GRAPHICAL

SOLUTION OF STRONG & WEAK ACID/BASE PROBLEMS

(Main reference: Book section uploaded from Benefield et al., 1982: pages 50-77)
(You may also take a look at Snoeyink & Jenkins, 1980: p.114-122)
Graphical procedures allow equilibrium calculations to be carried out much more readily
than by computations.
They are constructed by plotting log Concentration of each individual species versus pH.
These plots are useful because at a glance, we can see:
• how the pH affects different specie concentrations
• or alternatively, how the concentration of an acid or a base can change the pH
The solution of the problem may become extremely complicated if diprotic acid (five !!
unknowns: H2A, HA-, A2-, H+, OH-) or triprotic acids (six !!! unknowns: H3A, H2A-, HA2-, A3-,
H+, OH-) or their bases are involved.
Shape of the Graph
There are two types of variables
Independent variable, the master variable à this is plotted on x-axis
For acid/base problems our master variable is pH, so pH will be plotted on x-axis
For precipitation/dissolution problems for example, we use concentrations of other
ions as master variables, such as pCO3 (-log concentration of carbonate ion)
Dependent variable, species concentrations à these are plotted on y-axis
For acid/base problems, all known & unknown specie concentrations (i.e.
everything on the species list) will be plotted on y-axis
Since the concentration may vary over many orders of magnitude, we prefer to plot not
the concentration directly, but the logarithm of concentration on the y-axis. Now, since
all the concentrations are 10-3, 10-5, 10-6 M etc. it is also convenient to plot -log C so that
we deal with positive numbers. You can see either -log C or log C in different books. Both
are acceptable approaches as long as you interpret the results correctly.
Remember that in the log scale concentration, 1 unit is equal to ten-fold change in
concentration.
So, the plot of -log C of species vs. pH graph is called as pC-pH graph.
Eventually, the produced pC-pH diagram is examined to determine the equilibrium pH and
specie concentrations at equilibrium. This is done by finding the pH at which the proton
1
condition or the charge balance is satisfied. We can use either or both. Sometimes use of
one is easier, but both will give you the correct equilibrium pH.
An example log C vs pH plot for a strong acid HA is given below:

2
An example log C vs pH plot for a weak acid HA is given below:

Now, what we are going to do is to show you how these graphs are prepared based on the
methodology we developed in class. We are going to derive the plotting equation for
each unknown specie and then solve the problem by determining the one and only
equilibrium pH for which the proton condition (or charge balance) is satisfied. Then, we
will be able to read all of the specie concentrations directly from the graph, without doing
any calculations.
After we go over these derivations with you, whenever we are going to solve a strong or
weak acid/base problem using graphical solutions, we will not re-do these derivations!
That would be too long and useless. What we will do is: we will simply draw the graphs by
using the approximate method to construct pC-pH diagrams. This approximate method is
given at the end of these lectures (see the last few pages of this document).

3
1. Case 1 - Strong Monoprotic Acid (HA)

A. Write balanced chemical equations for all reactions involved.
(1) HA → H ! + A"
(2) H# O ⇆ H ! + OH "
B. Write equilibrium constant expressions for all reactions.
(1) K $ = [H ! ][OH " ]
There is only one equilibrium expression, because there is only one equilibrium
reaction. The dissociation of the acid is complete; therefore, it is not an equilibrium
reaction and Ka expression is not written.

C. Write a mass balance equation for the total mass of the non-metal group of the
acid.
C%,'! = [A" ]
D. Define the species that exist in the system at equilibrium.
A" , OH " , H !
E. Develop plotting equations

1. Plotting equation for [A-]: Take the log of both sides of the MB equation.

log [A-] = log CT Eqn 1
Note that this is an equation independent of pH
2. Plotting equation for [H+]:
The plotting equations for [H+] and [OH-] are common to all aqueous solutions.
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻 ! ]
log[𝐻 ! ] = −𝑝𝐻 Eqn 2
3. Plotting equation for [OH-]
𝐾( = [𝐻 ! ]. [𝑂𝐻 " ] = 10")*
𝑝𝐾( = 𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻
𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾( − 𝑝𝐻
since 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝑂𝐻 " ]
4
 log [OH " ] = pH − pK $ Eqn 3
Remember that Kw=10-14, so pKw=14.

