Aircraft Hardware 8-21

Unless otherwise specified in an assembly drawing,

bolts should be installed with their head on top or
forward. Placing the head in either of these posi-
tions makes it less likely that a bolt will fall out of a
hole if the nut is lost. An acronym to help remem-
ber the proper direction for bolt installation is
"IDA," which stands for inboard, down, or aft. Even
when bolt direction is not specified, some clear-
ances may be critical, such as where control cables
attach to bellcranks. A good general rule to follow is
to never assume a control cable is clear of a bolt
until the bellcrank is inspected for full travel.

NUTS
Figure 8-31. High-strength internal wrenching bolts can bear All nuts used in aircraft construction must have
high tension loads and are frequently used to mount some sort of locking device to prevent them from
engines. loosening and falling off. Many nuts are held on a
bolt by passing a cotter pin through a hole in the
of pressure when it is tightened. On the other hand, bolt shank and through slots, or castellations, in the
if the grip length is substantially less than the thick- nut. Others have some form of locking insert that
ness of the materials the bolt's threads will extend grips a bolt's threads or relies on the tension of a
into the material, resulting in a weaker joint. spring-type lock-washer to hold the nut tight
enough against the threads to keep it from vibrating
When installing a bolt, washer, and nut combina- loose.
tion check the installation drawing to be sure you
have the correct hardware. If nothing is specified There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and
about the washers being used, it is good practice to non self-locking. As the name implies, a self-locking
use a washer under both the bolt head and nut to nut locks onto a bolt on its own while a nonself-
protect the material through which the bolt passes. locking nut relies on either a cotter pin, check nut,
When joining an aluminum alloy or magnesium, the or lock washer to hold it in place. We'll begin by
washers should be made of aluminum to minimize looking at the most common non self-locking nuts.
the possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion. [Figure 8-32]
Figure 8-32. Standard aircraft nuts are available for a variety of applications.
8-22 Aircraft
Hardware
AN310 CASTLE NUT AN316 CHECK NUT
These fine-thread nuts are designed to fit on a In some instances a plain nut is locked in place
standard airframe bolt with a Class 3 fit, and are using a check nut. A check nut is simply a second
used when the bolt is subjected to either shear or nut that is tightened against the primary nut so it
tensile loads. The size of a nut is indicated in the cannot turn off. An AN316 check nut is made of
part code by a dash number which denotes the cadmium-plated steel and is available in both right-
size of the bolt it fits. For example, an AN310-6 and left-hand threads. An AN316-4R is a right-hand
nut fits an AN6 bolt which has a diameter of 3/8 check nut that fits a quarter-inch thread, while an
inch. Castle nuts are available in cadmium- AN316-4L has a left-hand thread.
plated nickel steel, corrosion-resistant steel, and
2024 aluminum alloy. Unless specified, a castle AN340 MACHINE SCREW NUT
nut is made of cadmium-plated nickel steel. A
corrosion resistant nut, on the other hand, is AN340 machine screw nuts are made in machine
identified by the letter "C" inserted before the screw sizes from number 2 up through 1/4 inch and
dash number in the part code. Aluminum alloy have coarse threads. They are available in carbon
nuts are identified by the letter "D." For exam- steel, corrosion-resistant steel (C), brass (B), and
ple, the part code AN310D-6 identifies an alu- 2024 aluminum alloy (DD). A nut identified as an
minum alloy nut that has an inside diameter of AN340B-6 is a brass nut that fits a 6-32 machine
6/16 (3/8) inch. screw. An AN340DD-416 is an aluminum alloy nut
that fits a 1/4-20 thread.

