A & A Report Writing Notes

Technical Report Writing and Presentation Skills Notes
Unit one: Meaning and Characteristics of Technical Report
1.1 Meaning of Reports
A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience
and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are
almost always in the form of written documents.
Kuiper and Clippinger define business reports as "organized, objective presentations of

observations, experiences, or facts used in the decision-making process" (Contemporary
Business Reports, 2013).
Sharma and Mohan define a technical report as "a written statement of the facts of a situation,
project, process or test; how these facts were ascertained; their significance; the conclusions that
have been drawn from them; and [in some cases] the recommendations that are being made"
(Business Correspondence and Report Writing, 2002).
Etymology
From the Latin, "carry"
Report Writing is a well-organized writing process that needs enough skill, research, and details.
This report writing process is usually time-consuming and often requires a detailed research for
which the report writer may have to visit places, meet people and find a solid conclusion at the
end of the day to write a good report.
Use of report writing is to explain a matter or issue and inform higher authorities to help them
take a right decision or action in regards to the matter or issue.
There is a little room for creativity in the report writing structure as the main focus is to enlighten
the readers about a matter or issue and make the whole thing self-explanatory for easy
understanding.
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Report Writing is the primary tool of media personnel through which they pass on specific
information about an incident or topic.
Apart from the media usage, report writing is required in various sectors like corporate,
government, politics etc.
To offer a better understanding, learning about the essence of this form of writing – ‘The Report’
is very important.
Generally, a report is a methodical, well planned document which outlines and evaluates a
subject or problem, and which may include:
• The record of an order of events

• Explanation of the implication of these events or facts
• Evaluation of the facts or results of research presented
• Discussion of the consequences of a conclusion or course of action
• Conclusions
• References
1.2 Characteristics of Effective Reports
"Effective reports are understood by the reader as the writer intended, and they influence the
reader to act as the writer desired. The writer's objectives are most likely to be achieved if they
correspond with the needs and objectives of the reader. An effective report is empathetic,
A lot of reports are written daily. Some of them are intended to document the progress of some
activities, feasibility reports, investigation reports, some of the reports are for monitoring
purposes, some are evaluation reports but it is clear that all the reports have some objective and
purpose behind it.
Objective and purpose can only be achieved if a report has the following
qualities and characteristics:
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1. Simplicity
2. Clarity
3. Brevity
4. Positivity
5. Punctuation
6. Approach
7. Readability
8. Accuracy
9. Logical Sequence
10. Proper Form
11. Presentation.
Characteristic # 1. Simplicity:
The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is easily understandable. Jargons and
technical words should be avoided. Even in a technical report there shall be restricted use of
technical terms if it ha
Characteristic # 2. Clarity:
The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is intended to be expressed. For
that the report has to be written in correct form and following correct steps.
Characteristic # 3. Brevity:
A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the reader is not lost and there is
no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be complete. A report is not an essay.
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Characteristic # 4. Positivity:
As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of negative ones. For example, it is
better to say what should be done and not what should not be done.
Characteristic # 5. Punctuation:
Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning of sentences may be
misunderstood or misrepresented.
Characteristic # 6. Approach:
There are two types of approaches: (a) Person—When a report is written based on personal
enquiry or observations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be in the first
person and in direct speech, (b) Impersonal—When a report is prepared as a source of
information and when it is merely factual (e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall be
impersonal and the sentences shall be in the third person and in indirect speech.
Characteristic # 7. Readability
The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation and the diction (use of words)
shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he is compelled to read the report from the
beginning to the end.’ Then only a report serves its purpose. A report on the same subject matter
can be written differently for different classes of readers.
Characteristic # 8. Accuracy:
A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be biased with personal feelings
of the writer.
Characteristic # 9. Logical Sequence:
The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by step and not in a
haphazard manner. A planning is necessary before a report is prepared.
Characteristic # 10. Proper Form:
A report must be in the proper form. Sometimes there are statutory forms to follow.
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Characteristic # 11. Presentation:
A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of typing or printing as well
as quality of paper used. Big companies make very attractive and colorful Annual Reports.
1.3. Importance of Reports
What are the main Advantages of Report Writing?
1. Report gives consolidated and updated information
A report provides consolidated, factual and up-to-date information about a particular

matter of subject. Information in the report is well organized and can be used for future
planning and decision making.
2. Report as a means of internal communication
A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. It provides

feedback to employees. It is prepared for the information and guidance of others
connected with the matter/problem.
3. Report facilitates decision making and planning
Report provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making
process. It acts as a treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and
decision making.
4. Report discloses unknown information
Reports provide information which may not be known previously. The committee
members collect data, draw conclusions and provide information which will be new to all
concerned parties. Even new business opportunities are visible through unknown
information available in the reports.
5. Report gives information to employees
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Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used
by the departments for guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful
for their self-improvement.
6. Report gives reliable permanent information
The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available

to the office. We have census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even
today for reference purpose.
7. Report facilitates framing of personnel policies
Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such
as promotion policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.
8. Report gives information to shareholders
Some company reports are prepared every year for the benefit of shareholders. Annual
report for example, is prepared and sent to all shareholders before the general assembly
called.
9. Report gives information to the Registrar
Annual report and annual accounts are sent to the registrar every year for information.
Such reports enable the government to keep supervision on the companies.
10. Report solves current problems
Reports are useful to managers while dealing with current problems faced by the
company. They provide guidance while dealing with complicated problems.
11. Report helps directors to take prompt decisions
Company reports relate to internal working of the company and are extremely useful to
directors in decision making and policy framing. Reports are reliable and useful
information in a compact form.
1.4 Determining Purpose and Audience

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Reports communicate information which has been compiled as a result of research and
analysis of data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but usually focus on
transmitting information with a clear purpose, to a specific audience. Good reports are
documents that are accurate, objective and complete. They should also be well-written,
clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader's attention and meets their
expectations. The true value of the research may be assessed through a report since the
written report may be the "only tangible product of hundreds of hours of work. Rightly or
wrongly, the quality and worth of that work are judged by the quality of the written report -
its clarity, organization and content" (Blake & Bly, 1993: 119). Often reports are structured
in a way that reflects the information finding process and the writing up of the findings: that
is, summary of the contents, introduction or background, methods, results, discussion,
conclusion and/or recommendations. The inclusion of recommendations is one reason why
reports are a common form of writing in industry, as the informed recommendations are
useful for decision making.
The scope and style of reports varies widely. It depends on three key factors: the report's
intended audience, the report's purpose and the type of information to be communicated; for
example, technical reports communicate technical information, so the degree of technicality
in the report will depend on the reader's familiarity and understanding of technical concepts.
Unit Two: Types of Report and Channels of Report

Report is a logical presentation of facts and information. It is the result of the researches,
analysis, and investigations, which is present in a written form. It is the basic tool on which
decisions can be based.
The information present in the report is needed to evaluate progress and plan future action.
Reports provide feed back to an organization to guide future course of action.
According to C.A.Brown, “A report is a communication form of some one who has some
information to some one who needs that information.“
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The goal of making reports is to make the information as clear and convenient and accessible as
possible.
Reports vary widely in their purpose. They also differ with the type of audience they are written
for.
Types of reports:
# Based on the formality:-
1) INFORMAL REPORT.-
This is usually in the form of a person to person communication. It does not follow any format
and informally conveys the required information.
2) FORMAL REPORT:-
This is prepared in a prescribed form and is presented in the proper way to the prescribed
authority. They can be a statutory.
# Based on the frequency of issue:-
3) PERIODIC or ROUTINE REPORTS:-