F. In order to determine the slope of each equation, take the derivative of each
equation with respect to pH

Eqn 1 log [A-] = log CT

𝑑(log[𝐴" ])
= 0
𝑑(𝑝𝐻)

This tells us that the plotting equation for [A-] will be a straight line with a slope of
ZERO (i.e. a horizontal line) with respect to the x-axis, which is pH.

Eqn 2 log[𝐻 ! ] = −𝑝𝐻

𝑑(log[𝐻 ! ])
= −1
𝑑(𝑝𝐻)

This tells us that the plotting equation for [H+] will be a straight line with a -1 slope with
respect to x-axis.

Eqn 3 log [OH " ] = pH − pK $

𝑑(log[𝑂𝐻 " ])
= 1
𝑑(𝑝𝐻)

This tells us that the plotting equation for [OH-] will be a straight line with a +1 slope
with respect to x-axis.

G. Construct the log (species) vs. pH diagram which describes how the log C of
each chemical species listed in step D varies with pH.

In order to make the graph easy to draw, we typically establish a scale between 0 to 14.

5

Then, we draw the [H+] line to pass through (0,0) and (14, -14) and then draw the [OH-]
line to pass through (0,-14) and (14,0)

The best way is to solve via an example. Let us assume that we have a strong acid (HA)
solution which has a total acid concentration of 10-3M. So, in order to draw [A-], we
know that log [A-] = log CT. If the total acid concentration CT is 10-3M, then log CT is -3.
So, we draw a straight line, with a slope of 0 with respect to the x-axis at -3.


6
 [A-]

So now all we have to do is to find the point on the graph where the charge balance or
the proton condition (in the case of the strong acid and bases, charge balance is equal to
the proton condition) is satisfied.
Charge Balance: [A-] + [OH-] = [H+]
There is no separate line for [A-] + [OH-] we could draw it if we want. Or
We can use the generalization for assumptions on the charge balance. This is a strong
acid solution with quite a high concentration, so we can easily expect [OH-] << [H+].
So, the charge balance is simplified as: [A-] = [H+]. Now we can just find the intersection
point of these two lines, [A-] & [H+] (where [A-] = [H+]). And the intersection shows us
that the pH=3. You can directly see from the graph that, at this equilibrium point, the
[OH-]=10-11 M which also shows that the approximation is correct.

[A-]

7


2. Case 2 - Weak Monoprotic Acid (HA)

A. Write balanced chemical equations for all reactions involved.
(1) HA ⇆ H ! + A"
(2) H# O ⇆ H ! + OH "
B. Write equilibrium constant expressions for all reactions.
[-" ] ['! ]
(1) K + =
[-']

(2) K $ = [H ! ][OH " ]

C. Write a mass balance equation for the total mass of the non-metal group of the
acid.
C%,'! = [HA] + [A" ]
D. Define the species that exist in the system at equilibrium.
A" , OH " , H ! , HA
E. Develop plotting equations for each species identified in part D.


3. The plotting equations for the water system are common to all aqueous solutions
so the equations are:
log [H ! ] = −pH and log [OH " ] = pH − pK $
will apply here also.
3. Plotting equation for [HA]
[H ! ] [A" ] K + ∗ [HA]
K+ = ⇒ [A" ] =
[HA] [H ! ]
Substitute this equation into the mass balance equation.
K + ∗ [HA]
C%,'! = [HA] +
[H ! ]

C% [H ! ] = [HA][H ! ] + K + ∗ [HA] divide both sides by [HA]

8

C% [H ! ]
= [H ! ] + K +
[HA]

C% [H ! ] C%
[HA] = ! =
[H ] + K + K+
1+ !
[H ]

[-" ]
Multiply the right-hand-side of the equation by [-" ] and take the logs

log[HA] = log C% + log[H ! ] − log ( [H ! ] + K + )

log[HA] = log C% − pH − log ([H ! ] + K + )……………………………………………………………….
Eqn 4

Equation 4 is the equation of a curve rather than a straight line, so some simplifying
assumptions are needed to plot.
There are two limiting cases when plotting 𝐥𝐨𝐠[𝐇𝐀] vs pH.
Case 1 = limitation 1
[H+] >> Ka or pKa > pH

