment 1.88 1.03 2.00 1.03 2.09 1.02 2.01 1.03
Usage of sleep medicine 1.58 1.02 1.43 0.84 1.49 0.88 1.47 0.87
Daytime dysfunction 2.67 0.83 2.31 0.74 2.25 0.88 2.34 0.81
Trouble awaking in social
2.21 0.98 1.92 0.82 1.91 0.91 1.96 0.87
activity
Trouble awaking in class 3.13* 0.95 2.70 1.00 2.60* 1.05 2.73 1.01
Sleep quality 3.13 0.85 3.09 0.87 3.27 1.03 3.15 0.92
a
A 5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = never to 5 = always) was used in this section.
*p < .05.

in non-hospitality industries reported more .50. Factor one was labeled physical sleep
often working without making mistakes than disturbances (e.g., have dreams, feel too hot,
those employed in the hospitality industry feel too cold, wake up in the middle of the
(M = 4.13 and M = 3.79, respectively) (Scale night or early morning). Factor two was la-
1=never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, 4=usually, beled environmental sleep disturbances (e.g.,
5=always). have a roommate who negatively affects sleep
habits or sleep quality, live in a noisy environ-
Principal Component Analysis ment). Factor three was labeled medical sleep
Sleep disturbances. The mean scores, disturbance (e.g., coughing or snoring, cannot
standard deviations, and principal component breathe comfortably).
analysis for the ten sleep disturbance items,
derived using principal component analysis Simple Regression
with oblimin rotation, are shown in Table Multiple linear regression analysis was
4.6. Factor loadings of each sleep distur- used to determine the effects of sleep on
bance items were greater than the generally academic performance and job performance.
practical value of ±.50 (Hair, Black, Babin, Seven sleep-related variables were used as
Anderson, & Tatham, 2005). Two items, use follows: sleep latency, physical sleep distur-
bathroom and have pain, were not included in bances, environmental sleep disturbances,
any factors due to factor loadings lower than medical sleep disturbances, sleep medicine,
82 / College Student Journal

Table 4.5 Comparison of Job Performance

Industry working in Hospitality (n=24) Others (n=93) Total (n=117)
Variables
Meana SD Mean SD Mean SD
Items
Job Performance 4.32 0.29 4.32 0.41 4.32 0.39
Attendance 4.67 0.56 4.47 0.76 4.51 0.73
Judgment 4.21 0.41 4.20 0.56 4.21 0.53
Absenteeism b
4.71 0.55 4.47 0.73 4.52 0.70
Accidentsb 4.42 0.65 4.65 0.79 4.60 0.77
Work completion 4.46 0.88 4.51 0.67 4.50 0.71
Motivation 3.75 0.61 3.71 0.80 3.71 0.76
Attitude towards customers 4.58 0.50 4.33 0.83 4.38 0.78
Lateness b
4.33 0.76 4.38 0.78 4.37 0.77
Quality of work (no mistakes) 3.79* 0.72 4.13* 0.58 4.06 0.62
a
A 5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = never to 5 = always) was used in this section.
b
Scores of these items were reversed because they were negatively worded for job performance.
*p < .05.

daytime dysfunction, and sleep quality. Sep- one variable at a time. Three simple regres-
arate models were constructed for cumulative sions were retained in the final regression
GPA, semester GPA, and job performance. analysis as follows: academic performance
However, no significant relationships were and sleep latency; academic performance
identified between the two kinds of perfor- and sleep medicine; and job performance and
mance (academic and job) and sleep. Step- sleep quality.
wise regression analysis was used to deter- Relationship between academic per-
mine which sleep-related variables were the formance and sleep. Results of the stepwise
best predictors of the main effect on academic regression analysis of academic performance
performance or job performance by removing are presented in Table 4.7. As shown, the

Table 4.6 Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Factor Loadings of Sleep
Disturbance Items
Meana SD Factor Loading
Items
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Hot 2.42 1.00 .752b .108 -.024
Dream 2.96 1.26 .746 -.099 -.036
Wake up 2.80 1.11 .689 .174 -.045
Cold 2.13 0.90 .620 -.179 .254
Roommate 1.85 1.13 .021 .880 .019
Noisy environment 2.01 1.03 .017 .857 .064
Cough 1.77 1.06 -.019 -.050 .884
Trouble breathing 1.51 0.91 .021 .145 .774
A 5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = never to 5 = always) was used in this section.
a