AN320 SHEAR CASTLE NUT

AN345 MACHINE SCREW NUT
The AN320 shear castle nut is made of the same These nuts are similar to AN340 nuts except they
material and has the same type of thread as a AN310 have national-fine series threads. They are available
nut. However, shear castle nuts are much thinner in cadmium-plated carbon steel, corrosion-resistant
than standard castle nuts and, therefore, are used steel (C), commercial brass (B), and 2024 aluminum
only for shear loads on clevis bolts. An AN320-6 nut alloy (DD). An AN345B-6 is a brass nut that fits a 6-
is a shear castle nut that is used on an AN26 clevis 40 machine screw. An AN345DD-416 is an alu-
bolt. An aluminum alloy (2024) nut is identified as minum alloy nut that fits a 1/4-28 thread per inch
an AN320D6. machine screw.
AN315 PLAIN NUT AN355 SLOTTED ENGINE NUT
The AN315 plain nut has no castellations and, This nut is designed for use on an aircraft engine
therefore, cannot be held in place using a cotter and is not approved for airframe use. It is made of
pin. Since these fine-thread nuts have no locking heat-treated steel and has national fine threads that
provisions, a spring-type lock washer must be produce a Class 3 fit. It is available in sizes from
used in combination with the nut. The lock AN355-3 (3/16 inch) to AN355-12 (3/4 inch) and
washer applies a spring force to prevent the nut has slots cut in it for a cotter pin.
from shaking loose. AN315 nuts are used with
either tensile or shear loads and are made of either
AN360 PLAIN ENGINE NUT
nickel steel, corrosion-resistant steel, and alu-
minum alloy. The type of material used is indi- This engine nut is similar to the AN355 in that it is
cated in the designation code in the same way it is approved for use on engines only. However, an
for bolts. In other words, the absence of an addi- AN360 differs from an AN355 in that it does not
tional letter identifies nickel steel, whereas the let- have cotter pin slots and has a black rustproof fin-
ter "C" preceding the dash number identifies cor- ish. An AN360-7 is a plain engine nut that fits a
rosion resistant steel, and a "D" identifies 2024 7/16 inch bolt.
aluminum alloy. Furthermore, plain nuts are made
with both right and left-hand threads. For exam- AN350 WING NUT
ple, an AN315-7R is a nickel steel nut with right-
hand threads that fits an AN7 bolt. An AN315C- Wing nuts are used when it is necessary to remove
4L, on the other hand, is a 1/4 inch diameter cor- a part frequently without the use of tools. Aircraft
rosion-resistant steel plain nut with left-hand wing nuts are made of either cadmium-plated steel
threads. or brass and are available in sizes to fit number six
Aircraft Hardware 8-23
machine screws up to 1/2 inch bolts. All of these downward push on the nut that removes all axial
nuts have national fine threads that produce a Class play between the bolt threads and nut. This creates
2 fit. Nuts for machine screw sizes are designated by friction between the threads and nut to keep the nut
the series number. However, nuts used on bolts have from vibrating loose.
a bolt size given in 1/16 inch increments followed
by the number 16. For example, with an AN350-616 A bolt does not actually cut threads into the insert,
wing nut, the -6 indicates that the nut will fit a 3/8 but rather forces its way into the resilient material.
(6/16) inch bolt. Since no permanent threads are made in the
insert, nuts may be reused as long as there is
enough friction between the nut and bolt so that
SELF-LOCKING NUTS the nut cannot be turned down by hand. A tap
Self-locking nuts, or lock nuts, employ a locking must never be run through a self-locking nut to
device in their design to keep them from coming make it easier to screw onto a bolt, since this
loose. However, because there are several different would destroy its locking ability.
types of lock nuts, you must be certain that the
proper locknut is used in a given application. A self-locking nut must be screwed onto a bolt
Failure to do so could result in failure of the locking until all of the chamfer on the bolt's end protrudes
provision. The two general types of self-locking through the insert. If the bolt is not chamfered, at
nuts used in aviation are the fiber, or nylon type, least one thread but not more than three threads
and the all metal type. [Figure 8-33] should protrude through the nut. If more than
three threads are exposed, you risk the danger of
"bottoming out" the nut and undertorqueing the
LOW-TEMPERATURE SELF-LOCKING NUTS assembly, thus creating a stress point that could
AN365 self-locking nuts are used on bolts and fail. If more than three threads are exposed, either
machine screws and are held in position by a nylon replace the bolt with one of the correct length or
insert above the threads. This insert has a hole install a washer.
slightly smaller than the thread diameter on which
it fits. The nut's Class 3 fit allows it to run down on Some bolts have their shank drilled for a cotter pin.
a bolt's threads easily until the bolt enters the insert. These bolts can be used with self-locking nuts pro-
Once this happens, the nylon insert exerts a strong vided the bolt is 5/16 inch or larger in diameter and
the edges of the cotter pin hole are chamfered so
there are no burrs around the hole.

You may not use self-locking nuts in areas which

subject either the bolt or nut to rotation. However, a
self-locking nut may be used with antifriction bear-
ings and control pulleys, provided the inner race of
the bearing is clamped to the supporting structure
by a nut and bolt.

Nylon self-locking nuts should not be used in any

location where the temperature could exceed 250°F.
However, you may use them on engines in those
locations specified by the engine manufacturer.

METAL SELF-LOCKING NUTS

In applications where temperatures exceed 250°F,
all-metal lock nuts, such as the AN363, are used.
Some of these nuts have a portion of their end slot-
ted and the slots swaged together. This gives the end
of the nut a slightly smaller diameter than its body
allowing the threads to grip the bolt. Others have
Figure 8-33. As you can see, there are several different types the end of the nut squeezed into a slightly oval
of self-locking nuts available for multiple applications. shape, and as the bolt screws up through the threads
8-24 Aircraft
Hardware
it must make the hole round, creating a gripping number of screws, a floating anchor nut is often
action. Since both types of self-locking nuts are used. With a floating anchor nut the nut fits loosely
available in either NF or NC threads, a self-locking into a small bracket which is riveted to the skin.
nut's dash number specifies both diameter and Since the nut is free to move within the bracket it
number of threads per inch. [Figure 8-34] aligns itself with a screw. To speed the production
of aircraft, ganged anchor nuts are installed around
inspection plate openings. These are floating-type
anchor nuts that are installed in a channel that is
riveted to the structure. Each nut floats in the chan-
AN364 SHEAR SELF-LOCKING NUTS-NAS679
nel with enough play so that a screw can move the
These nuts resemble AN365 self-locking nuts nut enough to align it. [Figure 8-35]
except they have a much lower profile and are
approved for shear loads only. Since they are an all-
metal self-locking nut they can be used in areas that
are subject to high temperatures. However, shear
self-locking nuts are typically made to be used on TINNERMAN NUTS
clevis bolts that do not have drilled shanks. Tinnerman nuts are cost-economical nuts that are
stamped out of sheet metal. Because of their semi-
rigid construction, tinnerman nuts can be adapted
for use in many situations. For example, tinnerman
nuts are commonly used on light aircraft to mount
ANCHOR NUTS
instruments to the instrument panel as well as
Anchor nuts are permanently mounted nut plates attach inspection panels and cowlings.
that enable inspection plates and access doors to be
easily removed and installed. To make the installa-
tion of an access door easier where there are a great

