Virat Hridaya Padma- sthalam

CHIDAMBARAM Temple -Celestial Mysteries

Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA

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 Virat hridaya padma sthalam

Celestial Mysteries
of the Chidambaram Temple

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt. Ltd..

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 Virat hridaya padma sthalam
Celestial Mysteries of the Chidambaram Temple

Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA & tampere, FINLAND

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 Virat hridaya padma sthalam

Indo Nordic Author’s Collective. STOCKHOLM.SWEDEN

Lord Brahma is seen sitting on a pink flower that is resembling lotus which is Indian National flower.
The story goes that once Lord Shiva was in Kailash and Parvati created Ganesha, which was
unknown to Shiva. When Parvati went for a bath, she posted Ganesha as a guard outside leaving a
word not to let anyone in and that moment Lord Shiva tried to enter the house and Ganesha refused.
In anger Lord Shiva cut the head of Ganesha. On Parvati`s request Brahma created Brahma Kamal,
with whose help Shiva placed the head of an elephant on to the body of Ganesha. One can also see
the Brahma kamal

rst Edition 2020

Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-film, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No. applied for. Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120

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 C O N T E N T S

 Contents page 6
 Acknowledgment & Introduction page 7
 CHAPTER I Glossary of Hindu Temple Architectural terms by Mark Cartwright 11
 CHAPTER IIVaishnavism and Shaivism Explained p. 21
 CHAPTER III- SANGAM LITERATURE p.40
 CHAPTER IV- Chola Dynasty: Achievements Spanning 400 Years. Pge 59
 C H A P T E R V -The Untold Legacy of Rajendra Chola I pages 63
 CH A P T E R VI THE CHOLA DYNASTY page 119

 C H A P T E R VII The Main Chidambaram- Sri Thillai Nataraja Temple..pages 163

Lord Nataraja ‘s big toe is the Centre Point of World ‘s Magnetic 214
TEMPLE SECRET‐ CENTER OF MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH 217
 CHAPTER VIII-Fascinating Marvels of Dravidian Architecture of the (Great Living
Chola Temples)” “Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram” page 226
o C H A P T E R IX Other Living CHOLA Temples page 262
o About the Author page 315

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 Introduction
Lord Vishnu is closely associated with Lotus flower. He is Lotus-eyed and has Lotus feet and
Lotus (Padma) resides in his heart.

Lord Maha Vishnu is called as “Padmanabha” because he has goddess Padma Lakshmi in his
heart.Lotus sprouting from his navel. He is “Anantha” which means happiness. The Lord is the
embodiment of happiness. Anantha Padmanabha swamy- “Sarvam Vishnu mayam jagath”

Virat hridaya padma sthalam

Means the Location of the mighty heart of the Lotus

There is a narrative as per padma purana that the lotus arose from the navel of God Vishnu, and
at the center of the flower resides Lord Brahma.(the Creator), Vishnu (the Protector) and Siva
(the Merger) are associated with this plant. There are also accounts of the world born through a
"Golden Lotus" and Padmakalpa.

Goddess Lakshmi, patron of good fortune, consort of Maha vishnu, sits on a fully bloomed pink
lotus as her divine seat and holds a lotus in her right hand. It is also mentioned in the
Mahabharata that Lakshmi emerged from a lotus which grew from the forehead of Lord Vishnu,
and a garland of 108 lotus seeds is today used for the worship of Goddess Mahalakshmi, it is not
only with Lord Vishnu, but all the gods and goddesses in hinduism are associated with Lotus.

The Pancha Bootha Sthalams dedicated to Lord Shiva constitute a set of five Saivite
temples held in reverence for centuries. Lord Shiva is worshipped as the embodiment of
each of the five elements in these vast temples. All these temples are located in South
India with four in Tamilnadu and one in Andhra Pradesh.

Pancha indicates five, Bootha means elements and Sthalam means place. Our Hindus
belief holds life as a synthesis of the five basic elements (the pancha Boothams) -

Prithvi(Earth), Jala(Water), Agni(Fire), Vayu(Air) and Ether(Space).

1. EARTH - Ekambareshwarar - Kanchipuram Tamilnadu)

2. WATER - Jambukeshwarar - Thiruvanaikaval (Tamilnadu)
3. FIRE - Arunachaleshwarar - Tiruvannamalai (Tamilnadu)
4. AIR - Kalahastheeswarar - Sri Kalahasthi (Andhra Pradesh)
5. SPACE - Natarajar - Chidambaram (Tamilnadu)

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(Meaning of Chidambaram)
The word Chidambaram may be derived from chit, meaning "consciousness", and ambaram,
meaning "sky" (from aakasam or aakayam); it refers to the chidaakasam, the sky of
consciousness, which is the ultimate aim one should attain according to all the Vedas and
scriptures.Another theory is that it is derived from chit + ambalam. Ambalam means a "stage"
for performing arts. The chidakasam is the state of supreme bliss or aananda and Lord
Natarajar is the symbolic representation of the supreme bliss or aananda natanam. Saivaites
believe that a visit to Chidambaram leads to liberation.Yet another theory is that it is derived
from the word chitrambalam, from chithu meaning "play or dances of God" and ambalam
meaning "stage"
Chidambaram Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva located in the heart of the
temple town of Chidambaram,Tamil Nadu).The temple , 78 km south of Pondicherry and 235
Km from Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu state of southeastern India. The Sangam classics
refer to Viduvelvidugu Perumtaccan, respected clan of traditional Vishwakarmas, as being the
chief architect of the temple renovation. There have been several renovations in its history,
particularly during the days of Pallava/Chola emperors in ancient and pre-medieval periods.

Chidambaram is one of the five holiest Shiva temples, each representing one of the five
natural elements; Chidambaram represents akasha (aether). The other four temples in this
category are: Thiruvanaikaval Jambukeswara,Trichy (water), Kanchi Ekambareswara
(earth)Kanchipuram, Thiruvannamalai Arunachaleswara (fire),Thiruvanna malai and Kalahasti
Nathar (wind),Kalahasti

Temple
The temple complex spread over 50 acres in the heart of the
city. It is an ancient and historic temple dedicated to Lord Shiva
Nataraja and Lord Govindaraja Perumal, one of the few temples
where both the Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities are enshrined
in one place.To the followers of Shaivism (Saivism) or the
saivaite, the very word koil refers to Chidambaram. In the same
way, to the followers of Vaishnavism it refers to Srirangam or
Thiruvarangam.

Special features
A unique feature of this temple is the bejeweled image of Nataraja. It depicts the Lord Shiva
as the Lord of the dance Bharatanatyam and is one of the few temples where Shiva is
represented by an anthropomorphic murthi rather than the classic, anionic Lingam. The
Cosmic Dance of Lord Nataraja symbolises the motion of the universe as sustained by Lord
Shiva. The temple has five courts.Aragalur Udaya Iraratevan Ponparappinan (alias
Vanakovaraiyan) rebuilt the Siva temple at Chidambaram around 1213 AD. The same Bana
Chief also built Tiruvannamalai temple.The temple has been traditionally administered by an
endogamous group of shiavite brahmins called Dikshitar, who also officiate as its priest.

Temple Story
The story of Chidambaram begins with the legend of Lord Shiva strolling into the Thillai
Vanam (Vanam meaning forest and thillai trees - botanical name Exocoeria agallocha, a

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species of mangrove trees - which currently grows in the Pichavaram wetlands near
Chidambaram. The temple sculptures depicting the Thillai trees date back to the 2nd century
CE).

In the Thillai forests resided a group of saints or 'rishis' who believed

in the supremacy of magic and that God can be controlled by rituals
and 'mantras' or magical words. The Lord strolls in the forest with
resplendent beauty and brilliance, assuming the form of
'Pitchatanadar', a simple mendicant seeking alms. He is followed by his
Grace and consort who is Lord Vishnu as Mohini. The rishis and their
wives are enchanted by the brilliance and the beauty of the handsome
mendicant and his consort.On seeing their womenfolk enchanted, the
rishis get enraged and invoke scores of 'serpents' (Sanskrit: Nāga) by
performing magical rituals. The Lord as the mendicant lifts the
serpents and dons them as ornaments on his matted locks, neck and
waist. Further enraged, the rishis invoke a fierce tiger, which the Lord
skins and dons as a shawl around his waist.Thoroughly frustrated, the rishis gather all their
spiritual strength and invoke a powerful demon Muyalakan - a symbol of complete arrogance
and ignorance. The Lord wearing a gentle smile, steps on the demon's back, immobilizes him
and performs the Ánanda Thaandava (the dance of eternal bliss) and discloses his true form.
The rishis surrender, realizing that this Lord is the truth and he is beyond magic and rituals.

The Ananda Thaandava

Adhisesha, the serpent who serves as a bed for the Lord in his manifestation as Vishnu, hears
about the Änanda thaandava and yearns to see and enjoy it. The Lord blesses him, beckons
him to assume the saintly form of 'Patanjali' and sends him to the Thillai forest, informing him
that he will display the dance in due course.Patanjali who meditated in the Himalayas during
krita age joins another saint, Vyagrapathar / Pulikaalmuni (Vyagra / Puli meaning "Tiger" and
patha / kaal meaning "feet" – referring to the story of how he sought and got the feet and
eyesight of a tiger to help climb trees well before dawn to pick flowers for the Lord before the
bees visit them). The story of sage Patanjali as well as his great student sage Upamanyu is
narrated in both Vishnu Puranam as well as Siva Puranam. They move into the Thillai forest
and worship Lord Shiva in the form of Shivalinga, a deity worshipped today as
Thirumoolataneswarar (Thiru - sri, Moolatanam - primordial or in the nature of a foundation,
Eswarar- the Lord). Legends say that Lord Shiva displayed his dance of bliss (the Aananda
Thaandavam) - as Nataraja to these two saints on the day of the poosam star in the Tamil
month of Thai (Jan – Feb).

The Ananda Tandava Posture

The Ananda Tandava posture of Lord Shiva is one of the famous postures recognized around
the world by many. This celestial dancing posture tells us how a Bharathanatium Dancer
should dance.

The demon under Nataraja's feet signifies that ignorance is under his feet
The Fire in this hand (power of destruction) means destroyer of evil
The raised hand signifies that he is the savior of all life.

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The Ring at the back signifies the cosmos.
The drum in his hand signifies the origin of Life.

These are the main things that the Natarajar murti and the celestial dance posture depict. A
rare type of thandava posture is seemed in Melakadambur temple near by 32 km from here.In
this Karakoil, Nataraja dancing on a bull and deva's rounds the structure it's an pala art being
kept in this shrine

Significance
Chidambaram is also referred to in various works such as Thillai (after the Thillai forest of
yore in which the temple is now located), Perumpatrapuliyur or Vyagrapuram் (in honour of
Saint Vyagrapathar).The temple is supposed to be located at the Lotus heart of the Universe":
Virat hridaya padma sthalam. On the spot where the Lord displayed his dance of bliss, the
Änanda Thaandavam - a spot exactly south of the "Thirumoolataaneswar temple", today is
the Ponnambalam/ Porsabai (Pon meaning gold, Ambalam/Sabai meaning stage) housing the
Lord Shiva in his dancing form. The Lord is also hence referred to as the Sabhanayakar,
meaning the Lord of the Stage.

This gold-roofed stage is the sanctum sanctorum of the Chidambaram temple and houses the
Lord in three forms:
the "form" - the anthromorphological form as an appearance of Lord Nataraja, called the
Sakala thirumeni.
the "semi-form" – the semi-anthropomorphological form as the Crystal linga of
Chandramouleswarar, the Sakala nishkala thirumeni.
the "formless" – as the Space in Chidambara Rahasyam, an empty space within the sanctum
sanctorum, the Nishkala thirumeni.

Pancha Bootha Sthalas

Chidambaram is one of the Panchabootha Sthalas, where the Lord is worshipped in his
manifestation as sky or Aagayam ("pancha" – meaning five, bootha – meaning the elements:
earth, water, fire, wind and space and "sthala" meaning location).

The others are:

the Ekambareswarar temple at Kanchipuram, where the Lord is worshipped in his
manifestation as Earth
the Jambukeswarar temple at Thiruvanaikaval, in Tiruchirapalli, where the Lord is worshipped
in his manifestation as Water
the Annamalaiyar Temple at Tiruvannamalai, where the Lord is worshipped in his
manifestation as Fire
the Kalahasti temple at Srikalahasthi, where the Lord is worshipped in his manifestation as
air/wind.

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 CHAPTERI

A Visual Glossary of Hindu Architecture-Article BY Mark Cartwright

The Brihadishvara Temple, Thanjavur Figure en toilette, Khajuraho

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 Adisthana - the decorative raised platform on which a temple is built.
Alasa kanya - a decorative female figure.

Muktesvara Temple, Bhubaneshwar/ Durga Temple, Aihole

Amalaka - a large fluted stone disc placed on top of a Nagara tower taking its form from the
amla or myrobalan fruit native to India.
Antarala - an antechamber to the inner sanctum or garbhagriha of a temple.
Ardhamandapa - a temple portico serving as an entrance porch.
Bho - a medallion motif of Orissan architecture which projects from towers and shows
a monster regurgitating garlands flanked by 2 dwarfs.

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Principal Features of a Hindu Temple Complex
Bhoga mandapa - (or Bogh-mandir) a hall in Orissan temples which is used for consecrated
food preparation and distribution.

Brihadishvara Temple, Thanjavur/ Durga Temple, Aihole Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

Devalaya - the general name of a temple meaning a god's dwelling place.

Dravida - the style of southern temple architecture.
Garbhagriha - (also garbha grha) meaning 'womb-chamber,' the small windowless room that is
the main shrine of the temple, usually containing a representation or symbol of the principal
deity.
Ghana dvara - blind doorways of the garbhagriha, which symbolically allow the energy of the
deity to radiate through and beyond the temple. They may also act as secondary niche shrines.
Ghanta - a bell-shaped finial on the top of a tower.
Gopura - a monumental gate tower of Dravida temples.

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Surviving Jagamohana of the Konark Sun Temple, Orissa
Jagamohana - the mandapa or entrance hall of an Orissan temple.

Kirtimukha, Nepal// Mandapa, Amritheswara temple

Kirtimukha - a decorative lion or monster motif with the lower jaw missing, typically placed
over doorways.

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Mandapa - a columned hallway which leads to the garbhagriha or inner sanctum.

Makara, Cambodia

Makara - a decorative sea monster motif.

Parsvanatha Temple, Khajuraho/// Vimana, Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram

Nagara - the style of northern temple architecture.

Nandi Mandapa - a pavilion which contains a statue of Shiva's gatekeeper and vehicle, the bull
Nandi.
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Nata Mandapa, Konark

Nata mandapa - (also nata mandir) the dance hall in Orissan temples, added from the 10th
century CE.

Shiva with Nandi, Aihole/// Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram, India

Nataraja - a decorative dancing Shiva motif.

Prakara - a high wall which encloses a temple.

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Wheel, Konarak Sun Temple// Ratha at right Bhima & Dhamaraja

Ratha - a projection on the exterior wall of a Nagara temple; there are typically seven on each
side. Also the name for the chariot of the sun god Surya which sun temples represent via spoked
wheels on the outer walls.

Sala - a barrel-vaulted roof in Dravida architecture, often represented as an architectural motif.

Rajarani Temple, Bhubaneshwar

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Sikhara - the tower of a Nagara temple which is built directly above the inner sanctum
or garbhagriha. Also the decorative top of a tower in Dravida temples.

Talas of the Brihadishvara Temple

Tala - the tiers of a vimana tower.

Gopura & Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

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Temple tank - a ritual bathing tank or pool common in southern temples.

Kandariya Mahadeo Temple, Khajuraho

Urushringa - a smaller, subsidiary tower, usually joining or enclosing the main tower.

Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram ///Vesara Style Temple- Somanathapura,

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Vimana - the more rounded tower of a Dravida temple. Typically they are topped by a small
dome.

Temple Vastu-Purusa-Mandala

Vastu-purusa-mandala - the symbolic symmetrical floorplan which Hindu temples follow.

Vesara - the style of architecture which mixed Nagara and Dravida styles.
Vyala - (also yali) the decorative lion monster seen in many Hindu temples.

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 CHAPTER II
Vaishnavism and Shaivism Explained

Chidambaram temple is one of the few temples where both the Shaivite and Vaishnavite
deities are enshrined in one place. So let us explore what are the two grains of Hinduism-
Vaishnavism and Shaivism. However, It is a shrine to Lord Shiva.

Shaivism
The character and position of the Vedic god Rudra—called Shiva, “the Auspicious One,” when
this aspect of his ambivalent nature is emphasized—remain clearly evident in some of the
important features of the great god Shiva, who together with Vishnu came to dominate
Hinduism. Major groups such as the Lingayats of southern India and the Kashmiri
Shaivas contributed the theological principles of Shaivism, and Shaiva worship became a
complex amalgam of pan-Indian Shaiva philosophy and local or folk worship.

Vishnu SHIVA

In the minds of the ancient Hindus, Shiva was the divine representative of the uncultivated,
dangerous, and unpredictable aspects of nature. Shiva’s character lent itself to being split into
partial manifestations—each said to represent only an aspect of him—as well as
to assimilating powers from other deities. Already in the Rigveda, appeals to him for help in case
of disaster—of which he might be the originator—were combined with the confirmation of his

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great power. In the course of the Vedic period, Shiva—originally
a ritual and conceptual outsider, yet a mighty god whose benevolent aspects were readily
emphasized—gradually gained access to the circle of prominent gods who preside over various
spheres of human interest. Many characteristics of the Vedic Prajapati, the creator; of Indra, the
god of rain and of the thunderbolt; and of Agni, the Vedic god of fire, have been integrated into
the figure of Shiva.
In those circles that produced the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c. 400 BCE), Shiva rose to the
highest rank. Its author proposed a way of escape from samsara, proclaiming Shiva the sole
eternal Lord. Rudra-Shiva developed into an ambivalent and many-sided lord and master. His
many manifestations, however, were active among humankind: as Pashupati (“Lord of Cattle”),
he took over the fetters of the Vedic Varuna; as Aghora (“To Whom Nothing Is Horrible”), he
showed the uncanny traits of his nature (evil, death, punishment) and also their opposites.
Like Vishnu, Shiva is held by devotees to be the entire universe, yet he is worshipped in various
manifestations and in hundreds of local temples. Although it is not always clear whether Shiva
is invoked as a great god of frightful aspect, capable of conquering demonic power, or as the
boon-giving lord and protector, Hindus continue to invoke him in magical rites.
Shiva reconciles in his person semantically opposite though complementary aspects: he is both
terrifying and mild, destroyer and restorer, eternal rest and ceaseless activity. These seeming
contradictions make him a paradoxical figure, transcending humanity and assuming a mysterious
sublimity of his own. From the standpoint of his devotees, his character is so complicated and his
interests are so widely divergent as to seem incomprehensible. Yet,
although Brahman philosophers like to emphasize his ascetic aspects and the ritualists of
the Tantric tradition his sexuality, the seemingly opposite strands of his nature are generally
accepted as two sides of one character.

Shiva temporarily interrupts his austerity and asceticism (tapas) to marry Parvati, and he
combines the roles of lover and ascetic to such a degree that his wife must be an ascetic (yogi)
when he devotes himself to austerities and a loving companion when he is in his erotic mode.
This dual character finds its explanation in the ancient belief that, by his very chastity, an ascetic
accumulates (sexual) power that can be discharged suddenly and completely, resulting in the
fecundation of the soil. Various mythical tales reveal that both chastity and the loss of chastity

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are necessary for fertility and the intermittent process of regeneration in nature. The erotic and
creative experiences portrayed in these narratives are a familiar feature in Hinduism, and they
counterbalance the Hindu bent for asceticism. Such sexuality, while rather idyllic in Krishna,
assumes a mystical aspect in Shiva, which is why the devotee can see in him the realization of
the possibilities of both the ascetic life and the householder state. His marriage with Parvati is
then a model of conjugal love, the divine prototype of human marriage, sanctifying the forces
that carry on the human race.

Shiva’s many poses express various aspects of his nature. The cosmic dancer, he is the originator
of the eternal rhythm of the universe, dancing through its creation and destruction. He also
catches, in his thickly matted hair, the waters of the heavenly Ganges River, which destroy
all sin. He wears in his headdress the crescent moon, which drips the nectar of everlasting life.

Shiva Nataraja at the Brihadishvara Temple, Thanjavur (Tanjore).Frederick M. Asher

Shiva is the master of both tandava, the fierce, violent dance that gives rise to energy, and lasya,
the gentle, lyric dance representing tenderness and grace. Holding a drum upon which he beats
the rhythm of creation, he dances within a circle of flames that depicts the arc of dissolution. He
holds up the palm of one hand in a gesture of protection; with another he points to his foot to
indicate the refuge of his followers. The image of the dancing Shiva is said by Shaivites to
portray five cosmic activities: creation, maintenance, destruction, concealing his true form from

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adversaries, and, finally, the grace through which he saves his devotees. The outer form of the
dance, however, is only one aspect of the divine flow of energy; followers of Shiva say that the
dance is in the heart of every devotee.

Yet while the dancing Shiva is an important and popular representation, the abstract form of
Shiva is perhaps the most commonly seen portrayal throughout India. Shiva is depicted as a
conical shaft (lingam) of fire within a womb (yoni), illustrating the creative powers of Shiva and
Parvati. In temples the lingam, which literally means “distinguishing symbol,” is an upright
structure that is often made of stone. It is placed in a stone yoni that represents both the womb
and the abode of all creation. The union between the lingam and the yoni serves as a reminder
that male and female forces are united in generating the universe.

Shiva also represents the unpredictability of divinity. He is the hunter who slays and skins his
prey and dances a wild dance while covered with its hide. Far from society and the ordered
world, he sits on the inaccessible Himalayan plateau of Mount Kailasa, an austere ascetic, averse
to love, who burns Kama, the god of love, to ashes with a glance from the third eye—the eye of
insight beyond duality—in the middle of his forehead. And at the end of the eon, he will dance
the universe to destruction. He is nevertheless invoked as Shiva, Shambhu, Shankara
(“Benignant” and “Beneficent”), for the god that can strike down can also spare. Snakes seek his
company and twine themselves around his body. He wears a necklace of skulls. He sits
in meditation, with his hair braided like a hermit’s, his body smeared white with ashes. These
ashes recall the burning pyres on which the sannyasis (renouncers) take leave of the social order
of the world and set out on a lonely course toward release, carrying with them a human skull.
Shiva’s consort is Parvati (“Daughter of the Mountain [Himalaya]”), a goddess who is an
auspicious and powerful wife. She is also personified as the Goddess (Devi), Mother (Amba),
black and destructive (Kali), fierce (Chandika), and inaccessible (Durga). As Shiva’s female
counterpart, she inherits some of Shiva’s more fearful aspects. She comes to be regarded as the
power (shakti) of Shiva, without which Shiva is helpless. Shakti is in turn personified in the form
of many different goddesses, often said to be aspects of her.

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Shiva and his family at the burning ground. Parvati, Shiva's wife, holds Skanda while watching
Ganesha, and Shiva strings together the skulls of the dead. Kangra painting, 18th century;
Victoria and Albert Museum, London.Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London;
photograph A.C. Cooper

Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism is the worship and acceptance of Vishnu (Sanskrit: “The Pervader” or “The
Immanent”) or one of his various incarnations (avatars) as the supreme manifestation of
the divine. During a long and complex development, many Vaishnava groups emerged with
differing beliefs and aims. Some of the major Vaishnava groups include the Shrivaishnavas (also
known as Vishishtadvaitins) and Madhvas (also known as Dvaitins) of South India; the followers
of the teachings of Vallabha in western India; and several Vaishnava groups in Bengal in
eastern India, who follow teachings derived from those of the saint Chaitanya. Most Vaishnava
believers, however, draw from various traditions and blend worship of Vishnu with local
practices.

VISHNU

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Vishnu with his 10 avatars (incarnations): Fish, Tortoise, Boar, Man-Lion, Dwarf, Rama-with-the-Ax, King
Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalkin. Painting from Jaipur, India, 19th century; in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London.Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

In the Vedas and Brahmanas, Vishnu is the god of far-extending motion and pervasiveness who,
for humans in distress, penetrates and traverses the entire cosmos to make their existence

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possible. All beings are said to dwell in his three strides or footsteps (trivikrama): his highest
step, or abode, is beyond mortal ken in the realm of heaven. Vishnu is also the god of the pillar
of the universe and is identified with the sacrifice. He imparts his all-pervading power to the
sacrificer who imitates his strides and identifies himself with the god, thus conquering the
universe and attaining “the goal, the safe foundation, the highest light” (Shatapatha Brahmana).
In the centuries before the Common Era, Vishnu became the Ishvara (supreme deity) of his
worshipers, fusing with the Purusha-Prajapati figure; with Narayana, worship of whom discloses
a prominent influence of ascetics; with Krishna, whom the Bhagavadgita identified with Vishnu
in many forms; and with Vasudeva, who was worshipped by a group known as the Pancharatras.
The extensive mythology attached to Vishnu is largely that of his avatars. Although this notion is
found elsewhere in Hinduism, it is basic to Vaishnavism. Each of his incarnations, especially
Krishna and Rama, has a particular mythology and is the object of devotion (bhakti). The
classical number of these incarnations is 10—the dashavatara (“ten avatars”)—ascending from
theriomorphic (animal form) to fully anthropomorphic manifestations. They are Fish (Matsya),
Tortoise (Kurma), Boar (Varaha), Man-Lion (Narasimha), Dwarf (Vamana), Rama-with-the-Ax
(Parashurama), King Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and the future incarnation, Kalkin. This list varies,
however, according to the text within which it appears and the devotional community that
maintains it. For example, some dashavatara lists include Balarama, the brother of Krishna,
instead of the Buddha. Moreover, the number of incarnations is not fixed across all texts or
traditions; some texts list 24 incarnations of Vishnu. In addition, a particular dashavatara list
popularized by the 13th-century poet Jayadeva in his song Gita Govinda names Krishna, not
Vishnu, as the supreme deity who incarnates himself 10 times. In Jayadeva’s list the first seven
incarnations are the same as those found in other Vaishnava lists. Jayadeva then lists Balarama
and Buddha as the eighth and ninth incarnations. One common element in all these lists is
Kalkin, who is always the final incarnation.

Like most other Hindu gods, Vishnu has his especial entourage: his wife is Lakshmi, or Shri, the
lotus goddess—granter of success, wealth, and liberation—who came forth from the ocean when
gods and demons churned it in order to recover from its depths the ambrosia or elixir of
immortality, amrita. At the beginning of the commercial year, special worship is paid to her for

27
success in personal affairs. Vishnu’s mount is the bird Garuda, archenemy of snakes, and in his
four hands are his emblems: the lotus, conch shell, and his two weapons, the club and the discus.
Devotees hold that, in addition to having many avatars, Vishnu also manifests himself in many
temples. He may manifest himself within an iconic form (archa avatara) for worship. In many
South Indian temples, the regional manifestations of Vishnu have distinct identities and are
known by local names (e.g., as Venkateswara in Tirumala-Tirupati and in the Hindu diaspora).
Each of these distinct forms has specific attributes and weapons, which are depicted in particular
locations or poses. Elaborate treatises on iconography as well as on local custom and practice
govern the carving and interpretation of these icons. In many temples in South India
and Southeast Asia, Vishnu is depicted as standing, sitting, striding the universe, or reclining. He
sometimes reclines on the serpent Ananta (“Without End,” suggesting the deity’s mastery
over infinite time). He is frequently displayed in temple carvings and in calendar art with four
arms (though occasional depictions provide him with as many as eight), three of which hold his
conch shell, discus, and club. Although a few Vaishnava philosophical schools may consider the
image in the temple to be a symbol pointing to the supreme being, most devotees perceive it as
an actual manifestation of the deity, a form that he takes to make himself accessible to human
beings.

Whatever justification the different Vaishnava groups (such as the Shrivaishnavas of South India
or the worshipers of Vishnu Vithoba in Maharashtra) offer for their philosophical position, all of
them believe in God as a person with distinctive qualities and worship him through his
manifestations and representations. Many schools teach that it is through divine grace that the
votary is lifted from transmigration to release. Much of Vaishnava faith is monotheistic, whether
the object of adoration be Vishnu Narayana or one of his avatars. Preference for any one of these
manifestations is largely a matter of tradition. Thus, most South Indian Shrivaishnavas worship
Vishnu in one of his many local manifestations; the North Indian groups prefer Krishna.

Narratives of culture heroes

A culture hero can easily be assimilated to a god by identifying him with an incarnation of a god.
Thus, great religious teachers are considered manifestations of the god of their devotional
preaching, and stories of their lives have become part of a very rich storehouse of narratives.

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Practically gods on earth, these ascetics, according to mythology, have amassed tremendous
powers that they do not hesitate to use. The sage Kapila, meditating in the netherworld, burned to
ashes 60,000 princes who had dug their way to him. Another sage, Bhagiratha, brought the
Ganges River down from heaven to sanctify their ashes and, in the process, created the
ocean. Agastya, revered as the Brahman who brought Sanskrit-speaking civilization to South
India, drank and digested the ocean. When the Vindhya mountain range would not stop growing,
Agastya crossed it to the south and commanded it to cease growing until his return; he still has
not returned. Vishvamitra, a king who became a Brahman, created a new universe with its own
galaxies to spite the gods.
Moving from myth to hagiography (biography of venerated persons), there are also stories told
of the great teachers, and every founder of a sect is soon deified as an incarnation of a god: the
philosopher Shankara (c. 788–820) as an incarnation of Shiva; the religious leader Ramanuja (d.
1137) as that of Ananta, the sacred serpent of Vishnu; and the Bengal teacher Chaitanya (1485–
1533) simultaneously as that of Krishna and his beloved Radha.

Myths of holy rivers and holy places

Of particular sanctity in India are the rivers, among which the Ganges stands first. This river,
personified as a goddess, originally flowed only in heaven until she was brought down by
Bhagiratha to purify the ashes of his ancestors. She came down reluctantly, cascading first on the
head of Shiva in order to break her fall, which would have shattered the Earth. Confluences are
particularly holy, and the confluence of the Ganges with the Yamuna at Allahabad is the most
sacred spot in India. Another river of importance is the Sarasvati, which loses itself in desert; it
was personified as a goddess of eloquence and learning.
All major and many minor temples and sanctuaries have their own myths of how they were
founded and what miracles were wrought there. The same is true of famous places of pilgrimage,
usually at sacred spots near and in rivers; important among these are Vrindavana (Brindaban) on
the Yamuna, which is held to be the scene of the youthful adventures of Krishna and the cowherd
wives. Another such centre with its own myths is Gaya, especially sacred for the funerary rites
that are held there. And there is no spot in Varanasi (Benares), along the Ganges, that is without
its own mythical history. Srirangam, a temple town set in an island in the Kaveri River in Tamil

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Nadu, is considered to be heaven on earth (bhuloka vaikuntham). There are also many places
sacred to followers of Vishnu, Shiva, or other deities.

Philosophical texts
Although the details of Indian philosophy, as it has been developed by professional philosophers,
may be treated as a subject separate from Hinduism, certain broad philosophical concepts were
absorbed into the myths and rituals of Hindus and are best viewed as a component of the
religious tradition.

Question :
1. In shaivism , there is no particular focus on any person and no ultimate aim/goal.
2. Shiva, his wife Parvati, their children Ganapati, Kumaraswamy (Murugan) and
Ayyappa are all considered as Gods.The entire family is considered as Gods. Entire
family is worshipped.Ganapati, Murugan, Ayyappa are worshiped independently as
Gods. Special preference is given to children of their family.
3. Parvati and her other forms are worshipped independently and considered as supreme
God by herself. There is no compulsion that she must be worshiped along with
Shiva.There are separate temples for Durga, Kali and Parvati without Shiva being
accompanied.
4. Some south Indians consider Shiva, Murugan as their ancestors and native God to their
own state. What is this concept of regional God? How can God be restricted to a place,
should not he be universal?
Answer :
1. Thinking that there is no ultimate goal or aim in Shaivism is highly inaccurate
logically. There is no work without any cause . This has been used by all the previous
Bhasyakartas to prove athesim to be wrong. So , how come Shaivism be without any
cause ?
2. So , the purvpakshin has seen the Shiv temples house Shivling along with Gauri ,
Ganpati etc . Similarily , pictures has been viewerd by him in puja place of people. But
, he definitely forgot the concept of parivar devta . In any temple , beside the Main
deity , the deities considered family members are also housed.

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For example , in the famous vaishnav shrine of Lord Venkateswar on Seshachalam , a temple
dedicated to Vakula Mata is located . Similarly , the Srivaishnava temples house the 12 Alwars
alongside other previous Aacharyas .
But someone might say that the purvpakshin by using the word God wants to convey the
meaning of Brahman and wants to imply that Shaivas consider Shiv with his Parivar devta to be
Brahman .. Shiv worship mainly has 4 divisions
1. Shaiv ,
2. Pashupat ,
3. Bhairav Aagamas and
4. karalmukh as mentioned in Varah puran and also by Bhasyakartas.

In modern context there are different schools of Shiv worship namely Shaiv-advait of Smartas ,
Shraut Shaivism of Srikant Aacharya , Lingayat of Basvanna , Shaiv Siddhant of Shaiv-Acharyas
and Trika of Abhinav gupta ( kashmir Shaivism ). {Some also consider Aghoris , kapaliks to be
in Shaivism. Others consider Nath sampraday also. } The division is quite combersum but I tried
to present a general picture of all modern day available ancient sampradays of Shaivism.
Leaving aside Smartas , the rest namely Shraut , Lingayat , Siddhant and Trika consider only
Shiv to be the Brahman and Parvati to be his Shakti and not their children.
Smartas Following Advait theology see the 5 deities , Ganapati , Surya , Vishnu , Shiv and
Shakti to be one same Brahman personified. But Shaiv siddhant considers SadaShiv to manifest
in 5 different forms for fivefold function while other creatures are born from them and Only
Sadashiv is taken as ultimate reality and not the other forms .
I have not got much information regarding other sampradayas , hence cannot comment.
The person has equated Shaivism with Advait and applied a general lens but there are different
subsects adhering to various philosophies in the Shaivism.
3. Regarding various forms of Shakti being worshipped. There is another popular Sampradaya
called Shakta to worship Shakti . However , in Shaiv Siddhant too Shakti can be independently
worshipped because the karmas of jeeva are under control of ShivShakti , the power of Shiv.
Similarly , Independent Lakshmi temples are too found under srivaishnavism ( Tiruchanur
Padmavati temple )

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4. As far as concept of Shiv and Murga being considered ancestors by south indians . Following
counterpoints need to be mentioned . Many Kshatriyas of north trace themselves to Ramchandra
and Krishnachandra. Bhumihars trace themselves from Parshuram. Narasimha is considered to
be son in law by chenchu tribes. Bibi nachiyar is a consort of Sri Rnganath.
In this regard , just like Ramchandra murthy's lineage as king passed on . Similarly , the lineage
of Madurai Pandyas which had Shiv incarnate as Somasundar to marry Meenakshi, is traced by
many. Here , regional connections are established by Bhava and not by scriptural evidence .
Hence these points have been nullified thereby .
Question :
1. Shaivism is not a religion. It is just a sentimental fan following towards a particular
family which is still being continued. Just like there is a fan following for actors’,
celebrity’s family in present days.
2. It clearly shows Shiva and his children are not Gods but just great personalities in
those times and their followers equated him to a God. Like we equate actors,
politicians to Gods and build temples for them.
3. Vaishnavism is a proper religion, it is somewhat a monotheistic religion, where
Narayan (Vishnu) is literally considered as a God and devotees believe that he really
exist as a person in Vaikuntha which is outside all material universes.
Answer :
Since the purvapakshin has mixed western in indian context , it is quite difficult to understand
the motive with respect to monotheism = religion. Shaiv siddhant too believes in existence of
one singularity called SadaShiv and itself qualified as a religion by the logic of purvapakshin.
Since the assumption by purvapakshin and it's implication cuts the basic assumption itself.
Question: with respect to worship system of Shaivism ,
1. Extremely polytheistic and nature worshipping pagan religion. It is not a God based
religion, rather it is just a GOOD culture. This is what Shiva Bhakt Sadhguru says.
2. No one strongly believes that Shiva is a God. Shiva is a great yogi, tantric and an
occultist who used to stay with group of aghoris. He wears a garland of skulls.
3. Shiva holds a trident (which is normal), has snakes around his neck (which is normal),
has Bull as a vehicle (which is again normal). So Shiva was a normal respectable
human being and anyone can mimic these things.

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 4. Shaivas mostly follow Advaita, which says “Aham Brahmasmi” (I am God, everyone
is God and everything is God). Which means there is no God.
Answer :
1. The flawed view of polytheism is again implied which has been duly refuted above .
And the purvapakshin makes it clear that his knowledge of Shaivism is basically from
the talks of Sadguru ( whose highest reading ability has been asterix ) by dhum-vahani
nyaya.
2. The purvpakshin is again taking one person's view as view of all. Only so called highly
educated people who get their info via Modern day gurus like Sri Sri , Sadguru would
say. If purvpakshin wants to take the view of majority in consideration for this regard ,
roaming in villages of India will reveal how People see Lord Shiv as a god and not as a
yogi which is a modern day fishing interpretation of some elite gurus .
3. Purvpakshin takes the appearance of Lord Shiv in popular culture to prove that he is
ordinary and with respect to Narayan , he uses the symbols to tell him extraordinary.
Now that is being clarified. Purvapakshin has definitely got no knowledge of Lord
Shiv . Otherwise he would have known that in Sadashiv form he holds ten arms of
arrays of aayudhas. In maheshvar form he holds A deer and in Natraj form he has fire
on his hand , for Jalandhar sanghar , he used a chakra too. None of these are ordinary
things. Wearing snakes is ordinary for purvapakshin which shows the lack of logic
again.
4. Here, purvapakshin accepts that Shaivas mainly follow advait . Well and good . But
then he uses one of the Mahavakyas and misinterprets it . Aham brahmashmi . I am
god , everything is god . Accurate interpretation as per advait until now . But then from
now where does he jump to say that there is no god. When everything is considered
god , how can there be no god. When everything is considered beautiful , how come
there be no beauty . This might be the base for interpreting Shaivism as atheist in
further narrations given elsewhere
Question :
 Shaivism is an atheistic and nature worshipping religion. This is why Ravan was
considered as an atheist in Valmiki Ramayan even though he was Shiva vhakt. How is

33
 a Shiva bhakt theist when Shiva is not a God in literal sense. (Now a days people have
their own definition of God, so Shiva and his family are Gods in that sense).
 Shaivism has no Varna system and is not given much importance as it is not part of
Vedic civilization.

Answer :
 It has been duly mentioned why Shaivism was considered atheist and since there is
misinterpretation by purvpakshin , the first line itself gets nullified. Atheist is someone
who does not believe in God , Brahman in indian context . Ancient india had a school
of philosophy called Charvaka that denied the existence of Brahman and hence vedas.
But Ravan studied and mastered the Vedas . He also worshipped and pleased Brahma
and Shiv . He also wrote Shiv tandav stotram wherein he mentions meditation upon
Lord Shankar to be cause of liberation ( this is in accordance to shvetashvatara and
Brihadaranyak which mention constant mediation upon Brhman to be path to liberation
) , so Ravan being atheist is disproved. Since there is no definition of god as per se
quoted by purvpakshin. It is better to leave it.
 As I explained above, Shiva and his family were never considered as Gods and
their fan followers never identified themselves with any religion UNTIL the theistic
religion started in the name of Narayan (Vishnu) through his avatars.
 Associating body parts of Vishnu and his avatars with Lotus (Padma) for eg: Lotus
eyed, Lotus feet, Lotus hands, Lotus face.
Putting Sri (Lakshmi) as prefix to the names for eg: Sriman Narayana, Sri Hari, Sri
Maha Vishnu, Sri Ram, Srinivas, Sri Krishna.
Terminologies like Purushottam, Adi Purusha, Ved Purusha, 4 hands (Chaturbhuj).
Idea of giving Blue color (Neeli Megha Shyam) to Vishnu, Rama and Krishna body.
All these things originally came from Vishnu only.
 Vishnu Sahasranama, Vishwaroop, Bhagavad Gita, Garuda puran which talks
about punishments in Narak (hell), Vaikuntha (heaven), Swarga (materialistic
heaven), Padma puran, Paramatma, Jivatmata (soul), rebirth, moksha, yuga all such
notions and thoughts originally came from Narayan (Vishnu).

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  Later on people who were against these things started giving the same to Shiva. Like
Shiva Sahasranama, Shiva Vishwaroop in Shiva/Ishwar Gita where Shiva showed
his imaginary Vishwaroopam to Bhagavan Ram. After seeing the imaginary
Vishwaroop of Shiva, Sri Ram trembled with fear and fainted! These things are not
mentioned in Valmiki Ramayan.
 All the Acharyas (including Shankaracharya), Pandits, Philosophers used to go
behind Vishnu only. They were interested in giving commentaries only to Vishnu
Sahasranama, Bhagavad Gita etc.
No great acharyas (even Shankaracharya) gave importance or showed any interest in
writing commentaries on Shiva Sahasranamam or Shiva/Iswar Gita.

Answer:
 The shaiv aagamas extensively talk of 4 varnas and also of avarnas . “Not being part of
vedic civilisation” must be cleared from the ancient commentators of vedas like
Shayan and Bhaskar who to give the meaning of word Pashupati have resorted to the
aagamas. ( Shayan clears takes a verse from aagamas ) Certainly these vedic
commentators were more vedic than most people of Modern day who can even hardly
name the angas / organs of vedas .
 One of the source of many Shiv centric ideas is Shiv puran, mentioned alongside
Vishnu puran in the Bhagvatam while discussing verse numbers. And if the views of
Indologists ( this was taken from this etc ) , is dear to purvpakshin , he may give a look
to pashupati seal of Indus valley to document the antiquity . I will resort to shastra.
The views of Shayan etc Acharyas who consider The three eyed one to give liberation
has been not considered . Shiv-acharyas of Shaiv siddhant have not been considered .
But a general all acharya tag has been used . Many Acharyas did not present
commentary on Puranas too , so are they faulty and unauthentic ? This counter
question is to nullify the illogic in line.

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Favourites: We need to understand that Saivism and Vaishnavism were branches of
Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism), first created by Sri AdiSankara (before him there were no
such visible differences). The 6 branches of Hinduism suggested by AdiSankara were
Ganapathyam (Ganapathi / Pillaiyar worship), Kaumaram (Kumaran/Murugan worship),
Saivam (Siva worship), Saktham (Devi worship, primarily Parvathi/Durga/Amman worship),
Vaishnavam (Vishnu/Thirumal worship) and Souram (Surya worship).
In olden days these differences were more of personal choices rather than the hardline
differences that we see today. For e.g. father can worship Siva and son can worship Vishnu,
without conflicting with each other.
Each king therefore had their own preferred deity and built temples for those deities. If we
carefully notice, the first 4 (Pillaiyar, Murugan, Sivan and Durga) are from the same family.
Hence, we find lot of Saivite temples. Otherwise, ancient Tamizh kings patronized all these
branches equally. Here are some notable Vishnu temples built by Thamizh kings:
1. Thiruvallur Veeraraghava Perumal temple - Pallavas
2. Srirangam Ranganathar temple - Originally built by Dharmavarma Chozha. Later
renovated by Killivalavan (Chozha king from Sangam period)
3. Kanchipuram Varadaraja Perumal temple (and many other Vishnu temples in
Vishnu Kanchi) - Pallavas
4. Thirumala Thirupathi Temple - Thondaman chakravarthy. Later Jatavarman
Sundarapandiyan has also done renovation to this temple.