These are presented at routine intervals in the normal course of business. The time period could
be annually, semi-annually, monthly, fat nightly, weekly, or even daily.
Generally, these reports are mere statement of facts. They do not go with a recommendation or
opinion. For e.g. Progress report, monthly sales report, etc…
4) SPECIAL REPORTS:-
They are related and generated for a single occasion or situation. They deal with non-recurrent
issues. An individual or a committee is appointed to investigate the situation and present its
findings.
They give suggestions to the management to take decisions. For e.g. project report, feasibility
study report, First information report [F.I.R] etc…
# On the basis of FUNCTION
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5) INFORMATIVE REPORT:-
This presents facts and information related to an issue or situation. For e. g: a report presenting
sales figures for a quarter.
6) INTERPRETIVE REPORT:-
This analyses the facts, draws conclusions and recommendations to solve the problem. For ex: if
the report delves into the causes of low sales during a particular period, it becomes an
interpretive or analytical report.
# On the basis of NATURE OF THE SUBJECT
Problem determining report
Fact finding report
Performance report
Technical report
Few reports in detail:
v F.I.R or First Information Report:-
This is required when there is a burglary, accident, theft, fire, building collapse, etc… the report
has to give all the information, which is available immediately after the incident occurs, i.e.
What happened?
When did it happen?
Who noticed it?
What steps were taken immediately after it?
Who were all present on the scene? Etc…
A responsible person, who is present on the spot of the incident, prepares it. It is submitted to
any office authority for information and further action. For e.g. regional office, police station,
etc… the F.I.R also states the extent of damage on casual estimation.
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7) PROGRESS REPORT:-
This gives information about the progress of a student, an employee, or a project. This report can
be prepared as comments, or filled in a standard format. Abridge construction, a road laying
project, an employee training programme, a student progress throughout a year, etc.. can be
presented in a progress report.
8) INSPECTION REPORT:-
This should be prepared after an inspection is complete. The supervisor, auditor, or any other
expert in the field can prepare this report. Inspection reports become necessary when you have to
find out the following:-
§ The quality of goods, plant and machinery.
§ The quality of work done.
§ Deviations from preset standards.
§ The presence of required people
§ The accuracy of financials.
§ The inventory status.
§ Adherence to rules and procedures.
§ Timings are being followed.
Printed forms can be used to record the comments or the inspectors can use their own techniques
of report writing. Inspection reports can be prepared on a routine basis or after a surprise check.
9) Performance appraisal report:

This is usually prepared for recording the performance of our employee and deciding his
compensation, special incentives, promotion etc. The immediate boss usually does it. A second
appraiser may also be present, if needed, to avoid partiality. Performance appraisals may also be
present, if needed, to can be confidential or in consultation with the employee concerned. This
depends on the organizational policies. After reading the performance appraisal report, an
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employee can get feedback about his performance in the managers of the organization, who wish
to know about the employee.
10) Project report:

A project report is written when a project has been completed and all the details have to be put in
a written format. The project can be a live one or simulated. A project report helps in comparing
the work done by different people. It may or may not follow a prescribed format. However, all
project reports will contain some essential parts. It can be used to decide future course of action
and may also list out the problems that are being faced in the project. It can be used for
sanctioning finance, and as a planning tool. It is also used for convincing other relevant
authorities.
11) Annual report:

This is written as a requirement of companies Act, 1951. It details all the financial operations of
a company during its financial year. It is normally written and printed once a year and is
circulated to all members (owners) of a company. This is so that they are all aware of the
happenings of their company.
The contents of an annual report are:
· The company profile.
· Notice of the AGM.
· Director’s report.
· Auditor’s report.
· Balance sheet.
· Schedules forming part of the balance sheet
· Profit and loss statement
· Notes to the Accounts

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· Cash flow statement
· Accounts of subsidiary company, if any.
12) FEASIBILITY REPORT:-

It can be prepared in the following situations,
Ø When an organization/individual proposes to launch a product.
Ø Before entering a market.
Ø To start a new service.
Ø To open a new shop.
Ø Before venturing into a market segment.
Ø Before buying a new expensive machine.
Ø Before constructing a building or house.
Ø Before planning expansion of man or machine requirements.
Ø To evaluate the financial viability of a proposal.
A feasibility report can help on making Go/No go decision. It is invaluable for decision makers
when they have a major project in their hand. People, who grant loans and funds for new
projects, normally decide whether or not to go ahead, on the basis of the feasibility report. They
normally cover all types of feasibilities. For ex: location feasibility, financial feasibility,
marketing feasibility, technical feasibility, etc…
13) SURVEY REPORT:

This is written after a survey. It could be a
· Market survey
· Institutional survey
· Customer survey
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· Product survey
· Location survey
· Competitor survey
· Student survey
· Executive survey etc…
A survey can be done for many reasons. The reasons may be academic or business, a specific
person can commission the survey for a specific reason or an organization could sponsor it for
expansion of databases. A survey report can help you to update existing statistics. A survey is
normally carried out with the help of a questionnaire.
14) PRESS REPORT:
Press reports are scripts for publications in news papers or other periodicals. They are read by
millions of people, from all walks of life and of all age groups. Press reports are scientific
messages, published to convey different opinions to the reading public. The topics can range
from
· Political issues
· Health
· Economics
· Foreign affairs
· Education
· Entertainment
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· Social issues
· Current affairs
· Administrative matters
· Religious matters etc…
They cover the development under different government regimes, the speeches of important
proceedings and people, the programs of an election manifesto, changes in financial, stock and
commodity markets and thousands of other events that take place in the complex world
Report writing instructions:
A report is the formal writing up of a practical experiment, project or research investigation.
A report has clearly defined sections presented in a standard format, which are used to tell the
reader what is done, why and how it is done and what is found.
Reports are written in a way which presumes that the reader knows nothing about the experiment
or research.
Reports are written in sufficient detail so that someone reading it would be able to replicate the
experiment exactly.
Reports differ from essays because they require an objective writing style which conveys
information clearly and concisely.
Business reports:
A business report conveys information to assist in decision making.
Some important things to be done before writing:
choose the writing goal
What is this report intended to do?
Make this goal neither too general, nor too wide.
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study the audience;
obtain information
start gathering statistics, survey results, or any other data that can be helpful in the research;
Manage the information - rearrange and sort it when the plan of presentation is determined.
Unit Three: The Structuring the Report
Most reports include the following sections:
Front Matter (Preliminary Section)
Title
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Disclaimer
Abstract (Executive Summary)
Body Matter (Main Body, Main Section)
Introduction
Literature Review
Methodology (Method, Approach, Design, Tools,…)
Data analysis and Interpretation
Results
Discussion (with literature)
Conclusions and recommendations
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5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations
References
Winters, C. A. (1994). Afrocentrism: A valid frame of reference. Journal of Black Studies, 25(2),