DASH NUMBERS SIZE AND THREADS

-440 4-40 MACHINE SCREW (NC)

-448 4-48 MACHINE SCREW (NF)
-632 6-32 MACHINE SCREW (NC)
-640 6-40 MACHINE SCREW (NF)
-832 8-32 MACHINE SCREW (NC)
-840 8-40 MACHINE SCREW (NF)
-1024 10-24 MACHINE SCREW (NC)
-1032 10-32 MACHINE SCREW (NF)
-420 1/4-20 NC
-428 1/4-28 NF
-518 5/16-18 NC
-524 5/16-24 NF
-616 3/8-16 NC
-624 3/8-24 NF
-714 7/16-14 NC
-720 7/16-20 NF
-813 1/2-13 NC
-820 1/2-20 NF
-918 9/16-18 NF
-1018 5/8-18 NF
-1216 3/4-16 NF
-1414 7/8-14 NF
-1614 1-14 NF

Figure 8-34. Part codes for self-locking nuts use dash num-
bers to indicate size and thread pitch. For example, a -524 Figure 8-35. Anchor nuts simplify the process of installing
represents a self-locking nut that fits a 5/16 inch fine thread and removing inspection plates. Some of the more familiar
bolt with 24 threads per inch. anchor nuts are shown above.
Aircraft 8-25
Hardware
 Figure 8-38. U-type Tinnerman nuts provide convenient
anchor points for cowlings, fairings, and panels.

instrument case. If the instrument is front mounted,

the nut fastens into the screw hole in the instrument
panel. [Figure 8-36]
Figure 8-36. To reduce magnetic influences in the cockpit,
nonmagnetic mounting nuts secure instruments in a control
panel.
On many light aircraft where cost is a major factor,
tinnerman-type anchor nuts are riveted to a struc-
ture to hold screws used to secure inspection plates.
Although these nuts lack the strength of a regular
Tinnerman nuts used to mount instruments can threaded nut plate, they are approved for nonstruc-
either be installed in an instrument panel or in the tural inspection plates where their use protects air-
instrument case itself. To reduce the chance of mag- craft skin from damage by repeated insertion and
netic interference, the nuts are made of brass and removal of self-tapping screws. [Figure 8-37]
the cage that holds the nut is constructed of phos-
phor bronze. If the instrument is rear mounted, the The cowlings on some light aircraft are held on with
legs of the nut are long enough to pass through the self-tapping sheet metal screws. To prevent the
sheet metal screws from enlarging the holes in the
cowling by repeated insertion and extraction, a U-
type Tinnerman nut is slipped over the edge of the
inside cowling so that it straddles the screw hole.
When a screw is tightened into the nut, the spring
action of the nut holds the screw tight. [Figure 8-38]

TORQUE RECOMMENDATIONS
The strength of a joint held together by a threaded
fastener depends upon proper preloading of the fas-
tener's threads. To ensure this preloading is accom-
plished the nut must be properly torqued onto its
bolt. While too much torque can damage threads,
too little torque can allow excessive loads to be
Figure 8-37. Anchor type tinnerman nuts are suitable for applied on a bolt resulting in failure. To prevent
nonstructural applications. this, maintenance manuals often specify torque val-
8-26 Aircraft
Hardware
ues for most fasteners. Other sources such as nut and bolt combinations. Unless otherwise speci-
AC43.13-1B give recommended minimum and max- fied, the values are for clean and dry threads.
imum torque values for the most commonly used [Figure 8-39]
Figure 8-39. Manufacturers usually specify torques for threaded fasteners. However, when this information is not available, refer to
a standard torque chart.
Aircraft 8-27
Hardware
When torque is critical for a self-locking nut, mea-
sure the amount of torque that is needed to turn the
nut onto a bolt before it contacts the surface. Then,
add this torque value to the amount of torque that is
recommended for the joint.

SCREWS
Screws are probably the most commonly used
threaded fastener in aircraft. They differ from bolts
in that they are generally made of lower strength
materials. Screws are typically installed with a
loose-fitting thread, and the head shapes are made
to engage a screwdriver or wrench. Some screws
have a clearly defined grip length while others are
threaded along their entire length.

There are three basic classifications of screws used

in aircraft construction: machine screws, which are
the most widely used; structural screws, which
have the same strength as bolts; and self-tapping
screws, which are typically used to join light weight
materials.