For this limitation, since Ka can be neglected, Eqn 4 turns into:

log[HA] = logCT – pH – log[H+]

pH

Eqn 5
log[HA] = logCT

Eqn. 5 will be applicable when the pH value is at least 1 unit less than pKa.
The slope of the line with respect to pH is 0:

𝑑 log[𝐻𝐴]
= 0
𝑑 𝑝𝐻

Thus a plot of log[HA] vs pH in this region where pH value is at least 1 unit less than pKa
gives a horizontal line, with an intercept with the ordinate at CT.
9
Case 2 = limitation 2

[H+] << Ka or pKa < pH

Eqn. 4 turns into:

log[HA] = logCT – pH – logKa

OR

log[HA] = logCT – pH + pKa Eqn 6

Eqn. 6 is applicable when [H+] is at least 10 times smaller than Ka or when the pH is at
least 1 unit larger than pKa.

The slope of the line [6] with respect to pH is -1:

𝑑 log[𝐻𝐴]
= −1
𝑑 𝑝𝐻

Plotting eqn for [A-]

2. Rewrite the equilibrium expression for [HA]

[𝐻 ! ][𝐴" ]
[𝐻𝐴] =
𝐾0

Substitute this equation for [HA] in the mass balance equation.

"
[𝐻 ! ][𝐴" ]
𝐶1 = [𝐴 ] +
𝐾0

OR

[2 " ]
𝐶1 = I1 + J [𝐴" ] Rearrange for [A-]
[3# ]

𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐾0
[𝐴" ] = =
𝐾0 + [𝐻 ! ] [𝐻 ! ] + 𝐾0
𝐾0
10
Take logarithms:

log[A-] = logCT + logKa – log([H+] + Ka)

OR

log[A-] = logCT – pKa – log([H+] + Ka) Eqn 7

There are two limiting cases when plotting Eqn. 7.

Case 1 = [H+] >> Ka or pH < pKa

Eqn. 7 turns into:

log[A-] = logCT - pKa + pH Eqn. 8

Slope of Eqn 8 with respect to pH is 1:
𝑑 log[𝐴" ]
= +1
𝑑 𝑝𝐻

When pKa is greater than pH by at least one unit, then Eqn 8 applies.
Case 2 = [H+] << Ka or pH < pKa

log[A-] = logCT - pKa + pKa = logCT

log[A-] = logCT Eqn 9
Slope of the Eqn 9 with respect to pH is 0:
𝑑 log[𝐴" ]
= 0
𝑑 𝑝𝐻

When pKa is smaller than pH at least by one unit, then Eqn 9 applies.

11
A log-log plot of [A-] and [H+] in the region where the pH is at least one unit greater than
the pKa will give a horizontal line with an ordinate value equal to CT.

F. Construct the graph using Equations 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and the water
equations.

Assume pKa = 4.4, logCT = -3.6
An incomplete graph is given below. Note that our graph is complete outside of the two
blue dashed lines. Also note that the graphs for [H+] and [OH-] are the same for all cases
including this one.

12
 [A-]

[HA]

This is an incomplete graph in the regions between the dashed lines, where the
relationship between log species vs. pH is no longer linear. Still in this curved region a
relationship between [HA], [A-] and pH exists to plot the relationship.
• When the pH has a value equal to pKa, the concentration of unionized acid is one half
its initial value or:

[𝐻 ! ][𝐴" ]
𝐾0 =
[𝐻𝐴]

13
 [𝐻𝐴] = [𝐴" ] when pH = pKa

When pH = pKa or [H+] = Ka [A-] = [HA]

[HA] = (1/2) * CT

[A-] = (1/2) * CT
Take the log of both sides of both equations:

log[HA] = logCT – log2

log[A-] = logCT – log2

OR
log[HA] = logCT – 0.3

log[A-] = logCT – 0.3

So when pH = pKa, both curves of [HA] and [A-] pass through a common point, which is
located on the pKa vertical 0.3 units below the horizontal line passing through the ordinate
at logCT. Using this as a reference point, the linear portion of [HA] and [A-] graphs can be
combined by hand.