170-190.
Cassam Anthony Winters.
Witakowski, W. (1995). The Miracles of Jesus: An Ethiopian Apocryphal Gospel. Apocrypha 6,
25–244.
Witakowski, W. (1999). The Magi in Ethiopic Tradition. Aethiopica, 2, 68-89.
Wodak, R. & Ludwig, Ch. (Ed.). (1999). Challenges in a Changing World: issues in critical
discourse analysis. Vienna, Passagenverlag.
Wodak, R. & Reisigl, M. (1999). Discourse and Racism: European Perspectives. Annual Review
of Anthropology, 28, 175-199.
Wodak, R. & Schulz, H. (1986). The Language of Love and Guilt. Amsterdam: Benjamin.
Wodak, R. & van Dijk, T.A. (eds). (2000). Racism at the Top. Parliamentary Discourses on
Ethnic Issues in Six European States. Klagenfurt, Austria: Drava-Verlag.
Wodak, R. (1986). Language Behavior in Therapy Groups. Los Angeles, CA: University of
California Press.
Yonnas Moroda. (1967). Technical tools of the period. Addis Abba, AAU Press.
nature of the research.
Appendices
1. Title
This should be short and precise. It should tell the reader of the nature of the research.
E.g. The effects of stress on eye-witness testimony
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Omit any unnecessary detail e.g. ‘A study of….’ is not necessary.
2. Abstract
The Abstract is a self-contained summary of the whole of the report. It should therefore be
written last and is usually limited to one paragraph (approximately 150 words). It should contain:
An outline of what is investigated (as stated in the title)
Why it is chosen to look at that particular area with brief reference to prior research done in the
field
The experimental hypothesis (prediction of what the results will show)
A brief summary of the method
The main findings and how these relate to the hypothesis
A conclusion which may include a suggestion for further research.
3. Introduction
The Introduction ‘sets the scene’ for the report; it does this in two ways:
· By introducing the reader in more detail to the subject area which is looked at, through
presenting the objectives and hypotheses.
· Initially a writer should explain the background to the problem with reference to previous work
conducted in the area (i.e. a literature review).
· Briefly discuss the findings of other researchers and how these connect with the study.
· Finally, state the aims or hypothesis.
4. Method
The Method section should describe every step of how it is carried out in the research in
sufficient detail so that the reader could exactly replicate the procedure if they wanted to.
Information on the experimental design, sampling methods, participants (if there were any),
equipment and the overall procedure employed should be clearly specified.
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This information is usually presented under the following sub-headings:
Participants (if there were any) - say how many participants or items were included. Why and
how were they selected? What were their defining characteristics?
Design – Say what the experimental method was (e.g. laboratory or field experiment,
questionnaire survey etc) and why this method is chosen. What was the design i.e. how many
different conditions did the experiment have (e.g. for Psychology students was it an independent
or matched groups design?)? The type of data gathered and how it is collected it.
Apparatus/Materials –a full description is given, do not use a list. In some subjects, particularly
Science disciplines, this section is only required if any special equipment is used.
Procedure – A step by step description of what is done from start to finish.
5. Results
The Results section should clearly convey the findings of the experiment. These are which will
base the commentary on in the Discussion section, so the reader needs to be certain of what is
found.
Present data in a summarized form (e.g. means and standard deviations).
Raw data (e.g. individual recordings taken during the experiment) should be included in the
Appendices.
Describe what the results were, don’t offer interpretations of them.
Present them in a logical order.
Those that link most directly to the hypothesis should be given first.
Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs
Do not present the same data in two or more ways i.e. use either a table or a graph, or just text.
Remember that a graph should be understandable independently of any text, but can be
accompanied each with a description if necessary.
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Use clear and concise titles for each figure. Say which variables the graph or table compares.
Describe what the graph or table shows, then check that this really is what it shows! If it isn’t, it
needs to amend the figure, or the description.
Statistical Analysis
If any statistical analysis of the results is conducted:
· Say which test is used (e.g. chi-square, t-test) and briefly explain why it is chosen for that
particular statistical test.
· Show how the results were analyzed, laying out the calculations clearly (ensure to include the
level of probability or significance p or P, and the number of observations made n).
· Clearly state the results of the analysis saying whether the result was statistically significant or
not both as numbers and in words.
6. Discussion
The Discussion section is probably the most important part of the report. It relates the findings of
the study to the research that is talked about in the Introduction, thereby placing the work in the
wider context. The Discussion helps the reader to understand the relevance of the research to
previous and further work in the field. This is the chance to discuss, analyze and interpret the
results in relation to all the information that has been collected.
The Discussion will probably be the longest section of the report and should contain the
following:
· A summary of the main results of the study
· An interpretation of these results in relation to the aims, predictions or hypothesis, e.g. is the
hypothesis supported or rejected? And in relation to the findings of other research in the area,
specifically those studies that is included in the Introduction.
· Consideration of the broader implications of the findings. What do they suggest for future
research in the area? If the results contradict previous findings what does this suggest about the
work or the work of others? What should be studied next?
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· A discussion of any limitations or problems with the research method or experimental design
and practical suggestions of how these might be avoided if the study was conducted again.
· Some carefully considered ideas for further research in the area that would help clarify or take
forward the findings.
· A conclusion which briefly summarizes the main issues arising from the report.
7. References
Here writer must give details of work by all other authors which he has referred to in the report.
8. Appendices
The Appendices contain material that is relevant to the report but that would disrupt its flow if it
was contained within the main body. For example: raw data and calculations; interview
questions; a glossary of terms, or other information that the reader may find useful to refer to. All
appendices should be clearly labeled and referred to where appropriate in the main text.
Generally, basic structure of a report can be classified in to three. These are
3.1. The Front Matter
3.2. The body Matter
3.3 The Back Matter
Each sub contents under each category will be analyzed here under.
3.1. The Front Matter
3.1.1 Title Page
A technical report should always include a title clearly identifying the report. A title should be
descriptive and accurate, but not wordy, verbose or too terse.
This page gives:
 the title of the report
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 the authors' names and ID numbers

 the course name and number, the department, and university
 the date of submission.
3.1.2 Abstract
The Abstract is extremely important because it helps readers decide what to read and what to
pass over. The idea of the abstract is to give readers an honest evaluation of the report's content,
so they can quickly judge whether they should spend their valuable time reading the entire
report. This section should give a true, brief description of the report's content. The most
important purpose of the abstract is to allow somebody to get a quick picture of the report's
content and make a judgment.
Since an Abstract is a brief summary of your report, its length corresponds with the report's
length. So, for example, if your report is eight pages long, you shouldn't use more than 150
words in the abstract. Generally, abstracts define the report's purpose and content.
Abstract provides a brief overview of the substance of the report, usually no more than half a
page. It is not an introduction to the topic; it should contain all the key features of your report,
including the topic, what you did and how you did it, and the main outcomes of your work. A
busy manager who might not have time to read the full report should be able to get the gist of the
whole report by reading it.
This brief report summary:
states the topic of the report

outlines your approach to the task if applicable
gives the most important findings of your research or investigation, or the key aspects of
your design
states the main outcomes or conclusions.
However, it does NOT:
provide general background information

explain why you are doing the research, investigation or design
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refer to later diagrams or references.
3.1.3 Table of Contents
The contents page sets out the sections/headings and subsections/subheadings of the report and
their corresponding page numbers. It should clearly show the structural relationship between the
sections and subsections. A good Table of Contents distinguishes headings from subheadings
and aligns these with the appropriate page numbers. This also means you should pay attention to
capitalization, spacing, and indentation. A reader looking for specific information should be able
to locate the appropriate section easily from the table of contents. The conventions for section
and page numbering are as follows:
* Number the sections by the decimal point numbering system:
1. Title of first main section (usually Introduction)
1.1 First subheading
1.2 Second subheading
2 Title of second main section
2.1 First subheading
2.2 Second subheading
2.2.1 First division in the second subheading
2.2.2 Second division in the second subheading
3 Title of third main section
* Number all the preliminary pages (acknowledgement, abstract, table of contents, list of
figures, etc.) in lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, ...). Preliminary pages are any which
come before the introduction, including the abstract and, where applicable, acknowledgements.
* Number all the remaining pages of your report with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, ...). Thus
the report proper begins on page 1 with your introduction, which is usually Section 1.
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* Provide a title in your table of contents to describe the contents of each appendix (Note: one
appendix, two or more appendices). Don't just call them Appendix 1 or Appendix 2.
3.1.4 List of Figures and List of Tables
These two separate lists assist readers in locating your photos, drawings, tables, graphs and
charts. Like the Table of Contents, you need to present both of these in an organized, appealing
format. Typically, you can shorten a figure or table's title when you create these lists.
3.2. The body Matter
3.2.1 Introduction
The introduction provides the background information needed for the rest of your report to be
understood. It is usually half to three-quarters of a page in length, but its length usually varies
according to the length of the report itself. The purpose of the introduction is to set the context
for your report, provide sufficient background information for the reader to be able to follow the
information presented, and inform the reader about how that information will be presented.
The introduction includes:
the background to the topic of your report to set your work in its broad context
a clear statement of the purpose of the report, usually to present the results of your
research, investigation, or design
a clear statement of the aims of the project
technical background necessary to understand the report; e.g. theory or assumptions
a brief outline of the structure of the report if appropriate (this would not be necessary in
a short report)
3.2.2. Report Body
In a technical report, the body typically presents an introduction, various other sections,
depending on your topic, and a Conclusion. Throughout the body, you should include text (both
your own and research from other sources), graphics, and lists. Whenever you cite information or
use graphics from another source, you must credit these sources within your text by using
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appropriate reference style- MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American