MACHINE SCREWS
Figure 8-40. Machine screws are the most widely used
Machine screws are used extensively for attaching screw in aircraft applications. A variety of sizes and styles
fairings, inspection plates, fluid line clamps and are available.
other light structural parts. The main difference
between aircraft bolts and machine screws is that
the threads of a machine screw usually run the full tersink. The 100 degree flat-head screw carries the
length of the shank, whereas bolts have an part code MS24693. The MS24693S is made of cad-
unthreaded grip length. Screws normally have a mium-plated carbon steel and the MS24693BB is
Class 2, or free fit and are available in both national made of black oxide coated brass. These screws are
coarse and national fine threads. The most common available in sizes from 4-48 through 3/8-16.
machine screws used in aviation are the fillister-
head screw, the flat-head screw, the round-head
screw, and the truss-head screw. [Figure 8-40] Round-Head Machine Screw
The MS35206 round-head machine screw is made
of cadmium-plated carbon steel and has either a
Fillister-Head Machine Screw slotted or recessed head. This screw is also available
Fillister-head screws are slotted and have a hole in brass and is identified by the part designation
drilled through their head. They come in both MS35214. The brass screws are typically coated
coarse-thread (MS35265) and fine-thread with a black oxide and are sometimes used to mount
(MS35266), both of which produce a Class 3 fit. instruments. Like most other screws, the round-
Fillister-head screws are available in sizes from 4-40 head machine screw is available with either fine or
up to 1/4-20 and have no clearly defined grip. coarse threads.
Flat-Head Machine Screw Truss-Head Machine Screw
These countersunk screws are made of cadmium- The AN526 truss-head machine screw has a large
plated carbon steel, and are available with a head that provides good holding ability on thin
recessed head for cross-point screwdrivers. They pieces of metal. This screw is available in cadmium-
are available with either fine or coarse threads and plated carbon steel in either slotted or cross-
come with either an 82 degree or 100 degree coun- recessed heads.
8-28 Aircraft
Hardware
STRUCTURAL SCREWS (sharp) point, and the type B has a blunt point with
Structural screws are made of alloy steel, are heat threads that are slightly finer than those of a type-A
treated, and can be used as structural bolts. They screw.
have a definite grip and the same shear strength as
a bolt of the same size. Shank tolerances are similar There are four types of heads available on self-tap-
to AN hex-head bolts, and the threads are National ping screws: a round head, a truss head, a counter-
Fine. Structural screws are available with fillister, sunk head, which is flat on top, and the counter-
flat, or washer heads. sunk oval screw. The truss-head is rounded, similar
to the round head screw, but is considerably thin-
ner. [Figure 8-42]
Fillister-Head Screw
The fillister-head structural screw is similar in
appearance to the fillister-head machine screw
except for the cross on its head indicating that it is
made of high-strength steel. Structural fillister-head
screws carry an AN502 part code if they have coarse
threads and AN503 if they have fine threads.

Flat-Head Screw
Structural flat-head screws have an MS24694 part
number and are made of heat-treated carbon steel
that is cadmium plated. They are distinguished
from 100 degree flat-head machine screws by the
"X" marked on their head.

Washer-Head Screw
These structural screws have a washer formed onto
their head to increase the screw's holding ability.
This added bearing area is required when used with
some thinner materials. Washer-head screws are
made of cadmium-plated high-strength steel.
[Figure 8-41] ROUND COUNTERSUNK TRUSS 100°CSK
HEAD OVAL HEAD HEAD HEAD

SELF-TAPPING SCREWS
Self-tapping screws have coarse-threads and are Figure 8-42. Self-tapping sheet metal screws are useful
used to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic, or ply- for attaching trim and upholstery.
wood together. The type-A screw has a gimlet
 PINS
The main types of pins used in aircraft structures
are the roll pin, clevis pin, cotter pin, and taper
pin. Pins are used in shear applications and for
safetying.

ROLL PIN
Roll pins are often used to provide a pivot for a joint
where the pin is not likely to be removed. A roll pin
is made of flat spring steel that is rolled into a cylin-
Figure 8-41. Structural screws are available with both
der but the two ends are not joined. This allows the
protruding and countersunk heads. pin to compress when it is pressed into a hole and
Aircraft Hardware 8-29
create a spring action that holds the pin tight against There are two methods of securing cotter pins that
the edge of the hole. To remove a roll pin, it must be are generally acceptable. In the preferred method,
driven from a hole with a proper size pin punch. one leg of the cotter pin is bent up over the end of
[Figure 8-43] the bolt, and the other leg is bent down over one of
the flats of the nut. With the second method, the cot-
ter pin is rotated 90 degrees and the legs wrapped
around the castellations. It is important to note that
nuts should never be overtorqued to make the hole
in the bolt align with the castellations. If the castel-
lations in the nut fail to align with the drilled bolt
hole, add washers under the nut until a cotter pin
can be inserted. [Figure 8-45]