The differences between the Shaivas and Vaishnavas have always existed. I cannot point to
an exact date it began. But roughly we can take the start of Kali Yuga as the beginning.
I will not get into an argument of proving the supremacy of Vishnu or Shiva. But please note
that the purest Shaivas were saints such as Nayannars and others. The characteristic of a
Shaiva is to reject texts like Bhagavad Gita. The Vaishnavas very much accept Bhagavad
Gita. So as far as Shankaracharya is concerned he accepted the Bhagavad Gita so he was not
a Shaiva. He started a group called the Smartas. Shankaracharya's mission was not
particularly to unite the Shaivas and Vaishnavas. It was rather to defeat the Nastika schools

36
of though in India. Shaivas and Vaishnavas are Astika schools, which accept the supremacy
of Vedas.
From the beginning of Kali Yuga to about 10th century AD. The Shaivas and Vaishnavas
had difference of opinions which were resolved by philosophical debates. Most of the
Shaivas and Vaishnavas did not even want to debate and left each to his own choice. The
change from peaceful debates occurred essentially in 10-11th century AD when
Ramanujacharya roamed this earth. He was a devout Vaishnava and a scholar of Sanskrit and
Tamil. He was so learned than his fame spread far and wide.
I will narrate a few instances from his life regarding the resentment of Shaivas towards him.
Please bear with the lengthy historical events.
To be accepted as an authentic system of philosophy/theology in Sanatana Dharma, the ideas
should have a base acceptance from Bodhayana's Brahma Sutras. For this, just like
Shankaracharya wrote a commentary on it, Ramanujacharya also had to it. But the only
authentic known copy of it was kept in a library at Sarada Pitha in Kashmir. If you google
the place, you will see that it lies in the present day PoK. The Conflicts between Shaivaites
and Vaishnavaites arose of their ignorance and their decline in interest in understanding their
own Gods Shiva and Vishnu completely.
Let us now go by the Ithihaasas.
In the Mahabharatha we had Bhishma reciting the Vishnu sahasranama in the battlefield to
Yudhistra and Sri Krishna himself and Sri Krishna inturn recited the Shiva sahasranama.Now
Veda vyasa himself has given equal importance to both Shiva and Vishnu.Now I take Vyasa
words to be higher and equate both.
In Ramayana Rama an incarnation of Mahavishnu had worshipped Lord Shiva and glorified
him. Shiva had said Srirama rama ramethi rame raame manorame sahasranaama tathwalyam
rama nama varanane and glorified Rama nama.
Bhargava Rama an incarnation of Mahavishnu worshipped Lord Shiva and obtained the
divine axe "parashu".
Thirumangai Azhwar and Gnanasambandar have had a debate on the supremacy of saivism
and vaishnavism.Yet they didn't do the bashing stuff rather had high esteem for each other.
The work of Swami Desika(Sarva Tantra Swatantra), Yaadavaabhyudaya was commented by

37
Sri Appayya Dikshitar who was a Siva advaitin.Such was the respect they had for each other.
Swami Desika and Swami Vidhyaranya were the best friends and had love,affection and yet
had done justice to their individual sampradayas.
Sri Vadiraja tirtha who was a dvaitin(Madhva sampradaya) has done the pradhishta of
Manjunatha swami in the Dharmasthala Temple and yet he never moved away from his
tradition.
Adi shankara Bhagavath pada has written
Achyutashtakam,Pandurangashtakam,Ranganathashtakam to glorify Mahavishnu and also
Sivanandalahari to glorify Maheswara and Soundarya Lahari to glorify Shakthi Devi..
Sri Rudram of Krishna Yajur veda and Sri Purusha Suktham of Rig veda both honor Shiva
and Vishnu respectively.
I believe that Sri Ramanuja never propogated any hatred for any one.
Shivasya Hridayam Vishnu;Vishnusya Hridayam Shiva.
Shiva Vishnu roopaya Vishnu roopaya Shivaye..
This is my humble opinion.Now You have an actor to come on Silver screen and show the
differences between two sects of people.Now I agree this occured.We dont have someone to
say that we are the same believing in different ways of life.If we are devoid of Ego and
Ignorance we will never have such sectarian conflicts.

Cholas: Religion and Philosophy

(1) With the rise of devotional cults such as Shaivite and Vaishnavite cults from the 6
9th centuries A.D Buddhism practically disappeared from tamil country, but Jainism
managed to survive.
(2) The Chola ruler were patrons of Shaivism. Raja Raja I assumed the tittle of Shivapada
Shekhara and built the Raja Rajeswara temple. (Brihadeeswarar temple) at Tanjore and
dedicated it to Lord Shiva.
In the Chola period , Suddashaiva order appeared and the Vellala community supported this
order. Kapalikas and Kalamukhas which were shaivaite orders also influenced the people.

38
(3) The Chola rulers such as Kulottunga I resented Ramunuja who was a Vaishnavite
Saint who propounded the concept of Vishistadvaita. Ramanuja was though, successful in
broadening the social base of the Vaishnavite Cults.
Literature in the Chola Period
(1) Though Sanskrit was patronized by the Chola emperor, there were non significant
original works in the Chola period. Most Sanskrit works were commentaries on older
works.
(2) The language from dravidian root such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada started drawing
from Sanskrit and began evolving further.
(3) Much work was done in Tamil where Kambana translated the Ramayana from
Sanskrit and Began evolving further.
(4) Jayangondar composed Kalingattuparani which is an account of Kulottunga-I’s
kalinga war in detail.
(5) Sekkilar composed his famous periya Puranam (Tiruttondar Puranam) during the
times of Kulottunga II.
(6) Pugalendi wrote Nalavenba (the tragic story of Nala and Damyanti)

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 CHAPTER III
SANGAM LITERATURE

The Cholas were a Tamil kingdom of the pre and post Sangam period (600 BCE – 300 CE). It
was one of the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country.They were the builders of the
Chidambaram temple as well as amny other Temples Their early capitals
were Urayur and Kaveripattinam. Along with Pandyas and Cheras, Chola history goes back to
the period where written records were scarce.

Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Vendhar and
several chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir. Still
lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizhar or mannar. The Tamil area had an
independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs
were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were mostly
places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for
distribution of resources.

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in the Pillars
of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not
subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him. The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled
around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the
Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.

Another source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of
the Sangam Period. Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a
number of poems in the Tamil Sangam literatureThere are also brief notices on the Chola
country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant,
written in the time of Domitian (81 – 96 CE) and contains precious information of the Chola
country. Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy has more to tell us about the Chola
country, its port and its inland cities.

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The story of the Cholas comes to life in the Sangam literature, sometimes referred to as
the Caṅkam literature or Koodal literature (Tamil: சஙக இலககியம, caṅka
ilakkiyam) connotes the ancient Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South
India. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three literary gatherings
around Madurai (Pandyan capital): the first over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and
the third over 1,850 years before the start of the common era. Scholars consider this Tamil
tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical. Some of these scholars suggest the
historical Sangam literature era spanned from c. 300-BCE to 300-CE,while others variously
place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300
CE. According to Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable
range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and
quasi-historic allusions within the texts and the colophons.

The sculpted marvels which bejewel the ancient temples all across Tamil Nadu stand
testimony to the magnificence of Sangam age (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD) and
the prolific artistic innovations which are characteristic of that period. But that’s not
all there is to it. Matching the artistic and cultural fervour, trade activities were also at
an all-time high during the Sangam age. Evidentiating this claim, the Sangam
41
literature chronicles details of all the fine merchandise which were produced in
Ancient Tamilakam. Building up on their strengths, the Tamils ventured into lands far
and wide, establishing trading associations in foreign countries, some of which till
date retain imprints of their existence. Coupled with manifest cultural similarities,
archaeological and inscriptional evidence add on to the credibility of Sangam
literature by making a strong case for the existence of an extensive trade between
Tamilakam and the rest of the Old World.

Sangam Literature: Valuable source of Information on Trade

A palm-leaf manuscript (UVSL 589) with 100 folios, handwritten in miniature scripts by
Shaiva Hindus. This multi-text manuscript includes many Tamil texts, including the Sangam
era Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai. The folio languages include mainly Tamil and Sanskrit, with some
Telugu; scripts include Tamil, Grantha and Telugu. It is currently preserved in U.V. Swaminatha
Aiyar library in Chennai.

The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They
were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such as Arumuka Navalar (1822-1879), C. W.
Thamotharampillai (1832-1901) and U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar (1855-1942). Aiyar – a Tamil
scholar and a Shaiva pundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of
the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a
Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast of Kumbhakonam, he reached out to the
monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts.
Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted. There, Aiyar
discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature
Aiyar and other Tamil scholars collected and catalogued the manuscripts they found. Navalar
and Pillai hailed from Jaffna. Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an
assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularize Shaiva Hinduism
against missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil and Shaiva literature to wider
attention. He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 (Thirumurukaattuppadai, one of
the Ten Idylls). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary on Tolkappiyam.

42
Pillai, another Jaffna-based Tamil, brought out the first of the Eight Anthologies (Ettuththokai)
of the Sangam classics, the Kaliththokai, in 1887. Swaminathaiyar published his first print of the
Ten Idylls in 1889. Together, these scholars printed and
published Tholkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar Urai (1895), Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai,
(1868), Manimekalai (1898), Silappatikaram (1889), Pattuppāṭṭu (1889),
and Purananuru (1894), all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works
in all, including minor poems.

Significance: The Sangam literature is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments
in South India in parallel to Sanskrit, and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there
is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a
group of scholars centered around the ancient Madurai (Maturai) that shaped the "literary,
academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil
The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular
and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era Ainkurunuru poem 202 is
one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of Brahmin boys". These poems also allude to historical
incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households.

The Pattinappalai poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola
capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade,
the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god Murugan and the
monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory
and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000
years later in the 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work.

The Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going
linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian
subcontinent. One of the early loan words, for example, is acarya– from Sanskrit for a "spiritual
guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as aciriyan (priest, teacher,
scholar), aciriyam or akavar or akaval or akavu (a poetic meter).

43
The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is almost entirely non-religious, except
for the occasional mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in
the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of Paripaatal in the "Eight Anthologies" group
praises Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and Murugan. Similarly, the 150 poems of Kalittokai – also from
the Eight Anthologies group – mention Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of
the Mahabharata, Kama, Krishna, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical
love stories of India.[64] One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of Benares", an
evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets.
Some of the Paripaatal love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals (Magh Mela) and
various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such
cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture. Further, the colophons of
the Paripaatal poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of
musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late
Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient
civilization.

Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text, also recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants
of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants from Chola Country.
Chronicles such as the Yalpana Vaipava Malai and stone inscriptions like Konesar Kalvettu
recount that Kulakkottan, an early Chola king and descendant of Manu Needhi Cholan, was the
restorer of the ruined Koneswaram temple and tank at Trincomalee in 438 CE,
the Munneswaram temple of the west coast, and as the royal who settled ancient Vanniar.

The Sangam literature had fallen into oblivion for much of the second millennium of the
common era, but were preserved by and rediscovered in the monasteries of Hinduism,
particularly those related to Shaivism near Kumbhakonam, by the colonial era scholars in late
19th century. The rediscovered Sangam classical collection is largely a bardic corpus. It
comprises an Urtext of oldest surviving Tamil grammar (Tolkappiyam), the Ettuttokai anthology
(the "Eight Collections"), the Pattuppattu anthology (the "Ten Songs").The Tamil literature that

44
followed the Sangam period – that is, after c. 250 CE but before c. 600 CE – is generally called
the "post-Sangam" literature.

This collection contains 2381 poems in Tamil composed by 473 poets, some 102
anonymous.[8][16] Of these, 16 poets account for about 50% of the known Sangam literature,
with Kapilar – the most prolific poet – alone contributing just little less than 10% of the entire
corpus.These poems vary between 3 and 782 lines long. The bardic poetry of the Sangam era is
largely about love (akam) and war (puram), with the exception of the shorter poems such as
in paripaatal which is more religious and praise Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and Murugan.
On their significance, Zvelebil quotes A. K. Ramanujan, "In their antiquity and in their
contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic
Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is
balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid
detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence
of the Tamil genius. The Tamils, in all their 2,000 years of literary effort, wrote nothing better.

Sangam literally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David

Shulman – a scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the
Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many
millennia. The first has roots in the Hindu deity Shiva, his son Murugan, Kubera as well as 545
sages including the famed Rigvedic poet Agastya. The first academy, states the legend, extended
over 4 millennia and was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later
"swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman The second academy, also chaired by a very long-
lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was
swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, the Akattiyam and
the Tolkāppiyam survived and guided the third Sangam scholars.

A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about the 8th century CE – describes this
legend. The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears in Tirupputtur
Tantakam by Appar in about the 7th century CE, while an extended version appears in the 12th-
century Tiruvilaiyatal puranam by Perumparrap Nampi. The legend states that the third Sangam

45
of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists
six anthologies of Tamil poems (later a part of Ettuttokai):
 Netuntokai nanuru (400 long poems)
 Kuruntokai anuru (400 short poems)
 Narrinai (400 Tinai landscape poems)
 Purananuru (400 Outer poems)
 Ainkurunuru (500 very short poems)
 Patirruppattu (Ten Tens)
These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses Kumari Kandam have
been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have
stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer
and Classical literature should be used instead. According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest
shred of evidence that any such [Sangam] literary academies ever existed", though there are
many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states
Shulman, is the 10th-century Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who
sponsored the "translation of the Mahabharata into Tamil" and established a "Madhurapuri
(Madurai) Sangam".

According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads
one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the
Christian era". The homogeneity of the prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms
that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry" The Sangam literature is
also referred sometimes with terms such as caṅka ilakkiyam or "Sangam age poetry".
The Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous. According to
Nilakanta Sastri, the poets came from diverse backgrounds: some were from a royal family,
some merchants, some Brahmins, some farmers. At least 27 of the poets were women. These
poets emerged, states Nilakanta Sastri, in a milieu where the Tamil (Dravidian) society had
already interacted and inseparably amalgamated with north Indians (Indo-Aryan) and both sides
had shared mythology, values and literary conventions.

46
Sangam Landscape: The available literature from this period was categorised and compiled in
the 10th century into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are
the patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku ("the eighteen greater text series") comprising Ettuthogai (or Ettuttokai,
"Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppāṭṭu ("Ten Idylls"). According to Takanobu Takahashi, this
compilation is as follows:-

Ettuttokai

Name Extant poems Original poems Lines in poems Number of poets

Narrinai 400 400 9–12 175

Kuruntokai 402 400 4–8 205

Ainkurunuru 499 500 3–6 5

Patirruppattu 86 10x10 varies 8

Paripatal 33 70 varies 13

Kalittokai 150 150 varies 5

Akananuru 401 400 12–31 145

Purananuru 398 400 varies 157

Pattuppattu[15]

Name Lines Author

Tirumurukarruppatai 317 Nakkirar

Porunararruppatai 234 Mutattamakkanniyar

Cirupanarruppatai 296 Nattattanar

Perumpanarruppatai 500 Uruttirankannaiyar

Mullaippattu 103 Napputanar

Maturaikkanci 782 Mankuti Marutanar

Netunalvatai 188 Nakkirar

47
 Kurincippattu 261 Kapilar

Pattinappalai 301 Uruttirankannanar

Malaipatukatam 583 Perunkaucikanar

Classification
Sangam literature is broadly classified into akam (அகம, inner), and puram (புறம,
outer). The akam poetry is about emotions and feelings in the context of romantic love, sexual
union and eroticism. The puram poetry is about exploits and heroic deeds in the context of war
and public life. Approximately three-fourths of the Sangam poetry is akam themed, and about
one fourth is puram.
Sangam literature, both akam and puram, can be subclassified into seven minor genre
called tiṇai (திணை). This minor genre is based on the location or landscape in which the
poetry is set.[31] These are: kuṟiñci (குறிஞசி), mountainous regions; mullai (முலணல),

pastoral forests; marutam (மருதம), riverine agricultural land; neytal (நெயதல) coastal
regions; pālai (பாணல) arid. In addition to the landscape based tiṇais, for akam poetry, ain-
tinai (well matched, mutual love), kaikkilai (ill matched, one sided), and perunthinai (unsuited,
big genre) categories are used. The Ainkurunuru – 500 short poems anthology – is an example of
mutual love poetry.

Similar tiṇais pertain to puram poems as well, categories are sometimes based on
activity: vetchi (cattle raid), vanchi (invasion, preparation for
war), kanchi (tragedy), ulinai (siege), tumpai (battle), vakai (victory), paataan (elegy and
praise), karanthai , and pothuviyal.[31] The akam poetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the
mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves the context as well that the community
will fill in and understand given their oral tradition. The puram poetry is more direct, uses names
and places, states Takanobu Takahashi.

48
The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit
more diverse. The two meters found in the early poetry are akaval and vanci.The fundamental
metrical unit in these is the acai (metreme), itself of two types – ner and nirai. The ner is the
stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while the nirai is the unstressed/short
syllable combination (pyrrhic (dibrach) and iambic) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the
Sanskrit prosody tradition. The acai in the Sangam poems are combined to form a cir (foot),
while the cir are connected to form a talai, while the line is referred to as the ati. The sutras of
the Tolkappiyam – particularly after sutra 315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34
component parts of ancient Tamil poetry.
The prosody of an example early Sangam poem is illustrated by Kuruntokai
ciruvel laravi navvarik kurulai
kana yanai yananki yaan
kilaiyan mulaiva leyirrai
valaiyutaik kaiyalem mananki yolc
– Kuruntokai 119, Author: Catti Nataanr
The prosodic pattern in this poem follows the 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according to akaval, also
called aciriyam, Sangam meter rule:
=–/=–/–=/=–
––/––/=–/––
=–/=–/=–
==/–=/=–/––

Note: "=" is a ner, while "–" is a nirai in Tamil terminology.

A literal translation of Kuruntokai 119
little-white-snake of lovely-striped young-body
jungle elephant troubling like
the young-girl sprouts-brightness toothed-female
bangle(s) possessing hand(s)-female"
– Translator: Kamil Zvelebil
English interpretation and translation of Kuruntokai 119:[39]

49
As a little white snake
with lovely stripes on its young body
troubles the jungle elephant
this slip of a girl
her teeth like sprouts of new rice
her wrists stacked with bangles
troubles me.
– Creative translator: A.K. Ramanujan (1967)
This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives the Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness,
terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza. The metrical
patterns within the akaval meter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations. The later Sangam
era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4). The
later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as the Kali meter in Kalittokai and the
mixed Paripatal meter in Paripatal.

Early Cholas: The inscriptions of the Medieval Cholas are replete with history about the Early
Chola kings. The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. These historic incidents
speak of the Chola king Kantaman, supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion
brought the river Kavery into existence. There is also the story of the king Manu who sentenced
his son to death for having accidentally killed a calf. Mahavamasa portrays King Elara who was
defeated by Duttha Gamini (c. 3rd century BCE) as the just king who '..had a bell with a rope
attached at the head of his bed, so that all who sought redress might ring it..'. King Sibi who
rescued a dove from a hawk by giving his own flesh to the hungry hawk was also part of the
early Chola history.
These historic incidents received enormous emphasis in the later Chola period in the long
mythical genealogies incorporated into the copper-plate charters of the 10th and 11th centuries.
The earliest version of this is found in the Anbil Plates which gives fifteen names before
Vijayalaya Cholan including the historical ones of Karikala, Perunarkilli and Kocengannan. The
Thiruvalangadu Plate swells this list to forty-four, and the Kanyakumari Plate runs up to fifty-
two. There are other lists gathered from literary works such as Kalingathuparani. No two of
these lists agree, although some names and details are common to all.

50
The chola kings namely dharmavarcholan and killivalavan developed the shrine of Srirangam
into big temple seen now. They laid the Basic foundations and primary Buildings. Killi, Thiru
Mangai, Kulasekaran, Rajamahendra and Thiru Vikrama were named in the Sri Ranganathar
temple in Tiruchchirappalli as being ancestors of Killivallavan. Dharmavarma was another
ancestor of Killivallavan, possibly his father. It is located in the middle of the Trichy town.
The earliest Chola kings of whom we have tangible evidence are those mentioned in the Sangam
literature, written in the period 200 BCE–300 CE. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to
piece together an internal chronology of the Sangam works. Due to this, we know of several
rulers, but not their chronology. All three kings have been portrayed as fighting the war or
involved in feeding both the armies at that legendary war.
Karikala Chola
Karikala Chola (c. 90 BCE) stands pre-eminent amongst all those mentioned in Pattinappaalai.
Karikala's father was Ilamcetcenni, a brave king and a hard fighter. 'Karikala' means 'elephant
feller' or 'charred leg', which is assumed to be a reference to an accident by fire which befell the
prince early in his life. Pattinappaalai describes this accident and the enterprising way in which
the prince escaped and established himself in the Chola throne. Pattinappalai is a long poem on
the then Chola capital Kaveripattinam. This work also describes the numerous battles Karikala
fought against the other two Tamil kings in one of which the Chera king was disgraced (received
a wound on his back) and committed suicide. Karikala thus broke the confederacy that was
formed against him and established hegemony over Pandyas and Cheras.

Kallanai / Grand Anicut built by Karikala Cholan, on the River Kaveri, near Tiruchirappalli
In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in
inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest
of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks, Grand Anicut,

51
of the Kaveri River with the aid of his feudatories. These legends however are conspicuous by
their absence in the works of Sangam.
Nalankilli and Nedunkilli
The poet Kovur Kilar mentions a protracted civil war between two Chola
chieftains Nalankilli and Nedunkilli. Nedunkilli shut himself in a fort in Avur, which was being
besieged by Mavalattan, Nalankilli's younger brother. The poet chided Nedunkilli to come out
and fight like a man instead of causing untold misery to the people of the city.
In another poem, the poet begs both the princes to give up the civil war as whoever wins, the
loser will be a Chola.
Kocengannan
Kalavali by Poygayar mentions the Chola King Kocengannan and his battle with the Chera king
Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera was taken prisoner and Poygayar, who was a friend of the
Chera, sang a poem praising the Chola King Kochchenganan in 40 stanzas. The Chola king,
pleased with the work, released the Chera. Kalavali describes the battle fought at Kalumalam,
near the Chera capital. Kocengannan is one of the 63 nayanars.
Kocengannan became the subject of many instances in later times and is portrayed as a
pious Siva devotee who built many fine temples for Siva along the banks of the river Kaveri.
Sangam literature gives an unusually complete and true picture of the social and economic
conditions during the early chola period. The culture is best described as an amalgam of
the Dravidian and Aryan. The stories of Mahabharata and Ramayana were well known to the
Tamil people, shown by the claims of some kings to have fed both the opposing army in the
Mahabharata War. The claim that Sibi, who gave his own flesh to save a dove, as a Chola is
obviously influenced by northern legends.
The land of the Cholas was fertile and there was ample food. Sangam poems say that in the
Chola country watered by the river Kaveri, in a space in which an elephant could lie, one can
produce enough grain to feed seven.
Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government. Disputed succession and civil war
was not uncommon. The sphere of the state activity was limited. In a society steeped in respect
for custom, even the most perverse dictator could not have done much harm.
The Chola monarchs were approachable by subjects and justice was meted out directly by the
king in most occasions. This is in marked contrast to the magnificent empires of the later Cholas

52
where the Emperor was kept much away from contact with the lay people. The kings often took
the field in person in battles and if the kings was killed or wounded in battle, his army
immediately gave up the fight and surrendered.
The trade that flourished between the Chola country and the ancient Roman Empire is given in
much detail by Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 75 CE).
Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable
vividness.
1. Sangam literature doesn’t help much to dig POLITICAL history of South India.
2. Sangam literature helps understanding the SOCIAL condition of South India.
3. Sangam literature helps understanding ECONOMIC condition of South India.
1. Three Sangams held between 100-250AD
I. First sangam: attended by Gods and Sages. Work didn’t survive.
II. Second: only Tolkappiyam (grammar book) survives = doesn’t help much.
III. Third (last) Sangam: has eight anthologies (Ettutogai). Here too, not all work has
survived. + has following limitations:
2. Since poets were patronized by ruling elites- exaggerations about the victories, territorial
influence. Even a cattle raid on village would be narrated as war.
3. More focus Hero-worship rather than how they shaped power balance and foreign relation
with other states.
4. some of the names, titles, dynasties, territories, wars and like mentioned these poems
are imaginary.
5. No archeological evidences to corroborate certain settlements mentioned in Sangam Poems.
e.g. Kaveripattanam.
6. Many of these poems are erotic / romantic in nature.
7. Much of the work still untranslated. Thorough study yet to be done.

Social conditions in Sangam Age

From Sangam literature, we get following information about South Indian society:
1. While three Sangams were held, only the last gathering provides material relevant to
political history.

53
 2. With Hero worship as prime focus, Poets often exaggerated victories and territories of
the kings.
3. Some of the names, places, dynasties, territories are imaginary and not corroborated by
archeological evidences.
4. Part of the literature is erotic and romantic in nature.
5.
2. Sagam Litt. Gives social picture:
1. Society cherished love, wars and heroes.
2. Bards, priests and poets received royal patronage.
3. Poets mention four varnas: Nobility, priests, traders and farmers.
4. Society divided into clans (Kuti), however dining and social interactions permitted
among them.
5. Unlike North India, the South Indian society did not have stringent 4-fold varna
stratification and Jati system.
6. Women were allowed to choose partners, but life of widows was miserable.
3. Sagam Litt. Gives economy picture:
1. Five economic zones (tinai) viz. hills, drylands, jungle, plains and coast, each supporting
a different economic activity.
2. Agriculture, hunting, gathering, fishing and pastoralism were primary occupations.
Crafting, weaving served as secondary source of income.
3. Women formed a significant part of labour force, particularly in paddy cultivation, craft
and weaving.
4. Kings received income from trade, tributes and plunder. Regular system of taxation was
absent. However, export of pepper, ivory, silk, cotton and booty from raids made the
kings wealthy.

Chola Temples

Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture.

100 words can be easily gathered from any of the following books, but the real problem= can
you recall decent points worth 100 words in the actual exam hall?

54
The Cholas followed and refined Pallava architecture, with following notable features:
1. Use of stones instead of bricks.
2. Walls decorated with sculptures and paintings of deities, kings and queen instead of lion
motifs from Pallava.
3. Temples are enclosed by decorative walls and entrance (Gopuram);
4. have an audience hall (Mandap); a deity room (Garbhgriha); a pyramid like storey above the
deity room (Vimana)
5. Ultimately the beautiful Shikara stone at the top – each with elaborate and meticulous
carvings- Weighing in tonnes yet placed without help of cranes.
During their reign, Cholas studded the entire Tamil landscape with such temples including
Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara, Airavateshwara and Chidambaram -their style even followed
by other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka.
1. In South India, religious dancing was part of the earliest known tradition –and Shiva himself
is considered to have invented no less than 108 different dances.

55
2. Some of his dances are calm and gentle, while others fierce, orgiastic, heroic, bold, vigorous
and terrible- such as the Tandava dance of Nataraja.
3. Tandava and Lasya, are two basic aspects of Classical Indian Dance, associated with Shiva
and Parvati respectively.
4. In Tandava dance form, the angry Shiva is surrounded by his drunken attendants (ganas), he
beats out a wild rhythm which destroys the world at the end of the cosmic cycle.
5. Thus Tandava dance is meant to give symbolic expression to religious idea of Shiva being
the Destroyer among the trinity of Bramha, Vishnu and Mahesh.
Although original question is “Discuss Tandava as recorded in the early Indian inscriptions”=
so even above answer is incomplete. Because it doesn’t talk about any inscriptions. Finally
“Wikipedia” (=the most unreliable source for MCQs), gives the seemingly right points.
Ancient Hindu scriptures narrate various occasions when Shiva or other gods have performed
the Tandava viz.
1. When Sati jumped in sacrificial fire in Daksha’s Yajna to give up her life, Shiva performed
the Rudra Tandava to express his grief and anger.
2. The Bhagavata Purana talks of Krishna dancing his Tandava on the head of the serpent
Kaliya.
3. According to Jain text: Indra performed Tandava in honour of Rishabha’s birth (Jain
tirthankar).
4. Shivapradosha stotra mentions: when Shiva performs the Sandhya Tandava, the other gods
like Brahma, Vishnu, Sarasvati, Lakshmi and Indra play musical instruments and sing
Shiva’s praises.
5. In some temple sculptures, Ganesha is depicted in Eight armed form, dancing the Tandava.
1. Tandava and Lasya, are two basic aspects of Classical Indian Dance. Shiva himself is
considered to have invented atleast 108 different dances- including the fiercely aggressive
Tandava- where he destroys the world at the end of the cosmic cycle.
2. Thus Tandava is meant to give symbolic expression to religious idea of Shiva being the
Destroyer among the trinity of Gods.
3. Ancient Hindu scriptures narrate many incidents where Tandava was performed including:
a. Shiva at the death of Sati, to express his grief and anger.
b. Krishna on the head of serpant Kaliya

56
 c. Indra at the birth of Jain Tirthkar Rishabhdev
d.
How Cholas built efficient economy

It was while reading Kalki's 'Ponniyin Selvan' that Ram Shankar, a chartered account ant
realised, the contributions of the Chola dynasty, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in south
India, to the economy and culture of Tamil Nadu. Many scholars have studied the cultural
aspects of the Cholas, but only a few have looked into the economic policies of the dynasty.
Keeping this in mind, Shankar travelled to the Chola heartland. From temples to inscriptions, his
journey took him across the Cauvery delta, once the heartland of the Cholas. And out of his
experiences and travel was born 'Cholanomics: Social pursuit of Cholas with temple as
epicenter', a book that presents a socio economic view on the contributions of Cholas to the
development of Tamil Nadu with the temple as the epicenter of community. There is an
interesting tale behind the title of the book. "While working on the book one day I wondered
why everyone trumpets about 'Reaganomics' and 'Clintonomics' when we have the rich heritage
of Cholas, their social pursuits and good governance right here in our backyard. I felt I should
bring the wonders of the Chola dynasty to the living rooms of people," he said.
Peppered with stunning photographs, the book based on the medieval Chola period, focuses on
governance rather than conquest. "I have compiled my views on the economic policy, social

57
pursuits and good governance of the Cholas. Unlike 'Reaganomics' and 'Clintonomics', the idea
of 'Cholanomics' is to convey that the Cholas considered economic expansion and the
development of socially inclusive society as two sides of the same coin," he said.
The period when the Cholas ruled the region -the Tamil Nadu of today -is often called the golden
era of Tamil Nadu as it witnessed a spurt of socio-economic and cultural activities during their
reign. "The Cholas ruled continuously for close to 430 years (AD 850 to 1280). It is a monarchy
lasting over 20 generations.

Rajaraja Chola I was the first Chola king to document archives on stone tablets and copper plates
about the achievements, conquests, royal orders, endowments and gifts of the dynasty. "Copper
plates were generally strung together by enormous rings with the state's circular seal stamped on
them. They were called 'Meikeerthi' meaning historic facts," he said.
An interesting fact about the Chola's economic policy is that they had to create policies and
governance for a sustainable economic expansion as early as 9th century from scratch. The
Cholas even conducted extensive land survey and graded lands for the purpose of taxation.
Although the Chola kings built huge granite temples, they chose to reside in houses made of
brick and mortar. "The kings' simple style of living shows their commitment to public service
that was uncommon in other contemporary empires," said Shankar. Published by Alpha
Publishers, the book gives a basic insight into the style of functioning of a great dynasty.

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 CHAPTER IV
The Chola Dynasty: Exploring the Achievements of an Indian Empire Spanning 400 Years

The Chola Dynasty was a dynasty that ruled over the southern part of India for about 400 years.
Although there were some up’s and down’s, including a time when Chola princesses were the
only ones able to keep the dynasty’s prestige afloat, the empire had a major impact on politics,
arts, literature, philosophy, and architecture in ancient India.
The best recorded part of their history dates to between the 9th and 13th centuries. It was during
that time that the Chola Dynasty reached the height of its power, as the dynasty’s territories
included not only the southern part of mainland India, but also the islands of Sri Lanka and the
Maldives. Furthermore, the influence of the Chola rulers extended as far afield as maritime
Southeast Asia, including modern day Indonesia and Peninsula Malaysia.

The ornamented pillars at the Airavateswara temple at Darasuram are a classic example of Chola art and architecture. Chola

bronze of Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as the Goddess Parvati.

Early Rulers of the Chola Dynasty

It is unknown when the Chola Dynasty was founded, although it is traditionally said to have been
in existence before the period when the early Sangam poems were written, i.e. around the 2nd

59
century AD. The Chola rulers of this period are referred to as the ‘Early Cholas’, and form the
first period in the history of the Chola Dynasty.
The main source of information about this period is the Sangam literature, though this source
deals mainly with legends about mythical Chola kings. For instance, the Cholas are recorded to
have claimed descent from the Sun. Other sources that mention the Cholas include a Greco-
Roman periplus () entitled Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , and inscriptions found on the pillars
erected by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.
Hanging on then Expanding
The second period in the history of the Chola Dynasty is known as the ‘Interregnum’. This began
around the end of the Sangam era, i.e. around 300 AD, when the Chola Dynasty fell from power.
As a consequence, the southern part of India was divided between the Pallava and Pandya
Kingdoms. Although the Cholas experienced a decline, the dynasty did not become extinct, and
it is supposed that they served as sub-rulers under these new powers. Moreover, the new powers
left the Cholas alone for the most part, perhaps due to the prestige that they still had. It was also
due to this prestige that the Pallavas and Pandyas were willing to marry Chola princesses.

This Interregnum period came to an end around the middle of the 9th century AD. That was
when the Pallavas and the Pandyas were in conflict with each other, and the Cholas, under the
leadership of Vijayalaya, seized the opportunity to rise up against them. The uprising was a
success and led to the establishment of the ‘Medieval Chola’ period.
Vijayalaya’s successors continued to expand Chola territory in southern India, eventually
subjugating both the Pallavas and the Pandyas. Once the Tamil-speaking regions of southern
India were under the control of the Cholas (by 985 AD), the Chola rulers sought to expand still
further. Under Rajaraja Chola I (r. 985 – 1014 AD) and his successor, Rajendra Chola (r. 1014 –
1044 AD), the Chola Dynasty reached its pinnacle. Under these two rulers, the Cholas conquered
Sri Lanka, expanded their territory to the north as far as the Ganges River, and even brought
maritime Southeast India under their sphere of influence.

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Mural depicting Raja and his guru Karuvuruvar found in the Brihadeesvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century. Detail of the
main Vimanam (Tower) of the Great Temple at Thanjavur.

The Later Chola Period

The last period in the history of the Chola Dynasty is referred to as the ‘Later Chola’ period,
which began not long after Rajendra Chola’s reign, and ended during the latter half of the 13th
century AD. The first ruler of this period was Kulothunga I, whose father was an Eastern
Chalukyan prince, and mother a Chola princess. Thus, the rulers of the Later Chola period were
known also as the Chalukya Cholas. Due to his parentage, Kulothunga inherited both the lands of
the Chola and those of the Eastern Chalukyas. The latter, however, was crumbling at that time,
and Kulothunga decided to abandon his claim on it, and focused on his Chola domains.
The Chola Dynasty came to an end in 1279 AD, when it was overthrown by the Pandyans.

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Kulothunga I Chola instructs the surveyors 1086 AD. ( Public Domain )

Chola Impact on Arts and Culture

The Cholas had a huge impact on India, especially the Tamil-speaking parts of southern India,
not only from a political dimension, but also in the arts and culture. Thanks to the patronage of
the Chola rulers, numerous Hindu temples, including the Thanjavur Temple, and the
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple, were built.

Additionally, many bronze sculptures of incredibly high-quality were also produced during this
time, several of which have survived till this day. Literature flourished under the Chola rulers
too, and education was promoted, leading to a high literacy rate amongst their subjects.

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 CHAPTER V

The Untold Legacy of Rajendra Chola I

The region of Tamil Nadu or Tamilakam, in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of
having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. Throughout its
history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with
various external cultures.

The three ancient Tamil dynasties namely Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins.
Together they ruled over this land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth
of some of the oldest extant literature in the world. These three dynasties were in constant
struggle with each other vying for hegemony over the land. Invasion by the Kalabhras during the
3rd century disturbed the traditional order of the land, displacing the three ruling kingdoms.
These occupiers were overthrown by the resurgence of the Pandyas and the Pallavas, who
restored the traditional kingdoms. The Cholas who re-emerged from obscurity in the 9th century
by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas rose to become a great power and extended their
empire over the entire southern peninsula.] At its height the Chola empire spanned almost
3,600,000 km² (1,389,968 sq mi) straddling the Bay of Bengal.The Chola navy held sway over
the Sri Vijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia.

Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to incursions of Muslim
armies from the northwest and the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the 14th century,

63
the Tamil country became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. Under this empire,
the Telugu speaking Nayak governors ruled before the European trading companies appeared
during the 17th century eventually assuming greater sway over the indigenous rulers of the land.
The Madras Presidency, comprising most of southern India, was created in the 18th century and
was ruled directly by the British. After the independence of India, after the Telugu and
Malayalam parts of Madras state were separated from Tamilakam state in 1956, it was renamed
as Tamil Nadu in 1969 by the state government.

Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Vendhar and
several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir.
Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizhar or mannar. During the 3rd
century BCE, the Deccan was part of the Maurya Empire, and from the middle of the 1st century
BCE to 2nd century CE the same area was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area had
an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and
chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over the property. The royal courts were
mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were
centres for distribution of resources. Tamil literature Tolkappiyam sheds some light on early
religion. Gradually the rulers came under the influence of Vedic beliefs, which encouraged

64
performance of sacrifices to enhance the status of the ruler. Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika co-
existed with early Shaivite, Vaishnavism and Shaktism during the first five centuries.

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in the Pillars of
Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject
to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him. The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around
150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil
kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years. Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola.
He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Sangam poetry. In later times Karikala was the
subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of
the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the
Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks of the river Kaveri with the aid of his
feudatories. These legends, however, are conspicuous by their absence in the Sangam
poetry. Kocengannan was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of
poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a Saiva saint during the medieval period.

Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula,
and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well
as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. Megasthenes in his Indika mentions the
Pandyan kingdom.[30] The Pandyas controlled the present districts of Madurai, Tirunelveli, and
parts of south Kerala. They had trading contacts with Greece and Rome. With the other
kingdoms of Tamilakam, they maintained trading contacts and marital relationships with Tamil
merchants from Eelam. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam
literature. Among them, Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam' deserves a special
mention. Besides several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections,
there are two major works—Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection
of Pattupattu) that give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan
kingdom during the Sangam age. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the 3rd
century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras.

The kingdom of the Cheras comprised the modern Western Tamil Nadu and Kerala, along the
western or Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with
Africa. Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries AD. It records the names of the kings, the

65
princes, and the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still
far from settled, and at present, a connected account of the history of the period cannot be
derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the rulers
referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous
for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram.

These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in Tamil. The
classical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature is attributed to the period between 500
BCE and 300 CE. The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and material
topics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period. These
Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into various
occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although
the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the
adherence to the established order (dharma). The people were loyal to their kings and roving
bards and musicians and danseuse gathered at the royal courts of the generous kings. The arts of
music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types find
mention in the Sangam poems. The amalgamation of the southern and the northern styles of
dancing started during this period and is reflected fully in the epic Cilappatikaram.

Internal and external trade was well organised and active. Evidence from both archaeology and
literature speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with the Yavanas (Greeks). The port city
of Puhar on the east coast and Muziris on the west coast of south India were emporia of foreign
trade, where huge ships moored, offloading precious merchandise.[39] This trade started to
decline after the 2nd century CE and the direct contact between the Roman empire and the
ancient Tamil country was replaced by trade with the Arabs and the Auxumites of East Africa.
Internal trade was also brisk and goods were sold and bartered. Agriculture was the main
profession of a vast majority of the populace.

Dark Age: After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there is an
almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300
CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described
in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a stranglehold
of the country. information about their origin and details about their reign is scarce. They did not

66
leave many artifacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered
mentions in Buddhist and Jain literature.

Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or Jain faiths and were antagonistic
towards the Hindu religions (viz. the Astika schools) adhered by the majority of inhabitants of
the Tamil region during the early centuries CE . As a result, Hindu scholars and authors who
followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century may have expunged any mention of them in
their texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this
reason, the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age'—an interregnum. Some of the ruling
families migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras.
Jainism and Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical
poetry.

Writing became very widespread and vatteluttu evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi became a
mature script for writing Tamil. While several anthologies were compiled by collecting bardic
poems of earlier centuries, some of the epic poems such as the Cilappatikaram and didactic
works such as the Tirukkural were also written during this period The patronage of the Jain and
Buddhist scholars by the Kalabhra kings influenced the nature of the literature of the period, and
most of the works that can be attributed to this period were written by the Jain and Buddhist
authors. In the field of dance and music, the elite started patronising new polished styles, partly
influenced by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cut
temples belong to this period. Brick temples (known as kottam, devakulam, and palli) dedicated
to various deities are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th
century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.

Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil
Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction
to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of
the 7th century. There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of Saiva
and Vaishnava literature was created. Many Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alvars provided a
great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature. Karaikkal Ammaiyar who lived in
the 6th century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva
hymnists Sundaramurthi, Thirugnana Sambanthar and Thirunavukkarasar were of this period.

67
Vaishnava Alvars such as Poigai Alvar, Bhoothathalvar and Peyalvar produced devotional
hymns for their faith and their songs were collected later into the four thousand poems
of Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham.

Age of Empires 600-1300 BC: The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the
rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting
influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age
were entirely absent during the first few centuries. The period started with the rivalry between
the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on
to becoming a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period
was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious
literature were at their best.

The Hindu sects Saivism and Vaishnavism became dominant, replacing the prevalence of Jainism
and Buddhism of the previous era. Saivism was patronised more by the Chola kings and became
more or less a state religion. Some of the earliest temples that are still standing were built during this
period by the Pallavas. The rock-cut temples in Mamallapuram and the majestic Kailasanatha and
Vaikuntaperumal temples of Kanchipuram stand testament to the Pallava art. The Cholas, utilising
their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests, built long-lasting stone temples
including the great Brihadisvara temple of Thanjavur and exquisite bronze sculptures. Temples
dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money, jewels, animals, and land, and
thereby became powerful economic institutions.

Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Religious
literature flourished during the period. The Tamil epic, Kamban's Ramavatharam, was written in the
13th century. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poet Auvaiyar who found great happiness
in writing for young children. The secular literature was mostly court poetry devoted to the eulogy of
the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period and the classical literature of the Sangam
period were collected and systematised into several anthologies. Sanskrit was patronised by the
priestly groups for religious rituals and other ceremonial purposes. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a
contemporary of Rajaraja Chola I, collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books
called Tirumurais. The hagiology of Saivism was standardised in Periyapuranam by Sekkilar, who
lived during the reign of Kulothunga Chola II (1133–1150 CE). Jayamkondar's Kalingattupparani, a

68
semi-historical account on the two invasions of Kalinga by Kulothunga Chola I was an early example
of a biographical work.

Pallavas, The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas. The Pandyas between (560–
590) and around 850 came the Cholas

Pandyan Empire
They rose out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict
between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur from Mutharaiyar dynasty and eventually
established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and
his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and
killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. The Chola kingdom
under Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However, towards the end of his
reign, he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well
into the Chola kingdom.

The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace
intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts, the Pandya country could not be
completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However, the
Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable
military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son Rajendra Chola I. The
Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks
of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts
of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola
conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom.[65] He
defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new
capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its

69
peak, the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin
in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged
Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.
Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia. During the
reign of Rajaraja and Rajendra, the administration of the Chola empire matured considerably.
The empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officials
were selected through a system of popular elections.

Brihadishwara Temple

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient Sinhalas trying
to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their
traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The
history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A
balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance
of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of
contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.
The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the
endless battles and a stalemate existed.

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located
on the south banks of the river Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his

70
invasion of Vengi. Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil
disturbance in 1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya
Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra. The Chalukya Chola
dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however, the
eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost
control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.[69] Around
1118 they also lost the control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and
Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a
Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration
caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and
the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent
Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the
Pandyas. Rajendra Chola III was the last Chola king. The Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga
I even captured Rajendra and held him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra's reign (1279), the
Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola
kingdom.[70] The Cholas also found a place in the very famous novel by Kalki title Ponniyin
Selvan which portrays the whole Chola history with Rajaraja Cholan ( Ponniyin Selvan, Arul
Mozhi Varman, Vallavarayan Vanthiyaththevan, Karikalar, Nandhini, Kundhavi) as the
characters of the novel.

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty of southern India, one of the longest-ruling dynasties
in the world's history. The earliest datable references to the Chola are in inscriptions from the 3rd
century BCE left by Ashoka, of the Maurya Empire (Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13). As one
of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty
continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. Despite these ancient
origins, the period when it is appropriate to speak of a "Chola Empire" only begins with
the medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE.

Vijayalaya 848–891(?)