Psychological Association), Chicago Manual Style, etc.
Body of the report is main part of the report, where you present your work. The introduction and
conclusions act as a frame for the body only: therefore all the details of your work must be
included here in the appropriate section. You will need to put some thought into the ordering of
the sections; the presentation of information should flow logically so that the reader can follow
the development of your project. It is also essential that you choose concise but informative
headings and subheadings so that the reader knows exactly what type of information to expect in
each section.
The body of the report:
 presents the information from your research, both real world and theoretical, or your
design
 organizes information logically under appropriate headings
 conveys information in the most effective way for communication:
uses figures and tables
can use bulleted or numbered lists
can use formatting to break up large slabs of text
3.2.3. Conclusions
The conclusion section provides an effective ending to your report. The content should relate
directly to the aims of the project as stated in the introduction, and sum up the essential features
of your work. This section:
states whether you have achieved your aims

gives a brief summary of the key findings or information in your report
Highlights the major outcomes of your investigation and their significance.
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3.3 The Back Matter
Content Summary
Section Content Advice

Title page The title page should include the title of Make sure this is clear and
the report, the writers name, date, etc indicates exactly what you
want and have to report
Acknowledgements List of people who helped you research or Do not include those that
prepare the report, including your doesn’t have direct
proofreaders relationship with the work
Table of Contents Numbers and lists all section and Do not include minor sub
subsection headings with page numbers. section and cite correct pages
Abstract The whole project in miniature. Do not include, references to
♦ State main objectives – What did you figures, etc., information in
investigate and why? the report, background
♦ Describe methods – What did you do? information.
♦ Summarize important results – What did Extract key points and
you find out? condense material
♦ State main conclusions – what do your
results mean?
Introduction ♦ Describe the problem investigated. Move from general to

♦ Summarize relevant research to provide specific – relate problems in
context, key terms, and concept so the the real world to your
reader can understand the experiment. research. Make clear links
♦ Review relevant past research to between the problem and the
Provide rational for your work. solution. Be selective in
♦ Briefly describe your research – design, choosing studies to cite.
research, hypothesis, etc.
Methodology ♦ How you studied the problem and what Provide enough detail for
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you used – materials, subjects and replication of your work.

equipment. Order procedures
♦ How you performed the research – chronologically.
methods and procedure. Use past tense to describe
what you did. Don’t mix
results with procedure.
Conclusions Outline the success of your project when Make explanations complete.
compared to the objectives that were set. Avoid speculation that
♦ Suggest further work for your research cannot be tested in the
area. foreseeable future.
♦ Summarize the most important findings. Discuss possible reasons for
expected or unexpected
findings.
This includes suggestions for what needs Order recommendations in

Recommendations to be done as a result of your findings. priority with the major
concern of the report or
objectives.
Details of published sources of material Follow correct reference
referred to or quoted in the text (including citation for different sources
any lecture notes and URL addresses of and cite those resources you
References any websites used./ Other published used only.
sources of material, including websites,
not referred to in the text but useful for
background or further reading.
If you include appendices
Appendices (if These should add extra but relevant they must be referred to in
applicable) information to the report. the body of the report and
must have a clear purpose for
being included. Each
appendix must be named and
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numbered.
Unit Four: Process of Report Writing/Stages of Report Preparation

The technical writing process can be divided into SIX steps:
1. Selecting a topic
2. Determine purpose and audience
3. Collect ideas/ information
4. Organize and outline information
5. Write the first draft
6. Revise and edit
7. Writing the Final Draft
8. Presentation/Submission
4.1 Selecting a Topic/ Planning
4.2 Determining Purpose and Audience
4.3 Collecting information
The next step is to collect information needed for accomplishing the stated purpose. Information
may be collected through primary research, where the technical communicator conducts research
first-hand, and secondary research, where work published by another person is used as an
information source. The technical communicator must acknowledge all sources used to produce
his or her work. To ensure that this is done, the technical communicator should distinguish
quotations, paraphrases, and summaries when taking notes.
4.3.1 Types of Data
Section Objectives
Dear student! By the time you complete this section, you will be able to:
27
 classify data into their different types.
Dear student! What does Review of Related Literature Mean? Write your answer in the space
given.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Very good attempt! The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified in
to:
(a) Data pertaining to human beings,
(b) Data relating to organizations,
(c) Data pertaining to territorial areas
Personal data or data related to human beings consist of:
(1) Demographic and Socio- economic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race,
social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation, income, family size, location
of the household, life style etc.
(2) Behavioral Variables: Attitude, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practices, intentions,
etc. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organization’s origin, ownership,
objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.
(3) Territorial Data are related to geographical characteristics, resource endowments,
population, occupational pattern, infrastructure, degree of development, etc. of spatial
divisions like villages, cities, districts, state and the nation.
4.3.2 Sources of Data
Section Objectives
Dear student! By the time you complete this section, you will be able to:
28
 mention the possible sources of data;

 explain the difference between primary and secondary sources of data;
 state the appropriate methods that are used to collect data from primary and
secondary sources;
 explain the concept of observation as a method of data collection;
 define the concept interview as a method of data collection and explain its
importance;
 define mail survey and tell its importance in collecting data for a research project;
 give the definition of experimentation in research work; and
 explain the roles of simulation and projective techniques for data collection.
The sources of data can be classified into:-
A) Primary Sources
B) Secondary Sources
A) Primary Sources
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have
not been previously collected. Primary data are first- hand information collected through various
methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing, etc.
B) Secondary Sources
These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose.
The secondary sources consists of readily available compendia and already compiled statistical
statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies, e.g. census
reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies etc.
Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished
records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by firms and
organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members,
minute of meetings, inventory records, etc.
Secondary sources have the following characteristics:

29
 They are ready made and readily available. They do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering.
 They consist of data over which a researcher has no original control over
collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources
are shaped by others.
 Secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using
them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.
4.3.2.1 Methods of Collecting Primarily Data
Primarily data are directly collected by the research from their original sources. In this case, the
researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs, he can collect
them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is
costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of researches, required data may not available
from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’. While a
method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instrument used for the method.
For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) Observation (b)
Interviewing (c) Mail Survey, (d) Experimentation, (e) Simulation, and (f) Projective Technique.
4.3.2.2 Choice of Methods of Data Collection
Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected for a proposed research
project? This is one of the questions to be considered while designing the research plan. One or
more methods has/have to be chosen. The choice of a method/s depends upon the following
factors.
A) The nature of the study or the subject- matter: If it is a study of opinions/ preferences
of persons, interviewing or mailing may be appropriate depending on the educational
level of the respondents. On the other hand an impact study may call for experimentation;
and a study of behavioral pattern may require observation.
B) The unit of enquire: The unit of enquire may be an individual, household, institution or
community.
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C) The size and spread of the sample: If the sample is small and the area covered is
compact interviewing may be preferable, but a large sample scattered over a wider area
may require mailing.
D) Scale of the survey: A large scale may require mailing or interviewing through trained
investigators.
E) The educational level of respondents: For a simple survey among educated persons
concerned with the subject-matter of study, a mail survey may be appropriate. But for a
survey of less educated / illiterate persons like industrial workers, slum dwellers, rural
people, interviewing is the only suitable method.
F) The type and depth of information to be collected: for collection of general, simple,
factual and non-emotional data, interviewing or mailing is appropriate. For an in-depth
survey of personal experiences and sensitive issues, depth interview is essential. For
collection of data on behavior, culture, customs, life style etc., observation method is
required.
G) The availability of skilled and trained manpower: In this case, even for a large general
survey entailing many complicated questions, interviewing can be adopted.
H) The rate of accuracy and representative nature of the data required: Interviewing is
the most appropriate for collecting accurate data from a representative sample of
population. Interview can achieve a higher response rate.
A researcher can select one or more of the methods keeping in view the above factors. No
method is universal. Each method’s unique features should be compared with the needs and
conditions of the study and thus the choice of the methods should be decided.
1. Questionnaires
 is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions posed by the researcher
on a question form.
 A number of respondents are asked identical questions, in order to gain information that
can be analyzed, patterns found and comparisons made.
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 The commonest type of questionnaire involves closed choice or fixed questions where the
respondent is required to answer by choosing an option from a number of given answers,
usually by ticking a box or circling an answer.
 The open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to formulate and
record their answers in their own words.
 These are more qualitative and can produce detailed answers to complex problems.
 There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of method.
 Open ended questions give a greater insight and understanding of the topic researched but
may be difficult to classify and quantify and must be carefully interpreted.
 Fixed choice questions are easy to classify and quantify, require less time, effort and
ingenuity to answer but do not allow the respondents to qualify, develop or clarify their
answers.
 General tips for constructing questionnaires: Get the beginning right - this will
encourage respondents to read on.
 One should state what the survey is about and roughly how long it will take to complete.
 Make the questionnaire look attractive - use space well and avoid a cramped
appearance.
 Use a large enough type size and avoid block capitals so that questions can be easily
read.
 Keep sentences short and sentence construction simple – the wording of the
questionnaire is very important.
 Avoid leading questions which direct the respondent in a particular way e.g. isn’t it true
to say that...
 Avoid jargon and technical terms - make sure the question is unambiguous - each
question should only have a single interpretation.
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 Watch out for double questions - that is those asking two separate questions at once
2. Interviews
 Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of study are humans.
 Interviews are a type of survey where questions are delivered in a face-to-face encounter
by an interviewer
 is like a conversation and has the purpose of obtaining information relevant to a particular
research topic.
 It is initiated by the researcher and is focused on specific content.
 Structured interviews maximize reliability and are easier to classify and quantify.
 unstructured interviews can give a greater insight and more in-depth understanding of the
topic researched, but need more expertise to control and more time for analysis
 General tips for carrying out interviews:
• Begin with an explanation of who you are and what the survey is about and ensure
confidentiality.
 • Try to achieve rapport with the respondent: be friendly and look as if you are enjoying
the interview and are interested in what they have to say.
 • Be aware of the importance of body language in face-to face interviews.
3. Focus Groups
 is a type of interview that involves carefully selected individuals who usually do not
know each other.
 They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the researcher.
 These individuals are selected as they hold particular characteristics which
 the researcher believes are necessary to the topic of focus.
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 Focus groups are extremely useful in providing qualitative data which gives an insight
into attitudes and perceptions difficult to obtain using other procedures.
 The researcher acts as a moderator and listener posing predetermined open ended
questions which the respondents answer in any way they choose.
4. Document Analysis
 refers to the process of using any kind of document, films, television programs and
photographs as well as written sources, such as books, papers and letters, for analysis in
relation to a particular research question. It can be used as the singular method of
research or as a supplementary form of inquiry.
 Document analysis, also referred to as content analysis, differs from the majority of
research methods in two major ways.
 - It is an indirect form of research; it is something that has been produced, so the

investigator is not generating original data.
- It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method. This refers to the fact that the document will not
be affected in any way by your research; it cannot react as a human can.
 Reliability and validity are central concerns in document analysis.
Reliability: means dependability or trustworthiness
Validity: refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
and permits appropriate interpretation of information
 Data collection: a recording unit must be defined.
 General guidelines for carrying out document analysis:
• Decide initially on categories for research,
• Keep focused; do not let your research become too wide.
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5. Mathematical Modeling
 Mathematical modeling can be used to analyze relationships between different variables

and to predict possible outcomes, or causal effects.
 Experiments can be designed from models of systems, which aim to define links between
variables and outcomes.
6. The experimental method
 involves setting up an experiment in order to test a particular theory or hypothesis.
 is concerned with seeing what changes occur if something new is tried out and with the
effects of these changes on something else
 The researcher should deliberately alter at least one particular element or factor of the
study, known as variables, in order to assess the effects of this change on behavior.
 The effect of this alteration is assessed. Measurement is required before, during and after
the experiment.
 The experiment has to be replicable and produce more or less the same results if it is to
have any significance.
 two different types of experiment, the laboratory experiment and the field experiment.
6.1. Laboratory experiments
 the researcher will conduct a small-scale study where subjects can be manipulated,
observed and tested in a highly controlled environment.
 the data obtained is often subjected to statistical analysis
6.2. A field experiment
 takes place outside the laboratory.
 leads to a decrease in researcher control, which may hide the effects of changes made, but
the results gained can be still be generalized to the real world
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 Research into human behavior tested by experimentation is subject to much criticism for
ethical reasons.
Experimental Research is often used where:
• There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),
• There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and
• The magnitude of the correlation is great.
 General tips for carrying out experiments:
 • Careful preparation is essential and experienced researchers should be consulted before

experimentation begins.
• Project design, sample selection and measurement of dependent variables are crucial to the
success of the research.
7. Observation studies
 Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events or situations.
 The technique is particularly useful for discovering how individuals or groups of people
or animals behave, act or react.
 two main types of observation - participant and nonparticipant:
7.1 Participant observation: The researcher becomes part of the group studied and participates
in their daily life and activities: observing their everyday situations and their behavior in these
situations.
7.2 In non-participant observation the researchers simply observe the activities without taking
part themselves. Whilst this has the advantage of preventing the researcher from unduly
influencing or becoming involved in activities they may not wish to take part in (for example
dangerous or criminal actions), they are less likely to understand fully the meanings behind
behavior in the group studied.
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 In human observation studies the observer can remain covert, hiding their true identity as
a researcher, or overt, where their identity is revealed to those studied.
 It is argued that covert research will lead to a more valid study as the subjects are less
likely to modify their behavior if they do not know they are the subjects of research.
Advantages and disadvantages of observation studies
 Data collection: It is impossible to keep a record of everything and you must decide at
the outset where your interests lie.
 You may decide to film or tape record events, although the cost of this may be quite
substantial.
 Data is often recorded through writing up notes in private after the event or you could set
up your own complex system with specific categories of behavior for post-observation
recordings using graphs, charts and plans.
 What is important is careful preparation before observation begins;
Research Ethics
 Ethics is one of the most crucial areas of research, with deception, misconduct and abuses
in research increasingly becoming a crucial area of discussion
 Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and the people
they study
Reporting Research Findings
Writing a Scientific Report
One of the most basic means of communication in our professional life is written presentation,
such as scientific paper, technical report, assignment report, abstract, theses, conference report,
etc.
Written presentations have one striking characteristics which is different from that of verbal
presentations, that is, written they are exposed to readers.
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The communication between author(s) and readers are in indirect way.
In contrast, verbal presentations are exposed to an audience, Poster is a kind of combination of

written presentation and verbal representation. Thus,
 to avoid any confusion on the part of the reader, written
 presentations demand logic, clarity and precision.
4.4. Organizing and outlining information
Before writing the initial draft, all the ideas are organized in a way that will make the document
flow nicely. A good way of doing this is to write all random thoughts down on a paper, and then
circle all main sections, connect the main sections to supporting ideas with lines, and deletes all
irrelevant material.
Once each idea is organized, the writer can then organize the document as a whole. This can be
accomplished in various ways:
 Chronological: This is used for documents that involve a linear process, such as a step-
by-step guide describing how to accomplish something.
 Parts of an object: Used for documents which describe the parts of an object, such as a
graphic showing the parts of a computer (keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.)
 Simple to Complex (or vice versa): Starts with the easy-to-understand ideas, and
gradually goes deeper into complex ideas.
 Specific to General: Starts with many ideas, and then organizes the ideas into sub-
categories.
 General to Specific: Starts with a few categories of ideas, and then goes deeper.
Once the whole document is organized, it's a good idea to create a final outline, which will show
all the ideas in an easy-to-understand document. Creating an outline makes the entire writing
process much easier and will save the author time.
4.5. Writing the first draft