Figure 8-43. MS16562 spring steel rollpins are often used in

the movable joints of aircraft seats.
CLEVIS PIN Figure 8-45. You may use either of the two acceptable meth-
ods to safety castellated nuts.
Clevis, or flat-head, pins are used for hinge pins
in some aircraft control systems. They are made of
cadmium-plated steel and have grip lengths in
1/16 inch increments. When installing a clevis TAPER PIN
pin place the head in the up position, place a
Both the plain and threaded taper pin are used in
plain washer over the opposite end, and insert a
aircraft structures to make a joint that is designed to
cotter pin through the hole to lock the pin in carry shear loads. This type of pin does not allow
place. [Figure 8-44] any loose motion or play. The AN385 plain taper
pin is forced into a hole that has been reamed with
COTTER PINS a Morse standard taper pin reamer and is held in
place by friction. It can be safetied by passing safety
Castellated nuts are locked onto drilled bolts by wire around the shaft and through a hole drilled in
passing a cotter pin through the hole and nut castel- its large end. An AN386 taper pin is similar to the
lations and then spreading the ends of the cotter AN385 except that its small-end is threaded to
pin. They are made of either cadmium-plated car- accept either a self-locking shear nut (AN364) or a
bon steel or corrosion-resistant steel. shear castle nut (AN320). [Figure 8-46]
Figure 8-44. AN392 through AN406 (MS20392) clevis pin are Figure 8-46. Taper pins produce a tight fit in a reamed hole
often found in control cable systems. for applications loaded in shear.
8-30 Aircraft
Hardware
WASHERS These washers are made of cadmium-plated steel,
commercial brass (B), corrosion-resistant steel (C),
Washers provide a bearing surface area for nuts, and and 2024 aluminum alloy (D) They are available in
act as spacers or shims to obtain the proper grip sizes that range from those that fit a number two
length for a bolt and nut assembly. They are also machine screw to those that fit a one-inch bolt.
used to adjust the position of castellated nuts with
respect to drilled cotter pin holes in bolts as well as
apply tension between a nut and a material surface If a thin washer is needed, a light series washer
to prevent the nut from vibrating loose. The three that is one-half the thickness of a regular washer is
most common types of washers used in airframe available. An example of where a light series
repair are the plain washer, lock washer, and special washer should be used is if the castellations of an
washer. [Figure 8-47] AN310 nut do not line up with a cotter pin hole
when the nut is properly torqued. In this situation
a light series washer can be substituted for the reg-
ular washer to align the holes. A light series
PLAIN WASHERS
washer is identified by the letter "L" added to the
An AN960 plain washer provides a smooth surface code. For example, the code AN960L identifies a
between a nut and the material being clamped. light series washer.
Figure 8-47. Aircraft washers come in a variety of styles and are used to perform a variety of tasks.
Aircraft 8-31
Hardware
When working with wood or composite structures, up against a nut or bolt head to keep it from rotating.
washers with a large surface area are used to spread
the fastener load over a wider area. These large area
washers carry the code of AN970 and are all made
of cadmium-plated steel with inside diameters from
3/16 to 1/2 inch. HOLE REPAIR HARDWARE
Threaded holes wear out after repeated insertion
LOCK WASHERS and extraction of fasteners. In the past, this often
meant an expensive part had to be scrapped when a
In some instances it is not convenient to use self- hole was stripped out. However, now, hole repair
locking nuts or cotter pins on bolts. For these appli- hardware allows you to make a fast and inexpensive
cations, a lock washer is often used between the nut repair to worn or damaged holes.
and joint surface if the joint is not structurally criti-
cal. Lock washers are made of steel and are twisted
so that when a nut is tightened against it, the spring
action of the washer creates a strong friction force
between the bolt threads and those in the nut. HELI-COIL™ INSERTS
Many screws and bolts are driven into threads cut
Two types of lock washers are used in aircraft con- into castings made of soft aluminum, magnesium, or
struction. The most common is the AN935 split lock plastic. Rather than allowing these soft materials to
washer. These washers are available in sizes that fit wear each time the screw is inserted or removed, the
from a number four machine screw to a 1/2 inch holes are often protected with Heli-Coil inserts.
bolt. The second type of lock washer is the thinner These inserts typically consist of a helix of stainless
AN936 shakeproof lock washer which is available steel having a diamond cross section.
with both internal and external teeth.
SPECIAL WASHERS Heli-Coil inserts are typically installed in soft cast-
Some high-strength internal wrenching bolts have a ings when the component is manufactured.
radius between their shaft and the underside of the However, they may also be installed in the field
bolt head. To provide a tight mating surface, when threads in a casting are stripped out. If the
MS20002C countersunk washers are used under the threads in a hole are stripped, first determine
heads of internal wrenching bolts. These washers whether increasing the hole diameter for installa-
have a countersunk edge to accommodate the radius tion of the insert will weaken the casting. If an
on the bolt head. When these bolts are used in alu- insert can be used, drill out the stripped threads
minum alloy structures, a countersunk washer is with the drill furnished in the Heli-Coil installation
used under the bolt head and a plain type washer is kit and tap the hole with the special tap. Then, run
used under the nut. Countersunk washers are made a gauge through the new threads to be sure that they
of heat-treated steel and are cadmium plated. can accommodate the insert. Next, place the insert
on the installation tool and screw it into the tapped
hole. The installation tool stretches the insert to
Finishing washers are often used in aircraft interi- reduce its outside diameter enough for it to easily
ors to secure upholstery and trim. These washers enter the hole. When the insert is below the surface
have a countersunk face to accommodate flush of the casting to the extent specified in the installa-
screws. Finishing washers bear against a large area tion instructions, remove the installation tool.
to avoid damaging fragile interior components. When the tool is removed, the natural springiness of
the insert holds it tight. Any attempt of the insert to
back out causes it to wedge tighter into the hole.
Occasionally a nut or bolt cannot be safetied by con- After the insert has been driven into a hole to proper
ventional means. In many instances, keyed washers depth, the tang on the lower end of the threads
can be used as a safety device. Keyed washers have which was held by the driving tool is broken off so
small keys or protrusions to engage slots cut into bolts the bolt can pass completely through the threads.
or panels. In addition, they have tabs that can be bent
When Heli-Coils are used in a repair, the repair
must be approved by the component manufacturer
or by the FAA. Furthermore, the installation
8-32 Aircraft Hardware
instructions furnished by the insert manufacturer ACRES SLEEVES
must be followed in detail. [Figure 8-48]
If a hole has worn oversize, or if there is corrosion
in the hole that cannot be cleaned out, the part may
be made serviceable by installing an Acres sleeve.
Acres fastener sleeves are thin walled, tubular ele-
ments with a flared end. The sleeves are installed in
holes to accept standard bolts and rivet type fasten-
ers. Before installing an Acres sleeve you must first
determine that there is enough strength in the mate-
rial to allow the hole to be enlarged. If there is, drill
the hole out approximately 1/64 inch larger than its
original diameter. A special aluminum alloy or
stainless steel sleeve is then installed in the hole.
For certain applications, the sleeve can be bonded
into the hole with an adhesive. However, it is typi-
cal for the sleeve to be held in the hole by friction.
[Figure 8-49]