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Aditya I 891–907

Parantaka I 907–950

Gandaraditya 950–957

Arinjaya 956–957

Sundara (Parantaka II) 957–970

Aditya II (co-regent)

Uttama 970–985

Rajaraja I 985–1014

Rajendra I 1012–1044

Rajadhiraja 1044–1054

Rajendra II 1054–1063

Virarajendra 1063–1070

Athirajendra 1070–1070

Later Cholas

Kulothunga I 1070–1120

Vikrama 1118–1135

Kulothunga II 1133–1150

Rajaraja II 1146–1173

Rajadhiraja II 1166–1178

Kulothunga III 1178–1218

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 Rajaraja III 1216–1256

Rajendra III 1246–1279

Related dynasties

Telugu Cholas of Andhra

Chodagangas of Kalinga

Nidugal Cholas of Karnataka

Rajahnate of Cebu

Chola Empire
The genealogy of the Chola empire as found in the Tamil literature and in the many inscriptions
left by the later Chola kings contains a number of kings recorded for whom there is no verifiable
historic evidence. There are as many versions of this lineage as there are sources for them. The
main source is the Sangam literature – particularly, religious literature such as Periapuranam,
semi-biographical poems of the later Chola period such as the temple and cave inscription and
left by medieval Cholas.
Irrespective of the source, no list of the kings has a high level of historic fact and, while they
generally are similar to each other, no two lists are exactly the same. Modern historians [who?]
consider these lists not as historically reliable sources but as comprehensive conglomerations of
various Hindu deities and Puranic characters attributed to local chieftains and invented ancestry
of dynasty attempting to re-establish their legitimacy and supremacy in a land they were trying to
conquer.
Prehistorical Cholas
A number of typical hero and demi-gods found their place in the ancestry claimed by the later
Cholas in the long typical genealogies incorporated into the copper-plate charters and stone
inscription of the tenth and eleventh centuries. The earliest version of this is found in the kilbil
Plates which gives fifteen names before Chola including the genuinely historical ones of
Karikala, Perunarkilli and Kocengannan. The Thiruvalangadu Plate swells this list to forty-four,
and the Kanya Plate runs up to fifty-two.

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The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. These myths speak of a Chola king,
supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kavery into
existence. There is also the story of the king Manu Needhi Cholan who sentenced his son to
death for having accidentally killed a calf. He was called thus because he followed the rules of
Manu; his real name is not mentioned and is thought to be Ellalan according to Maha vamsam
who was also attributed with a similar story. King Shivi who rescued a dove from a hunter by
giving his own flesh to the hungry and poor hunter was also part of the early Chola legends.
King Shivi was also called Sembiyan, a popular title assumed by a number of Chola kings.
Cholas of the Sangam period
The early Chola kings of the Sangam period and the life of people contributed much to the
cultural wealth of the Tamil country. The Sangam literature is full of legends about the mythical
Chola kings.
The dates of accession are approximate interpolation of the Chronological standpoints in Tamil
history.

 Eri Oliyan Vaendhi C. 3020 BCE

 Maandhuvaazhi C. 2980 BCE
 El Mei Nannan C. 2945 BCE
 Keezhai Kinjuvan C. 2995 BCE
 Vazhisai Nannan C. 2865 BCE
 Mei Kiyagusi Aerru C. 2820 BCE
 Aai Kuzhi Agusi Aerru C. 2810 BCE
 Thizhagan Maandhi C. 2800 BCE
 Maandhi Vaelan C. 2770 BCE
 Aai Adumban C. 2725 BCE
 Aai Nedun jaet chozha thagaiyan C. 2710 BCE
 El Mei Agguvan a.k.a. Keezh nedu mannan C. 2680 BCE
 Mudiko Mei Kaalaiyam Thagaiyan C. 2650 BCE
 Ilangok keezh kaalaiyan thagaiyan a.k.a. Ilangeezh nannan C. 2645 BCE -start of Kadamba
lineage by his brother Aai Keezh Nannan
 Kaalaiyan gudingyan C. 2630 BCE
 Nedun gaalayan dhagayan C. 2615 BCE
 Vaengai nedu vael varaiyan C.2614 BCE
 Vaet kaal kudingyan C. 2600 BCE
 Maei Ila vael varaiyan C. 2590 BCE
 Sibi Vendhi C. 2580 BCE
 Paru nonji chaamazhingyan C. 2535 BCE
 Vaeqratrtri chembiya chozhan C. 2525 BCE
 Saamazhi chozhiya vaelaan C. 2515 BCE
 Uthi ven gaalai thagan C. 2495 BCE
 Nannan that kaalai thagan C. 2475 BCE
 Vel vaen mindi C. 2445 BCE

74
 Nedun jembiyan C. 2415 BCE
 Nedu nonji Vendhi C. 2375 BCE
 Maei Vael paqratrtri C. 2330 BCE
 Aai Perun thoan nonji C. 2315 BCE
 Kudiko pungi C. 2275 BCE
 Perun goep poguvan C. 2250 BCE
 Koeth thatrtri C. 2195 BCE
 Vadi sembiyan C. 2160 BCE
 Aalam poguvan C. 2110 BCE
 Nedun jembiyan C. 2085 BCE
 Perum paeyar poguvan C. 2056 BCE
 Kadun jembiyan C. 2033 BCE
 Nedun kathan C. 2015 BCE
 Paru nakkan C. 1960 BCE
 Vani sembiyan C. 1927 BCE
 Udha chira mondhuvan C. 1902 BCE
 Perun kaththan C. 1875 BCE
 Kadun kandhalan C. 1860 BCE
 Nakka monjuvan C. 1799 BCE
 Maarko vael Maandhuvan Aaththikko C. 1786 BCE
 Musukunthan Vaendhi C. 1753 BCE
 Peru nakkan Thatrtri C. 1723 BCE
 Vaer kaththan C. 1703 BCE
 Ambalaththu Irumundruvan C. 1682 BCE
 Kaari mondhuvan C. 1640 BCE
 Vennakkan Thatrtri C. 1615 BCE
 Maarko chunthuvan C. 1565 BCE
 Vaer parunthoan mundruvan C. 1520 BCE
 Udhan kaththan C. 1455 BCE
 Kaariko sunthuvan C. 1440 BCE
 Vendri nungunan C. 1396 BCE
 Mondhuvan Vendhi C. 1376 BCE
 Kaandhaman C. 1359 BCE
 Mundruvan Vendhi C. 1337 BCE
 Kaandhaman C. 1297 BCE
 Monjuvan Vendhi C. 1276 BCE
 Ani sembiyan C. 1259 BCE
 Nungunan Vendhi C. 1245 BCE
 Maarkop perum Cenni C. 1229 BCE
 Monjuvan Nanvendhi C. 1180 BCE
 Kop perunar chenni C. 1170 BCE
 Monthuvan jembiyan C. 1145 BCE
 Narchenni C. 1105 BCE
 Caet chembiyan C. 1095 BCE
 Nakkar chenni C. 1060 BCE
 Parun jembiyan C.1045 BCE
 Venjenni C. 998 BCE
 Musugunthan C. 989 BCE
 Maarkop perun jembiyan C. 960 BCE
 Nedunjenni C.935 BCE
 Thatchembiyan C. 915 BCE

75
  Ambalaththu iruvaer chembiyan C. 895 BCE
 Kaariko chenni C. 865 BCE
 Venvaer chenni C. 830 BCE
 Kaandhaman, C. 788 BCE
 Kaandhalan C. 721 BCE
 Caetchenni C. 698 BCE
 Vani nungunan C. 680 BCE
 Mudhu sembiyan Vendhi C. 640 BCE
 Peelan jembiyach chozhiyan C. 615 BCE
 Maeyan gadungo C. 590 BCE
 Thiththan C. 570 BCE
 Perunar killi Porvaiko C. 515 BCE
 Kadu mundruvan C. 496 BCE
 Kopperunjozhan C. 495 BCE
 Narkilli Mudiththalai C. 480 BCE
 Thevvan go chozhan C. 465 BCE
 Naran jembiyan C. 455 BCE
 Nakkam peela valavan C. 440 BCE
 Iniyan thevvan jenni C. 410 BCE
 Varcembiyan C. 395BCE
 Nedun jembiyan C. 386 BCE
 Nakkan aran jozhan C. 345 BCE
 Ambalathu irungoch chenni C. 330 BCE
 Perunar killi C. 316 BCE
 Kochaet Cenni C. 286 BCE
 Cerupazhi Erinda Ilanjaetcenni, C. 275 BCE
 Nedungop perunkilli C. 220 BCE
 Cenni Ellagan C. 205 BCE
 Perun gilli C. 165 BCE
 Kopperun jozhiyav ilanjaetcenni C. 140 BCE
 Perunar killi Mudiththalai ko C. 120 BCE
 PerumpootCenni C. 100 BCE
 Ilam perunjenni C. 100 BCE
 Perungilli Vendhi aka Karikaalan I C. 70 BCE
 Nedumudi Killi C. 35 BCE
 Ilavanthigaipalli Thunjiya Maei Nalangilli Caet Cenni, C. 20 BCE
 Aai Vaenalangilli C. 15 BCE
 Uruvapakraer Ilanjaetcenni, C. 10 – 16 CE
 16–30 CE Kingdom ruled by a series of Uraiyur chieftains
 Karikaalan II Peruvalaththaan, C. 31 CE
 Vaer paqradakkai Perunar killi, C. 99 CE
 Perun thiru mavalavan, Kuraapalli Thunjiya C. 99 CE
 Nalangilli C. 111 CE
 Perunarkilli, Kula mutrtraththu Thunjiya C. 120 CE
 Perunarkilli, Irasasuya vaetta C. 143 CE
 Vael kadunkilli C. 192 CE
 Kochenganaan C. 220 CE
 Nalluruththiran C. 245 CE

Genealogy from Chola inscriptions

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The genealogy of the Chola family conveyed by the Thiruvalangadu copperplate grant consists
of names that corroborate the historic authenticity of legends.[1]

 Manu
 Ikshvaku
 Vikukshi
 Puranjaya
 Kakutstha
 Kakshivat
 Aryaman
 Analapratapa
 Vena
 Prithu
 Dhundhumara
 Yuvanasva
 Mandhata
 Muchukunda
 Valabha
 Prithulaksha
 Parthivachudamani
 Dirghabahu
 Chandrajit
 Sankriti
 Panchapa
 Satyavrata
 Rudrajit
 Sibi
 Marutta
 Dushyanta
 Bharata
 Cholavarman
 Rajakesarivarman
 Parakesarin
 Chitraratha
 Chitrasva
 Chitradhanvan
 Suraguru (Mrityujit)
 Chitraratha
 Vyaghraketu
 Narendrapati
 Vasu (Uparichara)
 Visvajit
 Perunatkilli
 Karikala
 Kochchengannan

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the
beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held

77
as one state for a period of three centuries and more between 907 and 1215 AD. Under Rajaraja
Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola,
and Kulothunga Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South
Asia and South-East Asia. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by
the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by naval raids on cities of
the city-state of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.he Chola fleet
represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power.

During the period 1010–1153, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in
the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola
conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and occupied the
islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched
the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully
invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Chola dynasty went into decline at
the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused
their downfall.

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building
of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings
were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship
but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of government and
established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and
influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

Origins: The Cholas are also known as the Choda. The antiquity of the name is evident from the
mentions in ancient Tamil literature and in inscriptions. During the past 150 years, historians
have gleaned significant knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient
Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The
main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the
Sangam Period.[a] Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE) indicate that the earliest
kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its
towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris
Erythraei), and in the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy. Mahavamsa,

78
a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between
the inhabitants of Ceylon and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.[17] Cholas are mentioned in
the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned
among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.

A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the name of the ruling family or
clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of people with
ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of
their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas are Killi , Valavan ,Sembiyan
and Cenni. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea
of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names
like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most
probably connected with "valam" – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile
country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a legendary hero whose
self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends
and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. In Tamil
lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or
the old country. Cenni in Tamil means Head.

The imperial Cholas described themselves as Koliyar-ko, meaning king of Koliyar in Tamil.
Gandaraditya Chola, considered the author of some of the hymns of the Tirumurai, calls himself
as “Ko-cholan valan kaveri naadan Koliyar-ko kandan”, that is, “Gandan, the King Cholan, the
lord of the fertile kaveri country and the lord of Koliyar”. Vikrama Chola, the son of Kulothunga
Chola and a later Chola king, is described as Koliyar kula Pati or “head of the family of Cholas”
in one of his Tamil inscriptions in Kolar district in Karnataka. The koliyar were one of the artisan
communities during the period of the Cholas. Some historians like Vijaya Ramasamy, consider
the koliyar to be weavers.

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature,
the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval
Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty
of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.

Early Cholas

79
The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam
literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the second or first few centuries
of the common era. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at
present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. It records the names
of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them.

The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings. These myths speak of
the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion
brought the river Kaveri into existence. Two names are prominent among those Chola kings
known to have existed who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola and Kocengannan.
The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Ellalan,
invaded the island Sri Lanka and conquered it around 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.

Interregnum

South India in BC 300, showing the Chera, Pandya and Chola countries-Map

80
There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end
of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the Tamil
country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the existing
kingdoms and ruled during that time.

The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood of Uraiyur, but
only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the Pandayas and Pallavas accepted
Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation. Numerous Pallava
inscriptions of this period mention their having fought rulers of the Chola country. Despite this

81
loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around
Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to prominence hailed from that area.

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the tiger emblem of the Chola and
in Nagari script.

Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh.
These Telugu Cholas traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas. However, it is not known
if they had any relation to the early Cholas. It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas
migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from
the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who
spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 writes about the "kingdom of Culi-ya", in
an apparent reference to these Telugu Cholas.

Imperial Cholas

Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty which was the beginning of one of the
most splendid empires in Indian history. Vijayalaya, possibly a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty,
took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty in
c. 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval
Chola Dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola Dynasty.

82
Detail of the statue of Rajaraja Chola at Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.
Through their leadership and vision, Chola kings expanded their territory and influence. The
second Chola King, Aditya I, caused the demise of the Pallava dynasty and defeated the Pandyan
dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had marital ties
with the Western Ganga dynasty. In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka (known as
Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of
Vallala.

Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty, extending it
beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom. At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from
the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna river basin in the north, up to the
Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition
to Lakshadweep, and Maldives. Rajaraja Chola I was a ruler with inexhaustible energy, and he
applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal that he had shown in waging wars.
He integrated his empire into a tight administrative grid under royal control, and at the same time
strengthened local self-government. Therefore, he conducted a land survey in 1000 CE to
effectively marshall the resources of his empire.

83
Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated
the forces of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India. Rajendra
Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern
India. Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led
to the decline of the empire there. This expedition had such a great impression to the Malay
people of the medieval period that his name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan
in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu. He also completed the conquest of the island
of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V as a prisoner, in addition to his conquests of
Rattapadi (territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad, and Kolar, where the
Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue) in Kannada country. Rajendra's territories
included the area falling on the Ganges-Hooghly-Damodar basin, as well as Sri Lanka and
Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged
Chola suzerainty.T hree diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077.

A.Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur Brihadisvara Temple.

B.The sikhara of Brihadisvara Temple, a cupolic dome (25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single block
of granite, weighing 80 tons.

C.A Siamese painting depicting the Chola raid on Kadaram (Kedah).

84
Reconstruction of the hull of a Chola ship (200—848 CE), built by the ASI and based upon a wreck
discovered 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar. Model currently displayed in a Museum in Tirunelveli.

85
 Airavateswara temple, Darasuram in Thanjavur District

Overseas conquests
During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola
and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of
Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand of the Srivijaya Empire in the
11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of
Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast. In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on
ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu. A Chola inscription states that he
captured or plundered 14 places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and
Kedah among others.

Tambralinga or Kadaram in Tamil: : According to the inscription no.24 found at Hua-wieng

temple in Chaiya near to Nakhon Si Thammarat, the ruler of Tambralinga named Chandrabhanu
Sridhamaraja was the king of Patama vamsa (lotus dynasty. He began to reign in 1230, he had
the Phrae Boromadhatu (chedi in Nakhon Si Thammaraj, from Sanskrit dhatu - element,
component, or relic + garbha - storehouse or repository) reparation and celebration in the same
year. Chandrabhanu Sridhamaraja brought Tambralinga reached the pinnacle of its power in the
mid-thirteenth century. From the Sri Lankan and Tamil materials, this Chandrabhanu was a
Savakan king from Tambralinga who had invaded Sri Lanka in 1247. His navy launched an
assault on the southern part of the island but was defeated by the Sri Lankan king.

86
However Chandrabhanu was able to establish an independent regime in the north of the island
over the Jaffna kingdom, but in 1258 he was attacked and subjugated by the south Indian
Emperor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan. He was compelled to pay a tribute to the Pandyan
Dynasty of precious jewels and elephants. In 1262 Chandrabhanu launched another attack on the
south of the island, his army strengthened this time by the addition of Tamil and Sinhalese
forces, only to be defeated when Pandya sided with the Sri Lankan side; this time Jatarvarman
Sundara Pandyan's brother Jatavarman Veera Pandyan intervened and Chandrabhanu himself
was killed in the fighting. Chandrabhanu’s son Savakanmaindan inherited the throne and
submitted to Veera Pandyan's rule, received rewards and retained control over the northern
kingdom. His regime too had disappeared following Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I's
ascension to the Pandyan empire's throne and another invasion of the island by the army of the
Pandyan Dynasty in the late 1270s. Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I installed his minister in
charge of the invasion, Kulasekara Cinkaiariyan, an Aryachakravarti as the new king of Jaffna.
In at least two senses, the rapid expansion of Tambralinga is exceptional in the history of
Southeast Asia. In the first place, Candrabhanu’s invasion of Sri Lanka and occupation of the
Jaffna kingdom marks the only time that a Southeast Asian power has launched an overseas
military expedition beyond the immediate Southeast Asian region. In the second place, in the
historiography of Southeast Asia the southern Thailand has generally played a secondary role to
that of places like Java, the Malacca Strait region (Srivijaya in the seventh~eighth century,
Melaka in the fifteenth century), Cambodia, Champa, Vietnam, and Burma. Tambralinga’s
sudden appearance on centre-stage in the thirteenth century was thus highly unusual.
By the end of the fourteenth century, Tambralinga had been submerged by the Sumatran Melayu
Kingdom which had the backing of Java. Finally, in 1365 Majapahit Kingdom of Java
recognized Nakorn Sri Dharmaraja as Dharmanagari written in Nagarakretagama. Despite its
rapid rise to prominence in the thirteenth century, that is, by the following century Danmaling, or
Tambralinga, the former member state of Sanfoshih – Javaka, had become a part of Siam.

Kedah: A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of
Srivijaya in the late 11th century. also known by its honorific Darul Aman or "Abode of Peace is
a state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a
total area of over 9,000 km², and it consists of the mainland and the Langkawi islands. The

87
mainland has a relatively flat terrain, which is used to grow rice, while Langkawi is an
archipelago, most of which are uninhabited islands. Kedah was previously known as Kadaram
by the ancient and medieval Tamils. To the north, Kedah borders the state of Perlis and shares an
international boundary with the Songkhla and Yala provinces of Thailand. It borders the states of
Perak to the south and Penang to the southwest.
The state's capital is Alor Setar and the royal seat is in Anak Bukit. Other major towns include
Sungai Petani, and Kulim on the mainland, and Kuah on Langkawi.

Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion
was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely
weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms. Although
the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged
geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the
Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence
increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.

88
In 1025, Rajendra Chola I or Raja Ranganathan, the Chola king from Tamil Nadu in South India,
launched naval raids on the city-state of Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia, and conquered
Kadaram (modern Kedah) from Srivijaya and occupied it for some time. Rajendra's overseas
expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful
relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places in present day Malaysia and Indonesia
were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the
expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar
into Southeast Asia. ( See Chapetr … on Tamil M erchants of Ancient India)

The Chola invasion led to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion
also coincides with return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and
Tibet in 1025. The expedition of Rajendra Chola I is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja
Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya, and Malay princes have names ending
with Cholan or Chulan, such as Raja Chulan of Perak.

history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian
invasion is a unique event in Asian history. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained
close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 Nalanda inscription records that
Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala
territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly
during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty
— king Maravijayattungavarman — constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of
Nagapattinam.[14] However, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the
Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[15]

The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola
seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.[16] While Srivijaya that
controlled two major naval choke points; Malacca and Sunda Strait; at that time was a major
trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. Malacca strait's northwest opening was

89
controlled from Kedah on Peninsula side and from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu
(Jambi) and Palembang controlled its southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced
naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on
their ports or otherwise being plundered.

The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear with Nilakanta Sastri suggesting that the attack
was probably caused by Srivijayan attempt to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with
the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend
his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore
add luster to his crown.[17] Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably
motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire
requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom.[18] After
learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid
from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to the Chola Empire
coming into conflict with the Srivijaya Empire. This alliance somewhat also had religious
nuance, since both Chola and Khmer empire are Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and
Srivijaya are Mahayana Buddhist.

Invasion

The Chola raid against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. To sail
from India to the Indonesian Archipelago, vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of
Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering
Strait of Malacca. But the Chola armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port of
Barus in the west coast of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trading guilds and
served as a port to replenish after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada then continued
to sail along Sumatra's west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda. The Srivijaya navy
guarded Kedah and surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca strait completely
unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first
Srivijayan city being raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The unexpected
attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal palace and
monasteries. Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured King Sangrama

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Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures including the Vidhyadara
Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya adorned with great splendor.

After plundering the royal palace of Palembang, the Cholas launched successive attacks on other
Srivijayan ports including Malayu, Tumasik, Pannai and Kedah. The Chola invasion did not
result in administration over defeated cities as the armies moved fast and plundered the
Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken advantage of the Southeast Asian
monsoon for moving from one port to another swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected
attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan mandala to
prepare the defences, reorganize themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate. The war ended
with a victory for the Cholas and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire ending the Srivijaya
maritime monopoly in the region.[18][19][21][22]

Aftermath

With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed,
the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The invasion marked
the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay annals Sejarah Melayu,
Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of
Vijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace with Javanese kingdom of
Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Vijayottunggavarman, a
Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court
of King Airlangga in East Java. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named
Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named
Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.

Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed
to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to
plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the
formation of regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on
agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king
and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.

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Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was
unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on
the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence
increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.

With the growing presence of Tamil guilds in the region, relations improved between Srivijaya
and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince
named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the Imperial Court of
China. The prince who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola later was enthroned in 1070 CE as
Kulothunga Chola I. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya asked the Cholas for help. In
1068 CE, Virarajendra Chola launched a naval raid to help Srivijaya reclaim Kedah..
Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the Srivijayan Maharaja and Kedah
accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty.

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most
powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile-
Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in
which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and
the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the
Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.

Overseas conquests

During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola
and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of
Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand of the Srivijaya Empire in the
11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of
Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast. In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on
ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu.. A Chola inscription states that he
captured or plundered 14 places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and
Kedah among others. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who
conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century.. Chola invasion ultimately
failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant

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to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan
hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not
followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were
huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally
controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula
and north coast of Sumatra.

Later Chola Kingdom under Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1120 C.E)

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of
Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince
Vimaladitya and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern
Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra.] Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola, was
assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi
and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty..

The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama
Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III,
who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218,
starting with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those
of the emperors between 850–1215. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western
Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. However, these were
only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the
son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of

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Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The
Chola Empire, though not as strong as between 850–1150, was still largely territorially intact under
Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third
grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the
outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of
Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the
decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in
1215–16. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out
by the revival of Sinhala power.

Portrait of Rajaraja Chola and his guru Karuvurar at Brihadeeswarar Temple.

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most
powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile-
Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in
which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and
the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the
Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.

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Decline

The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite
weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory,
the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even .held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for
sometime.At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the
declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant
trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those
empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly
relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala
Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued
during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III.

Outline of South Asian history

Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)

Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
Iron Age (1500–200 BC)
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206)
Late medieval period (1206–1526)[
Early modern period (1526–1858)[show]
Colonial states (1510–1961)

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 The mandalams of the Chola Empire, early 12th century CE

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single
government.

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The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age which was a form of
government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication.
The political legitimacy and governing power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic
(crowned republic), to restricted (constitutional.monarchy), to fully autocratic (absolute
monarchy), combining executive, legislative and judicial power. However, there was little in
common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier period and the imperial-like states of
Rajaraja Chola and his successors. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later on at
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in
which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent
authoritarian. His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers
when representations were made to him. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in
the modern sense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on his morality and belief in Dharma.
The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples acted not only
as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting the community as a
whole. Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that
reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements.. The Chola Dynasty was
divided into several provinces called Mandalams which were further divided into Valanadus and
these Valanadus were sub-divided into units called Kottams or Kutrams.

According to Kathleen Gough, during the Chola period the Vellalar were the "dominant secular
aristocratic caste ... providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the
kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry". Vellalar is a generic Tamil term
used primarily by various castes who traditionally pursued agriculture as a profession in the
Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. Some of the
communities that identify themselves as a Vellalar are the numerically strong Arunattu Vellalar,
Chozhia Vellalar, Karkarthar Vellalar, Kongu Vellalar, Thuluva Vellalar and Sri Lankan
Vellalar. Despite being a relatively lowly group, they were dominant communities in Tamil
agrarian societies for 600 years until the decline of the Chola empire in the 13th century, with
their chieftains able to practise state-level political authority after winning the support and

97
legitimisation of Brahmins and other higher-ranked communities with grants of land and
honours.

Before the reign of Rajaraja Chola I huge parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary
lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the
reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE when the Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords
and local princes virtually vanished from the Chola records and were either replaced or turned
into dependent officials. Through these dependent officials the administration was improved and
the Chola kings were able to exercise a closer control over the different parts of the empire.
There was an expansion of the administrative structure, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja
Chola I onwards. The government at this time had a large land revenue department, consisting of
several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. The assessment and
collection of revenue were undertaken by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram
and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre. During the reign of
Rajaraja Chola I, the state initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment and there
was a reorganisation of the empire into units known as valanadus.

The order of the King was first communicated by the executive officer to the local authorities.
Afterwards the records of the transaction was drawn up and attested by a number of witnesses
who were either local magnates or government officers.

At local government level, every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages
constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottam, depending on the area. A
number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and
refinement throughout the Chola period.
Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village
level. Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to
donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were
punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king
himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or confiscation of property.

Military

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The Chola dynasty had a robust military, of which the king was the supreme commander. It had
four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry and a
navy. There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen while the swordsmen were the most
permanent and dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was
stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams. The elephants played a major
role in the army and the dynasty had numerous war elephants. These carried houses or huge
Howdahs on their backs, full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and who fought with
spears at close quarters.
The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications
were mostly made up of bricks but other materials like stone, wood and mud were also used.
According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, the Tamil kings defended their forts with
catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains
and traps.

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The soldiers of the Chola dynasty used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears and
shields which were made up of steel. Particularly the famous Wootz steel, which has a long
history in south India dating back to the period before the Christian era, seems also be used to
produce weapons. The army consisted of people from different castes but the warriors of
the Kaikolar and Vellalar castes played a prominent role.
The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in the expansion
of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya. The
navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. The Chola admirals
commanded much respect and prestige. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some
instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a
potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in
significance when the Cholas fought land battles subjugating the Chalukyas of the Andhra-
Kannada area in South India.

Silambam: A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers. Ancient and
medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of
the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam.
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The medieval Kalingathu Parani text, which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and
his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail. Oral folklore traces
Silambam back several thousand years to the siddhar (enlightened sage) Agastya. While on his
way to Vellimalai, Agastya discussed Hindu philosophy with an old man he met, said to be the
god Murugan in disguise. The old man taught him of kundalini yoga and how to focus prana
through the body's nadi (channels). Agastya practiced this method of meditation and eventually
compiled three texts on palm leaves based on the god's teachings. One of these texts was the
Kampu Sutra (Staff Classic) which was said to record advanced fighting theories in verse. These
poems and the art they described were allegedly passed on to other Siddha of the Agastmuni
akhara (Agastya school) and eventually formed the basis of Silambam, siddha medicine, and
also influenced the southern style of kalaripayattu. Silambam became more common in
Southeast Asia than its native India where it was banned by the British rulers.

Silambam name has made its historical first time appearance in the world eyes as the committee
of United Nations Assembly recommends Silambam Asia for United Nations status for
representing Asia Continent. Occasion held at the United Nations Headquarters in New York,
United States on January 21, 2019 whereby China-Taipei government representatives arised
border conflicts in ancient recording pertaining Silambam and requesting organisation of
Silambam Asia to resolve prior to internal committee clearance request. On January 30, 2019
concluded substantive work as the Committee recommended Silambam Asia for Special Status
in the United Nations

Economy

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Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. The Chola rulers issued their coins
in gold, silver and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers—at the local level,
agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as
redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy
and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the international trade. At the top of this
economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups (samayam) who organised and dominated the
regions international maritime trade.
One of the main articles which were exported to foreign countries were cotton cloth. Uraiyur,
the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a famous centre for cotton textiles which were praised
by Tamil poets. The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue
from it. During this period the weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. The weavers
had their own residential sector in all towns. The most important weaving communities in early
medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar. During the Chola period silk weaving attained a
high degree and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.
Metal crafts reached its zenith during the 10th to 11th centuries because the Chola rulers like
Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major export
item.
The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society.These were the Vellalar community
who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a
powerful group Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the
landowners, there were others dependent on agriculture.The Vellalar community was the
dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the
army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry.

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of
the Cholas

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In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the land-tax (iraikudigal) and those
who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in
agricultural operations on the estates of other people and received a daily wage. All cultivable
land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure which can be distinguished as peasant
proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure and eleemosynary tenure resulting from
charitable gifts.
The vellan-vagai was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with
the government and paying a land-tax liable to revision from time to time.[132] The vellan-vagai
villages fell into two broad classes- one directly remitting a variable annual revenue to the state
and the other paying dues of a more or less fixed character to the public institutions like temples
to which they were assigned.The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent
on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the Chola
rulers threw mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to
distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake,
which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers.
There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organised mercantile
corporations in various parts of the country. The metal industries and the jewellers art had
reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea-salt was carried on under
government supervision and control. Trade was carried on by merchants organised in guilds. The
guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of
merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade. They had their own
mercenary army for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of
merchants called "nagaram" in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.

Hospitals
Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose.
The Tirumukkudal inscription shows that a hospital was named after Vira Chola. Many diseases
were cured by the doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician who
was paid annually 80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors,
other remunerated staff included a nurse, barber (who performed minor operations) and a
waterman.

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The Chola queen Kundavai also established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for the
perpetual maintenance of it.

Society
During the Chola period several guilds, communities and castes emerged. The guild was one of
the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds.
The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as
Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence.The farmers occupied one of the highest
positions in society. These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed
aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group. The Vellalar
community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the
courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the
peasantry. The Vellalar were also sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers. The
Ulavar community were working in the field which was associated with agriculture and the
peasants were known as Kalamar.

The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants but they also maintained armies. During
the Chola period they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the
Imperial Chola rulers (10th-13th century) there were major changes in the temple administration
and land ownership. There was more involvement of non-Brahmin elements in the temple
administration. This can be attributed to the shift in money power. Skilled classes like the
weavers and the merchant-class had become prosperous. Land ownership was no longer a
privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners.
There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola
reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and
contented life. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.
The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education. The
text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education
in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to
suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to
children, although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses.

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Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to
his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Religious monasteries
(matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received government support.

Foreign trade
The relationship between the Chinese and Cholas dates back to second century BC. Ancient
Chinese scholar Ban Gu had told that China had sent its ambassador to the court of the Cholas.[1]
Ban Gu in his work the Book of Han (Ch'ien Han Shu) had written that he had seen many
unprecedented objects which are unseen at China, at the city of kuvangtche. Berend, an acoustics
expert, annotates that the city named by Ban Gu is analogous with the ancient Chola city kanchi
(the present day's city of Kancheepuram at Tamil Nadu, India). This proves the relationship of
Kanchi with China.
Coins: Arrays of ancient Chinese coins have been found in recent years at the place which is
considered to be the homeland of the Cholas (i.e. the present Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and
Pudukkottai districts of Tamil Nadu, India), which confirms the trade and the commercial
relationship which existed between the Cholas and the Chinese.

Number of
Place Other details
coins

These coins belong to 142-126 BC. This village is situated in

Olayakkunnam 323
Pattukkottai taluk in Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu, India

This village is situated in Mannargudi taluk in Tiruvarur

Thaalikkottai 1822
district of Tamil Nadu, India

The later Cholas too continued to maintain a healthy relationship with the Chinese. During the
reign of Rajendra Chola I (i.e. 1016–1033 AD) and Kulothunga Chola I (i.e. in 1077 AD),
commercial and political diplomats were sent to China.

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The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas
to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed
extensive maritime and commercial activity.The south Indian guilds played a major role in
interregional and overseas trade. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole
guilds who followed the conquering Chola armies. The encouragement by the Chola court
furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Ayyavole and Manigramam
guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west
and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang
dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat
at Baghdad were the main trading partners.

Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a
significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure and
economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional
market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. A Chola record gives their
rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who
import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent
dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then
those articles will never go to your enemies.”
Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in
1077, and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. This
embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with
copper coins in exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices.[170] Probably, the
motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants' interests.

Canals and water tanks

There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola Dynasty (c. 900-
1270 AD) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. Most of the canals of the
Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g., Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian
Mahadegvi vaykkal. There was a well-developed and highly efficient system of water
management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the

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number of devadana and bramadeya lands which increased the role of the temples and village
assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden
committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money.
The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few
most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named
Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of
victory. About 16 miles long, it was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating the lands in
the neighbouring areas. Another very large lake of this period, which even today seems an
important source of irrigation was the Viranameri near Kattumannarkoil in South Arcot district
founded by Parantaka Chola. Other famous lakes of this period are Madurantakam, Sundra-
cholapereri, Kundavai-Pereri (after a Chola queen) . (See my Book III in the DEVRAJ series -
Capter III on Angkor Wat as a Hydraulic City)

Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple.

Chola Art and Temple influences in Greater India:Under the Cholas, the Tamil country
reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, music and literature- all of these spheres, the
Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the
Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone
and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.

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The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts
with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Examples of the Hindu
cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the
Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of
similarities with the South Indian architecture.

According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to
be descendants of the kings of the Chola Empire. Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as
many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the
Raja of Perak.

Art and architecture

The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed
significantly to the Dravidian temple design. They built a number of Shiva temples along the
banks of the river Kaveri. The template for these and future temples was formulated by Aditya I
and Parantaka. The Chola temple architecture has been appreciated for its magnificence as well
as delicate workmanship, ostensibly following the rich traditions of the past bequeathed to them
by the Pallava Dynasty. Architectural historian James Fergusson says that "the Chola artists
conceived like giants and finished like jewelers" A new development in Chola art that
characterised the Dravidian architecture in later times was the addition of a huge gateway called
gopuram to the enclosure of the temple, which had gradually taken its form and attained maturity
under the Pandya Dynasty. The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced
the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and
his son Rajendra Chola I. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved
found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The
magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the
material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its
time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram
at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its
predecessor. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the

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same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola
Empire under Rajendra. The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and
the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by
the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.

The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing
specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many
fine figures of Shiva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Shaivite
saints.[182] Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long
tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a
classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the
Divine Dancer.

Rajendra Chola I was one of the greatest emperors of the Chola dynasty. He expanded the
Chola Empire from where his father Rajaraja Chola had left. Apart from reaching northwards to
River Ganges and moving overseas to Maldives and Sri Lanka, he also invaded the Southeast

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Asian territories of Srivijaya in Malaysia, Indonesia and southern Thailand. He continued to
maintain and improve commercial relations with China, started off by his father. He assumed the
title ‘Gangaikonda Chola’ (The Chola who took the Ganges) after defeating the Gangas,
Chalukyas, Cheras, Palas, Pandyas, Kalinga and other rulers. Besides, he was also known by
various other titles, such as Mudigonda Chola, Virarajendra, and Pandita Chola, apart from
inheriting the title of ‘Mummudi Chola’ (The Chola with three crowns) from his father. He
established a new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram, where he constructed a Shiva temple,
resembling the Brihadeeswara Temple built by his father Rajaraja Chola at the previous capital
Thanjavur. He built a vast empire and a strong military and naval force. His rule came to be
known as the ‘Golden Age of Cholas’. He was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja Chola, who was
then followed by his other two sons – Rajendra Chola II and Virarajendra Chola
Childhood & Early Life
Rajendra Chola I was born on the occasion of South Indian festival of Thiruvathira in the Tamil
month of Margalzhi Thingal, to Raja Raja Chola I and his queen, Vaanathi or Thiripuvana
Madeviyar.
He was declared the crown prince by his father in 1012, though he started assisting him in his
conquests from 1002 and led campaigns against the Western Chalukyas, Vengi and Kalinga.
Accession & Reign
In 1014, he officially ascended the throne and four years later in 1018, he made his eldest son,
Rajadhiraja Chola I, as the yuvaraja (co-regent).
His early expeditions on behalf of his father included conquest of Rashtrakuta country and areas
surrounding northwestern Karnataka, Pandharpur, and southern Maharashtra till Kolhapur.
His control over Ceylon was challenged by Sinhala king Mahinda’s son Kassapa, following
which a war was fought between the two, with the Cholas turning victorious and resuming power
till the reign of Kulothunga Chola III.
In 1018, he raided the territories of the Pandyas and Cheras and seized precious stones. Since his
father had previously conquered these territories, it is unclear whether Rajendra added any
further territories or not.
He defeated the forces of Vijayaditya, who was installed as the Vengi king by the Western
Chalukyas after forcing Rajaraja Narendra into exile, and helped Rajaraja in regaining his throne.
After suppressing the Western and the Eastern Chalukyas, he moved northwards through Kalinga

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to River Ganges and reached the Pala kingdom of Bengal, where he defeated Mahipala and
acquired elephants, women and treasure.
His other conquests included battles against Dharmapala, the ruler of the Kamboja Pala Dynasty
in Dandabhukti, Govindachandra of the Chandra Dynasty in present-Bangladesh, and Bastar in
modern-Chhattisgarh.
The territories of the Ganges country were initially included in the empire, but were later made
subordinates with annual tributes. While the northern kingdoms enjoyed autonomy, the Tamilian
territories were under absolute Chola power.
He took upon the title ‘Gangaikonda Chola’ post his victories over the Palas, Chalukyas,
Kalinga, Gangas, Pandyas, Cheras, etc. and moved his capital from Thanjavur to
Gangaikondacholapuram, where he built a Shiva temple.
He carried out successful invasion expeditions to Tambralinga kingdom in southern Thailand and
Langkasuka kingdom in Malaysia, following which he supported Tamil merchants trading in
Southeast Asia. The Cholas were believed to have maintained good relations with the Chinese
kingdoms, with the earliest mission sent from Chola king Rajaraja to the Song Dynasty in 1015,
with subsequent visits in 1033 and 1077.
The extensive trade between the Cholas and Chinese could have triggered disputes from
Srivijaya kingdom, with the Cholas, as it was situated in-between the trade routes.
A second expedition to Sri Lanka in 1041 included wars against Vikramabahu, Jagaitpala,
Sinhalese, and the expelled Pandyas, all of whom were defeated, allowing Rajendra to bring the
Ceylonese territory under the Chola Empire.
Till the end of his reign, he was constantly at campaigns and conflicts to protect his huge empire
from invasions and hold it together. Eventually, he let his sons suppress revolts caused by the
Pandyas and Cheras and in Sri Lanka.

Major Battles
He led the famous campaign against the Western Chalukyas and succeeded in invading
Kollipakkai or modern-Kulpak in the north of Hyderabad.
While his father was successful in capturing the northern part of Sri Lanka, he went ahead in
annexing the entire island in 1017, defeating the Sinhala king, Mahinda V and imprisoning him
in the Chola Country, where he died in captivity.

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He fought the Western Chalukya king, Jayasimha II, in the Battle of Maski, in 1021, who
attempted to control the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi by supporting Vijayaditya VII and sending
his nephew, Rajaraja Narendra, into exile.
In 1025, he invaded Sangrama Vijayatungavarman’s Srivijaya kingdom, imprisoning him and
capturing its capital Kadaram, Pannai (present-Sumatra), Kedah (present-Malaysia) and
Malaiyur (Malayan peninsula).

Achievements
He got a large artificial lake, measuring 16 miles long and 3 miles wide, constructed at his
capital Gangaikondacholapuram, which is, till date, one of the largest manmade lakes in India.
Being a devout and religious ruler, he got most of the brick-structured temples in his empire
converted into stone shrines.

Personal Life & Legacy

He was believed to have had several queens, some of them being Mukkokilan, Arindhavan
Madevi, Tribuvana or Vananan Mahadeviar, Panchavan Mahadevi, and Viramadevi, who
committed sati upon his death in 1044. He was succeeded by three of his sons – Rajadhiraja
Chola, Rajendra Chola II and Virarajendra Chola. He had two daughters – Pranaar Arul Mozhi
Nangai and Ammanga Devi, who was married to Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra and
bore the first Chalukya Chola emperor, Kulothunga Chola I.

Tamil in the Malay World: A number of medieval inscriptions written in Tamil language and
script that have been found in Southeast Asia and China, mainly in Sumatra and peninsular
Thailand. These texts arose directly from trade links between south India and certain parts of
Southeast Asia and China, which involved the residence in those regions of Tamil-speaking
Indians. Several of these overseas Tamil inscriptions mention well-known medieval Indian
merchant associations."

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 Chola Girl by GIVENCY- Rare Fashion Pic

A good number of Tamil inscriptions, as well as Hindu and Buddhist icons emanating
from South India, have been found in Southeast Asia (and even in parts of south China).

On the Malay Peninsula, inscriptions have been found at Takuapa, not far from
the Vishnuite statues of Khao Phra Narai in Southern Thailand. It is a short inscription indicating
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that an artificial lake named Avani-naranam was dug by Nangur-Udaiyan, which is the name of
an individual who possessed a military fief at Nangur, being famous for his abilities as a warrior,
and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the Manikkiramam (which
according to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, was a merchant guild) living in the military camp. Since
Avani-narayana is a surname of the Pallava King Nandivarman III who reigned from 826 to 849,
we can deduce the approximate date of this inscription.

In the capital of Tabralinga there is a sanctuary in which there is a bronze image

of Ganesa bearing a Tamil inscription Majapisedesa in modern characters.

Naval Raids: In 1025, Rajendra Chola I or Raja Ranganathan, the Chola king from Tamil
Nadu in South India, launched naval raids on the city-state of Srivijaya in maritime Southeast
Asia,[1] and conquered Kadaram (modern Kedah) from Srivijaya and occupied it for some time.
Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its
otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places in present
day Malaysia and Indonesia were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola
dynasty.[2][3] The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as
the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Chola invasion led to the
fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with return
voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025.[8] The
expedition of Rajendra Chola I is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the
medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya, and Malay princes have names ending with Cholan
or Chulan, such as Raja Chulan of Perak.

Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and
peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history. In the 9th and
10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an
860 Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at
the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola
dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In 1006 CE a
Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty — king Maravijayattungavarman — constructed
the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam. However, during the reign of Rajendra
Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.

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The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola
seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia. While Srivijaya that
controlled two major naval choke points; Malacca and Sunda Strait; at that time was a major
trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. Malacca strait's northwest opening was
controlled from Kedah on Peninsula side and from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu
(Jambi) and Palembang controlled its southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced
naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on
their ports or otherwise being plundered.

The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear with Nilakanta Sastri suggesting that the attack
was probably caused by Srivijayan attempt to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with
the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend
his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore
add luster to his crown. Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably
motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer
Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola
dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra
Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the
Srivijaya Empire. This alliance somewhat also had religious nuance, since both Chola and
Khmer empire are Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya are Mahayana Buddhist.

The Chola raid against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. To sail
from India to the Indonesian Archipelago, vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of
Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering
Strait of Malacca. But the Chola armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port
of Barus in the west coast of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trading guilds and
served as a port to replenish after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada then continued
to sail along Sumatra's west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda. The Srivijaya navy
guarded Kedah and surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca strait completely
unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first

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Srivijayan city being raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The unexpected
attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal palace and
monasteries. Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured King Sangrama
Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures including the Vidhyadara
Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya adorned with great splendor.

After plundering the royal palace of Palembang, the Cholas launched successive attacks on other
Srivijayan ports including Malayu, Tumasik, Pannai and Kedah. The Chola invasion did not
result in administration over defeated cities as the armies moved fast and plundered the
Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken advantage of the Southeast
Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving
unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it did not allow the
Srivijayan mandala to prepare the defences, reorganize themselves, provide assistance or to
retaliate.The war ended with a victory for the Cholas and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire
ending the Srivijaya maritime monopoly in the region.

Repurcussions: With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its
cities destroyed, the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The
invasion marked the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay annals
Sejarah Melayu, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the
daughter of Vijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace
with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of
Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of
Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also became the queen
consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, Airlangga constructed a
Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.

Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed
to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to
plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the
formation of regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on
agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king

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and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.
Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was
unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on
the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence
increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra. (See the paper of the authors on
Ancient Tamil Traders academia.edu and research gate )
With the growing presence of Tamil guilds in the region, relations improved between Srivijaya
and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince
named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the Imperial Court of
China. The prince who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola later was enthroned in 1070 CE
as Kulothunga Chola I. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya asked the Cholas for help. In
1068 CE, Virarajendra Chola launched a naval raid to help Srivijaya reclaim Kedah,
Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the Srivijayan Maharaja and Kedah
accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty.