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After the outline is completed, the next step is to write the first draft. The goal is to write down
ideas from the outline as quickly as possible. Setting aside blocks of one hour or more, in a place
free of distractions, will help the writer maintain a flow. Also, the writer should wait until the
draft is complete to do any revising; stopping to revise at this stage will break the writer's flow.
The writer should start with the section that is easiest for them, and write the summary only after
the body is drafted.
The ABC (Abstract, Body, and Conclusion) format can be used when writing a first draft. The
Abstract describes the subject to be written about, so that the reader knows what he or she is
going to be told in the document. The Body is the majority of the paper, in which the topics are
covered in depth. Lastly, the Conclusion section restates the main topics of the paper.
The ABC format can also be applied to individual paragraphs, beginning with a topic sentence
that clearly states the paragraph's topic. This is followed by the topic, and finally, the paragraph
closes with a concluding sentence.
4.6. Revising and Editing
Once the initial draft is laid out, editing and revising can be done to fine-tune the draft into a
final copy. Four tasks transform the early draft into its final form:
4.6.1. Adjusting and reorganizing content
During this step, the draft is revisited to 1) focus or elaborate on certain topics which deserve
more attention, 2) shorten other sections, and 3) shift around certain paragraphs, sentences, or
entire topics.
 Are the points-content- relevant? Delete irrelevant ones.

 Are ideas put following some logical development?
 Is interlink between sentences, paragraphs, sections, etc. appropriate?
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4.6.2. Editing for style
Good style makes the writing more interesting, appealing, or readable. In general the personal
writing style of the writer will not be evident in technical writing. Some changes are made by
choice, not for correctness, and may include:
 adding headings, lists, graphics

 changing passive-voice sentences to an active voice
 defining terminology
 rearranging paragraphs
 shortening paragraphs
 shortening sentences
Technical writing is a discipline that usually requires a technical writer to make particular use of
a style guide. These guides may relate to a specific project, product, company or brand and in
general they ensure that technical writing is devoid of a personal style.
4.6.3. Editing for language grammar
At this point, the document can be checked for grammatical errors, such as comma usage and
common word confusions (for example, there/their/they're).
 Are the sentences grammatical?

 Are the words correctly spelled?
 Are punctuations and capitalizations properly used?
 Are appropriate words and expressions used? Etc.
4.6.4. Edit for context

Determining the necessary amount of context is important. There needs to be a balance between
exuberance, which may lead the audience to take unintended additional meaning from the text,
and terseness, which may leave the audience unable to interpret meaning because of missing
words.
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4.7 Plagiarism
“Plagiarism” refers to the unacknowledged use of other people’s work, whether this work is in
the form of ideas taken without acknowledgment, or sentences copied without documentation.
Plagiarism is intellectual theft.
Plagiarism is an offence under the University’s Code of Conduct (Academic). In the Faculty of
Engineering and Computer Science, first offences have typically been sanctioned with a failing
grade for the course and the requirement to take extra credits in ethics.
4.8 Sexist Writing
If you write “An engineer's writing skills may determine the success of his career,” you are
implying that all engineers are male. If you advertise for a “draughtsman,” you are implying that
all persons who do draughting are male. The use of the pronouns “he” or “his” as generic terms
to include both male and female pronouns is not professionally acceptable, and neither is the use
of occupational terms which imply maleness exclusively.
Sample Short report
Sample research report
Executive Summary (Summary or Abstract)
The aim of this report was to investigate UniLab staff attitudes to personal mobile phone use in
staff and team meetings. A staff survey on attitudes towards the use of mobile phones in the
staff/team meetings was conducted. The results indicate that the majority of staff find mobile
phone use a major issue in staff meetings. The report concludes that personal mobile phones are
disruptive and should be turned off in meetings. It is recommended that UniLab develops a
company policy banning the use of mobile phones except in exceptional circumstances.
Introduction
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There has been a massive increase in the use of personal mobile phones over the past five years
and there is every indication that this will continue. According to Black (2002) by 2008 almost
100% of working people in Australia will carry personal mobile phones. Black describes this
phenomenon as ‘serious in the extreme, potentially undermining the foundations of
communication in our society’ (2002, p 167). Currently at UniLab 89% of staff have personal
mobile phones.
Recently a number of staff have complained about the use of personal mobile phones in meetings
and asked what the official company policy is. At present there is no official company policy
regarding phone use. This report examines the issue of mobile phone usage in staff meetings and
small team meetings. It does not seek to examine the use of mobile phones in the workplace at
other times, although some concerns were raised.
For the purposes of this report a personal mobile phone is a personally funded phone for private
calls as opposed to an employer funded phone that directly relates to carrying out a particular
job.
Methods
This research was conducted by questionnaire and investigated UniLab staff members’ attitudes
to the use of mobile phones in staff / team meetings. A total of 412 questionnaires were
distributed with employees' fortnightly pay slips (see Appendix 1). The questionnaire used
Lekert scales to assess social attitudes (see Smith 2002) to mobile phone usage and provided
open ended responses for additional comments. Survey collection boxes were located in every
branch for a four week period. No personal information was collected; the survey was voluntary
and anonymous.
Results
There was an 85% response rate to the questionnaire. A breakdown of the responses is listed
below in Table 1. It can be clearly seen from the results that mobile phones are considered to be
42
disruptive and should be turned off in meetings.
Table 1: Personal mobile phone usage in staff and team meetings

Personal mobile phone usage in Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
staff and team meetings is… agree% % % disagree %
Not a problem 5 7 65 23
An issue 40 45 10 5
Disruptive 80 10 7 3
Phones should be permissible 6 16 56 22
Phones should be turned off 85 10 3 2
Allowed in some circumstances 10 52 24 14
The survey also allowed participants to identify any circumstances where mobile phones should
be allowed in meetings and also assessed staff attitudes towards receiving personal phone calls in
staff meetings in open ended questions. These results showed that staff thought that in some
circumstances, eg medical or emergencies, receiving personal phone calls was acceptable, but
generally receiving personal phone calls was not necessary.
Discussion / Interpretation of Results
It can be seen from the results in Table 1 that personal mobile phone use is considered to a
problem; however it was acknowledged that in some situations it should be permissible. 80% of
recipients considered mobile phones to be highly disruptive and there was strong support for
phones being turned off in meetings (85%). Only 12% thought that mobile phone usage in staff
and team meetings was not a problem, whereas 85% felt it was an issue. The results are
consistent throughout the survey. Many of the respondents (62%) felt that in exceptional
circumstances mobile phones should be allowed, eg medical, but there should be protocols
regarding this.
These findings are consistent with other studies. According to Smith (2005) many companies
have identified mobile phones as disruptive and have banned the use of mobile phones in
meetings. Havir (2004) claims that 29% of staff meeting time is wasted through unnecessary
mobile phone interruptions. This affects time management, productivity and team focus.
43
Conclusion
The use of mobile phones in staff meetings is clearly disruptive and they should be switched off.
Most staff felt it is not necessary to receive personal phone calls in staff meetings except under
certain circumstances, but permission should first be sought from the team leader, manager or
chair.
Recommendations
It is recommended that UniLab develops an official policy regarding the use of mobile phones in
staff meetings. The policy should recommend:
• mobile phones are banned in staff meetings
• mobiles phone may be used in exceptional circumstances but only with the permission of the
appropriate manager or chair
Finally, the policy needs to apply to all staff in the company.
Unit Five: Referencing Information Sources
Referencing
There are many styles that can be used for referencing. When you are given coursework or
dissertation guidelines, check which style of referencing your lecturer or department asks you to
use. If you don’t check, and you use a style that is not the one stated in your guidelines, you
could find you lose marks.
When you begin your research for any piece of work, it is important that you record the details of
all the information you find. You will need these details to provide accurate references, and to
enable you to locate the information again at a later date, should it be necessary to do so.
5.1. WHAT IS REFERENCING?