Factor loadings greater than .50 are in boldface type.

b
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 83

Table 4.7 Results of Simple Regression Analysis

Coefficients
DV IV R2
B SE
Cumulative GPA Sleep latency -.116** .041 .044
Semester GPA Sleep medicine -.148* .062 .032
Job performance Sleep quality .131** .040 .086
*p < .05. **p < .01.

regression model confirmed the negative Sample Comparison to Population

effect of sleep latency on cumulative GPA By comparing the study sample to the uni-
(slope = -.116, p = .006). The negative effect versity population comprised of sophomores,
of sleep medicine on semester GPA (slope = juniors, and seniors, we determined the divi-
-.148, p = .019) is shown as well. sion by classification was similar. It was as
Relationship between job performance follows (study sample and university popu-
and sleep. Results of the stepwise regression lation, respectively): sophomores (26.7% and
analysis of job performance are also present- 27.8%), juniors (35.5% and 30.2%), and se-
ed in Table 4.7. Sleep quality was the only niors (37.8% and 39.4%). Freshmen were not
variable to show an effect on job performance included because students at that level have
(slope = .131, p = .001). not established a GPA and their sleep patterns
may not reflect that of the other classifications
Discussion and Conclusions due to a lack of orientation to a new lifestyle
The purpose of this study was to explore in college. However, the structure of gender
the relationship between sleep and perfor- for the comparison was opposite to the entire
mance among undergraduate students. Edu- population, as follows (study sample and
cators want students to be successful in their university population): female (60.5% and
classes while employers want students to ex- 43.6%) and male (39.5% and 56.4%). This re-
cel in the workplace; therefore, both academic sult is likely because females are more willing
performance and job performance were the than males to participate in surveys (Porter &
focus of this study. In this section we first be- Whitcomb, 2005).
gin by providing a comparison between study
sample and university population. Second, we DSPS and Sleep Hours
address some understandings of the results We next present out understanding of the
related to DSPS and sleep hours. Third, we results related to DSPS and sleep hours. In
discuss the differences in sleep and employ- the current study, symptoms of DSPS were
ment status between students working in the found in undergraduate students as evidenced
hospitality industry, those working in other by their self-reported sleep habits. This study
industries, and those not working. Fourth, the found that students went to bed later and
relationships between sleep, academic per- got up later on weekends as compared to
formance and job performance are discussed. weekdays. On weekends, over half of the stu-
Finally, we offer a comparison of those rela- dents went to bed between 1am and 4:59am
tionships (sleep, academic performance and (66.3%) and got up between 9am and 10:59am
job performance) between students working (52.4%). However, on weekdays over half of
in the hospitality industry, those working in the students went to bed between 11pm and
other industries, and those not working. 12:59 am (63.9%) and got up between 7am
84 / College Student Journal