14


15
3. Case 3: Weak Diprotic Acid (H2A)
A. Write balanced chemical equations for all reactions involved in the
equilibrium state:
1. H2A ⇆ HA- + H+
2. HA- ⇆ H+ + A2-
3. H2O ⇆ H+ + OH-
B. Write the equilibrium expressions for all reactions:
[2 " ][24! ]
1. 𝐾0) = [2$ 4]

[2 " ][4$! ]
2. 𝐾0# =
[24! ]
3. Kw = [H+][OH-]

C. Write a mass balance equation for the mass of the non-metal group
of the acid

CT = [H2A] + [HA-] + [A2-]

D. Define the chemical species which exist in the system or in

equilibrium:

[H2A], [HA-], [A2-], [H+], [OH-]

E. Define the plotting equation for each species given in D

1. The Plotting Equations for [H2A]

𝐾0) ∗ [𝐻# 𝐴]
[𝐻𝐴" ] = !
Now substitute [𝐻𝐴" ] into [𝐴#" ] 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤
[𝐻 ]
𝐾0# [𝐻𝐴" ]
=
[𝐻 ! ]

16
 𝐾0# 𝐾0) [𝐻# 𝐴]
[𝐴#" ] =
[𝐻 ! ]#

Substitute in the mass balance equation to have an equation for [H2A] only.
𝐾𝑎1∗[𝐻2𝐴]
𝐶1 = [𝐻2 𝐴] + + + 𝐾𝑎2𝐾𝑎1+[𝐻2 2𝐴]
5𝐻 6
[𝐻 ]
𝐾𝑎1 𝐾𝑎2 𝐾𝑎1
𝐶1 = [𝐻2 𝐴] ∗ [1 + + + ]
5𝐻 6 + 2
[𝐻 ]

𝐶1 [𝐻 ! ]#
[𝐻# 𝐴] = ! #
[𝐻 ] + 𝐾0) [𝐻 ! ] + 𝐾0# 𝐾0)
7%
[𝐻# 𝐴] = &#' &#$ &#' Then, take the logarithm of both sides:
)!()" *! $
()" *

log[H2A] = logCT + 2log[H+] – log([H+]2 + Ka1[H+] + Ka1Ka2)
OR
log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH – log([H+]2 + Ka1[H+] + Ka1Ka2) Eqn 10

There are 5 different cases to consider when plotting log[H2A] vs pH.
Case 1: Ka2 << Ka1 << [H+] or pKa2 > pKa1 > pH
In equation 10,
(%& (%( (%&
1> >
[) ' ] [) ' ](

neglect

For Case 1, any term containing Ka1 and Ka2 can be neglected.
Eqn 10 turns into the form:

17
log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH – log[H+]2 = logCT – 2pH + 2pH

log[H2A] = logCT This equation is applicable when the pH is at least one unit
less than the pKa1.
𝑑 log[𝐻% 𝐴]
= 0
𝑑 𝑝𝐻

So a plot of log[H2A] vs pH in the region where the pH is at least one unit less
than the pKa1, will give a horizontal line with an intercept at CT.

Case 2: Ka2 << [H+] or pH < pKa2 (Ka1 comparable to [H+])
For this case Eqn 10 turns into the form:

log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH – log([H+]2 + Ka1[H+])

This eqn represents a curve rather than a straight line and is valid for the case
when pH is within the interval of 1 unit of pKa1.
Case 3: Ka2 << [H+] << Ka1 or pKa2 > pH> pKa1
In this case, neglect the 1st [H+]2 and the 3rd term, Ka1Ka2, in the parenthesis of
Eqn 10.
log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH – log(Ka1[H+])
OR
log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH – logKa1 - log[H+]
log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH + pKa1 + pH

log[H2A] = logCT - pH + pKa1

18
The slope of [H2A] with pH:
𝑑 log[𝐻% 𝐴]
= −1
𝑑 𝑝𝐻

When pH is at least one unit less than pKa2 but one unit more than pK1.

Case 4: [H+] << Ka1 or pH> pKa1 (but comparable to pKa2)
So neglect [H+]2 term in Eqn 10.

log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH – log(Ka1[H+] + Ka1Ka2)

This is a curve rather than a line and is valid when pH is in one unit interval of
pKa2.

Case 5: [H+] << Ka2 or pH> pKa2
Ka1[H+] and [H+]2 terms can be neglected from Eqn 10 and Eqn 10 turns into:

log[H2A] = logCT - 2pH + pKa1 + pKa2

𝑑 log[𝐻% 𝐴]
= −2
𝑑 𝑝𝐻
This is valid when the pH is at least one unit greater than pKa2.