TURNLOCK FASTENERS
Turnlock fasteners are used to secure inspection
plates, doors, cowlings, and other removable panels
on aircraft. The most desirable feature of these fas-
teners is that they permit quick and easy removal of
access panels for inspection and servicing purposes.
Turnlock fasteners are manufactured and supplied
by a number of manufacturers under various trade

Figure 8-48. (A) — A Heli-Coil insert is a special stainless

steel helical insert that screws into a threaded hole to
restore damaged threads to their original size. (B) — To
insert a Heli-Coil, the damaged threads are first drilled out. Figure 8-49. Acres sleeves are used to repair holes that have
(C) — New threads are then cut with a special tap. (D) — been worn oversize or corroded. The hole is drilled oversize
The threads are gauged with a thread gauge. (E) — The and the sleeve is pressed or bonded in place. The original
Heli-Coil insert is screwed into the hole with a special fastener is then installed.
inserting tool.
Aircraft 8-33
Hardware
names. Some of the most commonly used are the When something is fastened with Dzus fasteners,
Dzus, Airloc, and Camloc. care must be taken that the stud in every fastener
straddles each of the springs rather than passing
beside them. In order to be sure that all of the fas-
DZUS FASTENERS- L: 0.01 in, D:1/16 in teners are properly locked, the slots should all be
Cowling and other inspection access doors that lined up. Furthermore, when a Dzus fastener is fas-
must be opened frequently can be held with Dzus tened, a distinct click is heard when the spring
fasteners that require only a quarter of a turn to lock drops over the hump into the locked position. To
or unlock. With a Dzus fastener a hard spring-steel aid in assuring that no stud misses the spring, spe-
wire is riveted across an opening on a fixed part of cial receptacle-type fasteners are available that
a fuselage, and a stud is mounted on the removable guide the stud over the spring. [Figure 8-51]
panel with a metal grommet. When the panel is
closed, a slot in the stud straddles the spring.
Turning the stud a quarter of a turn pulls the spring
up into the slanted slot and locks it as the spring
passes over the hump in the slot. [Figure 8-50]
Figure 8-50. With a standard Dzus fastener, a slotted stud Figure 8-51. The receptacle of a receptacle-type Dzus fas-
engages a spring mounted to the fuselage. As the stud is tener guides the stud to the exact location it needs to be
turned one quarter turn, the spring locks the fastener in place. prior to engaging the spring.
8-34 Aircraft
Hardware
AIRLOC FASTENER CAMLOCK FASTENER
An Airloc fastener consists of a steel stud and The stud assembly of a Camlock fastener consists of
crosspin in a removable cowling or door and a sheet a housing containing a spring and a stud with a steel
spring-steel receptacle in the stationary member. To pin. This assembly is held onto the removable por-
lock this type of fastener, the stud slips into the tion of the cowling or access door with a metal
receptacle and is rotated a quarter of a turn. The pin grommet. The stud fits into a pressed steel recepta-
drops into an indentation in the receptacle spring cle, and a quarter of a turn locks the steel pin in a
and holds the fastener locked. [Figure 8-52] groove in the bottom of the receptacle. [Figure 8-53]
 CONTROL CABLES
AND TERMINALS
While a number of different systems are used to
actuate flight and engine controls from the cockpit,
flexible control cables are by far the most commonly
used method. Multiple-strand control cables are
simple, strong, and reliable.