It is a method used to demonstrate to your readers that you have conducted a thorough and
appropriate literature search, and reading. Equally, referencing is an acknowledgement that you
44
have used the ideas and written material belonging to other authors in your own work. As with
all referencing styles, there are two parts: citing, and the reference list.
5.2 WHY SHOULD I REFERENCE?

Referencing is crucial to you to carry out successful research, and crucial to your readers so they
can see how you did your research. Knowing why you need to reference means you will
understand why it is important that you know how to reference. You should include a reference
for all the sources of information that you use when writing or creating a piece of your own
work.
5.3. WHAT IS A CITATION?

When you use another person’s work in your own work, either by referring to their ideas, or by
including a direct quotation, you must acknowledge this in the text of your work. This
acknowledgement is called a citation. When you are using the Harvard style, your citation should
include:
1. The author or editor of the cited work
2. The year of publication of the cited work
5.4. HOW DO I WRITE CITATIONS USING THE HARVARD STYLE?

There are a number of rules relating to citations depending on the number of authors of a work,
and if you are citing a quotation.
5.4.1 Citing one author
A recent study investigated the effectiveness of using Google Scholar to find medical research
(Henderson, 2005).
or
Henderson (2005) has investigated the effectiveness of Google Scholar in finding medical
research.
5.4.2 Citing two or three authors
If the work has two or three authors, include all names in your citation. For more than three
authors, see section 5.3.
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Recent research indicates that the number of duplicate papers being published is increasing
(Arrami & Garner, 2008).
Evidence shows that providing virtual laboratory exercises as well as practical laboratory
experience enhances the learning process (Barros, Read & Verdejo, 2008).
5.4.3 Citing four or more authors
Arrami and Garner (2008) If the work has four or more authors/editors the abbreviation ‘et al’
should be used after the first author’s name. It is also acceptable to use ‘et al’ after the first
author if the work has three authors.
5.5 Citing a direct quotation
If a direct quote from a book, article, etc., is used you must:
•Use single Quotation marks (double quotation marks are usually used for quoting direct speech)
• State the page number
Simons, Menzies and Matthews (2001) state that the principle of effective stress is ‘imperfectly
known and understood by many practising engineers’ (p.4).
5.6 Citing an image/illustration/table/diagram/photograph/figure/picture
You should provide an in-text citation for any images, illustrations, photographs, diagrams,
tables or figures that you reproduce in your work, and provide a full reference as with any other
type of work.
Ramalho et al (2010)……… They should be treated as direct quotes in that the author(s) should
be acknowledged and page numbers shown; both in your text where the diagram is discussed or
introduced, and in the caption you write for it.
In-text citation:
Table illustrating checklist of information for common sources (Pears and Shields, 2008:p.22).
or
‘Geological map of the easternmost region of São Nicolau’ (Ramalho et al, 2010, p. 532).
5.7. HOW DO I WRITE A REFERENCE?

To write your own references you need different bits of information about each item that you
read when you are researching a piece of work. These bits of information are called
‘bibliographic’ information.
For all types of references the key bits of information you need to start with are:
46
1. Author or editor
2. Date of publication/broadcast/recording
3. Title of the item
This will form the basis of each reference you have to write. You may find that some items are
not as straightforward as others, so be aware of the following:
1. Author/editor: This means the primary (main) person who produced the item you are using. If
you are using a website or web page, and there isn’t an author, you can use what is called a
‘corporate author’. This will usually be the name of the organization or company to whom the
website or web page belongs.
2. Date of publication/broadcast/recording: This means the date the item was produced. It is
usually a year, but if you are using a newspaper article, an email, or a television recording, you
will have to include a full date (day/month/year) in your reference.
3. Title of the item: This means the primary (main) title of the item you are using. That sounds
very obvious, but have a look at a web page and try to work out what the main title is. We would
advise common sense in this situation – you have to identify the key piece of information that
describes what you have used, and will allow the reader of your work to identify that
information.This is your list of all the sources that have been cited in the assignment. The list is
inclusive showing books, journals, etc.,listed in one list, not in separate lists according to source
type.
•The list should be in alphabetical order by author/editor.
•Books, Paper or electronic journal articles, etc., are written in a particular format that must be
followed.
•Your reference list contains all the items you have cited or directly quoted from.
•When you have used more than one piece of work by the same author, in your reference list you
should list the works in date order, beginning with the most recently published work.
EXAMPLE OF A REFERENCE LIST

Arrami, M. & Garner, H. (2008) A tale of two citations. Nature, 451 (7177), 397-399.
Barros, B., Read, T. & Verdejo, M. F. (2008) Virtual collaborative experimentation: an approach
combining remote and local labs. IEEE Transactions on Education,[Online] 51(2),242-
250Available
47
from:doi:10.1109/TE.2007.908071[Accessed 29th June 2010].
5.8 WHAT IS A BIBLIOGRAPHY?

There may be items which you have consulted for your work, but not cited. These can be listed at
the end of your assignment in a ‘bibliography’. These items should be listed in alphabetical order
by author and laid out in the same way as items in your reference list. If you can cite from every
work you consulted, you will only need a reference list. If you wish to show to your reader
(examiner) the unused research you carried out, the bibliography will show your extra effort.
Book: print
Author/Editor (if it is an editor always put (ed.) after the name) (Year of publication). Title
(this should be in italics) Series title and number (if part of a series) Edition (if not the first
edition) Place of publication (if there is more than one place listed, use the first named)
Publisher.
Simons, N. E., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M. (2001). A Short Course in Soil and Rock Slope
Engineering. London, Thomas Telford Publishing.
Author(s) of book-Family name and initials Year of publication, Title of book–Italicized ,edition,
Publisher, Place Of publication
Berkman, RI 1994, Find It fast: how to uncover expert information on any subject, Harper
Perennial, New York.
Unit Six: Formatting Guidelines
6.1. Technical Writing Conventions
Convention refers to the common and repeated use of rules, conditions, guidelines or
characteristics for products or related processes and production methods and related management
system practices in report writing. Convention must be followed when writing prose
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(conventions of English usage, for example), conventions for diagrams exist and should also be
followed. The hands of a clock move - usually - in a clockwise direction, and it is surprising if
for some reason they do not. Readers will accept what they are used to, and shock tactics rarely
have a place in report writing.
The format chosen for a diagram should be appropriate to the information which it presents, for
instance, a great many detailed figures should be given in tabular form. Comparisons of aspects
of one item or of two different items are best seen in bar chart form, while for both general trends
and accurate scientific results, graphs are used.
Diagrams may be produced and therefore bound into the report in one of two ways, either as an
upright A4 sheet (‘portrait’ position) or turned through an angle of 90° for greater width
(‘landscape’ position). The landscape format is useful and easily accepted by the eye, provided
that the page is turned clockwise through 90°. Having to turn a book first one way and then the
other to see the diagrams is irritating out of all proportion to the effort involved.
6.2. Technical Writing Layout
Clear layout and presentation will make your report more accessible to your readers. Some key
considerations in layout include headings, illustrations, and other strategies that could be
classified, broadly, as the “mechanics” of report writing. These latter are not solely layout
concerns, but are included in this portion of form & style for the sake of convenience.
6.2.1. Headings
Headings are the writer's direction signals to the reader. They form a major contribution to your
report’s readability. All headings should be followed by text, before the next subheading.
Headings should not be part of the text; the text should be able to stand alone. As a result, you
should never refer back to the heading from the text, but rather write the text so that its meaning
does not depend on the heading. Add headings to make the text more accessible.
Headings:
 Headings are the writer’s direction signals to the reader.