Artist fantasy art of ganesh from Srivijaya times sitting on a bed of skulls by DARKGRIMREAPER-above

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CHOLA PERIOD DEPICTION OF TAMIL TEMPLE DANCER

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 CHAPTER VI
THE CHOLA DYNASTY

The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. In
Bangalore the Cholas ruled nearly a century. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of
the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power, including the
present-day Bangalore. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I—around 1004 AD—the cholas captured
Bangalore after defeating the Gangas. During their rule, they built many temples in and around
Bangalore with the Chokkanathaswamy temple, Mukthi Natheshwara Temple, Choleswara temple
and the Someshwara Temple being prominent ones. The Chokkanathaswamy temple at Domlur,
whose earliest inscriptions date back to the 10th century AD is the oldest temple in the city.
Originally built by Raja Raja Chola I, the temple was later renovated by
the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara rulers. The temple's deity was Lord Shiva, but later a Vishnu temple
was built for the local residents who were mainly Vaishnavas.

The Chola Rule in Karnataka was curtailed with loss of Western Gangavadi in 1117 AD by the
Hoysalas, but Eastern Gangavadi (part of Mysore district) was recovered by 1125 AD under Vikrama
Chola and Chola territories in Kannada country existed till the rule of Emperor Kulothunga Chola III.
However Tamil habitation in Karnataka, especially in Mysore district, precedes the Chola period and
continued afterwards as well. The Chola rule was the primary reason for the Saivism to be deeply
routed in Southern India. Hoysala Kings built Someshwara temples throughout their kingdom. The
typical Someshwara temple has a lotus pond or a taverekere included.

The Someshwara temple at Madiwala was built around 1247 AD. The Someshwara Temple at
Halasuru, one of the oldest in the city. While the main deity is Nandi, other gods like Brahma and
Vishnu are also worshiped here. It was later renovated by Kempegowda who built
the Rajagopuram and constructed walls around the temple. The 800 year-old Kaalikaamba
Kamatheshwara Temple at Basavangudi is the second largest temple in the city. The Sri Someshwara
Swamy Temple at Gunjur Village is one of the oldest Temple which was built in around 800 years
back by Chola Dynasty

Apart from religious practices, the temples were utilized for scholarly activities thus providing
employment for the people.

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 List of temples built by Cholas in Karnataka( Bangalore)

No. Name Locality Period/Earliest inscription

1 Chokkanathaswamy temple Domlur 10th century AD

2 Someshwara Temple (Halasuru) Halasuru

3 Kashi Vishweshwar temple Kadugodi

4 Vasantha Vallabharaya Temple Vasanthapura

5 Ananda Lingeshwara Temple Hebbal

6 Eshwara Temple Kengeri 1050 AD

7 Dharmesvara Temple Kondrahalli 1065 AD

8 Madduramma Temple Huskur 11th century AD

9 Mukthi Natheshwara Temple Binnamangala 1110 AD

10 Someshwara Temple Madiwala 1247 AD

11 Kaalikaamba Kamatheshwara Temple Nagarathpet 13th century AD

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No. Name Locality Period/Earliest inscription

12 Someshwara Swamy Temple Agara 1500 years

13 Someshwara Temple Marathahalli 1508 AD

14 Sri Someshwara Swamy Temple Gunjur Village 800 years

The Chola rulers were not only mighty conquerors and great administrators, but also great
builders. They were great patrons of art; during their reign, the most magnificent temples and
exquisite bronze icons were created in South India. These temples of Southern India represent an
outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida
type of temple which are now known as the Great Living Chola Temples.Here, we are giving the
list of temples built during the Chola Period for general awareness.

The Chola rulers were not only mighty conquerors and great administrators, but also great
builders. They were great patrons of art; during their reign, the most magnificent temples and
exquisite bronze icons were created in South India. There are three great 11th- and 12th-century
Temples i.e. Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram, the Brihadisvara Temple at
Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur. These temples of Southern
India represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure
form of the Dravida type of temple which are now known as the "Great Living Chola
Temples".Here, we are giving the list of temples built during the Chola Period for general
awareness.

Cultural Legacy of the Cholas The Chola kings were the champions of art, architecture, and
literature. The cultural movement that had been initiated by the Pallava kings reached a
crescendo under the reign of the Cholas. Culture and religion were inseparably fused. Art and
design reached an excellence unprecedented in India. The Chola kings were passionate Saivites.

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They commissioned a number of Shiva temples across south India. The two Chola monarchs,
Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, left an indelible mark with the grand temples of
Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. Both temples are now designated UNESCO World
Heritage Sites. The towering structures, intricate carvings, beauty, and symmetry of these temple
complexes are perfect examples of the creative genius patronized by the Chola kings.

The highlight of the Chola temples was the bronze utsava idols, or the idols used for public
functions. These were fashioned using the lost wax technique, and are known for their beauty.
The clothes, jewelry, and flowers of the deities were intricately designed in bronze. The best
known bronze idol of the Chola era is the Nataraja idol. Besides the intricacy, the balance and
contour of the image are exemplary. Tamil literature reached its apex during the Chola era.
Kambha Ramayanam, though based on Valmiki's Ramayana, is believed to depict the excellence
and beauty of the Chola country. Tamil poetry, dance, and drama were in their heydays during
this era. The growing strength of the Pandyas was one of the reasons for the decline of the Chola
Empire in the thirteenth century AD. Also, it had become impossible to maintain adequate
control over the unwieldy empire. Despite the decline of the empire, the Chola kings left a legacy
of culture, diplomacy, harmony, and administration that was unparalleled in South Asia.
Administration of the Cholas Administration of Chola dynasty was monarchical. The Chola
Empire consisted of entire South Indian peninsula extending east to west from coast to coast, and
bounded by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra River and the Vengi frontier in the north.
The Chola dominion extended up to the banks of the Godavari River. The king was a benevolent
dictator and the supreme commander. He issued oral commands to responsible officers when
representations were made to him. In the tasks of administration and in executing his orders a
powerful bureaucracy assisted the king. The justice of the orders of the King depends on the
goodness of the man and in his belief in a sense of righteousness. Role of the King in Chola
Administration All handles and levers of the administration were controlled by King as he
enjoyed absolute power. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the
administration of Central Government. The higher officials were called Peruntaram and the
lower officials were called Siruntaram. The Chola administration system was a highly
centralized one. The feudal chiefs were kept away from administration. The government had a
direct link with the peasants instead of the feudatories. The Chola kings had adopted the

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Yuvaraja during king’s rule. The orders of the kings were written and copies of it would be sent
to respective departments and officers. The royal priest was the reliable advisor of the King.
Brihadishwara Temple built by the Rajaraja Chola I.

Military Administration of Cholas The Cholas had an efficient army and navy. The Chola
army consisted of elephant, cavalry and infantry. Soldiers were given proper training. The army
was divided into seventy regiments. With the help of their navy the Cholas controlled
Coromandal and Malabar coasts. Bay of Bengal became the Chola Lake. The Chola army and
navy together had huge trained soldiers. The armies of the tributary chieftains also joined Chola
army at needy times. Generally the Chola army was led by the King or Yuvaraja. The king was
the commander of army and navy which acted under his instructions. They helped the king in
temple protection and revenue collection other than participating in a war. There were officials
of various grades organized in higher and lower ranks. Every village was a self-governing unit.
The kingdom was divided into several provinces. They were again subdivided into kotaam, nadu,
kurram and village being the lowest unit of the administration. The land revenue was core of
public finance, thereby assessment of revenue being done carefully Rajaraja I had introduced
periodical land surveys. Tax exemptions were carefully noted. The village as a whole was
responsible for payment of entire tax of a village. The other revenue sources were professional
tax, salt tax, tax on goods and so on. Revenue System under Cholas State revenue was utilized in
public works, in construction, maintenance of institutions and temples. Many irrigation projects
were undertaken by the Chola kings like dam construction. Lake Cholagangam was an artificial
reservoir build during the Chola rule.

Law and Order Under Cholas Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire. Justice
was administered through village courts, royal courts and caste panchayats. Minor disputes were
settled at the village level. Punishment was in the form of fines or donation for some charitable
purpose. Crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state,
such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these
cases was either execution or confiscation of property. Local Self Government Under Cholas
Development of local self government was one of the most striking features of administration of
the Chola dynasty. The villages were given autonomy despite centralised system of governance.

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The Chola officials acted as advisors to village assemblies and there was no interference in daily
administration. Thus there was continuity in village administration despite political upheavals.
The general assembly was classified into tax paying villagers, Brahmins and traders. The central
government officers examined accounts and supervised the work of the tax paying villagers. The
village assemblies received gifts from rich men or from king for developmental activities. The
feudatories were unable to impede in the village management. Their job was very clerical in the
sense it was a mere collection of taxes and passing the share to the King. Elaborate and
complicated mechanisms are the attributes of Chola administration. Administration under the
Chola dynasty was systematically conducted. Autonomy along with centralization was
moderately followed in each and every level. Revenue, justice, governance and military were
given prior importance and supervised in a matured manner. The Chola kingdoms witnessed a
disciplined bureaucracy. A statue from Chola Dynasty, outside the National Museum.

Features of Temple Architecture of the Chola Empire

1. Dravidian style of temple architecture
2. Most of the Chola temples were carved in the temple walls.
3. Deity were placed at Garbhagriha.
4. Use of carved miniature images of gods and goddesses.
5. The principal deity of the temples are Lord Shiva.

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6. The dvarapalas, or guardian figures, at the entrance to the mandapa, or hall, which started
from the Palava period became a unique feature of the Chola Temples.
7. Vimanas were the important part of the temple. They were assumed massive size during this
period.
8. Statues of kings were installed in temples. This promoted the cult of king as Godhead.

List of Temples of the Chola Period in Tamil Nadu

Temple Location King

Vijayala-Cholesvara Narta Malai Vijayala

Balasuramanya Kannanur Aditya I

Naveswara Kumbakunam Aditya I

Muvar Koil Kodumbalur/Padu Bhuti Vikramakeshri

Kottai Feudatory of Chola
Paratanka I

Koran Ganatha Srinivas Nallur Parantaka I

Tiruvalisvaram Brahmadesam Rajaraja I

Uttarakailash Tiruvadi Rajaraja I

Vaidyanath Tirumalavadi Rajaraja I

Rajarajeshwar Tanjore Rajaraja I

Gangaikondachola- Gangaikondachola- Rajendra I

puram puram

Airavateswara Darasuram Rajaraja I

Kampahareswara Tribhuvanam Kulotunga III

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List of Rock Edicts (Minor & Major) and Pillar Edicts
Great Living Chola Temples
The Great Living Chola Temples are situated in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, which were
built during the Chola rule in the south of India. The Cholas were great patrons of art; during
their reign, the most magnificent temples and exquisite bronze icons were created in South India.
There are three great Chola Temples of the 11th and 12th century, the Brihadisvara temples of
Thanjavur, the Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, and the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram.
The three temples built by the Chola kingdom are a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site
and are labelled as, "Great Living Chola Temples". These are - The
Brihadesvara Temple (Thanjavur), Brihadisvara Temple (Gangaikondacholisvaram) and
Airavatesvara Temple (Darasuram).

1. Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur

It was built during the reign of the Chola emperor Rajaraja and designed by the famous architect
Sama Varma between 1003 and 1010 AD. It is enthrone with 13-storey pyramidal tower, the
Vimana, standing 66 m high and topped with a bulb-shaped monolith. It is within a spacious
inner Prakara of 240.90m long (east-west) and 122m broad (north-south), with a Gopura at the
east and three other ordinary Torana entrances on at each lateral side and the third at rear.

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2. The Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram

Source:www.pinterest.com
It was built by the Chola emperor Rajendra I. It is described as the feminine counterpart of the
Thanjavur temple.
3. Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram

It was built by Rajaraja II and the temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. This temple has six pairs of
massive, monolithic dvarapalas statues guarding the entrances and bronzes of remarkable beauty
inside. For example- 24 m Vimana and a stone image of Shiva.

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List of Cholas Rulers and their contribution
The Chola periods are regarded as one of the most creative and formative periods of finest
artistic achievements for the monumentality of conception, architectural grandeur, powerful
sculpture and fine painting. Temple of Chola period were built almost entirely of stone, hard
granite laid in horizontal courses with no mortar. A striking feature of the temples built in the
Kaveri region is that so much stone has been procured in a riverine land with no local sources. In
the above list of temples built druing the Chola period will enhance the general knowledge of the
readers.

The temple of Chidambaram - which dates back to 11th

century was built by Rajendra Chola I, or Rajendra I
who was a Tamil Chola emperor of South India (present day Tamil Nadu, Andhra
pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka and Telangana) and North India (present day
Chhattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar) and he Captured South Asia Countries present day
of India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Andaman and nicobar islands and Southeast
Asia present day of
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia) who
succeeded his father Rajaraja Chola I to the throne in 1016 CE. During his reign, he extended the
influence of the Chola empire to the banks of the river Ganga in North India and across
the Indian ocean to the West and South East Asia, making the Chola Empire one of the most
powerful maritime empires of India. Rajendra's conquests included Sri Lanka, Maldives, and he
successfully invaded the territories of Srivijaya in Malay Peninsula, Southern
Thailand, Sumatra and Java in South East Asia. The Cholas exacted tribute from Thailand and
the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia. He defeated Mahipala, the Pala king of Gauda in present-
day Bengal and Bihar, and to commemorate his victory he assumed the title of
'Gangaikondachola', literally the Chola who conquered the (kingdoms near) Ganga and also built
a new capital city called Gangaikonda Cholapuram, near present day Mayiladudurai and
Chidambaram.

Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola and Thiripuvana Madeviyar, princess of
Kodumbalur. He was born in the Tamil month of Aadi under star Thiruvathirai. He spent most of

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his childhood in Palayarai and was brought up by his aunt Kundavai and great-
grandmother Sembiyan Mahadevi. He was made the co-regent in 1012 CE. Rajendra formally
ascended the Chola throne in 1014 CE. In 1018 CE, he installed his eldest son Rajadhiraja Chola
I as the crown prince

Military Early campaigns

Rajendra led campaigns from 1002 CE. These include the conquest of the Rashtrakutas and the
campaigns against the Western Chalukyas. He conquered the Chalukyan territories of Yedatore
(a large part of the Raichur district between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra), Banavasi in the
north-west of Mysore and capital Manyakheta. Rajendra erected a Siva temple at Bhatkal. In
1004 CE, he captured Talakad and overthrew the Western Ganga dynasty which had ruled
over Mysore for almost 1000 years. He also conquered Kollipakkai, located to the north
of Hyderabad in present-day Telangana. An excerpt from an inscription
in Tamil from Kolar states:

In the 8th year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who, while the
goddess of Fortune, having become constant, increased, and while the goddess of the great Earth,
the goddess of victory in battle and the matchless goddess of Fame, having become his great
queens, rejoiced-that in his extended lifetime, conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-
nadu, Vanavasi shut in by a fence of continuous forests; Kollipakkai, whose walls were
surrounded by sulli trees; Mannaikkadakkam whose fortification was unapproachable.[14]

The Chola conquest and occupation of Anuradhapura Kingdom was a military invasion of
the Anuradhapura Kingdom by the Chola Empire. It initially began with the invasion of
the Anuradhapura Kingdom in 993 AD by Rajaraja I when he sent a large Chola army to conquer
the kingdom and absorb it into the Chola Empire.[1] Most of the island was subsequently
conquered by 1017 and incorporated as a province of the vast Chola empire during the reign of
his son Rajendra Chola I. The Chola occupation would be overthrown in 1070 through a
campaign of Sinhalese Resistance led by Prince Kitti, a Sinhalese royal. The Cholas fought many
subsequent wars and attempted to reconquer the Sinhalese kingdom as the Sinhalese were allies
of their arch-enemies, the Pandyas. The period of Chola entrenchment in northern Sri Lanka
lasted in total about three-quarters of a century, from roughly 993 (the date of Rajaraja's first

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invasion) to 1070, when Vijayabahu I recaptured the north and expelled the Chola forces
restoring Sinhalese sovereignty.

Background
Military expeditions from South Indian forces into Anuradhapura had been brief ad hoc up until the
mid-tenth century. These were designed to facilitate short-term gains with minimal involvement
followed by a withdrawal to the mainland. However, with the ascension of more ambitious and
aggressive imperial Chola kings, Rajaraja I (985-1014) and his son Rajendra I (1012-1044), a new
strategy of ruthless plunder and destruction of major political and religious centers on the island
occurred, followed by the establishment of semi-permanent and fortified encampments, from where
wide-ranging raids could be carried out in other parts of the island.

The Anuradhapura Kingdom (Sinhala, translit: Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya, Tamil: named for its
capital city, was the first established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka and Sinhalese people. Founded by
King Pandukabhaya in 377 BC, the kingdom's authority extended throughout the country, although
several independent areas emerged from time to time, which grew more numerous towards the end of
the kingdom. Nonetheless, the king of Anuradhapura was seen as the supreme ruler of the country
throughout the Anuradhapura period. Buddhism played a strong role in the Anuradhapura period,
influencing its culture, laws, and methods of governance. Society and culture were revolutionized
when the faith was introduced during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa; this cultural change was
further strengthened by the arrival of the Tooth Relic of the Buddha in Sri Lanka and the patronage
extended by her rulers.

Invasions from South India were a constant threat throughout the Anuradhapura period. Rulers such
as Dutthagamani, Valagamba, and Dhatusena are noted for defeating the South Indians and regaining
control of the kingdom. Other rulers who are notable for military achievements include Gajabahu I,
who launched an invasion against the invaders, and Sena II, who sent his armies to assist
a Pandyan prince.

Because the kingdom was largely based on agriculture, the construction of irrigation works was a
major achievement of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, ensuring water supply in the dry zone and helping
the country grow mostly self-sufficient. Several kings, most notably Vasabha and Mahasena, built
large reservoirs and canals, which created a vast and complex irrigation network in the Rajarata area
throughout the Anuradhapura period. These constructions are an indication of the advanced technical
and engineering skills used to create them. The famous paintings and structures at Sigiriya;

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the Ruwanwelisaya, Jetavana stupas, and other large stupas; large buildings like the Lovamahapaya;
and religious works (like the numerous Buddha statues) are landmarks demonstrating the
Anuradhapura period's advancement in sculpting.

Anuradhapura: In 543 BC, prince Vijaya (543–505 BC) arrived in Sri Lanka, having been banished
from his homeland in India. He eventually brought the island under his control and established
himself as king. After this, his retinue established villages and colonies throughout the country. One
of these was established by Anuradha, a minister of King Vijaya, on the banks of a stream called
Kolon and was named Anuradhagama.[5]

In 377 BC, King Pandukabhaya (437–367 BC) made it his capital and developed it into a prosperous
city. Anuradhapura (Anurapura) was named after the minister who first established the village and
after a grandfather of Pandukabhaya who lived there. The name was also derived from the city's
establishment on the auspicious asterism called Anura.[8] Anuradhapura was the capital of all the
monarchs who ruled the country in the Anuradhapura Kingdom, with the exception of Kashyapa
I (473–491), who chose Sigiriya to be his capital.[9] The city is also marked on Ptolemy's world map..

History: King Pandukabhaya, the founder and first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, fixed
village boundaries in the country and established an administration system by appointing village
headmen. He constructed hermitages, houses for the poor, cemeteries, and irrigation tanks. [11] He
brought a large portion of the country under the control of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, it
was not until the reign of Dutthagamani (161–137 BC) that the whole country was unified under the
Anuradhapura Kingdom.[12] He defeated 32 rulers in different parts of the country before he
killed Elara, the South Indian ruler who was occupying Anuradhapura, and ascended to the throne.
The chronicle Mahavamsa describes his reign with much praise, and devotes 11 chapters out of 37
for his reign. He is described as both a warrior king and a devout Buddhist. After unifying the
country, he helped establish Buddhism on a firm and secure base, and built several monasteries and
shrines including the Ruwanweli Seya and Lovamahapaya.

Another notable king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom is Valagamba (103, 89–77 BC), also known as
Vatthagamani Abhaya, who was overthrown by five invaders from South India. He regained his
throne after defeating these invaders one by one and unified the country again under his rule. Saddha
Tissa (137–119 BC), Mahaculi Mahatissa (77–63 BC), Vasabha (67–111), Gajabahu I (114–
136), Dhatusena (455–473), Aggabodhi I (571–604) and Aggabodhi II (604–614) were among the

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rulers who held sway over the entire country after Dutthagamani and Valagamba. Rulers from
Kutakanna Tissa (44–22 BC) to Amandagamani (29–19 BC) also managed to keep the whole country
under the rule of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Other rulers could not maintain their rule over the
whole island, and independent regions often existed in Ruhuna and Malayarata (hill country) for
limited periods. During the final years of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, rebellions sprang up and the
authority of the kings gradually declined. By the time of Mahinda V (982–1017), the last king of the
Anuradhapura Kingdom, the rule of the king had become so weak that he could not even properly
organize the collection of taxes.

During the times of Vasabha, Mahasena (274–301) and Dhatusena, the construction of large
irrigation tanks and canals was given priority. Vasabha constructed 11 tanks and 12 canals, Mahasen
constructed 16 tanks and a large canal, and Dhatusena built 18 tanks.[24] Most of the other kings have
also built irrigation tanks throughout Rajarata, the area around Anuradhapura. By the end of the
Anuradhapura Kingdom, a large and intricate irrigation network was available throughout Rajarata to
support the agriculture of the country

Arrival of Buddhism

The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi today, to which the Kingdom was offered by Devanampiya Tissa.

One of the most notable events during the Anuradhapura Kingdom was the introduction
of Buddhism to the country. A strong alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa (250–210 BC)
and Ashoka of India, who sent Arahat Mahinda, four monks, and a novice being sent to Sri Lanka.
They encountered Devanampiya Tissa at Mihintale. After this meeting, Devanampiya Tissa
embraced Buddhism and the order of monks was established in the country. [28] Devanampiya Tissa,
guided by Arahat Mahinda, took steps to firmly establish Buddhism in the country. [29]

Soon afterwards, the bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived from India in order to establish the Bhikkhuni
sasana (order of nuns) in the country. She brought along with her a sapling from the Sri Maha Bodhi,

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the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment, which was then planted in
Anuradhapura.[31] Devanampiya Tissa bestowed on his kingdom the newly planted Jaya Sri Maha
Bodhi. Thus this is the establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Arrival of the Sacred Tooth Relic

During the reign of Kithsirimevan (301–328), Sudatta, the sub king of Kalinga, and Hemamala
brought the Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka because of unrest in their
country.[33] Kithsirimevan carried it in procession and placed the relic in a mansion
named Datadhatughara. He ordered this procession to be held annually, and this is still done as a
tradition in the country. The Tooth Relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects
in the country, and a symbol of kingship. The person who was in possession of the Tooth Relic
would be the rightful ruler of the country.[35] Therefore, it was often enshrined within the royal palace
itself.

Invasions]
Several invasions have been made against the Anuradhapura Kingdom, all of which were launched
from South India. The first invasion recorded in the history of the country is during the reign
of Suratissa (247–237 BC), where he was overthrown by two horse dealers from South India named
Sena and Guththika. After ruling the country for 22 years, they were defeated by Asela (215–205
BC), who was in turn overthrown by another invasion led by a Chola prince named Elara (205–161
BC). Elara ruled for 44 years before being defeated by Dutthagamani (Duttugamunu) However, the
Mahavamsa records that these foreign kings ruled the country fairly and lawfully.

The country was invaded again in 103 BC by five Dravidian chiefs, Pulahatta, Bahiya, Panya
Mara, Pilaya Mara and Dathika, who ruled until 89 BC when they were defeated by Valagamba.
Another invasion occurred in 433, and the country fell under the control of six rulers from South
India. These were Pandu, Parinda, Khudda Parinda, Tiritara, Dathiya and Pithiya, who were defeated
by Dhathusena who regained power in 459. More invasions and raids from South India occurred
during the reigns of Sena I (833–853) and Udaya III (935–938). The final invasion during the
Anuradhapura Kingdom, which ended the kingdom and left the country under the rule of the Cholas,
took place during the reign of Mahinda V.

However, none of these invaders could extend their rule to Ruhuna, the southern part of the country,
and Sri Lankan rulers and their heirs always organized their armies from this area and managed to

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regain their throne. Throughout the history of Sri Lanka, Ruhuna served as a base for resistance
movements.

Fall of Anuradhapura
Mahinda V (981-1017) distracted by a revolt of his own Indian mercenary troops fled to the south-
eastern province of Rohana. The Mahavamsa describes the rule of Mahinda V as weak, and the
country was suffering from poverty by this time. It further mentions that his army rose against him
due to lack of wages. Taking advantage of this internal strife Chola Emperor Rajaraja I invaded
Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered the northern part of the country and incorporated
it into his kingdom as a province named "Mummudi-sola-mandalam" after himself. Rajendra Chola
I son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. The Culavamsa says that the capital at
Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola armyThe capital was
at Polonnaruwa which was renamed "Jananathamangalam".

A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had succeeded the initial season of plunder. With
the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite
temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation was also
instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas. [45] In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was
succeeded by his son the Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids
were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have
completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of
Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa, the
conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch
Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18. But the south of the island, which lacked large an prosperous
settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus,
under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Ceylon began to reach a point of diminishing returns.
According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into
Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king
himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.

The Chola conquest had one permanent result in that the capital of Anuradhapura was destroyed by
the Cholas. Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom,[48] was renamed
Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and become the new center of administration
for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in

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the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island. There is practically no trace of
chola rule in Anuradhapura. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he
crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more
central and made the task of controlling the turbulent provence of Rohana much easier.

Sinhalese monarchy

Subdivisions of Anuradhapura Kingdom

Monarch
The kingdom was under the rule of a king. The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with
kingship began during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, under the influence of Ashoka of India. The
whole country was brought under the rule of a single monarch by Dutthagamani for the first time.
Before this, it had several principalities independent of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The succession
of the throne was patrilineal, or if that cannot be the case, inherited by the eldest brother of the
previous king. The king of Anuradhapura was seen as the supreme ruler throughout the island, even
at times when he did not have absolute control over it.

Four dynasties have ruled the kingdom from its founding to its ending. The rulers from Vijaya
to Subharaja (60–67) are generally considered as the Vijayan dynasty. Pandukabhaya was the first
ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom belonging to this dynasty. The Vijayan dynasty existed
until Vasabha of the Lambakanna clan seized power in 66 AD. His ascension to the throne saw the
start of the first Lambakanna dynasty, which ruled the country for more than three centuries. A new
dynasty began with Dhatusena in 455. Named the Moriya dynasty, the origins of this line are

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uncertain although some historians trace them to Shakya princes who accompanied the sapling of
the Sri Maha Bodhi to Sri Lanka. The last dynasty of the Anuradhapura period, the second
Lambakanna dynasty, started with Manavanna (684–718) seizing the throne in 684 and continued till
the last ruler of Anuradhapura, Mahinda V.

Officials
Royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central
administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was
the purohita, the advisor of the king. The king also had a board of ministers called amati
paheja.[57] In central administration, senapati (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a position
second only to the king, and held by a member of nobility. This position, and also the positions
of yuvaraja (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and
provinces, were often held by relatives of the king.[59]

The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Rajarata, the
area around the capital, was under the direct administration of the king, while the Ruhuna (southern
part of the country) and the Malaya Rata (hill country) were governed by officials
called apa and mapa. These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called rata.
Officials called ratiya or ratika were in charge of these. The smallest administrative unit was
the gama (village), under a village chief known as gamika or gamladda.

Buddhist priesthood
A close link existed between the ruler and the Sangha (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of
Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani's reign.
The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with
the Mahavihara sect, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to
have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had
also become close to the ruler. Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened
the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa. Even Valagamba's resistance movement
was initially hampered because of a rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a
reconciliation was affected. Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the
country and most rulers equally supported all sects. Despite this, religious establishments were often

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plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of
Dathopatissa I (639–650) and Kashyapa II (650–659).

Law
Customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as the bases of law. Specific
laws were eventually developed and adopted. Samantapasadika, a 5th-century commentary, gives
details of complex regulations on the theft of fish. The chief judicial officer was known
as viniccayamacca and there were several judicial officers under him, known as vinicchayaka. Apart
from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments.
The king was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and
high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with
care and after consulting with his advisers. Udaya I recorded judgments that were regarded as
important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions.[66]

Initially, the administration of justice at village level was the responsibility of village assemblies,
which usually consisted of the elders of the village. However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura
Kingdom a group of ten villages, known as dasagam, was responsible for upholding justice in that
area. The laws and legal measures to be followed by them were proclaimed by the king. Several rock
inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations.
Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Sanghabodhi (247–249) and Voharika
Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa I (263–
273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder, and slaughter of cattle were generally
punishable by death.

Military
During the early stages, the Anuradhapura Kingdom did not have a strong regular army except for a
small body of soldiers. These were assigned to guarding the capital and the royal palace. The King
had the right to demand an able-bodied son for military service from every family in his kingdom. In
times of war, a larger army was formed using this method. An army consisted of four main divisions;
an elephant corps, cavalry, chariots and infantry.[69] This combination was called Chaturangani
Sena (fourfold army). However, the majority of the army was infantry composed of swordsmen,
spearmen and archers.

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When such an army was prepared, it was commanded by several generals. The Commander-in-
Chief of the army was usually a member of nobility. The King and his generals led the army from the
front during battles, mounted on elephants. The major cities of the kingdom were defended
with defensive walls and moats. Sieges, often lasting several months, were common during warfare.
Single combat between the opposing kings or commanders, mounted on elephants, often decided the
outcome of the battle.

South Indian mercenaries were often employed in the armies of the Anuradhapura Kingdom during
its latter stages. Manavanna and Moggallana I (491–508) obtained the assistance of
the Pallavas during succession disputes to secure the throne. However, the Anuradhapura kingdom
appears to have had strong armies during some periods, such as when Sena II sent his armies to
South India against the Pandyan king. Gajabahu I also launched an invasion against South India[N 5] to
rescue 12,000 captives, and brought back 12,000 prisoners as well as the freed
captives.[74] Surprisingly however, a navy was not considered important during the Anuradhapura
Kingdom, and one was rarely maintained. This would have been the first line of defence for the
island nation and would also have been helpful in dealing with invasions from South India. [

The economy of the Anuradhapura Kingdom was based mainly on agriculture. The main agricultural
product was rice, the cultivation of which was supported by an intricate irrigation network. Rice
cultivation began around the Malvatu Oya, Deduru Oya and Mahaweli Ganga and spread throughout
the country.[75] Shifting cultivation was also done during the rainy seasons. Rice was produced in two
main seasons named Yala and Maha. Due to the extensive production of rice, the country was
mostly self-sufficient.[77] Cotton was grown extensively to meet the requirements
of cloth. Sugarcane and Sesame were also grown and there are frequent references in classical
literature to these agricultural products. Finger millet was grown as a substitute for rice, particularly
in the dry zone of the country. Surpluses of these products, mainly rice, were exported.

Ancient coins belonging to the Anuradhapura period on display at the museum of Anuradhapura.

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The primary goods exported during the Anuradhapura period
are gemstones, spices, pearls and elephants, while ceramic ware, silks, perfumes and wines were
imported from other countries. The city of Anuradhapura itself became an important commercial
center as the residence of many foreign merchants from around the world. From very early times was
a settlement of Greeks known as Yavanas. Professor Merlin Peris, former Professor of Classics at
the University of Peradeniya, writes that “The Greeks whom King Pandukabhaya settled in the West
Gate of Anuradhapura were not second or third generation of Greeks who arrived in NW India but
were men who, just two decades ago at the most, left Greek homelands as Alexander’s camp
followers and come to Sri Lanka with or in the wake of Alexander’s troops. When their fellow
Greeks showed reluctance to push further south, these Greeks apparently had done so.”

By the fifth century one of Persians in addition to Tamil and Arab merchants. These foreign
merchants, mainly Arabs, often acted as middlemen in these imports and exports. By the ninth
century these Muslim traders had established themselves around the ports of the Anuradhapura
Kingdom, they would soon form the still extant Muslim community of the island. Luxury cloth was
also imported from Eastern India and China. A stone inscription in Anuradhapura implies that the
market or bazaar was an important functionality in the city.[85] Trade was limited in villages since
they were mostly self-sufficient, but essential commodities such as salt and metal had to be obtained
from outside. The country's position in the Indian Ocean and its natural bays made it a centre of
international trade transit.[87] Ports such as Mahatittha (Mannar) and Gokanna (Trincomalee) were
used as trading ports during the Anuradhapura Kingdom.

Bronze imitation of a Roman coin, Sri Lanka, 4th-8th century

Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services.
However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in the form of
land revenue. The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BC. These earliest coins
were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as kahavanu. These eventually became
circular in shape, which were in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals,

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particularly gold and silver, were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants,
horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on the coins of this period.[93]

The primary tax of this period was named bojakapati (grain tax) and charged for land used for
cultivation.[94] A water tax, named dakapati was also charged for the water used from
reservoirs.[95] Customs duties were also imposed in ports. Those unable to pay these taxes in cash
were expected to take part in services such as repairing reservoirs. The administration of taxes was
the duty of Badagarika, the king's treasurer.

CULTURE

Typical layout of the tank, settlements and paddy fields in a traditional dry zone village.

Culture in the Anuradhapura Kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals
for food considered low and unclean. As a result, animal husbandry, except for the rearing
of buffalo and cattle, was uncommon. Elephants and horses were prestige symbols, and could only be
afforded by the nobility. The skills needed to train and care for these animals were highly regarded .
Cattle and buffalo were used for ploughing and preparing paddy fields. Dairy products formed an
important part of people's diets while Pali and Sinhala literature often refer to five products obtained

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from the cow: milk, curd, buttermilk, ghee and butter. Bullocks and bullock carts were also used for
transport.

Metalwork was an important and well-developed craft, and metal tools such as axes, mammoties and
hoes were widely used. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced in large scale for the
military.[102] A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya,
which had been roofed entirely with copper.

Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for
agriculture. Houses stood immediately below the reservoir embankment, between the water and the
paddy fields below. This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported
maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production.[ A village typically consisted of
a cluster of dwellings, paddy fields, a reservoir, a grazing ground, shift crop reserves and a village
forest. In areas of high rainfall, a perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir. Inland
fishing was widespread during the Anuradhapura Kingdom period because of the numerous
reservoirs. Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly
because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland.

Women appear to have been allowed considerable freedom and independence during this period.
Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign. Rock inscriptions
show that women donated caves and temples for the use of the sangha. However, there are no records
of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with
men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters.

Religion

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Gilded bronze statue of the Bodhisattva Tara, dated to the 8th century, found in the eastern coast of Sri
Lanka

The religion of the ruling elite was Brahmanism until the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka
during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa. It spread rapidly throughout the country under his patronage
becoming the official religion of the kingdom. Despite this status the tolerance of Buddhist society
ensured the survival of Hinduism with only a minor loss of influence. After this, the rulers were
expected to be the protectors of Buddhism in the country and it became a legitimizing factor of royal
authority. Three fraternities of Buddhism had come into existence by the end of the Anuradhapura
Kingdom; Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana. Mahavihara was established immediately after the
introduction of Buddhism to the country. Representing the Theravada teachings, it remained strictly
conventional throughout the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The Abhayagiri fraternity, established
after Abhayagiriya was built, represented several schools of Buddhist thought. It did not restrict itself
to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well. Little evidence exists on the
Jetavana fraternity which was established after the Jetavanaramaya was built, later than the other
two. However, it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding Buddhism.

Rulers sponsored Theravada and often took steps to stop the spreading of Mahayana beliefs. Rulers
such as Aggabodhi I, Kashyapa V (914–923) and Mahinda IV (956–972) promulgated disciplinary
rules for the proper conduct of the Sangha. Voharika Tissa and Gothabhaya (249–262) expelled
several monks from the order for supporting such views. A change in this occurred when Mahasena
embraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions. However, he too
accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him. As the kingdom and
the authority or kings declined, Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread, however,
Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine.

The Koneswaram Hindu temple was constructed in the Anuradhapura Kingdom era.

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Followers of Hinduism were also present to some extent during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. There
were a number of them in Rajarata during Elara's reign. Mahasen destroyed several Hindu temples
during his reign in the 2nd century. Particularly Indian merchant communities living near ports such
as Mahatittha and Gokanna were followers of Hinduism and Hindu temples were constructed in
these areas. By the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, large Hindu temples such as the Konesvaram
temple had been constructed. Historical sources indicate that there were also Jains in Anuradhapura
during the reign of Valagamba.

Literature
From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the Brāhmī script. This
gradually developed into the modern sinhala script, but this was not complete by the end of the
Anuradhapura Kingdom. The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC,
but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this, if not earlier. [118] The oldest
Sinhala literature is found at Sigiriya.[119] Poems written from the 6th century to the end of the
Anuradhaura kingdom are found among the graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya. Most of these
verses are describing or even addressed to the female figures depicted in the frescoes of
Sigiriya.[120] The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries.

Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them, Siyabaslakara, was
written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on
the Sanskrit Kavyadarsha. Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another, and is a glossary for
the Pali Dhammapadatthakatha, providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third
book is Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda, a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have
been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period.

During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali Tripitaka was written in palm leaves. Several commentaries
on Buddhism, known as Atthakatha have also been written during the reign of Mahanama (406–428).
Pali chronicles such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura
Kingdom, and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country.

Art

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The Sigiriya frescoes are the oldest and best preserved paintings belonging to the Anuradhapura period.

The Sigiriya Frescoes found at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka were painted during the reign of King Kashyapa
I (ruled 477 — 495 AD). Depicting female figures carrying flowers, they are the oldest surviving
paintings of the Anuradhapura period. Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings.
Some suggest that they are apsaras (celestial nymphs), others suggest that they are the ladies of the
king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds. Although they bear some similarity
to the paintings of Ajanta in India, there are significant differences in style and composition
suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art.

Paintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong
to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only
surviving specimens of art of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate
that walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of stupas and vahalkadas were also
painted. Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother
Dutthagamani wanted to see it on his death bed.

Statue making, most noticeably statues of the Buddha, was an art perfected by the Sri Lankan
sculptors during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The earliest Buddha statues belonging to the
Anuradhapura period date back to the 1st century AD.[131] Standard postures such as Abhaya
Mudra, Dhyana Mudra, Vitarka Mudra and Kataka Mudra were used when making these statues.
The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura, considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan
art, shows the Buddha in a seated position in deep meditation, and is sculpted from dolomitic marble
and is datable to the 4th century. The Toluvila statue is similar to this, and dates to the later stages of
the Anuradhapura Kingdom. Notable standing Buddha statues dating from the Anuradhapura period
include the ones at Avukana, Maligavila and Buduruvagala. The Buduruvagala statue is the tallest in
the country, standing at 50 feet (15 m). All these statues are carved out of rock.

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The carvings at Isurumuniya are some of the best examples of the stone carving art of the
Anuradhapura Kingdom. Skill in arts was a respected and valued trait during this period and artists
were well rewarded by the rulers. The Mahavamsa records that Jettha Tissa II (328–337) was himself
skilled in stone and ivory carving.

Architecture

King Dutthagamani constructed Ruwanweli Seya, the first large stupa, beginning a practice which would be
followed by subsequent rulers.

The construction of stupas was noticeable not only during the Anuradhapura Kingdom but
throughout the history of Sri Lanka. Stupas were built enshrining an object of worship. The stupa
of Thuparamaya, built by Devanampiya Tissa, is one of the earliest built and was constructed
immediately after the arrival of Buddhism. The construction of large stupas was begun by King
Dutthagamani with the construction of the Ruwanweli Seya, standing 300 feet (91 m) high with a
circumference of 298 feet (91 m).

The Anuradhapura dagabas which date from the early centuries of the Anuradhapura period, are of
such colossal proportions that they constitute the largest structures of their type anywhere in the
Buddhist World, even rivaling the Pyramids of Egypt in size.

The Abhayagiri stupa in the Abhayagiriya monastic complex is another large stupa of the
Anuradhapura period the original height of which was 350 feet (110 m). The Jetavana stupa,
constructed by Mahasen, is the largest in the country. Stupas had deep and well constructed
foundations, and the builders were clearly aware of the attributes of the materials used for
construction. Suitable methods for each type of material have been used to lay foundations on a firm
basis.

All buildings have been adorned with elaborate carvings and sculptures and were supported by large
stone columns. These stone columns can be seen in several buildings such as

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the Lovamahapaya (brazen palace). Drainage systems of these buildings are also well planned,
and terra cotta pipes were used to carry water to drainage pits. Large ponds were attached to some
monasteries, such as the Kuttam Pokuna (twin pond). Hospital complexes have also been found close
to monasteries. Buildings were constructed using timber, bricks and stones. Stones were used for
foundations and columns, while brick were used for walls. Lime mortar was used for plastering
walls.

Irrigation and water management

Rainfall in the dry zone of Sri Lanka is limited to 50-75 inches. Under these conditions, rain fed
cultivation was difficult, forcing early settlers to develop means to store water in order to maintain a
constant supply of water for their cultivations. Small irrigation tanks were constructed at village
level, to support the cultivations of that village. The earliest medium-scale irrigation tank is the
Basawakkulama reservoir built by King Pandukabhaya. Nuwara wewa and Tissa Wewa reservoirs
were constructed a century later. These reservoirs were enlarged in subsequent years by various
rulers.

A small and now unused ancient irrigation lake in Anuradhapura.

Construction of large scale reservoirs began in the 1st century AD under the direction of Vasabha.
The Alahara canal, constructed by damming the Amban river to divert water to the west for 30 miles
(48 km), was constructed during this period. Among the reservoirs constructed during the reign of
Vasabha, Mahavilacchiya and Nocchipotana reservoirs both have circumferences of about 2 miles
(3.2 km). During the reign of Mahasen, the Alahara canal was widened and lengthened to supply
water to the newly constructed Minneriya tank, which covered 4,670 acres (18.9 km2) and had a 1.25
miles (2.01 km) long and 44 feet (13 m) high embankment. He was named Minneri Deiyo (god of
Minneriya) for this construction and is still referred to as such by the people in that area. The
Kavudulu reservoir, Pabbatanta canal and Hurulu reservoir were among the large irrigation

146
constructions carried out during this period. These constructions contributed immensely to the
improvement of agriculture in the northern and eastern parts of the dry zone. Reservoirs were also
constructed using tributaries of the Daduru Oya during this period, thereby supplying water to the
south western part of the dry zone. This conservation and distribution of water resources ensured that
the water supply was sufficient throughout the dry zone. James Emerson Tennent described the
ancient irrigation network as:

... there seems every reason to believe that from their own subsequent experience and the prodigious
extent to which they occupied themselves in the formulation of works of this kind, they attained a
facility unsurpassed by the people of any other country.

The Kandalama Reservoir, believed to have been constructed during the latter stage of the kingdom, is
one of many tanks that form an intricate network. (right) The water supply for the Kuttam Pokuna
was obtained through underground conduits.

The water resources of the dry zone were further exploited during the times of Upatissa I
and Dhatusena. The construction of the Kala wewa, covering an area of 6,380 acres (25.8 km2)
with an embankment 3.75 miles (6.04 km) long and 40 feet (12 m) high, was done during
Dhatusena's reign. A 54 miles (87 km) canal named the Jayaganga carries water from the Kala
wewa to the Tissa Wewa and feeds a network of smaller canals. The construction of this network
is also attributed to Dhatusena. The Jayaganga supplied water to 180 square kilometres of paddy
fields. By the end of the 5th century, two major irrigation networks, one supported by
the Mahaweli river and the other by Malvatu Oya and Kala Oya, were covering
the Rajarata area. The Mahavamsa records that many other rulers constructed a number of
irrigation tanks, some of which have not yet been identified. By the 8th century, large tanks such
as Padaviya, Naccaduva, Kantale and Giritale had come into existence, further expanding the

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irrigation network. However, from the 8th century to the end of the Anuradhapura Kingdom,
there wasn't much activity in construction of irrigation works.

Technology

Advanced technology was required for the planning and construction of large reservoirs and
canals. When constructing reservoirs, the gaps between low ridges in the dry zone plains were
used for damming water courses. Two different techniques were used in construction; one
method involved making an embankment using natural rock formations across a valley and the
other involved diverting water courses through constructed canals to reservoirs. All the
reservoirs and canals in an area were interconnected by an intricate network, so that excess water
from one will flow into the other. The locations of these constructions indicate that the ancient
engineers were aware of geological formations in the sites as well, and made effective use of
them. Underground conduits have also been constructed to supply water to and from artificial
ponds, such as in the Kuttam Pokuna and the ponds at Sigiriya.