2. The plotting equations for [HA-]

a. Rearrange the equilibrium constant expression for the 1st
acid ion into the form:
[𝐻& ][𝐻𝐴' ]
[𝐻% 𝐴] =
𝐾()
19
 and substitute into the mass balance

[𝐻& ][𝐻𝐴' ]
𝐶* = + [𝐻𝐴' ] + [𝐴%' ]
𝐾()

(%( [),) ]
[𝐴*+ ] = from the Ka2 expression. When this is
[) ' ]
put in CT:


[𝐻 ][𝐻𝐴' ] &
'
𝐾(% [𝐻𝐴' ]
𝐶* = + [𝐻𝐴 ] +
𝐾() [𝐻& ]

[𝐻& ] 𝐾(%
𝐶* = 31 + + & 4 [𝐻𝐴' ]
𝐾() [𝐻 ]

1
[𝐻𝐴' ] = 𝐶* ∗
[𝐻& ] 𝐾(%
61 + 𝐾 + & 7
() [𝐻 ]
𝐶* 𝐾() [𝐻& ]
[𝐻𝐴' ] =
+ 2
6𝐾() [𝐻& ] + [𝐻 ] + 𝐾() 𝐾(% 7

Take the logarithms:

log[HA-] = logCT + logKa1 + log[H+] – log(Ka1[H+] + [H+]2 + Ka1Ka2)

20

log[HA-] = logCT -pKa1 -pH – log(Ka1[H+] + [H+]2 + Ka1Ka2)
Eqn 11


b. Case 1:
pH is at least 1 unit less than pKa1 (pKa2 is much higher and Ka2
<< Ka1 << [H+]) (neglect the first and the last terms in Eqn 11)
log[HA-] = logCT -pKa1 –pH – 2log[H+]
log[HA-] = logCT -pKa1 –pH + 2pH

log[HA-] = logCT -pKa1 + pH

𝑑 log[𝐻𝐴' ]
= +1
𝑑 𝑝𝐻

Case 2: Ka2 << [H+] , pH < pKa2
(pH is comparable to pKa1, [H+]>> Ka2 but [H+] ≈ Ka1)
(neglect the last term in Eqn 11) (pKa1< pKa2)

log [HA-] = log CT – pKa1 – pH – log (Ka1 [H+] + [H+]2)

Case 3: Ka2 << [H+] << Ka1 , pKa2 > pH >pKa1
log [HA-] = log CT – pKa1 – pH – log Ka1 – log [H+]

pH is at least one unit less than pKa2 and at least one unit higher
than pKa1.

log [HA-] = log CT – pKa1 – pH + pKa1 + pH

log [HA-] = log CT

21


d log[HA" ]
= 0
d pH
Case 4: [H+] << Ka1 , pH > pKa1 (but pKa2 ≈ pH or [H+] ≈ Ka2)
log [HA-] = log CT – pKa1 – pH – log (Ka1 [H+] + Ka1Ka2)

Case 5: [H+] << Ka2 , pH > pKa2 (but pKa1 ≈ pH or [H+] ≈ Ka1)
log [HA-] = log CT – pKa1 – pH – log Ka1 – log Ka2

log [HA-] = log CT – pKa1 – pH + pKa1 + pKa2

log [HA-] = log CT – pH + pKa2

d log[HA" ]
= −1
d pH
When pH is at least one unit greater than pKa2.

3. The plotting equations for [A2-]

Second ionization expression

[H ! ] [A#" ] "
[H ! ] [A#" ]
K +# = ⇒ [HA ] =
[𝐻𝐴" ] K +#
[H ! ] [HA" ] [H ! ] [HA" ]
K +) = ⇒ [𝐻# A] =
[𝐻# A] K +)
Substitute both in mass balance equation

CT = [H2A] + [HA-] + [A2-]

22
 [-" ] [-'! ] [-" ] ['$! ] [-" ] ['$! ] [-" ] [-" ] ['$! ]
𝐶1 = + + [A#" ] = + +
8+' 8+$ 8+' 8+$ 8+$

[A#" ]