 Help readers to follow a text with ease and understanding.
49
 Reflect accurately the material that appears beneath them.aid immeasurably in making a
document easy to read and understand.
 Are numbered; form & Style requires the use of a decimal numbering system to number
your headings.
First level (chapter): 1, 2, 3, etc.
Second level: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, etc.
Third level: 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, etc.
Fourth level: 2.1.1.1, 2.1.1.2, etc.
6.2.2 Mechanics
The mechanics of document layout include a range of considerations that contribute to the
accessibility and readability of your report. These include pagination conventions, text spacing
conventions, quotation marks and other punctuation conventions, guidelines for incorporating
equations into your text, capitalization conventions, “widow” and “orphan” problems, typeface
and style considerations, and finally, binding guidelines.
6.2.2.1. Pagination
Pagination of the report can be divided into that for the main body and end matter, and that for
the front matter.
6.2.2.1.1. Main Body Pagination. The pages of the body of the report are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc.,
starting with the first page of the introduction and including all subsequent pages, through the
appendices to the topic approval. The number of the all pages of the body is centered at the
bottom of the page; however, all page numbers may also be placed at the upper or lower right
corner of the pages.
6.2.2.1.2. Front Matter Pagination. For the front matter, a different numbering is used. The
front-matter pages but the title page are all numbered with small roman numerals: iii, iv, v, vi,
etc. All front matter pagination is centered at the bottom of the page. The sections in these pages
receive a small Roman numerals centered at the bottom of the page.
50
6.2.3. Spacing
The text of the report may be single- or double-spaced, printed on one side of the page only.
Entries on the Reference page should be single-spaced, but each entry should have a double
space before the next entry. See the sample Reference page.
In the text itself, you should leave one space after commas and other forms of internal
punctuation (e.g., colons, semi-colons); leave two spaces after periods and other forms of end
punctuation (e.g., question marks).
6.2.4. Quotation Marks and Other Punctuation
You should use quotation marks whenever you quote directly from a source. Punctuation should
be placed inside quotation marks; reference numbers, however, should be placed outside of
quotation marks.
6.2.5. Equations in the Text
If you are including equations in your text, you should treat them as part of the sentence which
leads into the equation. That is, you should incorporate equations smoothly into your sentence
structure.
6.2.6. Capitalization of Words
As a general rule, you should capitalize only proper names of individuals and organizations.
Words such as “kilograms” and “civil engineering” do not require capitals (although “department
of Civil Engineering” does, as it refers to a specific organization). All first letters content words
in the Table of Contents and every first letter after a period should be capitalized,
6.2.7. “Widows” and “Orphans”
The terms “widow” and “orphan” refer to typographic anomalies that can occur when you are
preparing a final document for presentation.
An “orphan” is a word or short section of a line isolated at the bottom of a paragraph or a page.
Occasionally reports will have orphan headings - that is, headings which are at the bottom of the
page, with the text that follows them on the next page.
51
A “widow” is a word or sentence isolated at the top of a page (especially an otherwise blank
page).
You should try to avoid these, as they disrupt your layout, are unattractive, and can be confusing.
6.2.8 Typeface and Size
Use a standard typeface such as Geneva, New York, Palatino, Times New Roman, Calibri, etc.
Avoid using fancy scripts, and use italic or bold type sparingly, for emphasis.
You should use twelve-point typeface. Ten-point is too small to read comfortably, and larger
sizes make it appear as if you are simply trying to fill up space.
6.2.9. Binding
Submit your report in use spiral binding or plastic-spine binding.
6.3. Illustrations
6.3.1. Tables
These are the most common form of diagram in technical reports. Tables can give a great deal of
accurate information if they are effectively presented. Vertical and horizontal rulings can be
untidy and confusing: the use of space is a much more successful alternative.
Headings should be matched at the left hand side, for ease of reading and also of typing.
Horizontal space is obtained by grouping similar items, with a space after, at most, seven items.
For example, an annual financial breakdown could have the months grouped in quarters (January
to March, etc) and no horizontal lines would be necessary. It is, however, possible to give too
much space, so that the reader loses track across the paper. Colleagues are useful people on
whom to test the ease with which a table can be used!
It is, as always, the need of the reader which is all-important. The report writer might have data
available which are of far greater detail than the reader could possibly need. In this case, figures
should be rounded to the appropriate accuracy, and perhaps some might be omitted altogether.
6.3.2. Graphics
52
Graphic elements of the report include all illustrations, graphs, charts and tables. Each graphic
must be numbered and titled appropriately.
All illustrations, drawings, maps, graphs and charts are considered to be figures, and should be
included in the list of figures. Place the number and caption at the figure’s base.
However, for tables, the number and heading go above the table.
All tables and figures should be referred to in your text at the relevant point. The textual
reference should precede the graphic. If a particular graphic is mentioned more than once, then
the graphic should follow the first textual reference.
Figures and tables should be incorporated into the text. The only exceptions would be for
material best suited for the appendix.
Ensure that all images - figures and tables - are clear and legible. Do not include poorly
photocopied images or images that have been downloaded from the World Wide Web in a low-
resolution format. Finally, ensure that you give each graphic a comfortable amount of space on
the page; graphics should not be crammed between text or squeezed into the margin.
All figures and tables should be referenced, unless they are your own original work.
Graphs are used either to show trends or to give accurate technical information. All graphs must
be clearly labeled, and scales identified. If graphs are to be compared, the same scale must be
used for each; as before, the detail needed by the reader must be included, and not necessarily all
that is available to the writer.
Space
Sometimes diagrams outgrow their pages, and this is dangerous. Margins must be sufficient on
all sides to allow for clarity, and to carry as appropriate the page number, figure number and title,
and to allow for the binding of the document.
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Technical Report Writing and Presentation Skills Notes

Unit one: Meaning and Characteristics of Technical Report

1.1 Meaning of Reports

Kuiper and Clippinger define business reports as "organized, objective presentations of

From the Latin, "carry"

• The record of an order of events

1.2 Characteristics of Effective Reports

10. Proper Form

Characteristic # 9. Logical Sequence:

Characteristic # 10. Proper Form:

1.3. Importance of Reports

What are the main Advantages of Report Writing?

1. Report gives consolidated and updated information

A report provides consolidated, factual and up-to-date information about a particular

2. Report as a means of internal communication

A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. It provides

3. Report facilitates decision making and planning

4. Report discloses unknown information

5. Report gives information to employees

6. Report gives reliable permanent information

The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available

7. Report facilitates framing of personnel policies

8. Report gives information to shareholders

9. Report gives information to the Registrar

10. Report solves current problems

11. Report helps directors to take prompt decisions

1.4 Determining Purpose and Audience

Unit Two: Types of Report and Channels of Report

# Based on the formality:-

# Based on the frequency of issue:-

3) PERIODIC or ROUTINE REPORTS:-

# On the basis of FUNCTION

# On the basis of NATURE OF THE SUBJECT

Problem determining report

Fact finding report

Few reports in detail:

v F.I.R or First Information Report:-

When did it happen?

Who noticed it?

What steps were taken immediately after it?

Who were all present on the scene? Etc…

§ The quality of goods, plant and machinery.

§ The quality of work done.

§ Deviations from preset standards.

§ The presence of required people

§ The accuracy of financials.

§ The inventory status.

§ Adherence to rules and procedures.

§ Timings are being followed.

9) Performance appraisal report:

10) Project report:

11) Annual report:

The contents of an annual report are:

· The company profile.

· Notice of the AGM.

· Schedules forming part of the balance sheet

· Profit and loss statement

· Notes to the Accounts

· Cash flow statement