Cable has several advantages over other types of

linkages. It is strong and light in weight, and its flex-
ibility makes it easy to route. In addition to primary
flight controls, cable is used on engine controls,

Figure 8-52. Airloc cowling fasteners are similar to Dzus fas- Figure 8-53. With a Camlock cowling fastener the stud
teners and are used in many of the same applications. assembly can be inserted into the receptacle when the pin
is aligned with the slot in the receptacle.
Aircraft Hardware 8-35
 emergency landing gear extension controls, trim tab and is available in 1/16 and 3/32 inch sizes in both
systems, and various other applications. galvanized carbon steel and stainless steel. Both
types are preformed which means that when the
One disadvantage of a cable system for control move- cable is manufactured each strand is formed into a
ment relates to thermal contraction. As an aircraft spiral shape. This process keeps strands together
climbs to a high altitude, its temperature drops and when the cable is wound and also helps prevent the
its structure contracts. Furthermore, the aluminum cable from spreading out when cut. Furthermore,
structure contracts much more than the small mass of preforming gives cable greater flexibility and
steel in a control cable, and as a result, cables lose relieves bending stresses when the strands are
their tension. Large aircraft have a rather complex woven into the cable.
automatic tensioning system to keep control cable
tension relatively constant as the aircraft contracts
and expands. However, small aircraft must have their EXTRA-FLEXIBLE CABLE
cable tension adjusted as a compromise so they are The most widely used cable, 7 x 19, is available in
not too tight when the airplane is hot nor too loose sizes from 1/8 inch up. It is extra flexible and is
when it is cold. [Figure 8-54] made of 133 individual wires wound in seven
strands, each strand having 19 wires. These cables
are preformed and are available in both galvanized
NONFLEXIBLE CABLE
and stainless steel. Galvanized cable is more resis-
In areas where a linkage does not pass over any pul- tant to fatigue than stainless steel, but in applica-
leys nonflexible cable can be used. It is available in tions where corrosion is a factor, stainless steel is
either a 1 x 7 or 1 x 19 configuration. The 1 x 7 cable used. [Figure 8-55]
is made up of one strand comprised of seven indi-
vidual wires, whereas the 1 x 19 consists of one
strand made up of 19 individual wires. Nonflexible
cable is available in both galvanized carbon steel
and stainless steel.

FLEXIBLE CABLE
Flexible steel cable made up of seven strands of
seven wires each is called 7 x 7 or flexible cable,
Figure 8-54.To check the tension of aircraft control cables a

tensiometer is used. To use a tensiometer a cable is placed

between the two blocks on the frame and the riser. The trig-
ger is then pulled to apply pressure to the cable and indicate Figure 8-55. Different steel control cables are available for
the cable tension. various applications based on flexibility and breaking
strength.
8-36 Aircraft Hardware
ATTACHING CABLES To ensure that a terminal is properly swaged, a mea-
surement is made of the swaged terminal with a
At one time, most cables were attached to bellcranks,
go/no-go gauge. The swaging process must decrease
control surfaces, and flight controls with woven
the terminal's diameter to the extent that the go end
splices, such as the Army-Navy five-tuck splice or the
of a go/no-go gauge passes over the swaged terminal,
Roebling roll. Because both types of woven splices
but the no-go end does not. As an inspection aid to
require a great deal of hand work and develop only 75
ensure the cable does not pull out of the terminal, a
percent of the cable strength, this method of attaching
small mark of paint is placed over the terminal end
cables has almost been completely replaced.
and onto the cable. A broken paint mark indicates the
cable has slipped inside the terminal. [Figure 8-57]
SWAGED TERMINALS
The cable fittings used most in large aircraft manu-
facture are MS-type swaged cable terminals. To
install these terminals, cut the cable and insert it
into the end of a terminal. Then, use either a hand
or power swaging tool to force the metal of the ter-
minal down into the cable. This forms a joint that is
at least as strong as the cable itself. [Figure 8-56]

Figure 8-57. A go/no-go gauge ensures that a swaged ter-

minal was installed properly.

NICOPRESS OVAL SLEEVES

Many light aircraft use Nicopress sleeves that are
squeezed onto control cables to form terminal ends.
A nicopress sleeve is made of copper and has two
holes to accommodate a control cable. When a cable
is wrapped around an AN100 thimble and properly
squeezed with the correct Nicopress squeezer, the
terminal develops at least the strength of the cable.
[Figure 8-58]

TURNBUCKLES
Turnbuckles are a type of cable fastener that allows
cable tension to be adjusted. A complete turnbuckle
assembly consists of two ends, one with right-hand
threads and the other having left-hand threads, with
a brass barrel joining them. Minor cable adjustment
is made by rotating the turnbuckle which effectively
lengthens or shortens the cable's length.
Figure 8-56. Swaged cable terminals have all but replaced To ensure that a turnbuckle develops full cable
woven splices and are as strong or stronger than the cable
itself.
strength, there must be no more than three threads of
Aircraft Hardware 8-37
 fairleads and around pulleys. To properly inspect
each section which passes over a pulley or through
a fairlead, remove the cable from the aircraft to the
extent necessary to expose that particular section.
Examine cables for broken wires by passing a cloth
along the length of the cable. This cleans the cable
as well as detects broken wires if the cloth snags on
the cable. When snags are found, closely examine
the cable to determine the full extent of the damage.
Wear normally extends along a cable equal to the dis-
tance a cable moves a specific location and may occur
on one side of the cable or on its entire circumference.
Replace flexible and nonflexible cables when the indi-
vidual wires in each strand appear to blend together,
or when the outer wires are worn 40 to 50 percent.