The 54 miles (87 km) long Jayaganga has a gradient of six inches to the mile, which indicates
that the builders had expert knowledge and accurate measuring devices to achieve the minimum
gradient in the water flow. The construction of Bisokotuva, a cistern sluice used to control the
outward flow of water in reservoirs, indicates a major advancement in irrigation technology.
Since the 3rd century, these sluices, made of brick and stone, were placed at various levels in the
embankments of reservoirs.

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The Chola dynasty under Rajendra Chola I

The tirumagal inscription of Rajaraja I dated to 993 AD first mentions Anuradhapura among the
king's conquests. Mahinda V (981-1017) distracted by a revolt of his own Indian mercenary
troops fled to the south-eastern province of Rohana. Taking advantage of this internal strife
Rajaraja I invaded Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered the northern part of the
country and incorporated it into his kingdom as a province named "Mummudi-sola-mandalam"
after himself. The Culavamsa says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in
every way by the Chola army. The capital was at Polonnaruwa which was renamed
"Jananathamangalam".

Monarchs of Sri Lanka

Monarchs during the Chola occupation (from Rohana

1. Mahinda V (982–1029)
2. Kassapa VI (1029–1040)
3. Mahalana-Kitti (1040–1042)
4. Vikrama Pandu (1042–1043)
5. Jagatipala (1043–1046)
6. Parakrama Pandu (1046–1048)
7. Loka (1048–1054)
8. Kassapa VII (1054–1055)
9. Vijayabahu I (1055–1110)

A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had followed the initial season of plunder.
With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves,
Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation
was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas.[8] In 1014 Rajaraja I died
and was succeeded by his son the Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line.
Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra
claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the

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south-eastern province of Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese
chronicle Mahavamsa, the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the
reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18. But the south of the island,
which lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never
really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Ceylon
began to reach a point of diminishing returns. According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates,
Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen,
daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where
he eventually died in exile in 1029.

Resistance

Vijayabahu I sent three armies to attack Polonnaruwa. One was sent along the western shore to
Mahatittha and Polonnaruwa, another from the east across Magama and the third and main force
across Mahiyanga.

Eleven years after the conquest of Rohana, Prince Kassapa, son of Mahinda, hid in Rohana,
where Chola forces vainly searched for him. Soon after the death of his father Kassapa assumed
the monarchy as Kassapa VI (also known as Vikramabahu) and "ruled" in Rohana for several
years (c. 1029–1040) while attempting to organize a campaign of liberation and unification.

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Taking advantage of uprisings in the Pandya kingdom and Chera kingdoms, Kassapa VI
massacred the Chola garrisons in Rohana and drove the 95,000 strong Chola army to
Pulatthinagara. But he died before he could consolidate his power, and a series of ephemeral
aspirants to the throne subsequently appeared and disappeared in Rohana without dislodging the
Cholas from the north.[10] Kassapa VI's mysterious death in 1040, however, brought an end to the
war. His successor Mahalana-Kitti (1040–1042) tried to drive the Cholas out of Anuradhapura
but failed and hence, took his own life in disgrace.

Some time in the middle of the eleventh century an ambition Sinhalese prince named Kitti arose.
The future Vijayabahu I (1055–1110), descended from, or at least claimed to be descended from
the Sinhalese royal house. He had defeated his most powerful rivals in Rohana and was anxious
to take on the Cholas, by the age of seventeen.[10] The crisis in the country left a scattering of
turbulent chiefs and intractable rebels whose allegiance, if any, was at best opportunistic which
proved a problem to both sides in the conflict, frustrating both the Sinhalese kings and the
Cholas. Vijayabahu, from his base in Rohana, faced a similar difficulty; he had to contend with
the hostility of local chiefs who regarded him as a greater threat to their independence than the
Cholas were.

For that reason, the Cholas occasionally succeeded in recruiting nominal support from rebel
chiefs in Rohana, as a result Vijayabahu had difficulty consolidating a firm territorial base from
which to launch a decisive campaign against the Cholas. On the other hand, the Cholas were
unable to eliminate similar opposition to themselves in the north. Gradually the wider conflict
developed into a prolonged, back and forth struggle of raids and counter-raids, with the forces of
Vijayabahu advancing upon Polonnaruva and then falling back to fortresses in Dakkhinadesa and
Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges.[10]
With time on the side of the insurgent forces, Chola determination began to gradually falter.
Vijayabahu possessed strategic advantages, even without a unified "national" force behind him.
A prolonged war of attrition was of greater benefit to the Sinhalese than to the Cholas. After the
accession of Virarajendra Chola (1063–69) to the Chola throne, the Cholas were increasingly on
the defensive, not only in Sri Lanka, but also in peninsular India, where they were hard-pressed
by the attacks of the Chalukyas from the Deccan.

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Vijayabahu eventually launched a successful two-pronged attack upon Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruva, when he could finally establish a firm base in southern Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura
quickly fell and Polonnaruva was captured after a prolonged siege of the isolated Chola
forces.[10] Virarajendra Chola was forced to dispatch an expedition from the mainland to
recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in order to stave off
total defeat.
In the battles that ensued, two powerful Sinhalese chiefs, Ravideva and Cala, crossed over with
their men from Vijayabahu's side to the Chola commander. One of Vijayabahu's Tamil
commanders, Kurukulattaraiyan, a Tamil Karaiyar chieftain, fell in battle.[11] What had begun as
a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to retain a
foothold in the north. After a further series of indecisive clashes, the occupation finally ended in
the withdrawal of the Cholas.

End of occupation
In 1070, when Kulottunga I (1070–1122) came to the Chola throne, after a period of political
crisis at the Chola court, he initially concentrated on consolidating his authority in India. His
most pressing task was to defend the Chola territories against the inroads of the Western
Chalukya Empire. All this meant that the defence of Sri Lanka was given a low priority.
The conquest on the Sinhalese kingdom had been associated with his three immediate
predecessors (Rajendra Chola I, Rajendra Chola II, and Virarajendra Chola, all sons of Rajaraja
I), no longer seemed to be worthwhile. Kulottunga had less personal prestige involved in the
conquest, so he simply terminated it with little attempt to recoup Chola losses.
Vijayabahu attacked and captured Pulatthinagara and drove the Cholas out of the city.
Kulottunga sent a large army which engaged Vijayabahu in a pitched battle near Anuradhapura.
The Cholas, initially succeeded in driving Vijayabahu to seek refuge in Vatagiri but Vijayabahu
took Mahanagakula on the Walaweganga and conducted his resistance from there. Pulatthinagara
and Anuradhapura fell to Vijayabahu and Mahatittha was soon occupied. Having liberated the
whole of Sri Lanka from Chola rule, Vijayabahu crowned himself king of Polonnaruwa in 1076-77.
The Chola conquest had one permanent result, that the capital of Anuradhapura, which lasted for
over a millennium, was destroyed by the Cholas. Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the
Sinhalese kingdom,[note 1] was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I,

152
and become the new center of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil
invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were bent on
control of the whole island. There is practically no trace of Chola rule in Anuradhapura. When
Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but
continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of
controlling the turbulent provence of Rohana much easier.

Inscription dated to 1100 CE Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka

Raja Raja Chola I conquered the northern half of Sri Lanka during his reign. Rajendra invaded
Ceylon in 1017 CE and annexed the entire island. As a result of the campaign, Rajendra captured
the regal jewels of the Pandyas, which Parantaka I tried to capture and the crown of the Sinhala
king. The Sinhala king Mahinda V was taken prisoner and transported to the Chola country.
Pandyas and Cheras
In 1018/19 CE, Rajendra marched into the Pandya and Chera Perumal kingdoms and conquered
the two countries.[13] Rajendra appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the title Jatavarman
Sundara Chola-Pandya with Madurai as the headquarters (in-charge both Pandya and
Chera/Kerala countries).
Chalukyan conflict
In 1015 CE, Jayasimha II became the king of Western Chalukyas. He tried to recover the losses
suffered by his predecessor Satyashraya, who fled his capital and was later restored to the throne
by Raja Raja I as a tribute paying subordinate. Initially, Jayasimha II was successful as Rajendra
was busy with his campaigns in Sri Lanka. In 1021 CE, after the demise of the Eastern
Chalukyan king Vimaladitya of Vengi, Jayasimha supported the claim of Vijayaditya VII to the
throne against the claims of Rajaraja Narendra. Rajaraja Narendra was the son of Vimaladitya

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and Chola princess Kundavai.Rajendra helped his nephew Rajaraja defeat Vijayaditya. His
armies defeated Vijayadiya in Vengi and Jayasimha in the battle of Maski.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram was built by Rajendra Chola to celebrate his success in the Ganges
Expedition

Brihadeeswarar temple inscription reading "Gangaikondacholan"

Expedition to the Ganges
The Medieval Chola king Rajendra Chola I led an expedition to North India between 1019 and
1024. The expedition traversed the states of Vengi, Kalinga, Odda and Bengal culminating with
their arrival at the Ganges river. The Chola victory over the Pala king Mahipala I is considered to
be the climax of the expedition. In 1019 CE, Rajendra’s forces marched through Kalinga towards
the river Ganga. In Kalinga the Chola forces defeated Indraratha the ruler of the Somavamsi
Dynasty.[1] The Chola army eventually reached the Pala kingdom of Bengal where they
defeated Mahipala. The Chola army also defeated the last ruler of the Kamboja Pala
dynasty Dharmapala of Dandabhukti. The Chola army went on to raid East Bengal and defeated
Govindachandra of the Chandra dynasty and invaded Bastar region.

The expedition is believed to have been necessitated by a succession dispute in the Eastern
Chalukya kingdom where the claims of Rajaraja Narendra, the son of Vimaladitya, the previous
king, and his queen Kundavai, were contested by Vishnuvardana Vijayaditya VII, a son of
Vimaladitya through another wife. Vishnuvardhana Vijayaditya VII was supported by
the Western Chalukya king Jayasimha II and the kings of Kalinga and Odda and posed a serious
threat to Rajaraja Narendra.[6] Rajaraja Narendra appealed for help from his maternal uncle, the
Chola emperor, Rajendra Chola I who sent a large force under his general, Araiyan Rajarajan, a
veteran of the Chalukya-Chola Wars. Araiyan Rajarajan defeated Vijayaditya and after driving
him out, firmly established Rajaraja Narendra on the Eastern Chalukya throne.

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Following this victory, Rajendra Chola I led an expedition northwards supported by an advance
guard led by Araiyan Rajarajan, to punish the kings of Kalinga and Odda who had sided with
Vijayaditya in the succession dispute.

The Thiruvalangadu plates state:

The light of the Chola race (Rajendra Chola I), mocking Bhagiratha who by the force of his
austerities caused the descent of the Ganga, set out to sanctify his own land with the waters of
that stream brought (thither) by the strength of his arm.

Rajendra Chola I defeated the kings of Kalinga and Odda and marched up to the Godavari River,
from where Araiyan Rajarajan led an army into Bengal. The details of the campaign are given in
the Tamil praśasti of Rajendra Chola I.

(He seized) Śakkarakkōţţam, whose warriors were brave; Madura-maṇḍalam destroyed in a trice,
the prosperous city of Nāmaṇaik-kōṇam with its dense groves. Pañcap-paḷḷi whose warriors
(bore) cruel bows, Māśunideśa with its green fields; a large heap of family-treasures with many
(other) treasures (which he carried away), after having conquered Indraratha of the ancient race
of the moon, together with (his) family, in a fight which took place at Ādinagar, (a city) whose
fame knew no decline; Oḍḍa-viṣaya which was difficult of approach on account of its dense
forest defence; the good Kōśalai-nāḍu where Brahmins assembled; Taṇḍabutti in whose gardens
bees abounded, (land which he acquired) after having destroyed Dharmapāla (in) a hot battle;
Takkaṇalāḍam, whose fame reached (all) directions, (and which he occupied) after having
forcibly attacked Raṇaśura; Vangāḷa-deśā, where the rain water never stopped, (and from which)
Gōvindacandra fled, having descended (from his) male elephant; elephants of rare strength,
women and treasure, (which he seized) after having been pleased to put to flight in a hot
battlefield the strong Mahipāla by the sound of a conch from the deep sea; Uttiralāḍam (on the
shore of) the expansive ocean (producing) pearls; and the Gangā whose waters bearing flagrant
flowers dashed against the bathing places (tirtha

Sakkarakottam, the place from where Araiyan Rajarajan led the campaign into Bengal is
identified with the town of Chakrakotya or Chitrakoot, in the present-day Madhya Pradesh.

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Masunidesam, Maduraimandalam, Namanaikkonam and Pancapalli, too, are believed to be
located to the north-west of Vengi. Following the conquest of these places in present-
day Telangana, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, Araiyan Rajarajan invaded Odda (present-day
Orissa) and conquered it after defeating its ruler Indraratha. His next success was against
Dharmapala, who ruled the kingdom of Dandabhukti located in the marshland between Orissa
and Bengal. Rajarajan, then, defeated Ranasura, the ruler of Lada or Radha, identified as the part
of West Bengal south of the Ganges River and Govindacharya of Vangala, located further to the
east before confronting the Pala ruler Mahipala I. After defeating Mahipala in a pitched battle,
Araiyan Rajarajan reached the Ganges and took some water with him on his journey back. . He
was met by Rajendra I on the banks of the Godavari and the combined armies returned home
after conducting Rajaraja Narendra's coronation as the king of the Eastern Chalukyas.

There have been general disagreement among historians on the nature of the expedition. Early
scholars such as V. Venkayya interpreted Rajendra Chola's campaign to "bring the waters of the
Ganges into Chola territory" as a pilgrimage to the Ganges River. However, this theory has been
refuted by later historians, most notable among them being K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. That the
campaign was military in nature is suggested by the last line of the Thiruvalangadu plates which
state that the king erected a Ganga-jalamayam jayasthambham or a "liquid pillar of victory" in
the form of the Cholaganga tank.

Effects: The Chola expedition to the Ganges had a long-lasting influence. According to R. D.
Banerji, a Kannadiga chief who accompanied Araiyan Rajarajan on his campaign settled down in
Bengal and founded the Sena Dynasty. It is believed that the Karnata people of Mithila, too,
might have descended from soldiers in the Chola army. The Siddhantasaravali of Trilocana
Sivacharya claims that a large number of Saivite Brahmins from Bengal were taken to the Chola
country where they were granted lands by Rajendra Chola I. They, eventually, settled down
in Kanchipuram and the Cauvery Delta forming the Sivacharya community.

In 1025, Rajendra Chola I or Raja Ranganathan, the Chola king from Tamil Nadu in South India,
launched naval raids on the city-state of Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia,[1] and
conquered Kadaram (modern Kedah) from Srivijaya and occupied it for some time. Rajendra's

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overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise
peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places in present
day Malaysia and Indonesia were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty.
The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the
Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Chola invasion led to the fall
of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with return voyage
of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025.[8] The expedition of
Rajendra Chola I is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the
medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, and Malay princes have names ending with Cholan
or Chulan, such as Raja Chulan of Perak.
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and
peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history. In the 9th and
10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an
860 Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at
the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola
dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In 1006 CE a
Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty — king Maravijayattungavarman — constructed
the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.[14] However, during the reign
of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[15]
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola
seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.[16] While Srivijaya that
controlled two major naval choke points; Malacca and Sunda Strait; at that time was a major
trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. Malacca strait's northwest opening was
controlled from Kedah on Peninsula side and from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu
(Jambi) and Palembang controlled its southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced
naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on
their ports or otherwise being plundered.[citation needed]
The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear with Nilakanta Sastri suggesting that the attack
was probably caused by Srivijayan attempt to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with
the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend
his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore

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add luster to his crown. Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably
motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer
Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola
dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra
Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the
Srivijaya Empire. This alliance somewhat also had religious nuance, since both Chola and
Khmer empire are Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya are Mahayana Buddhist.

The Chola raid against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. To sail
from India to the Indonesian Archipelago, vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of
Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering
Strait of Malacca. But the Chola armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port
of Barus in the west coast of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trading guilds and
served as a port to replenish after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada then continued
to sail along Sumatra's west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda.[1] The Srivijaya
navy guarded Kedah and surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca strait
completely unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The
first Srivijayan city being raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The unexpected
attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal palace and
monasteries. Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured King Sangrama
Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures including the Vidhyadara
Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya adorned with great splendor.
After plundering the royal palace of Palembang, the Cholas launched successive attacks on other
Srivijayan ports including Malayu, Tumasik, Pannai and Kedah. The Chola invasion did not
result in administration over defeated cities as the armies moved fast and plundered the
Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken advantage of the Southeast
Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving
unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it did not allow the
Srivijayan mandala to prepare the defences, reorganize themselves, provide assistance or to

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retaliate. The war ended with a victory for the Cholas and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire
ending the Srivijaya maritime monopoly in the region.

With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed,
the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The invasion marked
the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay annals Sejarah
Melayu, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the
daughter of Vijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace
with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of
Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of
Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also became the queen
consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, Airlangga constructed a
Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.
Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed
to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to
plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the
formation of regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on
agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king
and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028
CE. Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was
unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on
the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence
increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.
With the growing presence of Tamil guilds in the region, relations improved between Srivijaya
and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince
named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the Imperial Court of
China. The prince who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola later was enthroned in 1070 CE
as Kulothunga Chola I. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya asked the Cholas for help. In
1068 CE, Virarajendra Chola launched a naval raid to help Srivijaya reclaim
Kedah.[25] Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the Srivijayan Maharaja and
Kedah accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty.

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Srivijaya was a kingdom centered on Palembang in Sumatra, ruled by the Sailendra dynasty.
During the reign of Mara Vijayatungavarman, Srivijaya had cordial relations with the Chola
Empire during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I; Mara Vijayatungavarman built a Chudamani
Vihara at Nagapattinam. Mara was succeeded by Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.
Khmer Emperor Suryavarman I made war on the kingdom of Tambralinga (in the Malay
Peninsula). Suryavarman I requested aid from Rajendra. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance
with Rajendra Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from Srivijaya, which was granted by
Sangrama. This eventually led to the Chola expedition against the Srivijiya Empire. This alliance
somewhat also had a religious nuance, since both the Chola Empire and the Khmer
Empire were Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist.
In 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the Indian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya, attacking
several places in Malaysia and Indonesia. The Chola sacked Kadaram (the capital) and Pannai in
Sumatra and Malaiyur in the Malay Peninsula. Rajendra also invaded Tambralinga and
the Langkasuka Kingdom in modern Malaysia and south Thailand. The Chola forces captured
the last ruler of the Sailendra Dynasty Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman. The Chola invasion was
the end of Srivijaya.[31][32] Srivijaya's maritime power declined under Chola attack. After this the
Chola Empire conquered large portions of Srivijaya, including its ports of Ligor, Kedah,
and Tumasik (now Singapore). The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant
associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole, and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. For the
next century, Tamil trading companies from southern India dominated Southeast Asia. The
expedition of Rajendra Chola I is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the
medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya, and Malay princes have names ending with Cholan
or Chulan, such as Raja Chulan of Perak. One record of Rajendra Chola describes him as the
King of Lamuri in north Sumatra. The Chola invasion led to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of
Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with the return voyage of the great Buddhist
scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India in 1025.

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Rajendra Chola in Battle, Kolaramma Temple, Kolar[-Stone sculpture with Tamil
Inscription, Chokkanathaswamy temple, Bengaluru built in 10th century AD
Rajendra Chola built a vast artificial lake, sixteen miles long and three miles wide which was one
of the largest man-made lakes in India. The fortified capital of Rajendra Chola was of impressive
grandeur and Ottakoothar states, On seeing Gangapuri, all fourteen worlds encircled by the
billowing ocean are overwhelmed with joy.The extent of the empire was the widest in India and
the military and naval prestige was at its highest.The successful invasions of Rajendra Chola
were applauded by several medieval Tamil poets like Jayamkondan in his text Kalingattupparani
and Ottakkoothar in his text Ula.
After his successful campaign to Ganges river in north India he got the title Gangaikonda
Chola (The Chola who took the Ganges river). And after his successful Southeast Asian
campaign he got the title "Kadaram Kondan"(He who took Kedah in Malaysia). He founded a
new capital city called Gangaikonda Cholapuram and built a Shiva temple similar to
the Thanjavur Brihadisvara temple built by his father Rajaraja Chola. He expanded
the Pathirakali Amman Temple and Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee. He inherited the
title Mummudi Cholan (Chola with three crowns) from his father with Mummudi, a title used
by Tamil kings who ruled the three kingdoms of Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. To commemorate
his conquests, Rajendra assumed other titles such as Mudigonda Cholan and Irattapadikonda
Cholan.
The Malay-language Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain was written about Alexander the
Great as Dhul-Qarnayn and from it the ancestry of several Southeast Asian royal families is

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traced to Iskandar Zulkarnain,[52] through Rajendra Chola (Raja Suran, Raja Chola) in the Malay
Annals, such as the Sumatran Minangkabau royalty.
Rajendra Chola had many consorts including Tribuvana or Vanavan Mahadeviar,
Mukkokilan,Arindhavan Madevi and Viramadevi, last of whom committed sati upon Rajendra
Chola's death. The Siddanta Saravali of Trilochana Sivacharya states that Rajendra was a poet
and he composed hymns in praise of Shiva. A commentary on the same work states that
Rajendra Chola brought a number of Saivas from the banks of the Ganges and settled them
in Kanchi and the Chola country.[55] Rajendra Chola had three sons namely Rajadhiraja
Chola, Rajendra Chola II and Virarajendra Chola, who followed him on the Chola throne in
succession. He had two daughters Pranaar Arul Mozhi Nangai and Ammanga Devi. His
campaigns were led by general Senapati Narakkan Sri Krishnan Raman. Another notable
minister of Madhuranthaka or Rajendra Chola as per his Tiruvalangadu plates, who assisted him
in several of his campaigns, was nobleman Jananatha, described as the son of a person called
Rama. He bore the title Chalukya-Chudamani, that is crest-jewel-of-the-Chalukyas.
Death: According to South Indian epigraphs and records, Rajendra Chola I died in Brahmadesam
now a part of North Arcot district in Tamil Nadu, India. This information is recorded in an
inscription of his son, Rajadhiraja Chola I which states that Rajendra Chola's queen
Viramadeviyar committed Sati upon Rajendra's death and her remains were interred in the same
tomb as Rajendra Chola I in Brahmadesam. It adds that the queen's brother, sēnapati
Madhurantakan Parakēsari vēlān, who was a general in Rajendra Chola's army set up a
watershed at the same place in memory of his sister.

A painting of Emperor Rajendra Chola I. The painting is a part of National War Museum, Pune
An inscription of the king from the Adhipuriswara temple in Chengalpattu district gives his natal
star as Tiruvadarai. Donations were made to the temple to celebrate the king's birthday in the
month of Maargali. Another inscription from the Umamahesvara temple in
Konerirajapuram, Thanjavur district refers to the donations by Alvar Parantakan Kundavai-
Pirattiyar during the third year of the king's reign.

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 CHAPTER
The Main Chidambaram- Sri Thillai Nataraja Temple

India has many places where people worship the Divine.

India has more than 2 million Hindu temples recorded during the 2001 census, whose number
has substantially increased by now. One of the secretive and famous temple is the one at
Chdambaram. What is unique about this temple is that the Chidambaram temple complex
proudly boasts of being one of the oldest temple complexes in Southern India. The
most unique characteristic of the Nataraj Temple is the bejewelled image of Nataraj.

Temple History:

Sage Vasishta, revered as leader of Rishis had a relative Madyandinar by name. He had a son
named Maadyandinar (the first name is short in sound, the next longer – spelling differs). Sage
Vasishta advised that the boy should worship the Swayambulinga in Thillai Vanam forests for
gaining complete spiritual wisdom. Son wasMaadyandinar reached this place. He was sad that
he lost his puja time in picking up flowers after sunrise and these flowers were not pure as the

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honey in the same are taken away by the bees. He appealed to Lord Shiva saying that he was
unable to pick the flowers in darkness due to lack of light and the flowers become unfit if picked
after sunrise. Lord granted him hands and legs as that of a tiger to climb the tree and a bright
vision to the eyes functioning well even in utter darkness. Lord also said that he would be
known henceforth as Vyakrapada as had the legs as a tiger. Vyakrapada was

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too happy with the boon and name and continued his worship in Thillai.

Thillai Nataraja Kovil (or Temple, in English) situated in Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu is
dedicated to Lord Shiva, who is worshiped in the form of Nataraja in dancing posture. The
Presiding Deity of the temple is Thirumoolanathar (Lord Shiva) and the Goddess of the temple is
Umayambikai (Goddess Parvathi).The unique feature of the temple is the bejeweled image of
Nataraja. Lord Shiva is depicted as the Lord of dance radiating universal power. It is one of the
temples where Shiva is represented as an anthropomorphic idol, rather than a Lingam. The
worship of Lord Shiva in the form of Lingam is associated with the five elements water, fire,
wind, earth and ether. Lord Shiva is worshiped in the form of Murthi (idol) in Chidambaram and
is considered as one of the Pancha Bootha Sthalas.The dance stage of the temple is called as
Chittrambalam and the holy tree is considered as the Thillai (Exocoeria agallocha) tree. The holy
water source of the temple is Sivagangai and the hymns of the temple is Thevaram, sung by Sri
Manickavachagar.

Location:
Thillai Nataraja Kovil is located in the town Chidambaram in Cuddalore district in the state
Tamil Nadu, India. It is situated 78 km south to Pondicherry and 250 km from Chennai, the
capital of Tamil Nadu. It is situated on the main railway route between Chennai and Trichy about
halfway between these two cities. The place derived its name from the surrounding Thillai
forest. These trees are not seen in Chidambaram now but can be seen at Pichavaram, east of
Chidambaram in the backwaters. The temple is one of the pancha bootha sthalas where God is
worshiped in one of his manifestations – Sky or Aagayam. Other Pancha Bootha sthalas are
Ekambareswarar temple at Kanchipuram (God is worshiped as Earth), Jambukeswarar temple at
Thiruvanaikaval, in Tiruchirapalli (God is worshiped as Water), Annamalaiyar Temple at
Tiruvannamalai (God representing Fire) and Kalahasti temple at Srikalahasthi (where the God is
worshiped as Wind).
Sakthi Vikatan- What is the importance of the Sacred Tree inside the temple.Sthala Virutsam
(Shrine Tree) means the deity self-created himself or herself in that a place adjacent to a tree.
The native tree in

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that place was responsible for the appearance of Svambhu deity (self-existent deity), who
remained in place unknown and undiscovered by people. A letdown (of milk) by kār-ām-pacu
made it possible for the discovery of Svayabhu Linga (self-existent natural Lingam). The nearby
tree is the Sthala Virutsam (Shrine tree).
kār-ām-pacu. [M. kārāmbašu.] Cow with black tongue and nipple;
If a person circumambulates the tree, he will obtain the full benefits of going around the
Grbhagraham (Inner sanctuary). Only a few of the Vedic scholars can access the inner shrine.
But anyone can go around the Shrine Tree.

A temple in Uththirakosha Mangai has an old Jujube tree (Zizyphus jujube). KAvappuli-Kandar
meditated (under the tree), received vision of Siva and obtained a boon from him.

Jujube-tree, m. tr., Zizyphus jujuba;

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In many temples, there is a platform near the sacred tree.It is the traditional belief that Siddhars
(mystics or perfected ones) sit on it. The deity’s śakti or power augments several folds because
of the Siddhars.

Because of their Tapas (austere penance) the temple’s strength improves. They perform penance
under the sacred tree.Virudhachalam Viruththakirīśvarar Temple’s sacred tree is Indian
mesquite. The temple’s Vivasuththu Muni sits on the platform under the tree. Circumambulation
of him is good enough.Indian mesquite, m. tr., Prosopis spicigera. 3

History:
Thillai Nataraja Kovil is considered as the primary temple for all the Saivites. The term “Kovil”
itself refers to this temple for Saivites, whereas “Kovil” refers to Srirangam temple for
Vaishnavites. The early structure of the temple was constructed and maintained by Perumtaccan
of the respected clan of Vishwakarmas. The golden roof of the Chitambalam was laid by the
Chola king, Parantaka I. In those flourishing times, kings Rajaraja Chola I and Kulothunga Chola
I made significant donations to the temple. Gold and wealth to the temple were donated by
Kundavai II, the daughter of Rajaraja Chola while Vikrama Chola made donations for the
conduct of the daily rituals. The temple has been renovated several times since the reign of
Pallavas and Cholas. Several parts of the temple were rebuilt by Aragalur Udaya Iraratevan
Ponparappinan, in 1213 AD. Donations to the temple were made later by various kings during
various periods of time, including the Maharaja of Pudukottai, Sethupathy and the British. The
emerald jewel donated by Sethupathy still adorns the deity.

Architecture:
The place where the temple stands is the claimed center of the earth’s magnetic equator. This
shows the tremendous engineering, geographical and astrological knowledge of the ancient
architecturers. The temple has nine gateways among which four of them have gopurams in the
East, West, North and South. The eastern gopuram/pagoda has all the 108 dance postures of
Bharathanatiyam. The south gopuram Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was constructed by
Pandya king. This is evident from the sculpted fishes (flag of Pandya king) in the ceiling. The
smallest gopuram is the western gopuram that was constructed in 1150; but there is no evidence

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available to know the construction of this gopuram. However, there are sculptures depicting the
Goddess fighting with buffalodemon. The North Gopuram was constructed around 1300 AD
with the brick portion constructed by the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya in the 16th century.
The East Gopuram, was claimed to have been constructed by the Pallava King, Koperunsingan
II.

Roof laid with 21,600 golden tiles with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on them. The roof
of Ponnambalam is held by a set of 64 beams representing the 64 forms of art. It is also held by
several cross beams representing the infinite blood vessels. The roof has been laid with 21,600
golden tiles with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on them representing 21,600 breaths,
which represents the number of breaths taken in a 24 hour period.. The golden tiles are fixed
using 72,000 golden nails that represents the number of nadis existing in the human body. The
roof is topped by a set of 9 sacred pots or kalasas, representing the 9 forms of energy. The
temple contains five sabhas – Kanaka Sabha, Chit Sabha, Nritya Sabha, Raja Sabha and Deva
Sabha. The main deity, Lord Shiva is enshrined in Chit Sabha, with black screen covering
behind Akasa Lingam. The Kanaka Sabha is located in front of Chit Sabha. The daily rituals are
conducted here. Nritya Sabha or Natya sabha – It is the hall, where Lord Shiva is said to have
danced along with Goddess Kali (an incarnation with ferocious energy) to prove his Supremacy.
Raja Sabha or 1000 pillared hall – It represents the yogic chakra of 1000petalled lotus. Deva
Sabhai – The hall houses pancha moorthis (five idols) of Lord Ganesha, Lord Muruga, Lord
Somaskanda, Lord’s consort Sivananda nayaki and Lord Chandikeswarar. There is also a
Govindaraja shrine dedicated to Lord Vishnu and it is one of the 108 holy temples of Lord
Vishnu. The Chidambaram temple is surrounded by several water bodies in and around the
temple complex. The name of the connected tanks are Sivaganga tank, Paramanandha koobham,
Kuyya theertham, Pulimadu, Vyagrapatha Theertham, Anantha Theertham, Nagaseri Tank,
Brahma Theertham, Shivapiyai Tank and Thiruparkadal.

Legends:
The story of Chidambaram starts with the legend of Lord Shiva moving to Thillai Vanam
(Thillai – tree; Vanam means forest). There were a group of Rishis or sages in this forest
believing that they can control the Supreme Power through mantras (chants), rituals and magical

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spells. To refute, Lord Shiva disguises as a mendicant and Lord Vishnu disguises as Mohini, the
consort of the mendicant and tests the fidelity of the wives of few sages who were proud of their
chastity. Being a smart and beautiful mendicant, Lord Shiva enchants the wives of the sages.
Enraged by this, the sages performs pooja and invoke serpents on Lord Shiva. He inturn captures
all the snakes and adorns them as ornaments around his matted locks, neck and waist. Then, the
sages invokes a ferocious tiger from the holy fire and target it on the divine couple. Lord Shiva
uses his nail to tear the skin of the tiger and wears it around his waist. After facing the defeat
twice, the sages invokes a powerful demon – Muyalakan – a symbol of complete arrogance and
ignorance. The Lord wearing on a gentle smile, steps on the demons back and makes him
immovable. This is the point where he starts his Anandha Thandavam – an eternal blissful dance,
and discloses who they really are. The sages surrender themselves and admit that Supremacy
cannot be controlled by any other power.

Dikshithars:

Thillai Nataraja Kovil is being maintained by the endogamous group of Shaivite Brahmins
called Dikshithars, who also work as priests in the temple. It is said that these people were
brought from Mt. Kailash by Saint Patanjali specifically for performing daily rituals in the
temple. There were 3000 Dikshithars initially. Upon the request of Lord Brahma for performing
pooja (ritual function), they made a Vedic sacrifice in heaven. After returning back from pooja,
there were only 2999 Dikshithars. As they were wondering, they heard an oracle saying that the
3000th Dikshithar was Lord Shiva himself.

Sadhguru Says about this Chidambaram temple: : In South India, five temples were built for
each of the five elements – Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space. These are the Pancha Bhuta
Sthalas. Geographically, they are all within the Deccan Plateau – four in Tamil Nadu and one in
Andhra Pradesh. The temple for water is in Thiruvanaikaval, fire is Thiruvannamalai, Kalahasti
is air and Kanchipuram is earth. The temple for space is in Chidambaram.
The Chidambaram temple is an incredible space. The newer part of the temple is around a
thousand years old but no one knows how old the older part of the temple is. People say it is
3,500 years or more. This is how Indian culture has been. Even in ancient times, just look at the

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kind of temples they built. Whether you see the Rameshwaram Temple, the Chidambaram
Temple, or the Madurai Temple, these are all colossal establishments and they were created a
thousand years ago. At that time, almost every human being except the king lived in shacks.
There was no machinery, trucks or cranes, but they worked for a couple of generations on these
temples with a single-minded purpose. These people dedicated their whole life, they lived and
died to create these temples because it meant so much to them.

Space
One thing about Chidambaram is the Nataraja, but the main deity is an empty space. This temple
was consecrated by Patanjali himself. Patanjali is known as the “Father of Modern Yoga.” He
did not invent yoga. Yoga was already there in various forms which he assimilated into a system.
The Yoga Sutras were written by him. If you look at Patanjali, as an enlightened being he can’t
be more enlightened than someone else. There is no such thing. Realization is realization. But
Patanjali as a man and above all as an intellect, the breadth of his understanding of life is so big
that you cannot believe that this is possible in one human being. He is absolutely incredible and
almost “not human.”

Sadhguru: In South India, five temples were built for each of the five elements – Earth, Water,
Fire, Air and Space. These are the Pancha Bhuta Sthalas. Geographically, they are all within the
Deccan Plateau – four in Tamil Nadu and one in Andhra Pradesh. The temple for water is in
Thiruvanaikaval, fire is Thiruvannamalai, Kalahasti is air and Kanchipuram is earth. The temple
for space is in Chidambaram.

The Chidambaram temple is an incredible space. The newer part of the temple is around a
thousand years old but no one knows how old the older part of the temple is. People say it is
3,500 years or more. This is how Indian culture has been. Even in ancient times, just look at the
kind of temples they built. Whether you see the Rameshwaram Temple, the Chidambaram
Temple, or the Madurai Temple, these are all colossal establishments and they were created a
thousand years ago. At that time, almost every human being except the king lived in shacks.
There was no machinery, trucks or cranes, but they worked for a couple of generations on these

170
temples with a single-minded purpose. These people dedicated their whole life, they lived and
died to create these temples because it meant so much to them.

Nataraja - The Lord of Dance

At the Chidambaram temple, there is the Nataraja, Shiva as the Lord of Dance. Natesha or
Nataraja is one of the most significant forms of Shiva. When I visited CERN in Switzerland,
which is the physics laboratory on the planet, where all the atom-smashing takes place, I saw that
there is a Nataraja statue in front of the entrance, because they identified that there is nothing in
human culture which is closer to what they are doing right now.
The Nataraja form essentially comes from Southern India, particularly from Tamil Nadu. It
represents the exuberance of creation, the dance of creation which self-created itself from
the eternal stillness. Nataraja standing in Chidambaram is very symbolic because what you call
as Chidambaram is just absolute stillness. That is what is enshrined in the form of this temple.
The classical arts are to bring this absolute stillness into a human being. Without stillness, true
art cannot come.

Arudra Darshan
One well-known aspect at Chidambaram is the Arudra Darshan in the Tamil month of Margazhi.
Rudra means a roarer, or someone who is very effervescent - more than effervescent, a roar.
Arudra means stable; not the roaring kind but absolutely stable. Rudra also suggests movement
and creation. Arudra suggests a certain inertia.

Reviving Chidambaram

Just the buildings of the Chidambaram temple cover around thirty-five acres. They are built
completely of stone and are magnificent. Apart from this, hundreds of acres of lands were
attached to it, alongwith jewelry to maintain the vast temple. But during the British era, they took
over many temples because of the enormous amount of wealth attached to them and all the
jewelry has completely disappeared today. They say that a huge amount of the British funding
for World War II came from Indian temples. Lands were also taken over and distributed, so the
temple has become poor and unmanageable now.

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Today there are around 360 families who are conducting the rituals and are also the beneficiaries
of the temple. But they are unable to maintain it so many things are going away. All the
vegetable dye paintings on the ceiling, which are a thousand years old are almost sixty percent
gone. The plaster has fallen off and there is nobody for upkeep. And unknowingly, they have put
up concrete structures here and there in this hundred percent stone temple because of which the
aesthetics and the dynamics of the temple are badly disturbed.

When Patanjali built the temple, he didn’t build things for fancy. He only did what is absolutely
needed, and it is an incredible space. That space needs to be protected and nurtured and made
available to the whole of humanity. We want to do that. It will cost plenty to restore the temple
and also clear up the surroundings because all kinds of bazaars have mushroomed which are bad
for the space. We want to just see if we can do something about that and put up proper shopping
and hotels, but this is still an idea. We are looking for some corporate support in India. If that
happens I want to restore that because whether your house is 10,000 square feet or just 1000
square feet is not going to make an ultimate difference in your life, but being around
a consecrated space is going to make a phenomenal difference in your life. With this
understanding, in Indian culture, they built human habitations like this: if there are 25 houses,
there must be one temple. Whether you go there or not, whether you pray or not, whether you
know the mantra or not is not the point. You must be in a consecrated space every moment of
your life.

Patanjali consecrated this temple with a certain science behind the whole thing because he is not
a devotee, he is a scientist and he set up proper ways of how to conduct the temple. He prepared
a group of people who have to maintain a certain level of sadhana and discipline and a method of
daily ritual in the temple. Those families multiplied and they continued to keep the temple. Even
today, they are generally maintaining the codes and the ritual part that he set forth as to how the
temple should be maintained.

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shrub and the same variety of tree or shrub sheltering the presiding deity. The town used to
be called Thillai, following Thillaivanam, derived from the mangrove of Tillai trees (Exocoeria
agallocha) that grow here and the nearby Pichavaram wetlands.
The site became the capital of Cholas in the 10th century, and they renamed it to Chidambaram
and built the current temple for their family deity of Nataraja Shiva. The
word Chidambaram comes from the Tamil word Chitrambalam (also spelled Chithambalam)
meaning "wisdom atmosphere". The roots are citt or chitthu means "consciousness or wisdom",
while and ampalam means "atmosphere". This composite word comes from its association with
Shiva Nataraja, the cosmic dancer and the cultural atmosphere for arts.The word Chidambaram
is translated by James Lochtefeld as "clothed in thought". The present temple was built in the
10th century when Chidambaram was the capital of the Chola dynasty, making it one of the
oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India. After its 10th-century consecration by
the Cholas who considered Nataraja as their family deity, the temple has been damaged,
repaired, renovated and expanded through the 2nd millennium. Most of the temple's surviving
plan, architecture and structure is from the late 12th and early 13th centuries, with later additions
in similar style. While Shiva as Nataraja is the primary deity of the temple, it reverentially
presents major themes from Shaktism, Vaishnavism, and other traditions of Hinduism. The
Chidambaram temple complex, for example, has the earliest known Amman or Devi temple in
South India, a pre-13th-century Surya shrine with chariot, shrines
for Ganesha, Murugan and Vishnu, one of the earliest known Shiva Ganga sacred pool, large
mandapas for the convenience of pilgrims (choultry, ambalam or sabha) and other monuments.
Shiva himself is presented as the Nataraja performing the Ananda Tandava ("Dance of Delight")
in the golden hall of the shrine Pon Ambalam.The temple is one of the five elemental lingas in
the Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, and considered the subtlest of all Shiva temples (Kovil) in
Hinduism. It is also a site for performance arts, including the annual Natyanjali dance festival
on Maha Shivaratri

The town and temple name appears in medieval Hindu texts by various additional names such
as Kovil (lit. "the temple"), Pundarikapuram, Vyagrapuram, Sirrampuram, Puliyur and
Chitrakuta. Additional names for Chidambaram in Pallava era and North Indian texts include
Kanagasabainathar, Ponnambalam, Brahmastpuri and BrahmapuriNataraja Temple, also referred

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to as the Chidambaram Nataraja temple or Thillai Nataraja temple, is a Hindu temple dedicated
to Nataraja – Shiva as the lord of dance – in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. The temple has
mythical roots and a Shiva shrine existed at the site when the town was known as
Thillai. Chidambaram, the name of the city and the temple literally means "atmosphere of
wisdom" or "clothed in thought", the temple architecture symbolizes the connection between the
arts and spirituality, creative activity and the divine. The temple wall carvings display all the 108
karanas from the Natya Shastra by Bharata Muni, and these postures form a foundation
of Bharatanatyam, a classical Indian dance. The temple is located at the Center point of world's
Magnetic Equator.

Location: The Nataraja temple in Chidambaram is located in the southeastern Indian state of
Tamil Nadu. It is about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of the Kollidam River (Kaveri), 15
kilometres (9.3 mi) west from the coast of Bay of Bengal, and 220 kilometres (140 mi) south
of Chennai. The closest major airport is about 60 kilometres (37 mi) north in Pondicherry
(IATA: PNY). The National Highway 32 (old numbering: NH-45A) passes through
Chidambaram. The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation and private companies operate
services connecting it to major cities in the state.The site is linked to the Indian Railways with
daily express trains to South Indian cities

Chidambaram is a temple town, with the Nataraja complex spread over 40 acres (0.16 km2)
within a nearly square courtyard in the center. Its side roads are aligned to the east–west, north–
south axis. It has double walls around its periphery with gardens. It has had entrance gateways on
all four sides.

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Nataraja – Shiva as the cosmic dancer, inspired the 10th-century Chola kings to rebuild the
Chidambaram temple with stone and gold. A silver Nataraja, not Shivalinga, is the
principal icon in this temple.

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The Nataraja temple has ancient roots, likely following the temple architecture tradition that is
found all over South India from at least the 5th century. Textual evidence, such as those of the
Sangam tradition, suggest a temple existed here along with Madurai in ancient times,[7] but the
town is not named Chidambaram in these pre-5th-century texts.[26] The earliest mention of
"dancing god of Chidambaram" as Shiva is found in 6th- and early-7th-century texts by Appar
and Sambadar. The Suta Samhita embedded inside Sri Kanda Puranam and variously dated
between 7th and 10th century mentions the Chidambaram dance. The surviving Nataraja temple
has a structure that is traceable to the early Chola dynasty. Chidambaram was the early capital of
this dynasty, and Shiva Nataraja was their family deity. The Chidambaram temple town
remained important to the Cholas, albeit with increasing competition from other temple towns
when Rajaraja Chola I moved the capital to Thanjavur, built a new city and the
massive Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Shiva in early 11th century, which is now a world
heritage site.

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Nataraja Shiva and his "dance of bliss" is an ancient Hindu art concept. It is found in various
texts such as Tatva Nidhi which describes seven types of dance and their spiritual
symbolism, Kashyapa Silpa which describes 18 dance forms with iconographic details and
design instructions, as well as Bharata's ancient treatise on performance arts Natya
Shastra which describes 108 dance postures among other things. Reliefs and sculptures of
Nataraja have been found across the Indian subcontinent, some dating to 6th century and earlier
such as in Aihole and Badami cave temples.

The Chidambaram temple built on this heritage, yet creatively evolved the idea into forms not
found elsewhere. The earliest historically verifiable Shiva temple at Chidambaram is traceable in
inscriptions that date to the rule of Aditya Chola I in the early 10th century, and far more during
the rule of the 10th-century Chola king Parantaka I. For them, the dancing Shiva was the kula-
nayaka (family guide or deity) and Chidambaram was the capital they built.[33] These inscriptions
and texts from this period suggest that the significance of the Agama texts and Shaiva Bhakti
movement was strengthening within the Chola leadership and thought.