[-" ]$ [-" ]
𝐶1 = [A#" ] I8 + + 1J
+' 8+$ 8+$

7 8 8+$
[A#" ] = [-" ]$ ! [-%" ] 8
+'
take the logs of both sides
+' ! 8+' 8+$

log [A2-] = log CT + log Ka1 + log Ka2 – log ([H+]2 + [H+] Ka1 + Ka1 Ka2 )

log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 – log ([H+]2 + [H+] Ka1 + Ka,1 Ka2) Eqn 12

Case 1: Ka2 << Ka1 << [H+], pH < pKa1 < pKa2
(neglect the last two terms in Eqn 12)
log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 – 2log [H+] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 + 2 pH

d log[A#" ]
= +2
d pH

Case 2: Ka2 << [H+] , pH < pKa2

(neglect the last term in Eqn 12) (pKa1< pKa2)

log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 – log ([H+]2 + [H+] Ka1)

Case 3: Ka2 << [H+] << Ka1 , pKa2 > pH >pKa1
log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 – log ([H+] Ka1)

23
 log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 – log [H+]- log Ka1

log [A2-] = log CT - pKa2 + pH

d log[A#" ]
= +1
d pH
pH is at least one unit less than pKa2 but at least one unit greater than
pKa1.

Case 4: [H+] << Ka1 , pH > pKa1

(pKa1< pKa2)

log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 – log ([H+] Ka1 + Ka1 Ka2)

Case 5: [H+] << Ka2 , pH > pKa2
log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 – log (Ka1 Ka2 ) = log CT – pKa1 – pKa2 –
log Ka1 – log pKa2

log [A2-] = log CT - pKa1 - pKa2 + pKa1 + pKa2

log [A2-] = log CT

d log[A#" ]
= 0
d pH

24
 F. Construct the equilibrium diagrams of log species vs pH

Construction point 1. when pH = pKa1, the following relationship is

assumed

[H2A] = [HA-] & [A2-] = 0

So, [H2A] =1/2 CT and [HA-] =1/2 CT from the mass balance

Log of both sides

log [H2A] = log (1/2) + log CT = log CT – 0.3

log [HA-] = log CT – 0.3

So, when pH = pKa1, the concentration of [H2A] and [HA-] will be lowered by
~0.3 units from CT

Construction point 2. when pH = pKa2, the following relationship is

assumed

[HA-] = [A2-] & [H2A] = 0

So, [HA-] =1/2 CT and [A2-] =1/2 CT from the mass balance.

log [HA-] = log CT – 0.3

log [A2-] = log CT – 0.3

So, when pH = pKa2, the concentration of [HA-] and [A2-] will be lowered by
~0.3 units from CT.
25
 The incomplete graph of H2A at 10-3 M concentration with pKa1=5 and
pKa2=10 is below.

26
 The complete graph of H2A at 10-3 M concentration with pKa1=5 and
pKa2=10 is below.

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Approximate Method for Constructing Equilibrium Diagrams

A. Monoprotic Acids
1. Establish the scale between 0 to 14 on x & y.
2. Draw the [H+] line to pass through (0,0) and (14, 14) on the –log
species and pH axis. Similarly, draw the [OH-] line (0, -14) and (14, 0)
on the –log species and pH axis.
3. Draw a horizontal dashed line through the value of CT on the –log
species axis.
4. Draw a vertical dashed line through the value of pKa on the pH axis.
The intersection of the horizontal and vertical dashed lines defines a
system point.
5. Draw dashed lines at 45o which pass through the system point. One of
the lines will have a slope of +1; the other line will have a slope of -1.
Both lines will be located below the horizontal CT line.
6. Plot a construction point which lies on the vertical dashed line
through the pKa and is located 0.3 log units below the system point.
7. Sketch two curves through the construction point which is located 0.3
log units below the system point. Each of these curves should intersect
at a 45o line one pH unit to one side of the pKa vertical and should also
intersect the horizontal CT line one pH unit on the opposite side of the
pKa vertical.

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B. Diprotic Acids
• Follow the same procedure, this time with 2 pKa values.
• Little error is made when the lower legs of the [A2-] and [H2A] lines
are plotted with +1 and -1 slopes rather than +2 and -2 slopes.

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Effect of CT on Diagram

• The value of CT does not affect the general shape of the diagram. If
CT is varied the whole diagram moves up or down vertically.

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