and 8:59am (65.7%). According to Weitzman et al., 2007; Wyatt, 2001). Overall, students
et al. (1981), going to bed late and getting up employed in the hospitality industry reported
late on weekends to achieve a normal length a higher frequency of trouble staying awake
of sleep is one DSPS criterion. Other crite- in class and trouble falling asleep than those
ria of DSPS include long sleep latency on who were not working. For students with
weekdays (usually falling asleep between 2 jobs, those working in the hospitality indus-
a.m. to 6 a.m.) and difficulty staying asleep. try reported working evening shifts (33.3%),
Lack (1986), using the definition of DSPS by overnight shifts (4.2%), or various rotating
Weitzman et al. (1981), found that the prev- shifts (29.2%) more often than those working
alence of DSPS in his sample of Australian in other industries (18.3%, 1.1%, and 21.5%,
students was 17%. Although DSPS students respectively). In terms of job performance,
could not be identified in this study, over the frequency of employee mistakes differed
half of students’ self-identified sleep habits significantly between the hospitality indus-
were going to bed later and getting up late on try and other industries. Students working
weekends than weekdays indicating that the in non-hospitality industries reported fewer
possibility of the students in this study having mistakes than their counterparts. Trouble
DSPS may be high. Because researchers have sleeping and work scheduling may be two of
found that students with DSPS had lower the reasons for low job performance among
GPAs than students without DSPS (Lack, students working in the hospitality industry.
1986; Trockel et al., 2000). Thus, DSPS-relat- When student’s academic performance was
ed issues should be a concern for educators in compared between the three groups, no sta-
higher education. tistically significant differences were found.
Students in this study reported sleep hours
similar to those of the entire population of the Sleep, Academic Performance and Job
U.S., based on data from a national sleep re- Performance
port. In this study, most students reported that We will now discuss the relationships
they needed 7 to 8.5 hours of sleep per night among sleep, academic performance and
to function best. The National Sleep Founda- job performance. An earlier study on the
tion (2008) reported that Americans expect to relationship between sleep and academic per-
average 7 hr 18 min of sleep per night. Half of formance by Curcio et al. (2006) concluded
students in this study achieved their expected that sleep loss was negatively correlated with
sleep hours but 43% reported that they only academic performance. Moreover, sleep loss
slept 5 to 6.5 hours. Overall, Americans sleep resulted in daytime sleepiness, which was
an average of 6 hr 40 min per day (National also correlated with poor academic perfor-
Sleep Foundation, 2008). mance. Kelly et al. (2001) and Trokel et al.
(2000) found a significant relationship be-
Sleep and Employment Status tween lower GPAs and lack of sleep. Findings
We next compared the differences in sleep of the current study showed that sleep latency
and employment statuses between students was negatively correlated to cumulative GPA
working in the hospitality industry, other and sleep medication was negatively correlat-
industries, and those who were not working. ed to semester GPA. Although most students
The hospitality industry was chosen because in the current study took 5 to 15 min to fall
it often requires a demanding and erratic asleep, 25% reported that they took 30 min
work schedule, which has been shown to to one hour to fall asleep. Because long sleep
impact personal health and sleep (Cleveland latency was one of the criteria of DSPS with
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 85

which students reported low GPAs (Lack, Limitations

1986; Trockel et al., 2000; Weitzman et al., This study did have some limitations.
1981), understanding the impact of sleep la- Although the response rate was sufficient for
tency on academic performance is important the statistical techniques used, the sample
for educators. size of students who worked in the hospitality
In a previous study on the relationship be- industry was relatively small when compared
tween sleep and job performance, individual to the other groups. Because this study was
productivity was found to be affected by two conducted in only one university, results
sleep-related variables, nocturnal awakenings may not be generalizable to students at other
and sleepiness (Mulgrew et al., 2007; Snyder, universities. Even though student GPAs were
2003). The National Sleep Foundation (2008) obtained from the registrars’ office, the other
reported that 12% of the respondents admitted information collected from participants was
to missing events due to sleepiness or sleep self-reported and therefore might be biased.
problems. In the current study, job perfor-
mance was significantly related to sleep qual- Future Research
ity. A similar result was found by Rosekind et
There are several opportunities for future
al. (2010). The impact of sleep quality on job
research in this area. As an initial step, the
performance should be relevant when manag-
research topic and the instrument used in this
ers make employee-related decisions such as
study might be applied to future studies, ex-
deciding work shifts and setting performance
panding the understanding of the relationship
standards. Likewise, employee safety consid-
between sleep and performance. If DSPS has
erations are paramount as other researchers
an impact on academic performance, then the
have found employees who sleep poorly
importance of sleep habits, sleep latency, and
pose a safety issue at work (Mulgrew et. al,
sleepiness should be called to the attention
2007). Although we found the relationships,
of both students and faculty as part of their
the value of R2 is small. We should consider
educational program. If sleep habits and sleep
including other variables into our models. If
latency have an impact on sleep quality, it
we find that sleep has a greater impact than
might affect students’ job performance as
found in this current study, we may be able to
well. Future research should examine the im-
better explain how sleep affects academic and
pact of DSPS on academic performance and/
job performance.
or job performance.
When we compared students working in
the hospitality industry with those working References
in other industries or not working at all, no
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. (2009). Intro-
significantly statistical differences were found duction to research in education. Belmont, CA:
in the relationships between sleep, academic Wadsworth.
performance, and job performance. Pilcher Babin, B. J., & Boles, J. S. (1998). Employee behavior in
et al. (2011) studied differences between a service environment: A model and test of potential
differences between men and women. Journal of
cognitive performance and sleep and also
Marketing, 62(2), 77-91.
found no significant differences. However, Backhaus, J., Junghanns, K., Broocks, A., Riemann, D.,
for their study (Pilcher et al., 2011) cognitive & Hohagen, F. (2002). Test-retest reliability and
performance tasks were done in pairs poten- validity of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index in pri-
tially contributing to why no differences were mary insomnia. Journal of Psychosomatic Research,
53, 737-740.
found.
86 / College Student Journal