The copper plate inscriptions of Parantaka I (c. 907-955 CE) describe him as the "bee at the lotus
feet of Shiva" who built the golden house for Shiva, with Chit-sabha, Hema-sabha, Hiranya-
sabha and Kanaka-sabha (all mandapam, pillared pilgrim rest places). He is referred to as "Pon
veinda Perumal", which means "one who covered with gold" the Chit-sabha of Chidambaram.
Both Aditya I and his Chola successor Parantaka I were active supporters of arts and temple
building. They converted many older brick and wooden temples into more lasting temples from
cut stone as the building blocks in dozens of places across South India.
Raja Raja Chola I (985-1013 CE) embarked on a mission to recover the hymns of the
63 Nayanmars after hearing short excerpts of the Tevaram in his court.[36] He sought the help
of Nambiyandar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple. It is believed that by divine intervention
Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a
chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.
The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple are supposed to have disagreed with the king by
saying that the works were too divine, and that only by the arrival of the "Naalvar"(The four
saints)-Appar, Sundarar, Tirugnanasambandar and Manickavasagar would they allow for the

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chambers to be opened. Rajaraja, however, created idols of them and prepared for them to be
brought to the temple through a procession. but Rajaraja is said to have prevailed. Rajaraja thus
became to be known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai.

In another version of the story, Rajaraja is said to have experienced a dream from
lord Shiva telling Rajaraja that the hymns in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are in a state
of destruction and to recover the remaining hymns from the chambers.
The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple, however, are supposed to have disagreed with the
king by saying that the works were too divine to be accessed, and that only by the arrival of the
63 Nayanmars would they allow for the chambers to be opened. Rajaraja, devising a plan,
consecrated idols of each of them and prepared for them to be brought into the temple through a
procession. It is said that the 63 idols are still present in the Thillai Nataraja Temple. When the
vault was opened, Rajaraja is said to have found the room infested with white ants, and that the
hymns were salvaged as much as possible.
The temple, according to inscriptions found in South India and Southeast Asia, was also historic
recipient of a precious jewel from the king of Angkor who built the Angkor Wat through Chola
king Kulothunga, who submitted it to the temple in 1114 CE. Kulothunga I and his son expanded
the Chidambaram Nataraja temple expanse sixfold.

Chidambaram temple thrived during the Chola dynasty rule through mid 13th century, along
with the later Shiva-based Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram capitals, as well as Vishnu-
based Srirangam temple towns. Its facilities infrastructure was expanded. Naralokaviran, the
general of king Kulothunga Chola I was responsible for building the steps that lead to Sivaganga
water pool, a goddess shrine, a shrine for child saint Thirugnana Sambanthar, temple gardens and
a pilgrim road network in and around Chidambaram. He constructed a hall for recitation
of Tevaram hymns and engraved the hymns in copper plates. The thousand pillar choultry, with
friezes narrating Hindu texts, was built in late 12th century. Between the second half of the 12th
century and the early 13th century, the Chola kings added colorful and high gopura stone
gateways as easily identifiable landmarks, starting with the western gopura. Thereafter, about
mid 13th century, the Pandya dynasty ended the Chola dynasty. The Hindu Pandyas were liberal
supporters of Chidambaram temple, along with other Shiva and Vishnu temples, just like the

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Chola. Sundara Pandya added the huge eastern gopura at Chidambaram, beginning the colossal
gateway tradition. Most of the structure and plans currently seen in the Chidambaram complex,
including the mandapas with their pillar carvings, the various shrines with polished granite
sculptures, the sacred water pool and the early gopurams are from the 12th and 13th century,
attributed to the late Chola and early Pandya kings.[43]
Invasions

Corridors of the temple

Subrahmanya shrine in ruins, early 19th century/A Mandapam in 1869.One of the temple's
pillared halls before demolition in late 19th century.
In the north, the Indian subcontinent had been conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. Muslim armies
had begun raiding central India for plunder by the late 13th century. In 1311, the Ala ud Din
Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces went deeper into the Indian
peninsula for loot and to establish annual tribute paying Muslim governors. The records left by
the court historians of the Delhi Sultanate state that Malik Kafur raided Chidambaram,
Srirangam and other Tamil towms, destroyed the temples, and the Chidambaram Shiva temple
was one of the sources of gold and jewels booty he brought back to Delhi.
The temple towns of Tamil Nadu were again targeted for loot in the 1320s. However, when the
news of another invasion spread in Tamil lands, the community removed them into the Western

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Ghats or buried numerous sculptures and treasures in the land and concealed chambers
underneath temples sites before the Muslim armies reached them. A large number of these were
rediscovered in archaeological excavations at the site in and after 1979, including those in
Chidambaram. According to Nagaswamy, those who buried the temple artworks followed the
Hindu Agama texts such as Marici Samhita and Vimanarcanakalpa that recommend ritually
burying precious metal murtis as a means of protection when war and robbery is imminent. Over
200 such items have been recovered, including relevant hordes of copper plate inscriptions.
The Islamic invasion in the 14th century, states George Michell – a professor and art historian of
Indian architecture, brought an abrupt end to the patronage of Chidambaram and other temple
towns. The Delhi Sultan appointed a Muslim governor, who seceded within the few years from
the Delhi Sultanate and began the Madurai Sultanate. This Sultanate sought tribute from the
temple towns, instead of supporting them. The Muslim Madurai Sultanate was relatively short-
lived, with Hindu Vijayanagara Empire removing it in the late 14th century. The Vijayanagara
rulers restored, repaired and expanded the temple through the 16th century, along with many
other regional temples. These kings themselves went on pilgrimage to Chidambaram, and gifted
resources to strengthen its walls and infrastructure.

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An 1847 sketch of gopuram with ruined pillars, published by James Fergusson
The destruction of Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th century by an alliance of Sultanates,
followed within a few decades by entrance of Portuguese, French and British colonial interests
brought geopolitical uncertainties to Chidambaram and other temple towns. The Portuguese were
already a major Coromandel Coast trading group by the early 17th century, a region to which
Chidambaram belonged. The Portuguese began building forts, garrison and churches in
Coromandel Coast region after the demise of Vijayanagara, triggering the intervention of the
French and the British. By the mid-17th century, the temple complex was within the patronage of
Nayakas, who repaired the temple and repainted the frescoes on mandapa ceilings. According to
Michell, these restorations likely occurred about 1643 CE during the reign of Shrirangadeva
Raya III.
According to British reports, Chidambaram temple town had to bear the "brunt of several severe
onslaughts" between the French and the British colonial forces several times particularly in the
18th century.

Legend
The Chidambaram temple legend is contained in the 12th-century text Chidambara-mahatmya.
The central episode states that Shiva visits sages in the mythical Pine Forest in the form of a
beggar accompanied by Mohini, none other than Vishnu in the avatar of a beautiful woman.
Mohini triggers lustful interest of the sages, while Shiva performs Tandava dance that triggers
the carnal interest of the wives of these sages. The sages ultimately realise how superficial their
austerities have been. The episode becomes widely known. Two sages named Patanjali (also
called Sesha-bodied in the south for his connection to Vishnu) and Vyaghrapada (also called
Tiger-footed sage) want to see the repeat performance of this "dance of bliss" in the Thaillai
forest, Chidambaram. They set up a Shivalinga, pray, meditate and wait. Their asceticism
impresses Shiva who appeared before them in Chidambaram and performed "the dance" against
"the wall, in the blessed hall of consciousness". This is how this temple started, according to the
mahatmya embedded in the Tamil Sthalapurana. According to Kulke, the late medieval
text Chidambaramahatmya may reflect a process of Sanskritisation, where these North Indian
named sages with Vedic links became incorporated into regional temple mythology.

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According to another Hindu legend, Mahalingaswamy at Thiruvidaimarudur is the centre of all
Shiva temples in the region and the Saptha Vigraha moorthis (seven prime consorts in
all Shiva temples) are located at seven cardinal points around the temple, located in various parts
of the state. The seven deities are Nataraja in Chidambaram Nataraja Temple
at Chidambaram, Chandikeswarar temple at Tirucheingalur, Vinayagar in Vellai Vinayagar
Temple at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Muruga in Swamimalai Murugan
Temple at Swamimalai, Bhairava in Sattainathar Temple at Sirkali, Navagraha in Sooriyanar
Temple at Suryanar Kovil and Dakshinamoorthy in Apatsahayesvarar Temple,
Alangudi at Alangudi, Valaingaman taluk.

Nava Puliyur Temples

This is one of the Nava Puliyur Temples worshipped by Patanjali and Vyaghrapada. The
following temples are called as Nava Puliyur Temples.
 Perumpatrapuliyur
 Thirupathiripuliyur
 Erukathampuliyur
 Omampuliyur
 Sirupuliyur
 Atthippuliyur
 Thaplampuliyur
 Perumpuliyur
 Kanattampuliyur

Golden Roof, Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram-Nataraja temple plan. 1: East gopura; 2:

South gopura; 3: West gopura; 4: North gopura; 5: 1000 pillar hall (choultry); 6:

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Shivaganga pool; 7: Devi temple; 8: Shiva Sanctum + Chit Sabha + Kanaka Sabha; 9:
Vishnu shrine.
Architecture
The temple as it stands had a pre-Chola existence and the architecture is Dravidian with the
Sanctum Sanctorum closely resembling Kerala or Malabar style structures. Indeed, the royal
charters mention the rebuilding of the Sanctum using architects from Kerala.[61] However the
golden roof is a striking example of Vesara architecture with its apsidal shape. Two small
structures called the Chit Sabha and Kanak Sabha form the crux of the vast architectural
complex.[62] The temple is spread over a 40-acre (16 ha) area, within layers of concentric
courtyards. The inner sanctum, its connecting mandapams and pillared halls near it are all either
squares or stacked squares or both. The complex has nine gopurams, several water storage
structures of which the Shivaganga sacred pool is the largest with a rectangular plan. The temple
complex is dedicated to Nataraja Shiva and theological ideas associated with Shaivism concepts
in Hinduism. However, the temple also includes shrines for Devi, Vishnu, Subrahmanyar,
Ganesha, Nandi and others including an Amman shrine, a Surya shrine complete with Chariot
wheels. The plan has numerous gathering halls called sabha, two major choultry called the 100
pillared and 1,000 pillared halls, inscriptions and frescoes narrating Hindu legends about gods,
goddesses, saints and scholars.

Significance of the architecture

The Significance and The Secret of Chidambaram
Pancha Bhuta Sthalas are the five temples in South India, built for each of the five elements –
Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space. Geographically, they are all within the Deccan Plateau – four
in Tamil Nadu and one in Andhra Pradesh. The temple for
1. water is in Thiruvanaikaval
2. fire is in Thiruvannamalai
3. air is in Kalahasti
4. earth is in Kanchipuram
5. space is in Chidambaram

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Chidambaram is one of the most ancient, historic and culturally significant shrine in India. It is
associated with Nataraja or Shiva, doing the Cosmic Dance of Bliss expressing the rhythm and
harmony of life. It represents the exuberance of creation, which self-created itself from the
eternal stillness. The Cosmic Dance is a symbolic representation of the five-fold activities of
God - Creation, Preservation, Destruction, Veiling (Maya) and Blessing. Shiva, in the form of
Bhikshatana, enacted this dance after His victory over the married ascetics of Daruka Vanam.
Chidambaram is one of the five dance Halls of Shiva (Kanaka sabhai). The other four are
Madurai (Velli sabhai), Tiruvalankadu (Ratna sabhai), Tirunelveli (Tamra sabhai) and Kutralam
(Chitra sabhai).
The word Chidambaram may be derived from chit, meaning "consciousness", and ambaram,
meaning "sky"; it refers to the chidaakasam, the sky of consciousness. Another theory is that it is
derived from chit + ambalam. Ambalam means a "stage" for performing arts. The chidakasam is
the state of supreme bliss or aananda and Lord Natarajar is the symbolic representation of the
supreme bliss.
The Five Sabhas

There are 5 sabhas halls:

1. the Chit sabhai, which is the sanctum sanctorum housing Lord Nataraja and his
consort Goddess Shivakama Sundari. The Chit Sabha and Kanaka Sabha are at the core
of the Nataraja temple.
2. the Kanaka sabhai – in front of the Chitsabhai, where the daily rituals are
conducted

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 3. the Nrithya sabhai or Natya sabhai, to the south of the temple's flag mast (or kodi
maram / dwaja sthambam) where the Lord is said to have danced with Goddess Kali and
established His supremacy
4. the Raja sabhai or the 1000-pillared hall which symbolizes the yogic chakra of
thousand pillared lotus or Sahasraram (a 'chakra' at the crown of the head, represented as
a 1000-petalled lotus, a seat where the soul unites with God.
5. the Deva sabhai, which houses the Pancha moorthis (namely the deities of Lord
Ganesh - the remover of hurdles, Lord Somaskanda, a form where the Lord is in a seated
posture with his grace and consort, the Lord's consort Sivananda nayaki, the Lord
Muruga and the deity of Chandikeswarar).
Chidambara Rahasyam: The Secret of Space
We experience the Element Space as empty, but when properly understood, it is full.
Akasha/ether means to be bright, shining, visible. The Taittiriya Upanishad states “akasha sharira
Brahma”, which means that the ether is the embodiment of the eternal spirit, and from the
Akasha, other gross elements, Air, Fire, Water and Earth, take shape. Thus, the seemingly empty
space is not empty, but is everything.
The Akasha Linga is invoked through a yantra. A curtain, black on the outside (ignorance/maya)
and red on the inside (jñana, wisdom/realization) covers the space. It is held aside by the
officiating Deekshithar to reveal the strings of golden vilva leaves signifying that once the veil of
maya is lifted, one will be blessed with the Grace of the Lord.
Significance of The Temple Design
The layout and architecture of the temple is replete with philosophical meanings. The temple
architecture is closely linked with the human body. According to the Hindu conceptualization,
universe is in the form of Virat Purusha and Chidambaram temple is considered His heart. The
temple has 9 gateways signifying the 9 orifices (namely 2 eyes, 2 nostrils, 2 ears, mouth, rectum,
genitals) in the human body.
Just as the human heart is not at its centre, the Nataraja statue is also slightly shifted to the side.
One can notice this if you view the statue from within the two horns of the Nandikeshvara
(Shiva’s vehicle). Also, one can notice that the entrance paths to the sanctum sanctorum are not
straight as is the case in most of the temples. Instead, entrance paths are through the sides

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representing the fact that human blood circulates only through the sides of the heart and not
straight.
The five pillars of the Chit Sabha indicates the five senses. The Ponnambalam or the Sanctum
sanctorum is held by 28 pillars – representing the 28 agamas for the worship of Lord Shiva. The
roof is held by a set of 64 beams representing the 64 forms of art, and is held by several cross-
beams representing the innumerable blood vessels. The roof has been laid by 21600 golden tiles
with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on them representing 21600 breaths. The golden tiles
are fixed using 72000 golden nails which represents the no. of nadis exists in human body. The
roof is topped by a set of nine sacred pots or kalasas.
The idol of Nataraja is enshrined in the Chit sabha. This gold-roofed stage in the sanctum
sanctorum of the Chidambaram temple houses the Lord in three forms:
1. the "form" - the anthromorphological form as an appearance of Lord Nataraja,
called the Sakala thirumeni.
2. the "semi-form" – the semi-anthropomorphological form as the Crystal linga of
Chandramouleswarar, the Sakala nishkala thirumeni. The Aakasa Lingam is an
embodiment of formless Space.
3. the "formless" – as the Space in Chidambara Rahasyam, an empty space within
the sanctum sanctorum, the Nishkala thirumeni, emphasizing that there is everything in
nothing. This shrine remains curtained. This is considered to cover the Akasa Lingam,
which is invisible, and only a Prabha or circular arch and a Vel (spear) with a golden
Bilva mala vilva (Aegle Marmelos) leaves are worshipped. The five silver-plated steps
leading to the shrine represent the Panchakshara mantram - Na ma si va ya. The doors
carry embossed images of the saints Vyagrapada and Patanjali. Both these saints had
been blessed with the sight of the cosmic dance of Shiva. Lord Vishnu also is said to have
witnessed this scene.
In front of the garbha griha is the Kanaka Sabha (Ponnambalam) and the sanctum is adorned by a
gold-plated roof. Devi Sivakama Sundari is enshrined by the side of the sanctum.
The famous Raja Sabha is in the Thousand-pillared Hall. Saivite poet Sekkizhar first recited his
Periya Puranam in this hall. Chola and Pandya kings used to hold victory celebrations here. The
Nritta Sabha shows the Urdhwa Thandavam of the Lord. Its gopurams are covered with
sculptures illustrating the 108 postures of Natya Shastra.

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The Deva Sabha was used by the then administrators to hold meetings and festivals.
Interestingly, Chidambaram is the Geo Magnetic Centre of the Earth/Universe. The temple is the
site of the Original Cosmic Lingam and the shrine is supposed to be located at the Lotus heart of
the Virat Purusha (Virat Hridaya Padma Sthalam). The Heart-lotus is the still centre out of
which emerges the primal dance of creation in the form of Siva's dance of bliss. The sushumna
nadi passes directly through Tillai, with the ida and pingala nadi passing through north and south
of Chidambaram. Chidambaram, Kanchipuram and Sri Kalahasti lie in a straight line at 79* 41
East Longitude.

The temple sanctum contains a silver sculpture of Shiva in his Ānanda-tāṇḍava Nataraja
aspect. It signifies:
 The demon under Lord Nataraja's feet signifies that ignorance is under His feet
 The fire in His hand (power of destruction) means He is the destroyer of evil.
 The raised hand (Abhaya or Pataka mudra) signifies that He is the savior of all life forms.
 The arc of fire called Thiruvashi or Prabhavati signifies the cosmos and the perpetual motion
of the earth.
 The drum in His hand signifies the origin of life forms.
 The lotus pedestal signifies Om, the sound of the universe.
 His right eye, left eye and third eye signify the sun, moon and fire/knowledge, respectively.

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 His right earring (makara kundalam) and left earring (sthri kundalam) signify the union of
man and woman (right is man, left is woman).
 The crescent moon in His hair signifies benevolence and beauty.
 The flowing of river Ganges through His matted hair signifies eternity of life.
 The dreading of His hair and drape signify the force of His dance.

Courtyards
The Nataraja Temple complex is embedded inside four prakarams (prakramas, courtyards).
Each of the courtyard has walls that were defensively fortified after the 14th-century plunder and
destruction.

Courtyard, Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

The outermost wall around the fourth courtyard has four simple, insignificant gateways. The
walls and gateways of the fourth courtyard were added in the 16th century by Vijayanagara
rulers after they had defeated the Madurai Sultanate, and this outermost layer was heavily
fortified by the Nayakas in the 17th century. These face the four large gopurams that are
gateways into the third courtyard. These gopurams are also landmarks from afar. Inside the third
courtyard, near the northern gopuram, is the Shivaganga tank, the thousand pillar mandapam, the
Subrahmanyar (Murugan, Kartikeya) shrine and the shrine for Parvati (as Shivakama Sundari).
The other three gateways are closer to the sanctum. The four gopurams pilgrims and visitors to

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enter the temple from all four cardinal directions. The complex is interconnected through a maze
of pathways.
The courtyard walls and gateways are made from cut stones with some brick structure added in.
The gardens and palm groves are in the fourth courtyard, outside the walls of the third courtyard
walls with the four large gopurams. These were restored or added in by the Vijayanagara rulers
in the 16th century.

Shrines

The temple complex has many shrines, most related to Shaivism but elements of Vaishnavism
and Shaktism are included. The innermost structures such as the sanctum and the shrines all have
square plans, but the gateways do not align except the innermost two courtyards.

Shaivism
The sanctum of the temple is set inside the innermost 1st prakara which is a square with about 44
metres (144 ft) side. This prakara is offset towards the west inside the 2nd prakara, which is also
a square with about 105 metres (344 ft) side. The Shiva sanctum is unusual as it does not have a
Shivalinga, rather it has the Chit Sabha (consciousness gathering, also called chit ambalam) with
an image of Shiva Nataraja. This introspective empty space has a curtained space that is 3.5
meter long and 1.5 meter wide. It is called the rahasya (secret) in Hindu texts. It consists of two
layers, one red, the other black. According to George Michell, this is a symbolism in Hinduism
of "enlightenment inside, illusion outside". It is replaced on the tenth day of the main
festivals. The Chidambaram Rahasya is the "formless" representation of Shiva as the
metaphysical Brahman in Hinduism, sometimes explained as akasha linga and divine being
same as Self (Atman) that is everywhere, in everything, eternally.
Facing the Chit Sabha is the Kanaka Sabha (also called pon ambalam), or the gathering of
dancers. These two sanctum spaces are connected by five silver gilded steps called
the panchakshara. The ceiling of the Chit Sabha is made of wooden pillars coated with gold,
while copper coats the Kanaka Sabha is copper colored.

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Durga in the Shivakamasundari shrine, in her Mahishasuramardini form killing the
buffalo demon below her foot.

Shaktism
The main Devi shrine in the Nataraja temple complex is offset towards the north of the sanctum
inside the third prakara, and found to the west of the Shivaganga pool. It is called the
Shivakamasundari shrine, dedicated to Parvati. The temple faces east and has an embedded
square plan, though the stacked squares created a long rectangular space. The shrine has its own
walls and an entrance gateway (gopura). Inside is the dedicated mandapas and brightly colored
frescoes likely from the 17th-century Vijayanagara period.[83] These narrate the story of Shiva
and Vishnu together challenging the "learned sages, ascetics and their wives" in the forest, by
appearing in the form of a beautiful beggar that dances (bhikshatanamurti) and a beautiful girl
that seduces (Mohini) respectively. Another set of frescoes are secular depicting temple
festivities and daily life of people, while a stretch narrates the story of Hindu saints named
Manikkavachakar and Mukunda.
The shrine had artwork narrating the Devi Mahatmya, a classic Sanskrit text of Shaktism
tradition. However, in 1972, these were removed given their dilapidated state. These were
replaced with a different story. Other parts of the paintings and shrine also show great damage.
The sanctum of the Shivakamasundari shrine is dedicated to Devi, where she is Shiva's
knowledge (jnana shakti), desire (iccha sakti), action (kriya sakti) and compassion (karuna
sakti). The oldest Shivakamasundari sculpture at the site representing these aspects of the
goddess has been dated to the king Parantaka I period, about 950 CE.

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Vaishnavism
The Nataraja temple complex incorporates Vaishnava themes and images like many Hindu
temples in South India. A Vishnu shrine, for example, is found inside the sanctum of the temple
in its southwest corner. According to George Michell and others, Chola kings revered Shiva with
Tyagaraja and Nataraja their family deity, yet their urban Shaiva centers "echo a very strong
substratum of Vaishnava traditions". This historic inclusiveness is reflected in Chidambaram
with Vishnu Govindaraja in the same sanctum home by the side of Nataraja. After the turmoil of
the 14th century when the temple was attacked and looted, there was period when some priests
sought to restore only Shaiva iconography according to extant Portuguese Jesuit records.
However, the Vijayanagara rulers insisted on the re-consecration of all historic traditions. The
temple inscriptions confirm that Vishnu was included along with Shiva in the temple's earliest
version, and was reinstalled when the temple was reopened by the Vijayanagara kings.
Some texts from the time of king Kulottunga II give conflicting reports, wherein the Shaiva texts
state that the king removed the Vishnu image while Vaishnava texts state that they took it away
and installed it in Tirupati, sometime about 1135 CE. The scholar Vedanta Desika re-established
the co-consecration in 1370 CE, about the time Vijayanagara Empire conquered Chidambaram
and northern Tamil lands from the Madurai Sultanate. The current shrine, states Michell, is from
1539 financed by king Achyutaraya and it features a reclining figure of Vishnu.
The Govindaraja shrine is one of the 108 holy temples of Vishnu called divyadesam, revered by
the 7th-to-9th-century saint poets of Vaishnava tradition, Alwars.. Kulashekhara Alwar mentions
this temple as Tillai Chitrakutam and equates Chitrakuta of Ramayana fame with this shrine. The
shrine has close connections with the Govindaraja temple in Tirupati dating back to
saint Ramanuja of the 11th and 12th centuries.

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The circumambulation paths in shrines, the mandapa's moulded plinth and the pilgrim hall pillars
of the Nataraja temple are carved with reliefs showing dancers and musicians.
Others
The Nataraja temple has a pre-13th-century Surya shrine. The image is unusual as it depicts a
three headed Surya same as Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, with eight hands holding iconographic
items of these deities, along with two lotuses in a pair of hands in front, accompanied by two
small female figures possibly Usha and Pratyusha, standing on a chariot drawn by seven horses
and Aruna as charioteer. The temple also has a significant shrine for Ganesha in the southwest
corner and a Subrahmanyar shrine in the northwest corner of the third courtyard.

Halls: sabha
The temple has many halls called sabha (lit. "community gathering", also
called ambalams or sabhai) inside the complex. Two of these are the Chit Sabha and the Kanaka
Sabha inside the sanctum area of the Nataraja shrine, described earlier. The other halls are:

1. Nritta sabha
Nrithya sabha (also called Nritta Sabha, Natya sabha, or "Hall of Dance") is a "so-called 56-
pillared" hall. It is in the south section of the second courtyard that circumambulates the Nataraja
sanctum of the complex. This second courtyard is near the temple's flag mast (kodi
maram or dwaja sthambam). The 13th-century Nritta Sabha is traditionally considered as the
place where Shiva and Kali originally entered into a dance competition.[99] Shiva won with
the urdhva-tandava pose that raised his right leg straight up, a posture that Kali refused because
she was a woman. The hall is rectangular consisting of three stacked squares, a 15-meter-sided
square that is the main hall, which is connected to 4 meters by 8 meters rectangular mukha-
mandapa to its north. The hall now has 50 pillars, but evidence suggests that it may have had 56
or more pillars earlier. These pillars are intricately carved from top to bottom. The lower levels
have dancers in Natya Shastra mudras accompanied with expressive musicians as if both are
enjoying creating the music and the dance. The pillars also have embedded narratives of legends
from Hindu texts, such as of Durga fighting the buffalo demon, as well as humorous dwarfs
frolicking. Below the kapota, the structures show reliefs of seated people, many

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in namaste posture, some with a beard and yogi like appearance representing saints and rishis.
Nearly 200 of these are still visible, rest appear to have been damaged or eroded over time.
The Nritta Sabha platform's base is carved as a chariot, with horses and wheels, as if it is rising
out the ground. Historic texts state that the wheels were exquisitely carved and visible in the past,
each about 1.25 meter diameter with 28 spokes and 33 medallions, the chariot had 1.55-meter-
high (5.1 ft) ornamented horses, on the wheel was a seated rishi as if he was guiding the
movement. Only remnants of this structure remains now. The northern niche of the hall is carved
with 14 figures in addition to Shiva as Kanakamurti. The Shiva image had been damaged and is
now restored. The 14 figures include Surya (sun god), Chandra (moon god) and 12 rishis of
which Narada and Tumburu with Vina can be identified, the others have been too damaged to
identify but are likely Vedic rishis. Near them are women in seductive postures, some nudes,
likely the wives of the rishis. Next to the northern niche with Shiva are two smaller niches, one
for Patanjali seated on coiled serpent and another for bald headed Vyaghrapada, the two mythical
Chidambaram saints. The western wall also has a niche with a large Shiva image in his
Vrisabhantika form. Once again rishis are with him, this time in namaste posture. A few figures
are dressed royally like warriors and these may be representation of the Chola kings.
The hall's center is an open square, with an ornate inverted lotus ceiling decoration. Around this
lotus are 108 coffers, each with two human figures in namaste posture, all oriented to be along
the north–south axis likely to suggest the direction to performance artists who would perform
live and aligning themselves to the chit sabha in the sanctum.

Carved pillars in a temple hall. The damaged 1,000 pillar hall.

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 2. Raja sabha: 1,000 pillar hall
Raja sabha or the 1000-pillared hall is to the east of the Shivaganga pool, in the northeast part of
the third courtyard. A pillared pathway from the eastern gopuram leads to it. It was a choultry for
pilgrims with a convenient access to the pool. The hall's lower mouldings have dance mudras
and medieval era musical instruments being played by musicians. The pillars have reliefs. It is
now kept closed, except for festivals.
3. Shatasila sabha: 100 pillar hall
This is northwest of the sanctum, south of the Devi shrine. It is badly damaged and closed to
public.
Deva sabha
4. Deva Sabhai is on the eastern side of the second courtyard. It is called Perampalam,
literally "Great Hall" in the inscriptions, which suggests that it is an early structure and
was historically important. According to Nanda and Michell, this may be the hall where
Shaiva bhakti saints Nayanars came and sang hymns. It may also have hosted royal visits
during the Chola era times.
The Deva sabha (divine gathering hall) houses the temple's revered collection of historic bronze
sculptures and modern era frescoes. One of the paintings show Parvati seated in a chair,
watching the Nrtta sabha hall.

Temple Tanks

The Chidambaram temple is well endowed with several water bodies within and around the
temple complex.
 Sivaganga tank is in the third corridor of the temple opposite to the shrine of Shivagami. It is
accessed by flights of stone steps leading from the shrine.
 Paramanandha koobham is the well on the eastern side of the Chitsabha hall from which
water is drawn for sacred purposes.

 Kuyya theertham is situated to the north-east of Chidambaram in Killai near the Bay of
Bengal and has the shore called Pasamaruthanthurai.
 Pulimadu is situated around a kilometer and a half to the south of Chidambaram.

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 Vyagrapatha Theertham is situated on to the west of the temple opposite to the temple of
Ilamai Akkinaar.
 Anantha Theertham is situated to the west of the temple in front of the Anantheswarar
temple.
 Nagaseri tank is situated to the west of the Anantha thirtham.
 Brahma Theertham is situated to the north-west of the temple at Thirukalaanjeri.
 Underground channels at the shrine drain excess water in a northeasterly direction to the
Shivapriyai temple tank of the Thillai Kali Temple, Chidambaram. Due to poor maintenance,
it has not been in use.

 Thiruparkadal is the tank to the south-east of the Shivapriyai tank.Even though the history of
the temple goes back to the Prabhandas and Tevaram, that is the Pallava period, the earliest
known inscriptions are only that of Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga I followed by Vikrama
Chola and other later rulers. The Nataraja temple inscriptions are notable for mentioning a
library of manuscripts in temple premises. Two inscriptions dated to the early 13th century
mention re-organization of old temple library. According to Hartmut Scharfe, the older

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 library mentioned may date to early 12th century. The inscriptions, states Scharfe, recite that
the temple employed twenty librarians, of which eight copied old manuscripts to create new
editions, two verified the copy matched the original and four managed the proper storage of
the manuscripts.
There are many Chola inscriptions in the temple, both in Tamil and Sanskrit.These are attributed
to Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 CE), Kulothunga Chola I (1070-1120 CE), Vikrama
Chola (1118-1135 CE), Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163 -1178 CE), Kulothunga Chola III (1178-1218
CE) and Rajaraja Chola III (1216-1256 CE).[109] Pandya inscriptions date from Thribhuvana
Chakravarthi Veerapandiyan, Jataavarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Sundarapaandiyan (1251-
1268 CE) and Maaravarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Veerakeralanaagiya Kulashekara
Pandiyan (1268-1308 CE). Pallava inscriptions are available for king Avani Aala Pirandhaan
Ko-pperum-Singha (1216-1242 CE). Vijayanagara Kings mentioned in inscriptions are
Veeraprathaapa Kiruttina Theva Mahaaraayar (1509-1529 CE), Veeraprathaapa Venkata Deva
Mahaaraayar, Sri Ranga Theva Mahaaraayar, Atchyutha Deva Mahaaraayar (1529-1542 CE) and
Veera Bhooopathiraayar. One of the inscriptions from the descendant of Cheramaan Perumal
nayanar, Ramavarma Maharaja has been found.
Temple Car

The temple car of Natraja used during festival processions./An 1820 painting of Nataraja in a
temple chariot.
The Chidambaram temple car is used for processions twice a year, where it is drawn by several
thousand devotees during the festivals.
Bhakti movement
There is no reference to the temple in Sangam literature of the 1st to 5th centuries and the earliest
mention is found in 6th-century Tamil literature. The temple and the deity were immortalized
in Tamil poetry in the works of Thevaram by three poet saints belonging to the 7th century -
Thirugnana Sambanthar, Thirunavukkarasar and Sundaramoorthy Nayanar. Thirugnana
Sambanthar has composed 2 songs in praise of the temple, Thirunavukkarasar aka Appar 8
Tevarams in praise of Nataraja and Sundarar 1 song in praise of Nataraja. Sundarar commences
his Thiruthondar thogai (the sacred list of Lord Shiva's 63 devotees) paying his respects to the
priests of the Thillai temple - "To the devotees of the priests at Thillai, I am a devotee". The

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works of the first three saints, Thirumurai were stored in palm leaf manuscripts in the temple and
were recovered by the Chola King Rajaraja Chola[ under the guidance of Nambiandarnambi.
Manikkavasagar, the 10th-century saivite poet has written two works, the first
called Tiruvasakam (The sacred utterances) which largely has been sung in Chidambaram and
the Thiruchitrambalakkovaiyar (aka Thirukovaiyar), which has been sung entirely in the temple.
Manikkavasagar is said to have attained spiritual bliss at Chidambaram. The Chidambaram
Mahatmiyam composed during the 12th century explain the subsequent evolution and de-
sanskritization.
Forms of Worship Forms
A unique feature of this temple is the bejeweled image of Lord Nataraja as the main deity. It
depicts Lord Shiva as the master of Koothu-Bharata Natyam and is one of the few temples where
Lord Shiva is represented by an anthropomorphic murthi rather than the classic,
aniconic Lingam.
At Chidambaram, the dancer dominates, not the linga as in other Shiva shrines. The Chitsabha
houses a small sphatika(crystal) linga (Chandramoulisvara), believed to be a piece that fell from
the crescent adorning Lord Shiva's head and installed by Adi Shankara. The linga is associated
with the intangible fifth element, akasha (ether or space), the eternal infinite expanse where the
dance of Lord Shiva takes place daily puja is offered to the linga and also to a small gem-carved
figure of Ratnasabhapati.

Natyanjali Festival in the temple

A whole year for men is said to be a single day for the gods. Just as six poojas are performed in a
day at the sanctum sanctorum, six anointing ceremonies are performed for the principal deity -
Nataraja in a year. They are the Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai (in December - January ) indicating
the first puja, the fourteenth day after the new moon (Chaturdashi) of the month of Masi
(February - March) indicating the second pooja, the Chittirai Thiruvonam (in April- May),
indicating the third pooja or uchikalam, the Uthiram of Aani (June–July) also called the Aani
Thirumanjanam indicating the evening or the fourth puja, the chaturdasi of Aavani (August -
September) indicating the fifth puja and the chaturdasi of the month of Puratasi (October -
November) indicating the sixth pooja or Arthajama. Of these the Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai (in
December - January) and the Aani Thirumanjanam (in June - July ) are the most important.

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These are conducted as the key festivals with the main deity being brought outside the sanctum
sanctorum in a procession that included a temple car procession followed by a long anointing
ceremony. Several hundreds of thousands of people flock the temple to see the anointing
ceremony and the ritualistic dance of Shiva when he is taken back to the sanctum sanctorum.
Lord Shiva, in his incarnation of Nataraja, is believed to have born on full moon day in the
constellation of Ardra, the sixth lunar mansion. Lord Shiva is bathed only 6 times a year, and on
the previous night of Ardra, the bath rituals are performed on a grand scale. Pots full of milk,
pomegranate juices, coconut water, ghee, oil, sandal paste, curds, holy ashes, and other liquids
and solids, considered as sacred offering to the deity are used for the sacred ablution.
Administration
The temple is administered by an exclusive group of Brahmins who are learned in the Vedas
and Yagnas (sacrifices) called Dikshitars. The entire community of Diskhitars live
in Chidambaram and also serve as the hereditary trustees of the temple. They are also
called Thillai Muvayiravar or the Three Thousand of Thillai Every Dikshitar once he is married
becomes as of right a trustee and archaka of the temple. A practice unique to the community is
that the priests wear the tuft of hair in front of the head similar to the Nambuthiri Brahmans
of Kerala.
Towers: gopurams

The temple has nine major gopuram gateways connecting the various courtyards. Four of these
are huge and colorful, visible from afar, a symbolic and convenient landmark for pilgrims. These
gateway towers or gopurams each have 7 storeys facing the East, South, West and North. The
first edition of the four gopuram superstructures were likely built between 1150 and 1300 CE.
The earliest was likely the western gopuram, which is also the smaller of the four. This is
generally dated to about 1150 CE. The eastern gopura was likely completed by about 1200 CE,
southern gopura by the mid-13th century, while the northern was added in the late 13th century.
The four high gopurams were destroyed, rebuilt, repaired, enlarged and redecorated several times
after the 13th century. This has made the gopurams difficult to place chronologically, yet useful
in scholarly studies of the history of the Nataraja temple
All gopuras are built of precisely cut large stone blocks all the way to the main cornice. Upon
this is a stone, brick and plaster structure with layers of pavilions. Above these talas (storeys) is

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a Dravidian style barrel vaulted roof, crowned with thirteen kalasa finials. All four are
approximately similar in size and 14:10:3 ratio, about 42.7 metres (140 ft) high, 30.5 metres
(100 ft) wide and 9.1 metres (30 ft) deep
Towers (Gopurams)
The temple has nine major gopuram gateways connecting the various courtyards. Four of these
are huge and colorful, visible from afar, a symbolic and convenient landmark for pilgrims. The
temple has 9 gateways and four of these have towering pagodas or gopurams each with 7 levels
in the East, South, West and North. The first edition of the four gopuram superstructures were
likely built between 1150 and 1300 CE. The earliest was likely the western gopuram, which is
also the smaller of the four. This is generally dated to about 1150 CE. The eastern gopura was
likely completed by about 1200 CE, southern gopura by mid-13th century, while the northern was
added in late 13th century.

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The four high gopurams were destroyed, rebuilt, repaired, enlarged and redecorated several times
after the 13th century. This has made the gopurams difficult to place chronologically, yet useful
in scholarly studies of the history of the Nataraja temple. All gopuras are built of precisely cut
large stone blocks all the way to the main cornice. Upon this is a stone, brick and plaster
structure with layers of pavilions. Above these talas (storeys) is a Dravidian style barrel vaulted
roof, crowned with thirteen kalasa finials. All four are approximately similar in size and 14:10:3
ratio, about 42.7 metres (140 ft.) high, 30.5 metres (100 ft.) wide and 9.1 metres (30 ft.) deep.

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There are no representations of Nataraja on the temple towers, as this image is reserved for the
innermost shrine alone. The inside walls of passages through all the four gopurams are decorated
with the 108 Karanas, the dance movements of Shiva, from the Natya Shastra, the world's most
ancient treatise on dance, drama and theatre. Besides in Chidambaram these Karanas are
depicted in only four other temples, all in Tamil Nadu. The four gopurams, together with the
golden dome of the central shrine are the five towers which represent the five faces of Shiva,
with the Cit Sabha symbolizing the masterful face.

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Each gopuram is colorful and unique in its own ways. They narrate stories from various Hindu
texts, showing religious and secular scenes from the various Hindu traditions. This art is
presented in each gopuram with anthropomorphic figure panels and about fifty niches with stone
sculptures in every gopuram. The scenes include multiple panels about the legend of Shiva-
Parvati wedding with Brahma, Vishnu, Saraswathi and Lakshmi attending, dancing Ganesha,
Shiva in his various aspects, Durga in the middle of her war with a demon, Skanda ready for war,
seated Nandi, musicians, dancers, farmers, merchants, sadhu in namaste posture, dancing

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Dvarapalas near the vertical center line and others. The artists and architects who built these
gopura may have had a rationale in the relative sequence and position of the artwork with respect
to each other and on various levels, but this is unclear and a subject of disagreement among
scholars.

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Western Gopuram:
The earliest and smallest of the four is West gopuram constructed around 1150 and there is no
reliable evidence on the construction. The earliest built western gopuram is the only one with
inscriptions below each artwork that identifies what it is. The artwork on it includes Durga
fighting the evil, shape shifting buffalo demon and Skanda sitting on peacock and dressed up for
war. Other artwork found on the eastern gopuram include Surya, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi
(Lakshmi), Tripurasundari, Brahma, Saraswathi, Varuna, Durga, Agni, several rishis, Yamuna
goddess, Kama and Rati, Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada and Agastya, Patanjali,
Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half
Shiva), several forms of dancing Shiva and others.
Southern Gopuram:
The South gopuram is called as Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was constructed by
a Pandya king identified from the presence of the dynasty's fish emblem sculpted on the ceiling.
The Pandyas sculpted two fishes facing each other when they completed gopurams (and left it

204
with one fish, in case it was incomplete). Other artwork found on the southern gopuram include
Chandesha, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), several Devis, Brahma, Saraswathi, Surya,
Chandra, Durga, Indra, Agni, several rishis, Ganga and Yamuna goddesses, Kama and Rati,
Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada, Patanjali, Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half
Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms of dancing and standing
Shiva such as Pashupata, Kiratarjuna and Lingobhava, as well as others.
Eastern Gopuram:
The eastern gopuram features the 108 reliefs of Natya Shastra dance postures (22 cm each in a
separate niche) and faces the sanctum. The eastern gopuram is credited to king Kopperunjingan
II (1243-1279 A.D.). As per epigraphical records and was repaired by Subbammal, the mother-
in-law of the famous philanthropist Pachaiappa Mudaliar (1754-1794 A.D.). The idols of
Pachaiappa Mudaliar and his wife Iyalammal have been sculpted on the eastern gopuram. The
Pachaiappa Trust to date has been responsible for various functions in the temple and also
maintains the temple car. The eastern gopuram is renowned for its complete enumeration of 108
poses of Indian classical dance – Bharathanatyam, detailed in small rectangular panels along the
passage that leads to the gateway.
Northern Gopuram:
The North Gopuram was initiated around 1300 A.D. with the brick portion constructed by
the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509-1530 A.D.) in the 16th century. The eastern and
northern gopura also depicts the wide range of narratives as the southern and western gopuram.
Artwork on the gopuram

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Sculpture in a wall at Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
Each gopuram is colorful and unique in its own ways. They narrate stories from various Hindu
texts, showing religious and secular scenes from the various Hindu traditions. This art is
presented in each gopuram with anthropomorphic figure panels and about fifty niches with stone
sculptures in every gopuram. The scenes include multiple panels about the legend of Shiva-
Parvati wedding with Brahma, Vishnu, Saraswati and Lakshmi attending, dancing Ganesha,
Shiva in his various aspects, Durga in the middle of her war with a demon, Skanda ready for war,
seated Nandi, musicians, dancers, farmers, merchants, sadhu in namaste posture, dancing
dvarapalas near the vertical center line and others. The artists and architects who built these
gopura may have had a rationale in the relative sequence and position of the artwork with respect
to each other and on various levels, but this is unclear and a subject of disagreement among
scholars.

206
The artwork on gopuram showing Parvati-Shiva Kalyanasundara wedding legend. Near the
newly weds are Saraswati, Lakshmi, Vishnu and others.
The earliest built western gopuram is the only one with inscriptions below each artwork that
identifies what it is. The artwork on it includes Durga fighting the evil, shape shifting buffalo
demon and Skanda sitting on peacock and dressed up for war. Other artwork found on the
eastern gopuram include Surya, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), Tripurasundari, Brahma,
Saraswati, Varuna, Durga, Agni, several rishis, Yamuna goddess, Kama and Rati, Budha, the
Vedic sages such as Narada and Agastya, Pantanjali, Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half
Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms of dancing Shiva and
others.
The surviving south gopuram called the Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was constructed
by a Pandya king identified from the presence of the dynasty's fish emblem sculpted on the
ceiling. The Pandyas sculpted two fishes facing each other when they completed gopurams (and
left it with one fish, in case it was incomplete). Other artwork found on the southern gopuram
include Chandesha, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), several Devis, Brahma, Saraswati,
Surya, Chandra, Durga, Indra, Agni, several rishis, Ganga and Yamuna goddesses, Kama and
Rati, Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada, Pantanjali, Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara
(half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms of dancing and
standing Shiva such as Pashupata, Kiratarjuna and Lingobhava, as well as others.
The eastern gopura wall shows all 108 dance postures from the Natya Shastra. The other gopuras
also have dance images.
The eastern gopuram features the 108 reliefs of Natya Shastra dance postures (22 cm each in a
separate niche) and faces the sanctum. The eastern gopuram is credited to king Koperunsingan II
(1243-1279 A.D.) as per epigraphical records and was repaired with support from a woman
named Subbammal in the late 18th century.