SAFETYING METHODS
Because aircraft vibrate, there must be some provi-
sion for safetying or locking all fasteners to keep
them from vibrating loose. Self-locking nuts are
used for the vast majority of applications in modern
aircraft construction, but there are still places where
Figure 8-58. To install a nicopress sleeve, slip a sleeve over
safety wire or cotter pins are needed. For example,
the cable end and loop the cable back through the sleeve. drilled-head bolts are often used in vibration-prone
Next, place a proper size AN 100 thimble inside the loop, and areas and are safety wired together. When installing
pull the cable tight leaving about 1/16 inch of cable pro- safety wire, the wire should pull the bolt head in the
truding from the sleeve. Three squeezes are then applied direction of tightening and should be twisted evenly
with the squeezing tool. The first squeeze in the middle, the
second on the end nearest the thimble, and the last on the
to the next bolt. After the end of the wire is passed
sleeve end nearest the free cable end. After the sleeve is through the head of the second bolt it is again
squeezed, check it with a gauge to ensure that it has been twisted, this time for about three or four turns. Once
forced far enough down into the cable. this is done, the excess is cut off and the ends of the
wire are bent back where they cannot cut anyone
either end sticking out of the barrel. After cable ten- who passes their hand over the bolts.
sion is adjusted, the turnbuckle barrel is safetied to
the two cable ends so that it cannot turn. [Figure 8-59] In areas where a number of bolts must be safetied,
such as a propeller, you may safety wire the bolts in
groups of three. If more than three bolts are safetied
CABLE INSPECTION together it is difficult to get the safety wire tight
enough to be effective. [Figure 8-60]
When inspecting control cables pay particular
attention to those sections of cable that pass through
Self-locking nuts should not be used on studs, nor
should drilled studs be safetied with cotter pins,
since neither of these safetying methods prevents a

Figure 8-60. Many bolt heads must be safety wired to keep

Figure 8-59. Turnbuckles provide a means of adjusting con- them from vibrating loose. As a general rule, no more than
trol cables as they age and stretch. three bolts should be safety wired together.
8-38 Aircraft
Hardware
stud from backing out of its casting. Instead, safety
two drilled studs with castellated nuts wired
together. This keeps the nut from coming loose, as
well as prevents the stud from backing out of the
casting. [Figure 8-61]

Figure 8-61. To prevent nuts from becoming loose on studs, use

castellated nuts and safety wire them as you would bolt heads.

Electrical connectors can be safetied to drilled-head

fillister-head screws. However, when this is done,
make sure that the wire pulls the plug in the direc-
tion of tightening.

As with any threaded fastener, turnbuckles must be Figure 8-62. Turnbuckles and swaged cable studs must be
safetied to prevent them from coming loose. The safetied to prevent them from becoming loose. Of the avail-
simplest method of safety wiring a turnbuckle is able methods, double wrapping is preferred.
called the single wrap method and uses a single
piece of wire that passes through the hole in the CABLE SIZE TYPE OF WIRE MATERIAL
turnbuckle's center and is wrapped around each WRAP DIAMETER
end. A similar method, the single wrap spiral, also 1/16 SINGLE 0.040 BRASS
uses a single piece of safety wire, but is spiraled
1/8 SINGLE 0.040 STAINLESS
around the turnbuckle barrel and passes through the STEEL
center hole twice. Two pieces of safety are used in 1/8 DOUBLE 0.040 BRASS
the double wrap method, which is basically the
same as two single wrap safeties, one in each direc- 5/32 SINGLE 0.057 STAINLESS
(MIN) STEEL
tion. A double wrap spiral is essentially the same as
two single wrap spirals, one in each direction. 5/32 DOUBLE 0.051 BRASS

Before safetying a turnbuckle, the cable must have Figure 8-63. When safety wiring turnbuckles, make sure you
use the proper size safety wire. Brass safety wire can be used
the correct tension and there must not be more than on turnbuckles, but a larger size or a double wrap is required
three threads showing on either side of the turn- to provide the same strength as stainless steel wire.
buckle barrel. Wrap the wire around the turnbuckle
and finish the safety wiring with at least four turns drilled to accommodate this type of clip. The straight
around the shank of the turnbuckle. [Figure 8-62] part of the clip is inserted in a groove between the
barrel and the swaged cable end, and the U-shaped
Different thicknesses of safety wire are available to end is pushed into the center hole of the turnbuckle.
safety different sizes of turnbuckles. For example, Locking clips perform the same function as safety
turnbuckles on 1/8 inch cable are safetied with a wire with much less work. [Figure 8-64]
single wrap of 0.040 stainless steel or monel safety
wire, or 0.057 diameter copper or brass wire. Forty-
thousandths-inch copper or brass wire can be used if
the turnbuckle is double-wrap safetied. Turnbuckles
on 5/32 inch control cable can be double-wrap
safetied with 0.040 stainless steel wire or 0.051 cop-
per or brass, or they may be single wrapped with
0.057 stainless steel wire. [Figure 8-63]

Safety clips can be used in place of safety wire to Figure 8-64. Locking clips can be used to safety turnbuckles
safety turnbuckles if the turnbuckle hardware is if the barrel and terminal are notched to accept them.