Batista, G. A., & Monard, M. (2003). An analysis of Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic
four missing data treatment methods for supervised computers to factor analysis. Educational and
learning. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 17, 519-533. Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 141-151. doi:
doi:10.1080/08839510390219309 10.1177/001316446002000116
Brown, E. A., & Arendt, S. W. (2011). Perceptions of Kelly, W. E., Kelly, K. E., & Clanton, R. C. (2001). The
transformational leadership behaviors and subor- relationship between sleep length and grade-point
dinates’ performance in hotels. Journal of Human average among college students. College Student
Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 10, 45-59. doi Journal, 35, 84-86.
:10.1080/15332845.2010.500205 Lack, L. C. (1986). Delayed sleep and sleep loss in
Brown, F. C., Soper, B., & Buboltz Jr., W. C. (2001). university students. Journal of American College
Prevalence of delayed sleep phase syndrome in Health, 35, 105-110.
university students. College Student Journal, 35, Lack, L., Miller, W., & Turner, D. (1988). A survey
472-477. of sleeping difficulties in an Australian popula-
Carpenter, J., & Andrykowski, M. (1998). Psychometric tion. Community Health Studies, 12, 200-207.
evaluation of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.1988.tb00161.x
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 45(1), 5-13. Motowidlo, S. J., & Kell, H. J. (2003). Job performance.
Cleveland, J. N., O’Neill, J. W., Himelright, J. L., Har- In I. B. Weiner (Ed.), Handbook of Psychology, 2nd
rison, M. M., Crouter, A. C., & Drago, R. (2007). ed. (p.82). doi:10.1002/9781118133880
Work and family issues in the hospitality industry: Mulgrew, A. T., Ryan, C. F., Fleetham, J. A., Cheema,
Perspectives of entrants, managers, and spouses. R., Fox, N., Koehoorn, M., FitzGerald, J. M., Marra,
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31, 275- C., & Ayas, N. T. (2007). The impact of obstruc-
298. doi:10.1177/1096348007299919 tive sleep apnea and daytime sleepiness on work
Curcio, G., Ferrara, M., & Dennaro, L. D. (2006). limitation. Sleep Medicine, 9, 42-53. doi:10.1016/j.
Sleep loss, learning capacity and academic perfor- sleep.2007.01.009
mance. Sleep Medicine, 10, 323-337. doi:10.1016/j. National Sleep Foundation. (2005). The 2005 Sleep in
smrv.2005.11.001 America poll. Washington, DC.
Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., & Christian, L. M. (3rd ed.) National Sleep Foundation. (2008). The 2008 Sleep in
(2007). Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: the America poll. Washington, DC.
tailored design method (pp. 234-299). Hoboken, NJ: Pelayo, R., & Guilleminault, C. (2009). History of sleep
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. research. In R. Stickgold, & M. Walker (Eds.), The
Dinges, D. F., Douglas, S. D., Zaugg, L., Campbell, D. neuroscience of sleep (p. 3). USA: Elsevier.
E., McMann, J. M., Whitehouse, W. G., Orne, E. Pilcher, J. J., & Huffcutt, A. I. (1996). Effects of sleep
C., Kapoor, S. C., Icaza, E., & Orne, M. T. (1994). deprivation on performance: A meta-analysis. Sleep,
Leukocytosis and natural killer cell function parallel 19, 318-326.
neurobehavioral fatigue induced by 64 hours of sleep Pilcher, J. J., & Walters, A. S. (1997). How sleep depriva-
deprivation. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, tion affects psychological variables related to college
93, 1930-1939. doi:10.1172/JCI117184 students’ cognitive performance. Journal of Ameri-
Drummond, S. P. A., & McKenna, B. S. (2009). Sleep can College Health, 46, 121-126.
deprivation and brain function. In R. Stickgold & M. Pilcher, J. J., Vander Wood, M. A., & O’Connell, K. L.
Walker (Eds.), The neuroscience of sleep (p. 249). (2011). The effects of extended work under sleep
USA: Elsevier. deprivation conditions on team-based performance.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. Lon- Ergonomics, 54, 587-596. doi:10.1080/00140139.20
don, England: SAGE Publications Ltd. 11.592599
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Porter, S. R., & Whitcomb, M. E. (2005). Non-response
Tatham, R. L. (2005). Factor analysis. Multivariate in student surveys: The role of demographics, en-
data analysis (p. 129). Prentice Hall: New Jersey. gagement and personality. Research in Higher Edu-
Hazama, G.I., Inoue, Y., Kojima, K., Ueta, T., & Nakag- cation, 46, 127-152.
ome, K. (2008). The prevalence of probable delayed- Powers, T., & Barrows, C. W. (2006). Introduction to
sleep-phase syndrome in students from junior high the hospitality industry. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
school to university in Tottori, Japan. The Tohoku & Sons.
Journal of Experimental Medicine, 216(1), 95-98. Rosekind, M. R., Gregory, K. B., Mallis, M. M., Brandt, S.
Horton, B. W., & Snyder, C. S. (2009). Wellness: Its im- L., Seal, B., & Lerner, D. (2010). The cost of poor sleep:
pact on student grades and implications for business. Workplace productivity loss and associated costs.
Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tour- Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medi-
ism, 8, 215-233. doi:10.1080/15332840802269858 cine, 52, 91-98. doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181c78c30
 The Effects of Sleep on Academic Performance and Job Performance / 87