The northern gopuram was repaired and finished by

the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509-1530 A.D.) in the 16th century. The eastern and
northern gopura also depicts the wide range of narratives as the southern and western gopuram.
The idols of Pachaiappa Mudaliar and his wife Iyalammal have been sculpted on the
eastern gopuram. The Pachaiappa Trust to date has been responsible for various functions in the

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temple and also maintain the temple car. The eastern gopuram is renowned for its complete
enumeration of 108 poses of Indian classical dance – Bharathanatyam, detailed in small
rectangular panels along the passage that leads to the gateway.1
In Thillai Ambalam surrounded by Thillai Forest, Thillai Tree is Sthala Virutsam (Sacred Tree of
the Temple). The temple and the property around it spreads to 43 acres. There are many art
works. The premises house Nataraja. Famous historical art works, several-hundred-years old are
in the 1000-pillar Mandapam (Hall), Sri Sivakami Sundari Sanctum, and Nandi Mandapabehind
Nataraja’s sanctum (= Cit-Sabah = Hall of Consciousness). A year before the Kumbabishekam
(consecration), renovation of the Canopy Paintings behind Nataraja Sanctum took place. Sixteen
paintings over 1000 years old depicting the ancient history of Chidambaram are among the rare
paintings. These paintings originally drawn with Herbal colors were deteriorating. On the
recommendation of Dikshithars, under the guidance of the most famous antique painter Silpi’s
pupil Painter Padmavasan, pictures and portraits were drawn with new brightness and
grandness. Mr. Padmavasan stayed in Temple grounds in Chidambaram Koil for many months,
bought Kerala herbal colors and redrew on Singapore Canvas Fabric the ancient 16 paintings in
living colors to last for many hundred thousands of r

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These framed paintings on fireproof plates were overlaid on the original drawings. Artist
Padmavasan without compromising on the ancient grandeur of the drawings, drew paintings with
natural colors with wonderful results. Annamalai University Professor Rajasomasekara

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Dikshithar serving as the head priest spoke to the reporter about this. “The temple drawings were
the ancient Fresco art. The paints and the colors were all natural. For example, the green color is
obtained from flora.”

The drawings were over 1000 years old. They were drawn between 3rd to 8th century. It can be
asserted with certainty these drawings were prior to 12th century.
The time of Fresco drawings as proof of the art of painting attest to the establishment of the
temple.Around the Nataraja anctum, there are about over 100 drawings. They are thematic
drawings based on an idea or a story. Many temples have drawings with natural colors of events
from Ramayana. Chittanna gateway has drawings depicting Jain religious ideas. Likewise, there
are drawings depicting the rise of Chidambaram, the story of Manickavasakar, Saiva Samaya
Kuravar, Saiva worship and practice.
The drawings in Nandi Mandapam behind Sri Nataraja Sanctum were in ruins.Renovation of
paintings were done in time for the Kudamuzakku festival in May 2015 for Re.150,000.

Drawing the sacred forms of deities and temple depictions were entrusted to the famous
Spiritual Artist Padmavasan. Staying in the temple premises for about a year, he brought his
service to fruition eminently. Without sacrificing their uniqueness and intrinsic beauty, he drew
them with natural colors. All the drawings without deviating from their old charm came again
into the visual perception of the devotees. In Sri Sivakama Sundari Amman shrine, the beautiful
drawings are in a state of ruination. Consecration is expected soon in that temple. We formed a
committee to discuss the renovation of drawings. Preparations are in progress. Raja Somasekara

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Dikshithar observed, “Soon Amman Sannidhi drawings will get a new life.” He described some
of the Pauranic events depicted in the drawings.

Vyākkirapātham = Maththiyanthanar gets tiger foot.Chidambara Puṛāna declares

Adhimula Nathar Lingam’s sacred body was the residing deity in that place before Lord
Nataraja. Māththiyanthinar the devotee of Siva was collecting flowers in Nandavanam as
‘Pushpa Kainkaryam’ (flower-collecting as divine service) for daily puja. Every deed has its own
Dharma. Likewise, Pushpa Kainkariyam has its Dharma.
We by ourselves should collect flowers by our hands, that too thinking of the Bhagavan. The
religious duty or obligation is purity in collection and laying of the flowers on the deity.
Maththiyanthinar wanted to pluck the flowers by reaching
the upper branches before the honeybees step (land) on them to imbibe the honey. The flowers
visited and sucked by the bees are said to have been contaminated with their saliva. Purity is lost.
The right time to pluck flowers is early in the morning in Brahma Muhurtam (4:30-6AM) before
the bees come in swarms to imbibe the sap. Maththiyanthanar supplicated to Siva to offer him a
suitable body to climb the tree in the dark and pluck the flowers. Siva immersed in the devotion
of his Bhakta made up his mind to confer on him the grace.Siva conferred on Maththiyanthinar
the tiger feet to climb the trees, sharp eyes of the tiger to see the distant flowers and an acute

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sense of smell as in a tiger to follow the scent of the flowers. These sensory attributes of a tiger
in Mathithiyanthinar gave him the eponymous name, ‘Vyākkira pāthar (Tiger-foot).
The Inner Abider (Siva) in the human form of Pitchadanar went to Deva-Taruka-Vanam,
subdued the Rishis (forest-dwelling sages), caused removal of their arrogance and self-conceit
and impressed on them that soulful love and devotion only could lead them to Bhagavan. All
these events were depicted in paintings here. In the month of Margazi, Thiruvathiri Dharsana
festival on the 8th day (January 9, 2017) will be celebrated; the devotees can see Bhagavan
Nataraja going on a procession as Pitchadanar.Let us go to the Chidambaram Koil, the treasure
of paintings and drawings, obtain Dharsan of Ananda Tandava Murthy and attain supreme bliss
in this auspicious month. Devotees of Siva assert Koil means Chidambaram.In Siva temples,
ivalingam is the primary deity. But in Chidambaram,
Nataraja is the fixed Deity (மூலவர). Chidambaram has the distinction because it is the only
temple where Mūlavar (Fixed) becomes the processional deity (Uṛtsavar) twice in a year. Of the
five Elemental Temples, the Sky Temple is Chidambaram. This temple offers Mukti
(Liberation), upon Dharsan. Standing on Sannidhi’s Heart Lotus (location in temple to see the
deity) a devotee can see both deities at one time, left eye seeing Vishnu Perumal and right seeing
Siva. This arrangement is seen nowhere else.
Nataraja’s right side presents a screen. On the rocky wall behind the screen, a Vilva garland
hangs. A devotee can obtain Dharsan of two congruous discs Sri and Siva on the wall. Sri is
Ambal or Sakti and Siva is the Inner Abider (இணறவன). Above them are

puṉuku and javvātu (புனுகு, ஜவவாது) Civet perfumes applied a long time ago, still seen
now.
Five Assembly Halls grace this temple:
1. Chit sabhā conferring Dharsan by Mūlavar,
2. Kanaka sabhā for ritual ablutions,
3. Deva sabhā conferring Dharsan from Siva family deities,
4. Raja sabhā comprising 1000 pillars Hall, and
5. Nṛitya sabhā where Nataraja and Kali presented competitive dances.
Besides the Great Halls, Chidambaram Koil has entities based on the Pentad: five deities, five-
syllable steps, five processional paths…

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If the Earth is shaped as Virāṭa Puruṣa, every organ of His has a temple. His heart lies in
Chidambaram. That is why in the Golden Hall . Nataraja abides on the left side.
Chidambaram is the only temple without a money collection receptacle Likewise, there is no
queue. The temple serves morning and evening meals for 1000 persons every day. Eminence,
excellence, superiority, greatness…: That is Sakasrabojan, 1000 meals.
Daily one Dikshithar performs according to injunctions ritual ablution of Chandramaulīsvarar
(Spatika Lingam = Crystal Lingam) in the Golden Hall six times a day. He goes to the Hall with
purity of body, mind and soul early in the morning to perform three morning ablutions of the
deity and does not drink or eat for that duration. He should not leave the premises for any
reason. After midday meals, three ritual ablutions take place in the evening with applicable
injunctions. The Dikshithars consider it as lifelong auspicious and privileged destiny and
perform the rituals.
The jewels gifted by Tippu Sultan and Ramanathapuram Raja are kept in safe and used on
special occasions.

Geo-Magnetic Location: Chidambaram ,Kanchipuram and Sri Kalahasti lie in a straight line at
79* 41 East Longitude.
Curious as these happen to be among the Panchabhuta Sthalas, Places of Five Elements, Earth,
Water, Fire, Air and Ether.
The temple for water is in Thiruvanaikaval, fire is in Thiruvannamalai , air is in Kalahasti, earth
is in Kanchipuram and The temple for space/sky is in Chidambaram.Earth is nestled between
Sky/Ether/Space, Aakasa( Chidambaram) and Air,Vayu(Kalahasti).Earth is surrounded by Space
and Air.

Equatorial Geophysical Research Laboratory (EGRL), the regional centre of IIG, is at

Thirunelveli because,
‘ Situated close to the magnetic equator (the dip angle being 1.75oN) (8.7oN, 77.8oE
geographic) over an area of more than 35 acres near the village, Krishnapuram, the Centre was
intended to house multi-disciplinary experiments for the measurements of electric and magnetic
fields originating in the near-Earth environment.’Now the coordinates of Thirunelveli is 8.73°N
77.7°E, 2 * dfference from Chidambaram at 79* 41 East Longitude.

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It is said that Chidambaram ,Tamil Nadu India is the Geo Magnetic Centre of the Earth/Universe
and / center of Geo magnetic equator. Of the branches of Physics we know very little about
Magnetism.Magnetic field study is evolving and most of them are at a theoretical stage. As there
are references to Chidambaram being the center of the Earth’s?Universe’s Magnetic Field I
researched.

Chidambaram Temple aerial View.

It is also stated that Lord Nataraja ‘s big toe is the Centre Point of World ‘s Magnetic
Equator.Chidambaram ,Kanchipuram and Sri Kalahasti lie in a straight line at 79* 41 East
Longitude.Curious as these happen to be among the Panchabhuta Sthalas, Places of Five
Elements, Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Ether.

The temple for water is in Thiruvanaikaval, fire is in Thiruvannamalai , air is in Kalahasti , earth
is in Kanchipuram and The temple for space/sky is in Chidambaram.Earth is nestled between
Sky/Ether/Space, Aakasa( Chidambaram) and Air,Vayu(Kalahasti).Earth is surrounded by Space
and Air. As Vishnu’s Nabhi, Navel of Vishnu has been validated as the Center of Our
Galaxy.The Southern Cross and Canopus tally with Trishanku Swarga and Agasthya Star
respectively. Hence I did not want to dismiss the point that Chidambaram being the Centre of
earth’s /universe’s Magnetic field.

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US/UK world Magnetic Chart Epoch 2010
A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The
magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength);
as such it is a vector field.[nb 1] The term is used for two distinct but closely related fields denoted
by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in units of amperes per meter (symbol: A·m−1 or
A/m) in the SI. B is measured in teslas (symbol:T) and newtons per meter per ampere (symbol:
N·m−1·A−1 or N/(m·A)) in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it
exerts on moving electric charges.
Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments
of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, their spin.[1][2] In
special relativity, electric and magnetic fields are two interrelated aspects of a single object,
called the electromagnetic tensor; the split of this tensor into electric and magnetic fields depends
on the relative velocity of the observer and charge. In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field
is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of
photons…(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field)
Magnetic Equator.
Magnetic dip results from the tendency of a magnet to align itself with lines of force. As the
Earth’s magnetic lines of force are not parallel to the surface, the north end of a compass needle
will point downward in the northern hemisphere (positive dip) or upward in the southern
hemisphere (negative dip). The range of dip is from −90 degrees (at the South Magnetic Pole) to

215
+90 degrees (at the North Magnetic Pole). Contour lines along which the dip measured at the
Earth’s surface is equal are referred to as isoclinic lines. The locus of the points having zero dip
is called the magnetic equator or aclinic line.’
And Shiva personifies Motion and Rhythm as expressed in His Cosmic Dance.
Can there be any link?
I found that Equatorial Geophysical Research Laboratory (EGRL), the regional centre of IIG, is
at Thirunelveli because,
‘ Situated close to the magnetic equator (the dip angle being 1.75oN) (8.7oN, 77.8oE
geographic) over an area of more than 35 acres near the village, Krishnapuram, the Centre was
intended to house multi-disciplinary experiments for the measurements of electric and magnetic
fields originating in the near-Earth environment.’
Now the coordinates of Thirunelveli is 8.73°N 77.7°E, 2 * dfference from Chidambaram at 79*
41 East Longitude.
I surmise that there is some truth in the statement that Chidambaram being the Centre of
Magnetic Field.
This needs verification.
To who assert Magnetic Fields do not have Equator..
I am reproducing a study on this subject.
Note that there is an an Anamoly in SE Asia .
One might remeber that the present location of the South and for that matter the Indian Sub
Continent was further down south about 255 Millin years ago.
And the present Chidambaram might have been located there.
I am investigating.
‘Southeastern Asia region. This means the magnetic field is unexpectedly strong there compared
to the magnetic fields measured over the rest of the earth’s surface. The following diagram
shows these anomalies. Blue indicates weaker magnetic field strength; the darkest blue regions
identify the SAA. Orange indicates stronger magnetic field strength; the maximum field strength
along the magnetic equator lies in the greenish area over SE Asia—this is the area of the SE
Asian anomaly.

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Others say that the Chidambaram temple is not the center point of earth magnetic field. It is
located where the magnetic equator passed please note it is not geographical equator and also at
11 degree latitude. Both these factors assist the spiritual journey those who seek for it. Its
location on earth is the important factors. I will tell you how and why.
1. It is located where the magnetic equator passes which means magnetic dip is zero at
this loaction. Please note two things - magnetic equator circles all around the globe so
it not the only place where the magnetic dip is zero and secondly the magnetic equator
passes through Chidambaram when it was bulit, it has shifted over the course of time.
The answer to how it assist the spiritual journey - Earth magnetic field is the last thing
pulling down our physical dimension after we free ourself from all other stuffs (take it
spiritually) so Chidamabaram is the ideal loaction where the magnetic influence on
your body is negligible.
2. It is also loacted at 11 degree latitude. Spinning Earth has outward force called
centrifugal force. At 11 degree this centrifugal force is directly upward . So this will
help to channelise our energies upward which in turn assits (only) our spiritual
awakening.
These are the significance of loaction of Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram. You can also see
numerous architectural marvels inside the temple which is covered in other questions.
But what is awe-inspiring is how our ancestors know about this thousands of years ago. It is said
they have attained such kind of knowledge and wisdom through yoga and medication but still it
is mind-boggling.
CHIDAMBARAM TEMPLE SECRET‐ CENTER OF MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH

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SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE – CHIDAMBARA RAHASYAM:
LORD SHIVA’S ESSENCE IN THIS IMAGE IS DESCRIBED AS “ARDHANARISHWARA”,
HALF‐MALE AND HALF‐FEMALE, A PERFECT UNION OF MATTER, ENERGY, AND THE
ENERGY CONTROLLER

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SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE: CHIDAMBARA RAHASYAM – THE
GREAT MYSTERY OF CHIDAMBARAM. LORD NATARAJA DESTROYS MAN’S IGNORANCE
TO RELEASE MAN FROM THE INFLUENCE OF COSMIC ILLUSION.

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SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE: IN BOTH CHRISTIAN AND INDIAN
TRADITIONS, EARTH IS THOUGHT TO BE THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE. IN INDIA,
CHIDAMBARAM IS THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE. THE PLACE IS VIEWED AS THE
CENTRE OF GEOMAGNETIC EQUATOR OF PLANET EARTH. THE GREEN HORIZONTAL
LINE REPRESENTS THE GEOMAGNETIC EQUATOR.

After 8 years of R & D, Western scientists have proved that at Lord Nataraja 's big toe is the
Centre Point of World 's Magnetic Equator.
Our ancient Tamil Scholar Thirumoolar has proved this Five thousand
years ago! His treatise THIRUMANDIRAM is a wonderful Scientific guide for the whole
world.

To understand his studies, it may need a 100 years for us.

Chidambaram, in Southern India’s state of Tamil Nadu, is also known as Thillai, since the place

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was originally a forest of the thillai shrubs. It is an important pilgrim center, a major shrine of
Lord Shiva and as the famous Nataraja Temple. In fact, Chidambaram offers a combination of
the three aspects of Shiva worship – the form Lord Nataraja (dance), the form and the
formlessness (linga) and the formless omnipresence.The temple has influenced worship,
architecture, sculpture and performance art for over two millennium. Now, that is an old temple.
The ancient temple is located in the center of the town and covers 40 acres with four sevenstory
gopurams ( those huge gateways facing North, South East and West) each with around fifty stone
sculptures. There are also five sabhas or courts. The presiding deity of the temple is formless,
represented by air, one of the five elements of the universe. The temple is dedicated to Lord
Nataraja, and is unique as it one of the rare temples where Shiva is represented by an idol rather
than the customary lingam. (I’d been introduced to lingams earlier, they are black phallic looking
statues.) This temple also has exquisite carvings of Bharathanatya dance postures, the Classical
Dance of Tamil Nadu. At Chidambaram, the dancer dominates, not the linga.
Temple dancer The eastern tower of the temple rises to a height of 134 feet with 108
Bharathanatyam dance poses as well as on Western tower. The Northern tower rises to a height
of 140 feet and is the tallest. This temple is also noted for its Gold Plated roof that adorns the
sanctum sanctorum, or called the kanakasabha. NonHindus are not allowed inside the sanctum
sanctorum. The temple as it stands is mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries, with later
additions in similar style. It was believed to have been originally constructed during the early
Chola period (900’s AD).2
Chidambaram temple embodies the following characteristics :

1) This temple is located at the Center Point of world 's Magnetic Equator.
2) Of the "Pancha bootha" i.e. 5 temples, Chidambaram denotes the Skies. Kalahasthi denotes
Wind. Kanchi Ekambareswar denotes land. All these 3 temples are located in a straight line at 79
degrees 41 minutes Longitude. This can be verified using Google. An amazing fact &
astronomical miracle !
3) Chidambaram temple is based on the Human Body having 9 Entrances denoting 9 Entrances
or Openings of the body.
4) Temple roof is made of 21600 gold sheets which denotes the 21600 breaths taken by a human
being every day (15 x 60 x 24 = 21600)

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5) These 21600 gold sheets are fixed on the Gopuram using 72000 gold nails which denote the
total no. of Nadis (Nerves) in the human body. These transfer energy to certain body parts that
are invisible.
6) Thirumoolar states that man represents the shape of Shivalingam, which represents
Chidambaram which represents Sadashivam which represents HIS dance !
7) "Ponnambalam " is placed slightly tilted towards the left. This represents our Heart. To reach
this, we need to climb 5 steps called "Panchatshara padi " "Si, Va, Ya, Na, Ma " are the 5
Panchatshara mantras.
There are 4 pillars holding the Kanagasabha representing the 4 Vedas.
8) Ponnambalam has 28 pillars denoting the 28 "Ahamas "as well as the 28 methods to worship
Lord Shiva. These 28 pillars support 64 +64 Roof Beams which denote the 64 Arts. The cross
beams represent the Blood Vessels running across the Human body.
9) 9 Kalasas on the Golden Roof represent the 9 types of Sakthi or Energies.
The 6 pillars at the Artha Mantapa represent the 6 types of Sashtras.
The 18 pillars in the adjacant Mantapa represents 18 Puranams.
10) The dance of Lord Nataraja is described as Cosmic Dance by Western Scientists.
Whatever Science is propounding now has been stated by Hinduism thousands of years ago

Greatness Of Temple:
Lord Shiva is in three forms in Chidambaram, as visible idol form, formless as Akasha or space
and form and formless as a Spatika Linga. What is Chidambara Rahasyam – secret: There is
small entrance near Lord Sabanayaka in the Chit Saba. The screen is removed and an arati is
offered. There is nothing in a form inside. But there hangs a golden Vilwa garland without a
Murthi. The secret is that Lord is here as Akasha which has no beginning or an end. This can be
understood only by experience. Of the Panchabhoodha Sthals, Chidambaram belongs to Akasha.
Chit + Ambaram= Chidambaram. Chit means wisdom. Ambaram means broad open space not
measurable. “We have nothing with us” is the lesson from this philosophy. The reputation of
Chidambaram is still greater, because it is here that the hymns of three great Saivite Saints were
discovered. They sang thousands of hymns in many Shiva Sthals they visited. Where were they
for the use of the devotees? Tirunarayur Nambiandar Nambi and king Tirumurai Kanda
Chozhan fell at the feet of Lord Polla Pillayar – Vinayaka to guide them in the matter. With the

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blessings of Lord Vinayaka, they came to know that all these great spiritual literatures with the
signatures of the respective authors are hidden in this temple. They rushed to Chidambaram and
worshipped the authors with respectful festivals. They found the palm leaves covered by anthill
and mostly consumed by insects. Yet they picked up the available full leaves and saved them.
All these invaluable spiritual literatures would have been totally lost but for the painstaking and
devout labour of Nambiandar Nambigal and Tirumurai Kanda Chozhan.

Chidambaram Lord Nataraja probably is the first social reformer. Nandanar, a dalit farm worker
was a staunch Shiva devotee. He desired to have the darshan of Lord but could not secure a
holiday from his upper caste boss who said that as a low born he was not entitled for the
privilege. Nandanar did not lose hope. Naalai Pohalam – Let me go tomorrow – was his hope.
After many tomorrows, he finally reached Chidambaram but could not enter the temple due to
his community problem. He tried to have the glimpse of Lord, but Nandhi the bull vehicle of
Lord Shiva blocked the view. Lord asked Nandhi to move and enabled Nandanar to have his
darshan. Nandanar attained salvation here and merged with Lord to the shock and surprise of the
upper class. It is said that the four Saivite Saints entered the temple through the four entrances of
the temple, Manickavasagar through the east, Gnanasambandar from south, Appar from west and
Sundarar from the north. ApparTirunavukkarasar did his Angapradakshina in the car strees
(Ratha Veedhi) of Chidambaram. Saint Manickavasagar cured the dumb daughter of the
Buddhist king of Lanka with the blessings of Lord in the temple. There are five Sabhas in the
temple – Chittrambalam, Ponnambalam, Perambalam, Niruddha Sabha and Rajatha Sabha.

The shrines of Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu are so structured that the devotee can have twin
darshan from one spot in the temple. This is a temple where Brahmma, Vishnu and Rudra grace
the devotees together. Saint Arunagirinathar had praised Lord Muruga of this temple in ten of
his Tirupugazh hymns. Many believe that Lord Nataraja is the presiding deity of this temple.
The presiding deity is Adhimoola Nathar in the Linga form. Sages Patanjali and Vyakrapada
wished that people of this earth too should have the chance to view and enjoy the great dance of
Lord Shiva performed at Mount Kailash. They came to earth and sat in penance on
Adhimoolanathar for the purpose. Responding to their selfless penance for the common people,
Lord Shiva along with Tri Sahasra Muniswaras – 3000 sages came to this place and granted His

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dance darshan in Thai month (JanuaryFebruary) on Poosam Star day at 12.00 a.m. These 3000
Muniswaras then came to known as Thillai Moovayiravar. Chidambaram is a holy place that
ensures total salvation to the souls. For salvation, one should have his/her birth at Tiruvarur or
live in Kanchi or think of Tiruvannamalai or die in Kasi. If one worships Lords Tirumoolanathar
and Nataraja at Chidambaram at least once in life time, salvation is reserved for the soul.

Despite strong opposition to Nandanar to enter the temple due to community reasons, he
entered the temple with all honours and merged with the Lord. His bhaktidevotion was too deep
and true that transcended all blockades of caste discriminations. Every one in the world,
irrespective of race, colour, country, language, religion throng he temple for Lord Nataraja
darshan and also participate in pulling the carrath. Lord Brahmma organized a yajna and invited
the 3000 Muniswaras to join in the pujas. They simply replied that no great soulful gain could
be achieved by attending the yajna than the darshan of Nataraja at Thillai Chidambaram. Lord
advised them to go and attend the yajna and promised to appear there at the end of the yajna.
That form of His appearance in the Brahmma Loka is praised as Rathna Sabapathy. This idol is
under the Nataraja idol. Every day, between 10.00 a.m and 11.00 a.m. Arati is shown to Lord
Rathna Sabapathi, both at front and back. There is a similarity in the design of Nataraja shrine
and the human body, it is said. The 21,600 golden tiles engraved with the Na Ma Shi Va Ya
mantra represent the number of times one breathes each day. The 72,000 nails used in the
Ponnambalam represent the number of nerves of the human body. The 9 entrances represent the
nine conveniences in the body activating our movements. Five steps to Ponnambalam represent
the five letters of Na Ma Shi Va Ya Mantra. Wooden supports numbering 64 represent 64 arts,
96 windows the 96 philosophies, the pillars the 4 Vedas, 6 Sastras and Panchaboodas. Sri
Chakra installed by Acharya Adi Sankara is in the Ambica shrine. The Arthajama puja in the
temple has its own significance when, it is believed that all other Gods assemble here for
worship. Great Saivite poet Sekkizhar released His magnum Opus Periapuranam in this temple.
Saint Arunagiriar had praised Lord.

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_____________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
1. https://myindiastories.com/Chidambaram-Temple-Paintings-Renovations.html below
2. https://techera99.blogspot.com/2016/11/chidambaram-temple-secret-center-of.html

3/4/ Chidambaram Geomagnetic Centre of Earth Universe? Study-

Y RAMANAN50POSTED ON6 APR 2015
See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_dip
http://bhavanajagat.com/tag/chidambara-rahasyam/http://iigm.res.in/index.php/centres-
observatories/190-egrl
https://ramanisblog.in/2015/04/06/chidambaram-geomagnetic-centre-of-earth-universe-study/

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 CHAPTER VIII
Fascinating Marvels of Dravidian Architecture
(Great Living Chola Temples)” “Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram”

BY AMJSHOTS ON OCTOBER 7, 2018 • ( 6 COMMENTS )

“Enlightenment inside, Illusion outside” – A basic concept relating Inner Consciousness with The Divine

There has been a noticeable transition of dravidian temple architecture from the 7th century
Pallava tradition to the 10th century Chola tradition. In this part, you are going to experience
the two Chola Marvels of dravidian architecture :

1. Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.

2. Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram (One of the Great Living Chola temples).

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Temple architecture in South India reached its pinnacles under the rule of imperial
Cholas (850 – 1250). Early Chola temples however, are not as large as the ambitiously planned
Pallava Kailashnatha or the Vaikunthaperumal temples at Kanchipuram. Development in early
Chola architecture consists, instead, in perfecting the unique elements of the Dravidian style and
combining them harmoniously with new forms in astonishingly diverse ways.

Period of the imperial Cholas (850 CE – 1250 CE) was an age of continuous improvement and
refinement of Dravidian art and architecture. Utilized their prodigious wealth earned through
their extensive conquests in building long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures.
One such architectural marvel is our next location :

“Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram”

In South India, five temples were built for each of the five elements – Earth, Water, Fire, Air and
Space. These are the Pancha Bhuta Sthalas. Geographically, they are all within the Deccan
Plateau – four in Tamil Nadu and one in Andhra Pradesh. The temple for water is in

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Thiruvanaikaval, fire is Thiruvannamalai, Kalahasti is air and Kanchipuram is earth. The temple
for space is in Chidambaram.

Thillai Nataraja temple in Chidambaram is located in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu and it
is about 5 kms north of Kollidam river (Kaveri), 65 kms south of Pondicherry and 220 kms south
of Chennai. State transport and private companies operate many services connecting it to other
major cities. The site is also linked to the Indian Railway network through Chidambaram railway
station. So, reaching Chidambaram, from Mahabalipuram was not an issue, as there were state
transport buses available from the bypass junction near Mahabalipuram town (in 1.5 km
distance). The easiest way is to reach Pondicherry, first (91 kms from Mahabalipuram) and then
to Chidambaram.

In ancient times, this town was used to be called ‘Thillai’, following Thillai Vanam (forest),
derived from mangrove of Thillai trees that grow here and the nearby Pichaivaram wetlands.
And was renamed to Chidambaram, by Chola dynasty, when it was their capital city.The early
history of the temple lies hidden in the mists of time. It reached its present form under the
patronage of the kings of the Chola dynasty in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. From the aerial
view we can see the total surface area of the temple covers 13 hectares or 35 acres. Placing it
among the largest temples in the whole of India. It is designed with five concentric Prakaras, or
circumambulatory temple courtyards. These are associated with the Five Elements. The
innermost Prakara is not visible. It lies within the sanctum with the golden roof, and can only be
entered by the Deekshithars (exclusive administrative group of Brahmins). The architecture and
the rituals of this temple reflect its history and doctrine.

The word ‘Chidambaram’, refers to the philosophy and doctrine of the

temple. ‘Chit’ means consciousness or wisdom. ‘Ambaram’ signifies ether in Sanskrit, but
in Tamil the ‘ambalam’ means hall. The name unifies two aspects of the doctrine. Meaning
both Hall of Wisdom, as well as the place of the Ether of Consciousness. Temple’s architecture
symbolizes the connection between art and spirituality; ie, creativity and divine.

The Nataraja (Lord Siva posing as a Cosmic dancer) form essentially comes from Southern
India, particularly from Tamil Nadu. And Nataraja is the family deity of Chola dynasty.
Represents the exuberance of creation, the dance of creation which self-created itself from

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the eternal stillness. Nataraja standing in Chidambaram is very symbolic because what you call
as Chidambaram is just absolute stillness. That is what is enshrined in the form of this temple.
Main idea of classical arts is to bring this absolute stillness into a human being. Without stillness,
true art cannot come.

History of Chidambaram Nataraja Temple

Where we now find this beautiful and ancient temple, was once an impenetrable forest of Thillai
trees, which is a kind of mangrove. This forest gave Chidambaram its first and most ancient
name, Thillai. Within this sprawling forest was a lotus pond, and at the southern bank of this
pond existed a Svayambhu Linga. A linga is a representation of Lord Siva which unites both the
concepts of Form as well as of Formless in itself. In modern terms this formless-form might be
called an abstraction.

Svayambhu means ‘self existent’, signifying that the linga was not made by human beings, but
came into existence by itself, from nature. To this lotus pond in the Tillai forest, once came two
saints, named Vyagrapada and Patanjali. They came from very different backgrounds and from
very different directions, but they came for the same reason: to witness Lord Siva’s Cosmic
Dance. It had been foretold to them that if they would worship the linga on the bank of the lotus
pond in the forest, Lord Siva would come to perform His Dance.

Eventually this great event took place. Nataraja came to perform His Dance on a Thursday, when
the moon was in the Asterism Pushan, in the Tamil month of Tai, long before the Christian era.
This dance is called the Ananda Tandava or Dance of Bliss. The saints achieved liberation, and
on their special request Siva promised to perform His Dance for all time at that place. The story
of the origin of the worship of Shiva Nataraja in Chidambaram is told in the Chidambaram
Mahatmyam. The Sacred History of Chidambaram, which is part of the Skanda Purana, one of
the 18 great Puranas or collections of mythology. From one of the saints, Vyagrapada, which
means Tiger Footed, Chidambaram received its second name, Puliyur, meaning ‘City of the
Tiger’.

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“Chidambaram Mahatmyam or Legend”

16th Century Nayaka painting of ‘Chidambaram Legend’ – A shot from the Cloister halls
of Brihadeeswara temple complex, Thanjavur.

An interesting story to visualize….. Throughout all of eternity, Lord Vishnu rests on Shesha
(Ananthan), the Cosmic Snake, in Vaikundam. Once his weight suddenly seemed to have greatly
increased. Shesha asked Vishnu “why are you so much heavier, Lord?” The Lord answered “I
have had a vision of Siva doing his Cosmic Dance. I have expanded with happiness at the sight.”
Shesha requested Vishnu to tell him all about Siva’s Dance. And Lord told him everything as
follows :
“In the forest called Daruvanna, lived a community of Rishis or Seers in a hermitage. Through
the performance of rituals they had achieved great knowledge and power, but they had not
realized the importance of Divine Grace. Lord Siva requested Lord Vishnu to accompany him to
enlighten the Rishis, by showing them human power and knowledge were helpless without

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intervention of Divine Grace. To accomplish this purpose the two deities applied their power of
Maya or Illusion. Siva entered the hermitage of the Rishis as Bhikshatana or a Mendicant. With
dazzling beauty, wearing only a mendicant’s sandals, the wives and daughters of the Rishis fell
madly in love with him, forgetting everything else, and completely loosing themselves. Vishnu
transformed himself into a beautiful woman called Mohini, and an alluring dancer. As soon as
the Rishis saw Mohini dance before them, they too lost all sense and rationality and with desire
burning in their hearts they followed Mohini around like madmen.
When some of the Rishis realized what was happening they became enraged and started a great
magical fire sacrifice against Lord Siva’s Bhikshatana. First they called from the fire – A tiger,
but when tiger attacked Lord Siva he laughed, and killed the ferocious animal with his hands,
tearing off its skin and wearing it for a loin cloth. Next the Rishis send poisonous snakes, which
he draped around his arms and neck, as jewelry. Then Siva prepared to perform his Cosmic
Dance. His two other arms appeared and his third eye shone in his forehead. The Rishis called
a fierce dwarf (Apasmara Purusha – Murayalayan) from their magical fire, but Siva’s dancing
foot simply took him for a pedestal and danced. Finally the Rishis send the fire itself to destroy
the Cosmic Dancer, but he just took it on to his left hand. And from the mantras that the Rishis
used against him he made his anklets. Then the Lord danced his Tandava or Cosmic Dance. Its
full power made the Rishis fall to the ground. It made Lord Vishnu shake, and even Parvati, the
goddess consort of Shiva, who joined them to witness her husbands dance, was overcome with
fear. But the Lord danced smiling, showing his raised foot. The Rishis understood the Lord’s
Divine Grace, and attained realization. They started to dance themselves and all of creation
danced with them.”
After Vishnu has told Shesha about his vision of Siva’s Cosmic Dance, he longs for only one
thing: to see Siva’s dance himself. Vishnu grants him permission to leave him for a while, so
Shesha too will be able to experience the dance. After performed austerities for long ages, Siva
appeared before him, and offers him the fulfillment of any wish. Shesha has only one wish: to
witness Shiva’s Ananda Tandava.
In fulfillment of Shesha’s wish, Siva announced to him that he will dance at the appropriate and
tangible moment on earth in the Sabha in the Thillai forest. This forest is situated on the middle
point of the earth, and constituted its heart centre, the Lotus Space. Through it passes the main
energy nadi, or vein, of our mother planet. This place is called Chit Ambara, the Ether of
Consciousness. Siva told that he, Shesha, would be born on earth from human parents, and that
he would be called Patanjali. After growing up, he will travel to Thillai, where he will meet
another saint, called Vyagrapada the Tigerfooted. And both will perform tapas and worship,
until the appointed time for Siva to perform his Cosmic Dance in the Sabha has arrived.
All these things foretold by Siva to Shesha, come to pass. As Patanjali reached the Thillai forest
he found on the southern bank of the lotus pond the saint Vyagrapada, worshipping the
Mulasthana Linga and performing austerities. Vyagrapada had come to the Thillai forest
following the advice of his father, the Rishi Madhyandina. To worship the Mulasthana Linga he
used to gather flowers in the early morning, but however early he collected the flowers, insects
had already damaged them. Deeply upset that his worship was not as complete or perfect as he
aimed for, he cried to Lord Siva to help him. In answer to his prayer Siva gave him tiger claws
for hand and feet, enabling him to find his way through the thick forest at night to gather flowers
long before daybreak, before the insects could inflict their damage. From then on both saints did
the worship and the austerities together, as they waited for the appointed time for Siva to dance

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in the Sabha. As that time approached also the 3000 munivars or Thillai Muvayravar (later
called Deekshithars) arrived in the forest to await the Lord’s dance.
When that day arrived, it was announced with the sound of drums and conches. A rain of flowers
fell from heaven, and in the Sabha appeared a light of a thousand suns and moons. In the middle
of this light mass appeared Siva’s form, dancing his Ananda Tandava, and showing his Lotus
Foot. His is an un-earthly beauty, while his peaceful smile shines on all. He was together with
Parvati, who witnessed his dance. All those present, Devatas, demons and humans rejoiced,
almost fainting, and all joined in his dance, dancing themselves. Then Siva offered the two saints
to make a wish. They wished that Siva would forever perform his Ananda Tandava or Dance of
Bliss in the golden Sabha of Chidambaram, for the entire world to experience. So that any
human who desired this could also reach His lifted Lotus Foot and realize liberation. Soon after
that, the King Sveta Varman came to the Thillai forest. At that time, he was forced to give up his
kingdom after being infected with a skin disease called ‘white spot’, a form of leprosy. Lord
Nataraja ordered the two saints Vyagrapada and Patanjali to let the king take a bath in the lotus
pond, now called the Shiva Ganga (A sacred pool), that he may be healed. After re-emerging
from the water the king’s skin had become golden, his name becoming Hiranya Varman or
‘golden coloured’. And he was taken to the Sabha to see Nataraja’s Ananda Tandava. Overtaken
with emotions the king fell on earth and offered his life-long service to the Dancing Siva. He was
consecrated by the 3000 munivars, and received from Vyagrapada, signifying his kingship and
valor. The king then rebuild beautifully the temple and the city around it. And established the
main festivals of the yearly cycle in the temple.

Nataraja Siva and his “dance of bliss” is an ancient Hindu art concept. It is found in various texts
such as Tatva Nidhi which describes seven types of dance and their spiritual
symbolism, Kashyapa Silpa which describes 18 dance forms with iconographic details and
design instructions, as well as Bharata Muni’s ancient treatise on performance arts Natya
Shastra which describes 108 dance postures among other things.

Earliest historically verifiable Siva temple at Chidambaram is traceable in inscriptions that date
to the rule of Aditya Chola I in early 10th century, and far more during the rule of 10th century
Chola King Parantaka I. For them, Lord Nataraja was the kula-nayaka (family guide or deity)
and Chidambaram was the capital they built. The copper plate inscriptions of Parantaka I (907-
955 CE) describe him as the “be at the lotus feet of Shiva” who built the golden house for Shiva,
with Chit-sabha, Hema-sabha, Hiranya-sabha and Kanaka-sabha (all mandapam, pillared pilgrim
rest places). He is referred to as “Pon veinda Perumal”, which means “one who covered with
gold” the Chit-sabha of Chidambaram. These inscriptions and texts from this period suggest that
the significance of the Agama texts and Shaiva Bhakti movement was strengthening within the
Chola leadership and thought. They converted many older brick and wooden temples into more
lasting temples from cut stone as the building blocks in dozens of places across South India.

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 The temple, according to inscriptions found in South India and Southeast Asia, was also historic
recipient of a precious jewel from the king of Angkor who built the Angkor Wat through Chola
king Kulothunga I, who submitted it to the temple in 1114 CE.

Significance of Siva in his “Ananda Tandava” Nataraja aspect:

” Lord Nataraja ” of Chidambaram, showing ‘Ananda Tandava or Dance of bliss’ – A pencil

drawing from my imagination.

 The demon (Apasmara) under Lord Nataraja’s feet signifies that ignorance is under His feet.
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 The fire in His hand (power of destruction) means He is the destroyer of evil.
 The raised hand (Abhaya or Pataka mudra) signifies that He is the savior of all life forms.
 The arc of fire called Thiruvashi or Prabhavati signifies the cosmos and the perpetual motion of
the earth.
 The drum in His hand signifies the origin of life forms.
 The lotus pedestal signifies ‘Om’, the sound of the universe.
 His right eye, left eye and third eye signify the sun, moon and fire/knowledge, respectively.
 His right earring (makara kundalam) and left earring (sthri kundalam) signify the union of man
and woman (right is man, left is woman).
 The crescent moon in His hair signifies benevolence and beauty.
 The flowing of river Ganges through His matted hair signifies eternity of life.
 The dreading of His hair and drape signify the force of His dance.

Invasions in Chidambaram

By late 13th century, in the north, the Indian subcontinent had been conquered by the Delhi
Sultanate. Muslim armies had begun raiding central India for plunder. In 1311, the Ala ud Din
Khilji’s army general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces went deeper into the Indian
peninsula for loot and to establish annual tribute paying Muslim governors. The records left by
the court historians of the Delhi Sultanate state that Malik Kafur raided Chidambaram,
Srirangam and other Tamil towns, destroyed the temples, and the Chidambaram Siva temple was
one of the sources of gold and jewels booty he brought back to Delhi. The temple towns of Tamil
Nadu were again targeted for loot in 1320s. However, when the news of another invasion spread
in Tamil lands, the community removed them into the Western Ghats or buried numerous
sculptures and treasures in the land and concealed chambers underneath temples sites before the
Muslim armies reached them. A large number of these were rediscovered in archaeological
excavations at the site in and after 1979, including those in Chidambaram. Those who buried the
temple artworks followed the Hindu Agama texts such as Marici
Samhita and Vimanarcanakalpa that recommend ritually burying precious metal murtis as a
means of protection when war and robbery is imminent. Over 200 such items have been
recovered, including relevant hordes of copper plate inscriptions.

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The islamic invasion in the 14th century, bought an abrupt end to the patronage of
Chidambaram. The Delhi Sultan appointed a Governor, who seceded within the few years from
the Delhi Sultanate and began the Madurai Sultanate. This Sultanate sought tribute from the
temple towns, instead of supporting them. Madurai Sultanate was relatively short-lived,
with Vijayanagar empire removing it in late 14th century. Vijayanagara rulers restored, repaired
and expanded the temple through the 16th century, along with many other regional temples.
These kings themselves went on pilgrimage to Chidambaram, and gifted resources to strengthen
its walls and infrastructure. Destruction of Vijayanagara Empire in late 16th century by Bahmini
Sultans, an alliance of Sultanates, followed within a few decades by entrance of Portuguese,
French and British colonial interests brought geopolitical uncertainties to Chidambaram and
other temple towns. The Portuguese were already a major Coromandel Coast trading group by
early 17th century, a region to which Chidambaram belonged. The Portuguese began building
forts, garrison and churches in Coromandel Coast region after the demise of Vijayanagara,
triggering the intervention of the French and the British. By mid 17th century, the temple
complex was within the patronage of Nayakas, who repaired the temple and repainted the
frescoes on mandapa ceilings. According to British reports, this temple town had to bear
the “brunt of several severe onslaughts” between the French and the British colonial
forces several times particularly in the 18th century.

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Floor Plan of Thillai Nataraja temple, Chidambaram

A useful layout while exploring this 35 acre huge temple complex.

First session of Day 2 – Exploring Chidambara Rahasyams (Secrets)

The most imposing feature of Chidambaram Natraja temple, which can be seen soaring above
the plain from miles away, are the four temple gateways or gopurams, located in the second wall
of enclosure at the cardinal points. They are considered among the earliest examples of such
structures and are in their present form dated to the 12th and 13th century. Scholars disagree
about the dates of individual gopurams, or about which one was build first. Some consider the
west gopuram as oldest, some the east gopuram.In total, the temple has nine major gopuram
gateways connecting the various courtyards. Four of these are huge and colorful, visible from
afar, a symbolic and convenient landmark for pilgrims. These gateway towers, each have 7
storeys facing the East, South, West and North.The first edition of the four gopuram
superstructures were likely built between 1150 and 1300 CE. All gopuras are built of precisely

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cut large stone blocks all the way to the main cornice. Upon this is a stone, brick and plaster
structure with layers of pavilions. Above these talas(storeys) is a Dravidian style barrel vaulted
roof, crowned with thirteen kalasa finials. All four are approximately similar in size and 14:10:3
ratio. Truely, a fascinating scene for our eyes….

” Welcome Scene ” – Lofty Eastern Gopuram of Chidambaram Nataraja temple. (Second constructed gopuram,
but the largest one among the four) 140 ft high, 100 ft wide and 30 ft deep…. terrific dimensions!!! Was likely
completed in late 12th century by King Sundara Pandyan, of Pandya dynasty.

Between the second half of the 12th century and the early 13th century, the Chola kings added
colorful and high gopura stone gateways as easily identifiable landmarks, starting with the
western gopura. Thereafter, about mid 13th century, the Pandya dynasty ended the Chola
dynasty. The Hindu Pandyas were liberal supporters of Chidambaram temple, along with other
Siva and Vishnu temples, just like the Chola. Sundara Pandya added the huge eastern gopura at
Chidambaram, beginning the colossal gateway tradition.

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View of the Colossal East Gopuram (Tower). Anthropomorphic figure panels and about fifty
niches with stone sculptures in every gopuram together constitute their artworks. They narrate
various scenes of Hindu Puranas which include multiple panels about the legend of Siva-Parvati
wedding with Brahma, Vishnu, Saraswati and Lakshmi attending, dancing Ganesha, Siva in his
various aspects, Durga in the middle of her war with a demon, Skanda ready for war, seated
Nandi, musicians, dancers, farmers, merchants, sadhu in namaste posture, dancing dvarapalas
near the vertical center line and others. The eastern gopuram is credited to King Koperunsingan
II of Kadava dynasty (1243-1279 AD) as per epigraphical records.