Rosen, I. M., Gimotty, P. A., Shea, J. A., & Bellini, L.

M. (2006). Evolution of sleep quantity, sleep depri-
vation, mood disturbances, empathy, and burnout
among interns. Academic Medicine, 81, 82-85.
Schrader, H., Bovim, G., & Sand, T. (1993). The prev-
alence of delayed and advanced sleep phase syn-
dromes. Journal of Sleep Research, 2(1), 51-55.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.1993.tb00061.x
Simpson, N., & Dinges, D. F. (2007). Sleep and inflam-
mation. Nutrition Reviews, 65, s224-252.
Slats, D., Claassen, J., Verbeek, M. M., & Overeem, S.
(2013). Reciprocal interactions between sleep, circa-
dian rhythms and Alzheimer’s disease: Focus on the
role of hypocretin and melatonin. Ageing Research
Reviews, 12, 188-200. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2012.04.003
Snyder, S. L. (2003). The effects of sleep deprivation on
individual productivity (Master’s thesis). Available
from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(AAT No. 1415597)
Weitzman, E. D., Czeisler, C. A., Coleman, R. M., Spiel-
man, A. J., Zimmerman, J. C., Dement, W., & Pol-
lak, C. P. (1981). Delayed sleep phase syndrome: A
chronobiological disorder with sleep-onset insomnia.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 737-746.
Wyatt, J. K. (2001). Sleep and circadian rhythms: Ba-
sic and clinical findings. Nutrition Reviews, 59(1),
S27-S29. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2001.tb01891.x
Yang, C. M., Wu, C. H., Hsieh, M. H., Liu, M. H., &
Lu, F. H. (2003). Coping with sleep disturbances
among young adults: A survey of first-year college
students in Taiwan. Behavioral Medicine, 29, 133-
138. doi:10.1080/08964280309596066