Artists and architects who built these towers may have had a rationale in the relative sequence
and position of the artwork with respect to each other and on various levels marvelously and
perfectly they are sculpted and arranged.

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 One of the Dvarapalas in the Eastern gopuram – The position of right hand index finger which is pointing
upwards indicates that ‘There is one and only God’ and Upper left hand showing Abhaya mudra (a hand gesture
with right hand upraised and open palm signifying protection), which indicates ‘He (the God) is the savior of all
forms’ . RIGHT
Another image showing Siva and Parvati sitting on a bench with a centrally placed small Bhutagana, a scene
found on the front side of eastern tower.

The gateways, which are dwarfed in the Pallava, are in late Chola prominent. The dvarpalas
(gatekeepers) in Chola temples are fierce men with tridents, bearing tusks
protruding from mouths, rolled eyes and hands always in threatening gestures. These contrast
with the benign natural looking single paired arm dvarpalas of the past.

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 Recreated Nayaka painting of 17th century found on the ceiling of Mukha mandapa, situated in front of the eastern
gopuram. Actually, this scenes welcomes the devotees to the temple.

Inside walls of passages through all the four gopurams are decorated with the 108 karanas, the
dance movements of Siva, from the Natya Shastra, the world’s most ancient treatise on dance,
drama and theatre. Besides in Chidambaram these karanas are depicted in only four other
temples, all in Tamil Nadu. That’s interesting, isn’t it ?

Eastern gopuram features the 108 reliefs of Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra dance postures (22 cm
each in a separate niches)…..

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 91 (13×7) squares on the ceiling depicting the figures of various Hindu gods which include Siva, Vishnu,
Ganesha, Subrahmanya, Shesha, Indra etc

On the outside of the granite bases of the gopurams are found sculptures of many important as
well as less well known deities in niches in a particular order. From the second tier onward, on
each of the Gopuram, are seen images of various manifestations of Siva such as Bhikshatana,
Kankala (both being ascetic forms), Kalyanasundarar, Somaskandar etc. (bestowers of

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prosperity). There are no representations of Nataraja on the temple towers, as this image is
reserved for the innermost shrine alone….

Inner left side of Eastern Gopuram – Various aspects of Siva can be seen. Second from the left is ‘Lingodhbhava’ form of
Siva. (Figure of four-armed Siva placed inside a Lingam)

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 Sculpture of ‘Mahishasuramardhini Durga’ in one of the niche, on the left inner side of eastern gopuram. Look at her
hands…. where are they gone ??? … How beautifully the demon, Mahisha is sculpted! one can see the fear on his face….

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Inner right side of Eastern Gopuram – In the niches on top row (from left), Virabhadra, Lord Siva with Parvati,
Ganga and Lord Brahma on his legs, Lord Vishnu and finally, Siva with Parvati.

Ornamentations: A typical new Chola feature, that is different from the Pallava, is the famed
ornamentation of temple walls. This consists in the use of real deep niches with entablatures.
These niches, the Devakushtas (niches to house deities), flanked by demi pilasters, appear on
wall surfaces of Chola temples. The decoration, in most finished examples, alternates between
the various niche devices of koshtapanjaras and Kumbhapanjaras. Space is narrow in these forms
but the decoration is more rounded. The pilasters of these niches are crowned by a curved roof
moulding adorned by two kudus with crowning lion heads. The bases of these decorative devices
have makara (motif based on the mythical sea monster) and warrior heads.

Moving on to the eastern entrance to the third prakara or courtyard, a Yagam was going on in the
nearby pillared mandapa or hall…. you can see the Deekshitars or Thillai muvayravar in this
scene…

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Today there are around 360 families of Deekshithars who are conducting the rituals and are also
the beneficiaries of the temple. But they are unable to maintain it so many things are going away.
All the vegetable dye paintings on the ceiling, which are a thousand years old are almost sixty
percent gone. The plaster has fallen off and there is nobody for upkeep. And unknowingly, they
have put up concrete structures here and there in this hundred percent stone temple because of
which the aesthetics and the dynamics of the temple are badly disturbed.

Coming to the eastern entrance of second prakaram …. two interesting designs caught our
attention…. one, on the floor and the other, on the ceiling…

MANDALAS/ A lotus design, made out of granite, found in front of the eastern entrance in second prakaram. Another
design of a lotus motif with a bud at its centre, found on the ceiling in front of the eastern entrance. How
elegantly they are sculpted, with such perfection !

Reaching near the entrance to inner third prakara, the most disturbing and annoying thing came
to my notice. A saddened moment for a photographer …. can you guess it ??? Yeah ! Its
about restriction of photography….

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The Eastern entrance to the third prakaram of Thillai Nataraja temple – Photography is allowed
only up to this mark. Beyond this, it is strictly banned. A moment for both happiness and sadness
in this journey. For an explorer, this will be the most exciting moment, going in to the world of
masterpieces. For a photographer, a saddened moment because of the restriction, that prevails
inside.

Main edifices of the temple are the five Sabhas or Halls: the Cit Sabha, Kanaka Sabha, Deva
Sabha, Nritta Sabha, and the Raja Sabha. At the centre of the temple is situated the sanctum
sanctorum or holy of holiest, called the Chit Sabha or Chit Ambalam. This means the ‘Hall of
Wisdom’. It is the main shrine where Lord Nataraja accompanied by his consort Parvati
performs His Cosmic Dance, the Ananda Tandava or Dance of Bliss.

The world is the embodiment of the Virat Purusha, the colossal human form. Chidambaram is
the centre of this form, the place of the heart, where Siva performs the Cosmic Dance.
Chidambaram temple is laid out as a Purusha. For this reason the devotees may approach the

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 central shrine from two sides. As blood flows to and from the heart. The nine stupas or finals
topping the golden roof represent the nine orifices of the human body, and also symbolize the
nine Matrikas or goddesses. The roof is made of 21.600 tiles, representing inhalations and
exhalations of breath. The links and side joints symbolize the connecting veins.

The golden roof is made of 22600 tiles representing the number of breaths of a human being on a
day, and fixed with 72,000 golden nails representing the 72,000 visible and invisible nerves of a
human body! The roof is having 9 ornamental conic heads (Kalasas), representing the nine
gateways or holes in a human body. There are five courtyards, representing five sheaths of a
human body, kosas. The four gopurams, together with the golden dome of the central shrine are
the five towers which represent the five faces of Shiva, with the Chit Sabha symbolizing the
masterful face.

The five main steps at the entrance to the shrine stand between the devotees and the image of
Siva, covered in silver – ‘Panchakshara’. They are the five seed words or syllables of the
mantra, ‘ Shi Va YA Na Ma ‘. By chanting these syllables, the devotee can cross the ocean of
bondage and attain to the Lord. The granite plinth of the shrine is called Parvadam, because it
does duty for Mount Kailasa in providing a support for Lord Siva. On all special occasions puja
or worship is performed to this plinth. The name, Hall of Consciousness or Hall of Wisdom,
refers to the quality of wisdom which pervades the atmosphere, bestowed upon the worshippers
by the Dance of the Lord. His boon is the experience of the Cosmic Dance.

A unique feature is that the structure of the actual Sabha is made of wood, which has so far not
been botanically classified. It is rectangular in form and here Siva is worshipped in his three
aspects:

 As Form – Nataraja the murti or image of Siva

 As Formless-form – The crystal linga called Chandramaulishvara
 As Formless – The yantra which is the Akasha Linga

From the platform opposite the Sabha one can see the image of the Dancing Siva, situated in the
middle of the it. Siva is facing south, unlike most other Hindu deities. This signifies he is the
Conqueror of Death, dispelling the fear of death for the humanity.

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The Crystal Linga called Chandramaulishvara is Siva as Formless-Form. Crystal Linga was
formed from the essence of the crescent moon in Siva’s matted hair, for the purpose of daily
worship. This murti is taken from its keeping place at the feet of the Nataraja six times a day, and
abhishekam of holy ablution is performed to him in the hall called Kanaka Sabha in front of the
Chit Sabha.

Immediately to the proper right of the Nataraja is the Chidambaram Rahasyam, the ‘mystery’ of
Chidambaram. Here, behind a silk curtain which is black on the outside and red on the inside, is
the Akasha Linga, in the form of a yantra. An abstract geometrical design, on which the deity is
invoked. Behind the curtain, before the yantra, hang a few strands of golden vilva leaves. This
signifies the act of creation. One moment nothing exists, the next instant the All has been
brought into existence. At regular timings the curtain is removed to allow the devotees to
worship the Akasha – the Ether which is the vehicle of the Absolute and Consciousness.

The Chit Sabha houses one more unique form of Siva. This is the Ratna Sabha Pati, the Ruby
Lord of the Sabha: a replica of the Nataraja murti in ruby form. This murti appeared out of the
fire of the sacrifice in response to the devotion of the Deekshithars. Once a day, as part of the
10.00 o’clock morning puja ritual, after the abhishekam of the Crystal Linga, abhishekam is also
performed to the Ruby Siva. As conclusion of this ceremony the Ruby Nataraja is placed on the
edge of the Parvadam of the Kanaka Sabha and Mangala Arati is offered (burning of camphor on
a special plate which is shown both in front and behind the Ruby Nataraja). This brings out the
special quality of translucence of this murti, creating a mystical spectacle for the onlookers.

Nobody knows when the worship of Nataraja was established here, or when the Chit Sabha was
build. The original wooden structure is doubtless the oldest structure in the temple complex, as
the shrine of the Mulasthana Linga is a later construction under the Chola Kings. The Sabha has
no features that could help to date it. It is unique and no other structure is known like it anywhere
else in Indian architecture. Analysis by the C 14 method (Carbon dating) would be unreliable
because it is known to have been regularly renovated during the centuries. But the origins of the
temple of Siva’s Nataraja in Chidambaram definitely lie back in prehistoric times.

Immediately in front of the Chit Sabha is the Kanaka Sabha, or Golden hall. Its roof is made of
copper, although Kanaka means gold. This is the gold of spiritual treasure: to experience Shiva’s

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dance from so near. In this Sabha are most of the daily rituals of worship for Nataraja performed.
The Yagna of the morning rituals. Rituals with lamps and ritual objects. And the abhishekam of
the Crystal Linga and Ruby Nataraja. The public can enter certain areas of the Kanaka Sabha for
worship of the Nataraja and the Akasha Linga at specified hours of the day. It is a controversy
whether this Sabha was originally constructed together with the Chit Sabha, or some time later.

The copper plated roof of Kanaka Sabha with nine Kalasas or finals.

In the innermost courtyard, at a right angle with the golden Sabha, we find the shrine of Vishnu,
as Govinda Raja. Reclining on the Cosmic Snake (Shesha), he is in the yogic state of
consciousness, enjoying the vision of Shiva’s dance. The coexistence of the worship of both
Vishnu and Shiva within one temple is unique. The worship of Vishnu was established in the
earliest times and was originally performed by the Deekshithars themselves. In the later medieval
period, with a shifting political situation under pressure of Muslim invasions, there was possibly
a discontinuation of the worship for a
long period, after which it re-instated by the king Achyuta Raya (1539) of the Vijayanangara
empire. The worship of Vishnu Govinda Raja has since then been in the hands of Vaishnava
priests, and was no longer performed by the Deekshithars.

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Within the inner courtyard, to the east of the Sabha, we find a small shrine which houses the
murtis of both the Creator God Brahma, of the Hindy Trinity, and Chandikeshvara, a deified
saint. The presence of Brahma (a deity almost never worshipped) establishes the worship of all
three deities of the Hindu Trinity with-in the
one complex.

Next one, we are going to experience is the Nritta Sabha. Here the shrine is in the form of
a Ratha or Chariot, pulled by two stone horses. It is situated opposite the Chit Sabha, in the third
courtyard. It is the place of the dance contest between Nataraja and the goddess Kali. Siva
conquered the goddess, who would not calm down after she destroyed a powerful demon, by
lifting his right leg straight up towards the sky. This dance is called the Urdhva Tandava. Then
and there Kali suddenly remembered who she really was, the peaceful Parvati, consort of Siva,
and she was able to leave her furious mood and returned to her peaceful self. This scene is
depicted in the sanctum inside the Sabha. We see here, Siva performing his Urdhva Tandava, his
leg lifted straight above his head, Kali calmed down in one corner, both accompanied by Vishnu
playing the Talam, the instrument which is used to accompany dance. The chariot form of the
Sabha commemorates Siva as Tripurasamhara murti, the Destroyer of the Three Demon Cities.
Several divine powers joined together to create Siva’s chariot. Thus the sun and moon became
the wheels, the Vedas the horses etc.

After destroying the Three Cities, the Lord descended from His chariot, having landed opposite
the Chit Sabha, and ascended into the Sabha to commence His Dance. From this the Nritta Sabha
is also called Edir Amabalam or opposite hall. This Sabha has several distinguishing features
aside from its shape and its function. Its columns are unique to the chariot hall. They are square,
and although carved from the hardest granite they are covered with exquisite miniature relief’s,
depicting dancers, musicians and all kinds of mythological figures.

One other feature sets this edifice apart from any other hall within the temple complex and from
all other temple halls in India. This Sabha is mysteriously connected to the Sphinx (is a mythical
creature with the head of a human and the body of a lion). Just under the floor surface of the
raised platform which is the body of the Sabha is a belt or pattika, surrounding the whole Sabha.
Here we see lions and sphinxes alternating in pairs, girdling the Sabha. Also the pillars of the

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two pavilions on the western side of the Sabha are supported by four sphinxes which function as
caryatids (Draped female figures).

Nritta Sabha is considered by tradition the second oldest building in the complex, without any
real indication of its age. It is reported in inscriptions as having been renovated by the Chola
King Kulottunga I in the 11th century.

The Deva Sabha can be found in the third prakara or courtyard. The festival deities are kept
during the year, and worship is performed for them daily. This is done inside the Sabha, and is
not open to the public. The age and history of this Sabha is also hidden in the mists of time.
There is some evidence the Deva Sabha was once used as an audience hall by visiting kings of
the different governing dynasties of the Cholas, Pandyas and others during the several phases of
history. No other information is available.

Altogether, the inside views are so fascinating to the eyes and beyond our imaginaton. Visuals of
highly intricated, massive pillars, modern era paintings at the top on ceilings, stunning
architecture of the main sabhas (some works have to be related with the Vijayanagara style (14th
– 16th century)), thrilling golden roof of Chit-sabha etc are very interesting.
The South Gopuram of Chidambaram temple….

The surviving South Gopuram called the Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was constructed by
a Pandya king identified from the presence of the dynasty’s fish emblem sculpted on the ceiling. The Pandyas
sculpted two fishes facing each other when they completed gopurams (and left it with one fish, in case it was

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 incomplete).///Another artwork found on the Suthern Gopuram include Chandesha, Ganapati, Vishnu,
Sridevi (Lakshmi), several Devis, Brahma, Saraswati, Surya, Chandra, Durga, Indra, Agni, several rishis,
Ganga and Yamuna goddesses, Kama and Rati, Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada, Pantanjali,
Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several
forms of dancing and standing Shiva such as Pashupata, Kiratarjuna and Lingobhava, as well as others.

Near to this Southern gopuram, Mukkuruni Vinayagar temple is located in the southwest
corner….

Superstructure or Vimana of Mukkurini Vinayagar temple – An example of present day temple architecture existing
south india with the use of numerous painted frescoes and anthropomorphic figure panels of deities. How many
deities can you seen ???

From there, we can see the earliest gopuram of the all four, the one made by the Chola
kings, The Western Gopuram of Chidambaram temple….

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 Artwork found on the Western gopuram include Surya, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi),
Tripurasundari, Brahma, Saraswati, Varuna, Durga, Agni, several rishis, Yamuna goddess, Kama and Rati,
Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada and Agastya, Pantanjali, Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half
Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms of dancing Shiva and others. Similar
ones like all others.

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The relief showing Skanda (Lord Subrahmanya) sitting on His mount, the Peacock and dressed up for war. Here, Skanda
is ten-armed.Ancient Sankrit inscriptions in Grantha script, found on the western entrance into the third prakaram or
courtyard.

Its a shame, if one mentions Lord Siva without mentioning His loving consort, Goddess Parvathi.
Likewise, there is a temple for Goddess Shivakamasundari, consort of Siva, situated on the west
side of the Shivaganga tank. A flight of steps leads down into its courtyard. The goddess is
worshipped here as the Jñana Shakti: the energy and power of wisdom. On the frontal portion of
the pillared hall, on the ceiling of the right and left wings, the finest eye-capturing fresco
paintings of approximately a thousand years old, illustrate the Leelas or Sacred Deeds of Siva.

Sivakamasundari Amman temple is under maintenance…

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The galleries surrounding the temple are decorated with a procession of dancers and musicians,
sculptured in relief. This temple was possibly build in the 11th century under the Chola king
Kulottunga I.

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 Inside of Sivakamasundari Amman temple – 17th century paintings of Nayaka period found on
the ceilings of its Mukhamandapa.

In the north side of Chidambaram temple, one can see the sacred ‘Sivaganga Pool’ …. Most
of the infamous shots of the Nataraja temple, Chidambaram are really originated from here…. Its
time for me to achieve something like that….

Marvellous view of the Sacred Sivaganga Pool or water tank. Its the same Lotus pond, which
mentions in the Chidambaram Legend. It is famous for healing the ancient king Sveta Varman of
his skin disease. His skin became golden after which he was called Hiranya Varman.
In this tank we find a stone representation of the Linga of Tiruvanaikaval, which represents the
Element Water. In the dry season it becomes visible as the water level in the tank is reduced.

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 View of the Northern Gopuram with its reflection on the sacred Sivaganga Pool…. Splendid !

Close view of the Northern Gopuram – The last built one, among the four gopurams of Chidambaram and was
completed by Vijayanagara Empire. Presence of Vaulted – barrel roofs with 13 finals or Kalasas, Kirthimukhas
(Swallowing fierce monster faces with huge fangs and gaping mouth) placed at all four cardinal directions.
Architecture is similar to the other three major gopurams of Chidambaram.

You can see an elongated massive hall to the east of Sivaganga pool …. Its name is
Raja Sabha or 1000 Pillared Hall…..

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The Raja Sabha or 1000 Pillar hall – Now, kept closed. This hall can be accessed only, during festival times.

The Raja Sabha is the Thousand Pillar Hall in the second courtyard. It is the architectural representation of
the Sahasradara, or Crown Chakra. Which is the seventh spiritual energy point in the astral body. The
Nataraja and the goddess Sivakamasundari, his consort, dance here on the 9th and 10th day of the Chariot
Festival.

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It is first mentioned as the place where the medieval poet Sekkilar premiered his great work on
the lives of the 63 Nayanmars or Saiva saints, the Periya Purana, before the Chola king
Kulottunga II or III, in the 12th century.

Interesting images of two elephants (not monolithic ones) with their trainers, found on the either sides of
Mukhamandapa, placed in front of the Raja Sabha or 1000 pillar hall. It looks like the elephants are trying to
pull this enormous Raja Sabha….

The base of Raja Sabha is encircled by relief’s of dancers and musicians, as it were participating in a procession.

Its been four long hours, since we had done our breakfast from one of the nearby vegetarian
hotel. I was totally famished at this time…. So, needed a proper lunch to satisfy my stomach.

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Thankfully, there were free offerings of food, daily, for devotees, from the temple
administration. Felt like a boon, granted by the Lord for our efforts. It was a good traditional
Brahmin meal and really enjoyed myself, having it.

Time to say goodbye to this infamous Nataraja temple (a unique one in entire South India) and
move onto the next destination. Its a place where one gets enlightened, both physically and
mentally. A place where Creativity meets the Divine. The Divine grace transforms our
consciousness in to a superior level, beyond our imagination. A moment of realization about the
ignorance living inside us. And His ‘Dance of Bliss’ can clear this ignorance and bring the
eternal happiness.

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 CHAPTER IX

Other Living CHOLA Temples

As mentioned earlier, the next destination on our list was Gangaikonda Cholapuram, situated 45
kms to the southwest of Chidambaram, in the Udayarpalayam taluk of Ariyalur district, Tamil
Nadu. The nearest railway station is at Kumbakonam and Ariyalur. But, the simplest way to
reach Cholapuram is by road, with the help of state transport and private buses. You need to
travel via Kaattumannarkudi or kovil, which is 27 kms from Chidambaram. From there, local
buses and auto rickshaws are available at reasonable rates, to cover the final 17 kms. Locally,
Gangaikonda Cholapuram is known as Jayakondam (please, remember this). So, lets know more
about the Cholapuram temple …..

Cholas had become the greatest power in South India by 10th century CE. They had reached the
borders of the Rashtrakuta kingdom in the north. Rows of temples were built on both the banks
of the river Cauvery to mark their growing power. Cholas greatly made use of art to proclaim
their power, used temples to make unequivocal statements about their political hegemony. The
Great Chola King, Rajaraja I, crowned in 985, carved out an overseas empire by establishing a
second capital at Pollonaruva in Sri Lanka. The Brihadeeswara (Big temple of Thanjavur), built
by him (995 – 1010) at his capital Thanjavur, though he did not live to see it completed is a
product of this success. Temple inscriptions make clear the triumphal nature of the edifice.

Just a couple of years after Rajaraja I built the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, his proud
son Rajendra I (1012 – 1044 AD) became the Chola ruler. Rajendra ruled jointly alongside his
father, until the latter’s death in 1016 AD. Having served as a general under his father, Rajendra
was an accomplished warrior who led many successful military expeditions. He had his army
march northwards, all the way to the Ganga, to bring home pots of holy water from the river.
Defeating enemy armies along the way, his men returned victorious, earning Rajendra the
title ‘Gangaikondachola’, meaning ‘the Chola who conquered the Ganges’.

He established a new capital city called Gangaikondacholapuram (also called

Gangaikondacholeshwaram) about 70 km from Thanjavur, and had a royal temple by the same

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name built in it. The temple is commonly called the Brihadisvara Temple now (the one we are
going to explore). Rajendra also built a lake in the town called Cholagangam to mark his
victorious expedition. It was fed by the Cauvery river, and some water from the holy river,
Ganga was poured into it as well. Today, people call it Ponneri lake.

Front view of the Glorious east facing Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is the pinnacle of the achievements of Rajendra I, the mighty
Chola King, who established his new capital here with the magnificent city and temple dedicated
to Lord Siva. The temple is massive and richly carved with sculptures. The architecture has
complex carvings on the hard granite stones unlike the customary simple style of the Cholas. The
sculptures that adorn the walls and ceilings of Gangaikonda Cholapuram are exquisite.The
temple is famed for its bronze sculptures, artwork on its walls, the depiction of Nandi and the
scale of its tower. As well as its notability for having been built by Rajendra I, the temple is also
noteworthy for its numerous inscriptions, although none of them are his.

History of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram

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The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is smaller yet more refined than the Thanjavur Big
temple. Because of its delicate appearance and gentle curve, this temple is often called the
feminine version of the one in Thanjavur. The temple was constructed in 1035 AD by Rajendra
Chola I. Some experts believe that the temple was built during 1020, during the 6th regnal year,
but inscriptions indicate the 20th regnal year, which is 1035 AD. Rajendra wanted to emulate the
temple built by his father after his victory in a campaign across India that Chola era texts state
covered Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Bengal. After his victory, he demanded that the
defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and pour them into the temple’s well. The
well was originally called Cholagangam as it was filled with water from Ganges.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram remained the Chola capital for the next 250 years. Rajendra I built the
entire capital with several temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in Tamil Vastu
and Agama Sastra texts. These included a Dharma Sasta, Vishnu and other temples. However,
these structures were destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries except this temple. The other
Chola landmarks, clearly shown by soil covered mounds and excavated broken pillar stumps and
brick walls, are found over a large area nearby. The earliest inscription that mentions this city by
name is dated 1029, while the earliest reference to Rajendra I’s expedition towards the Ganges
river in the north is dated 1023. The first gift to the newly built Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple
is dated 1035. Rajendra I, must have involved the same craftsmen used by his father and
transferred them from Thanjavur. Archaeological excavations have revealed fort walls and
palace remains a few kilometers from this temple. It is believed that Kulothunga Chola I,
Rajendra’s successor, built fortifications around the city.

The reasons for the city’s destruction are unclear. The Pandyas who defeated the Cholas during
the later part of 13th-century “may have razed the city to ground” to avenge their previous
defeats. However, it is unclear why other temples were destroyed and this temple was spared, as
well as why there are around twenty inscriptions from later Cholas, Pandyas and Vijayanagar
Empires indicating various gifts and grants to this temple if they previously razed this place. An
alternative theory links the destruction to the raids, plunder and wars, particularly with the
invasion of the capital city and the territories, that were earlier a part of the Chola and Madurai
Empires, by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate led by the army commander Malik Kafur in 1311,
followed by Khusrau Khan in 1314, and Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1327. The period that

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followed saw many wars from the Delhi Sultanate and they carved out new states such as the
nearby Madurai Sultanate (1335–1378). The Vijayanagara Empire defeated the Madurai
Sultanate in 1378 and this temple, along with other Chola era temples, then returned to the
control of South Indian kings who repaired and restored many of them. The temple was added to
the list of Great Living Chola Temples in the year 2004.

According to available evidences, the last Chola, King Rajendra Chola III’s rule did not end due
to defeats in war. There are signs of some devastation that hint at some major catastrophe that
happened around Gangaikondacholapuram which brought to an end the Chola rule. The temple,
unfortunately, was looted several times. It was also used as a garrison and fortified cantonment
by the Pandyas and later on by the British as well.

Floor Plan of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram

Though the temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram follows the plan of the great temple of
Thanjavur in most details it has an individuality of its own. From the remains it may be seen that
it had only one enclosure wall and a gopuram while the Thanjavur temple has two gopurams and

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enclosures. The prakara follows the Thanjavur lay-out in that it had a two storeyed cloister
running all around. Only a part of this has survived in the north. The stones from the other
portions were utilized to build the Lower Anaicut across the
Kollidam, during British rule in 18th century. The pillars of cut stone are severely plain
throughout as in Thanjavur.

Second session of Day 2 – Exploring the Great Living Brihadisvara temple, Gangaikondam :

Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple of Lord Shiva is really grand and is

regarded as the reproduction of Brihadeeswara temple built by Rajaraja Chola, father of Rajendra
Chola I. It surpasses the Thanjavur Big temple sculpture as, by the time it was built, Chola
sculptors and artisans had perfected the art of temple architecture. It is a tribute to the
magnificent architects and artisans.

As one steps in, the great Sri Vimana (superstructure) arrests the visitor’s sight. The Vimana
with its recessed corners and upward movement presents a striking contrast to the straight-sided
pyramidal tower of Thanjavur but with octagon shape of Dravidian architecture. As it rises to a
height of 182 feet (55 m) and is 9m shorter than the Thanjavur tower (as a mark of respect to his
father’s masterpiece) with larger plinth, it is often described as the feminine counterpart of the
Thanjavur temple.

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(Welcome Scene) Front view of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram – The temple is approached
through the eastern entrance from the road. The entrance is called the
“Mahaduvar” leads to the inner court. This Temple is renowned for having a
four-meter-high Lingam, one of the biggest Sivalingam in South India. Interestingly,
to provide a private worship area for the royal family, the sanctum is
encircled with two walls.

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Mahaduvar – Entrance tower in east, has only basement portion: the superstructure is completely
fallen down. The stones from this ruined gopuram were used for the construction of the lower
Anaicut dam across the nearby Kollidam river. On
plan, the whole edifice forms a rectangle approximately 60 feet by 33 feet. Large dvarapalas with
7 ft height, were placed on the outer facade.

A Flag post or Dvaja Sthamba is placed in front of the temple, near the eastern entrance….

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Flag Post or Dvaja Sthamba of Brihadisvara temple – Having a height of 40 ft and is plated with brass, recently.
Look at the design works ! they are similar to the art works of modern day flag posts, seen in many other south
indian temples.

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In this Flag mast, there are four images sculpted in the cardinal directions. The images are, Siva-Parvathi facing
east, Nandi facing west, Lord Karthikeya facing north and Lord Ganesha facing south.

In front of the flag mast, one can see a “Couchant Bull” facing west, towards the main sanctum

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Nandi Statue (Couchant Bull) – The loyal mount of Lord Siva, constructed using bricks and lime, placed in front of
the Mahamandapa, which leads to the main sanctum.

This Nandi statue is 15 feet in length, 8 feet in breadth and 11 feet in height. It is not known whether the
original one was monolithic. A Bali pitha is found on east of Nandi.

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A mythical monster face, found below the neck, on the torso of Nandi statue. Looks like a Chinese art work …. isn’t it ?
Can this be identified as an example of ancient cultural exchanges ? Just look at his face…. How calm and how proud he
is ! Guarding his Lord without any inhibition….
The building to the north of Nandi, called Alankara mandapa, and now housing the executive
office of the temple was in all probability constructed in the 19th century. On the northeast
corner of the temple complex, you can see a circular well adorned with a lion structure at the
entrance…. “Simhakeni”

“Singhamukha Kinaru” (Lion-faced well) – The lion-faced entrance to the well has a flight of steps leading to
the water level. An inscription on the sculpture (in the bottom part of left side) in the 19th CE characters
records that it was constructed by Zamindar of Udiyarpalaiyam.

Huge Circular well situated to the right side of Lion-faced well. After his victory (Ganges
conquest), Rajendra Chola demanded that the defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and pour
them into this temple well.

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 Viewing the Great Sri Vimana from the Lion’s perspective….

The superb architecture of the temple boasts of a 9 storey Vimanam that extends to the height of
185 feet. Not less than 54.86m in height, the temple structure follows the style of
Thanjavur big temple. Whole temple is thrived with rich and intricate carvings that are exclusive
to Chola style of artistry. Known to comprise a little northern style, the structure embraces
intricate carvings in the Vimanam. The colossal shrine also addresses several significant bronzes
of the Chola age.

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Incredible piece of architecture, isn’t it ? Archeological Survey of India has renovated the Srivimana and painted it
beautifully
after the chemical cleaning. The sight of the Srivimana from this second entrance is magnificent and beautiful.

The structural difference of this Srivimana with that of Rajaraja-I’s Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur is that; this
Srivimana is of feminine structure and the Thanjavur Srivimana as masculine in nature. The main difference, that is obvious,
is this Srivimana has 8 sided (Octagonal) in structure and Thanjavur Srivimana has 4 sided (Quadragonal) in structure.

Top view of the Sri Vimana -The neck is provided with four niches in the cardinal directions and
bulls at the corners. The niches are topped by arch-like embellishment called kirtimukhas. The
globular element on the top called Sikhara is according to tradition, made of one stone weighing
many stones. But, in fact, it is made of many pieces of cut stones dressed for the purpose, as may
be seen from the portion where the plaster has fallen down. The final, stupi is a metal vase
(Kalasa) with a lotus-bud design at the top. It is gilded with gold and is said to carry an
inscription named after Nallakka-tola-udayar, a Poligar of Udayarpalaiyam. It is not known
whether the stupi is the original one and probably gilded by the Poligar or is a new one gifted by
him.

The main temple consists of a sanctum tower called Sri Vimana or Sri Koil, a big rectangular
mandapa called the mahamandapa with an intervening vestibule called mukhamandapa. The
front entrance to the great mandapa is approached by steps from north and south. As the flooring

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of the mandapa is on a high elevation, the steps rise to a considerable height forming a high
platform in the front. It is said that there is a subterranean passage with steps under this platform.
Some claim that this passage leads to the royal palace, while others assert that it leads to the river
Kollidam. Yet a third tradition says that it leads to an underground treasury wherein invaluable
properties belonging to the temple are preserved. None in the living memory has set foot on this
passage for fear of darkness, poisonous gas and wasps. It is not unlikely that the empty
underground space below the great mandapa and the space between the steps were utilized as
store houses.

Inner view of the elongated Mahamandapa – Photography is banned inside of it.

So let me explain the inside of this structure, The Mahamandapa. If the original mahamandapa
had been preserved, it would have retained the grandeur of its conception and beauty. But as it is,
only the portion up to the main base is original. The side walls, the pillars and the ceilings have
been reconstructed; probably in the 18th century AD. Obviously the superstructure should have
crumbled due to neglect and vegetation. However a part of the original has survived up to the
ceiling at the western end. From the surviving portion it may be seen, the roof (prastara) of the
mahamandapa was in level with the prastara of the ground floor (adi bhumi) of the main Vimana.

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Like the walls of the main Vimana, a horizontal cornice divides the outer walls of the
mahamandapa into two parts. They carry a series of niches both in the upper and lower courses.

A scene at the southwest corner of the Mahamandapa – Sculptures of King Rajendra Chola I and
his consort Queen Tribhuvanamadevi, decorated with crystal ornaments. (This space is closed
with metal grills due to security reasons)

As mentioned earlier, the adibhumi of the main Vimana has two floors inside the sandhara
passage (the intervening passage), the intervening cornice forming the intermediate floor level.
The mahamandapa should have been a two storeyed pavilion, quite fitting with the mahaprasada

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of the temple. In view of the tall dvarapalas guarding the entrance to the mukhamandapa, the
central passage should have had only the upper ceiling without the intermediate flooring. Thus
the central passage was flanked by two storeyed structures, resembling the storeyed cloister of
the enclosure. It would have presented a most spectacular sight when the deities were taken out
in procession through the mahamandapa.

As it stands today the inner side of the mandapa has a central passage, leading from the front to
the sanctum flanked by two raised platforms and a passage running around. Two massive
dvarapalas are noticed at the western and guarding the entrance to the mukhamandapa. A few
sculptures and bronzes receiving regular worship are on the northern platform. The north eastern
corner houses an interesting solar altar, now worshipped as Navagraha (nine planets).

Moving on to The Main Sanctum of Gangaikondam Brihadisvara temple…..

The sanctum enshrining the main deity is encased by an inner wall. Between the inner wall and
the outer, there is an intervening passage-called sandhara running all around. The two walls are
joined at the top by a series of corbelling. They are provided to support the massive super-
structure. No painting is noticed in the inner passage. The inner sanctum houses a very big Siva
Linga, rising to a height of thirteen feet. It is said to be one of the biggest Siva Linga enshrined in
a sanctum in any South Indian temple. The entrance to the sanctum is guarded by massive
doorkeepers, dvarapalas. The mandapa immediately preceding the sanctum is approached by
steps leading to it from the north and the south sides and also from the great mandapa in the east.
The entrances are guarded by big dvarapalas (15 ft high) of astonishing beauty….

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 Remarkable view of Two Dvaraplas (15 ft high), guarding the northern entrance to the
Ardhamandapa, preceding the main sanctum. They are showing the ‘ Thatva concept ‘ of
Hinduism. Tiger emblem of Chola dynasty is shown between their legs.

Similar view of Two Dvaraplas (15 ft high), guarding the northern entrance to the
Ardhamandapa, preceding the main sanctum. They are showing the ‘ Thatva concept ‘ of
Hinduism.

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The mandapa is supported by massive plain and square pillars. The eastern walls flanking the
opening to the great mandapa carry groups of small sculptures illustrating Shaivite themes. The
following are the themes thus represented;

(On top) The episode of Ravana travelling in his chariot; shaking the Kailasa Mountain; Siva
seated with Uma, pressing the mountain with his toe; Ravana’s anguish under the weight of the
mountain and finally Siva bestowing boons on Ravana, are depicted in three panels. (On the
middle) The second episode on the same wall depicts Vishnu, worshipping Siva with 1008 lotus
flowers; finding one short he plucks his own eye and offers it as a flower; Siva bestows grace on
Vishnu.

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 The panels closer to the entrance depict the marriage of Siva with Uma. Uma, the daughter of
Himavan, desirous of marrying Siva, undertakes austerities and worships Siva; Siva, after testing
her steadfastness as a beautiful youth, marries her; the celestials witness the marriage; Brahma,
the creator offers oblation to the sacrificial fire and Vishnu gives Uma in marriage to Siva.

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The east wall close to the entrance on the northern side depicts the Kiratarjuna scene; Arjuna the
Pandava hero performs austerities to obtain a Pasupata weapon; Siva as a hunter accompanied by
Uma as a huntress, tests Arjuna’s devotion; picks up a quarrel with Arjuna over a kill; Arjuna
not knowing the personality behind the hunter, enters into a duel with him and is ultimately
vanquished; Siva manifesting himself bestows the weapon.

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At the extreme north of the same side are portrayed two episodes, one representing Siva quelling
the pride of God of death, in order to protect his devotee, Markhandeya and the other
representing Saint Chandikeswara a great devotee of Siva, cutting off the leg of his father, who
disturbed his faith and Siva bestowing grace on both father and son.

Though these group sculptures are carefully selected, they are imperfectly finished and lack the
beauty and elegance of the sculptures of the main tower.

Coming to the outside from the main sanctum through northern entrance of the Ardhamandapa,
you can see, one of the famous scenes sculpted in this Brihadisvara temple complex (near the
Dvarapala on the left side wall)….

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Majestically seated Lord Siva’s lower right hand garlands the head of Chandesvara, while the
left upper hand holding the end of a flower garland tying it round the head of Chandesvara:
upper right hand holds axe (Parasu), while the lower left hand not visible might be holding deer.
Chandesvara is piously seated in worshipping (anjali) posture with folded hands. Bhuthaganas
are seen behind the God. Devi is seen seated near the God. It is suggested that the King Rajendra
himself has carved his own image (his coronation scene) and shown his benevolence to Lord
Siva. The art historians regards this sculpture as the masterpiece of this period.

Facing towards Chandeshanugrahamurthi, on the west wall, is the figure of Saraswathi, the
Goddess of Knowledge. She is seen seated on a lotus throne with four arms; holding a rossary of

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beads and an amrita kalasa in the upper arms and a palm leaf and Chinmudra pose in the lower
ones; behind her is shown a prabha, aureole.

On the northern side of Brihadisvara temple complex…….

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Splendid view of the Northern entrance to the Ardhamandapa, preceding the main sanctum. Two
15 ft Dvarapalas, Chandeshanugrahamurthi and Goddess Saraswathi are the interesting visuals in
here.

South facing Chandikesvara Temple (near the northern entrance) – The little temple to the north-
east of the central shrine enshrining Chandikesvara, the steward of Siva . It is an all stone temple
built on a raised basement, with a storeyed
superstructure. The sanctum is approached by side steps. Inside the sanctum is an image of
Chandikesvara, coeval with the temple. The outer walls of this sanctum have niches on all the
three sides, carrying sculptures of Chandikesvara. He is the principal subsidiary deity in
Siva temples and till about 13th century AD. All transactions relating to the temple were made in
his name. Hence a separate shrine is provided for him in the temple complex.

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Superstructure of Chandikesvara temple with a Lotus bud shaped circular Shikhara and A stupi
or final (Kalasa) made out of brass at the top. Presence of Kirthimukhas and Nandi at four
cardinal directions.

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East facing Mahishasuramardhini Shrine – To the west of the lion-well is a shrine dedicated to
the Goddess, Mahishasuramardhini. The shrine is a later structure (probably built in 14 -15th
Century) and did not form part of the original layout. It consists of a sanctum preceded by a
mandapa. The Goddess installed in the sanctum is similar to a Durga found at Virareddi street, in
the same village and is in all likelihood, Chalukyan in origin.

‘Brihanayaki Amman Temple’ (Northern Kailasa) – To the north of the main temple is a small
shrine now housing the Goddess, Brihannayaki, the consort of Lord Gangaikonda Cholesvara.
The temple resembles the southern kailasa in every aspect and is called Uttara Kailasa. It has a
sanctum, preceded by a front mandapa, provided with side-steps. In front of this is a bigger
mandapa (mahamandapa), which is well preserved, unlike its southern counterpart. The Vanni
tree seen on the bottom left is the Thalavirutcham or Sthala Vriksha of this temple.

Two gatekeepers flank the entrance. In front of the gatekeepers, in the mahamandapa, are images
of Saraswati in the north and Gajalakshmi in the south. One of the Dvarapalas is shown here…..

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One of the Dvarapalas inside Brihanayaki Amman temple, flanking the entrance to main
sanctum.

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North side of Brihanayaki Amman temple – The niches on the sanctum and the front mandapa
carry Ganesha, Nataraja, Bhikshatana, Subrahmanya, Dakshinamurthi, Lingodhbhava, Brahma,
Bhairava, Ardhanari, Durga, and Gauriprasada are noticed in order, from the south.

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 “Ardhanareesvara” – A standing figure in tribhanga pose with three arms; two are in the right
side and one in the left; the upper right holds a parasu, while the lower right rests on the head of
a bull standing beside Him. Left arm holding a flower, Nilotpal and a parrot is seen pecking the
pollen. The right side of the head is adorned with a jatamakuta and the left with a kesabandha.
A lion pendent ear ring is seen on the right ear while a roll or pendent is seen in the left ear. A
parasol above and a fly whisk on the either side are shown. The breast is shown on the left
emphasizing the feminine aspect. The left side wears a sari extending up to the knee. Right part
wears the tiger skin. Both masculine firmness and feminine tenderness visualized in the same
face which is the salient of this sculpture.

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A sculpture of Bearded Brahma – Four armed standing three headed (the fourth head at the back
not being visible) and bearded figure of Brahma standing erect position; holding sruk and sruva
(sacrificial ladles and spoons for pouring oblations of ghee) in the upper right arm and a rosary
of beads in the lower right; a bunch of dharbha grass in the upper left and lower left is placed on
His thigh.

It is significant that the mahamandapa of this Amman temple has steps to it, only on the side. In
ancient times, steps were always provided on the sides and not in front of the sanctum. The
beautiful image of Goddess now enshrined in the sanctum of this temple should be a later
installation. Originally the temple should have enshrined a Siva Linga, like the southern Kailasa.
Though separate shrines of Goddesses came to be built in the main temples only from the reign
of Rajendra I, no Devi-shrine was built originally in this temple, the present one being clearly a
later institution.

Back to the details about Great Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara….

According to architectural treatises, basements (upa-pithas) are introduced in temples to increase

the height of the main tower; to add to structural stability and to make the temple tower
majestic.That these purposes are magnificently fulfilled by the basement of Gangaikonda
Cholapuram temple, may be noticed even by a casual visitor not conversant with architectural
principles. Besides the purposes mentioned above, the basement also provides, a space to walk
around the tower. In this temple, the basement is ornamented with sculptures of lions and
leogriffs with lifted paws.

The main base adhishtana is decorated with well defined courses, consisting of the lotus
moulding adaspadma, and the kumuda moulding, topped by a frieze of leogriffs and riders. This
constitutes the main base, the top of which forms the flooring level of the inner sanctum. That
portion of the structure rising above the main base up-to the roof cornice is called ‘the wall’
(bhitti or kal). It is the principal element that encases the main sanctum and carries on it a
number of niches housing various deities. The wall in this temple is divided into two horizontal
courses by an intervening cornice. Lower and upper courses have an equal number of niches, on
all the three sides except the front

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North side of the Sri Vimana, Brihadisvara temple – On the vertical axis the wall surfaces are
well defined by intervening recesses forming a rectangle in the centre and squares at the corners.
Each is made up of a central niche housing a deity, flanked by a group
of small sculptures which in turn are flanked by pilasters simulating pillars. Thus each niche
housing a deity appears as a miniature shrine. The recessed walls in the lower courses carry a
vase and pilaster ornamentation, while on the upper courses, there are small niches housing
deities. Thus these are five principal deities in the lower course and nine deities in the upper
course on each side.

The sculptures in the lower courses, of the Sri Vimana depict various aspects of Siva and also the
subsidiary deities who include Ganesha, Vishnu, Subrahmanya, Durga, Brahma, and Bhairava,
supplemented by Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga in the niches of the great mandapa. The
sculptures were made separately and fitted into the niches. They are flanked by a group of small

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sculptures, carved in situ, illustrating the theme the niche sculpture seeks to represent. The
sculptures on the upper courses represent, besides some aspects of Siva, the guardian deities of
the eight quarters.

Lets examine the sculptures on the lower courses (north side of Sri Vimana)…..

“Kalandhaka” (at the northwest corner) – Four armed Siva shown in such a way destroying Kala,
God of death, right leg placed on Kala and with the left pressing him down. The upper right arm
holds parasu is about to strike, while the lower right holds the trident, the upper left holds a deer

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(antelope) and the lower left points to Kala. Surya and Chandra are shown at the top and
devotees in one side. Another side shown Markhandeya, devotee of Lord Siva worshipping
Linga and the God of death, Yama dragging him forcibly with a rope.

“Durga” (next to Kalandhaka) – The Goddess is standing with eight arms holding discus, arrow,
sword and abhaya in right arms and conch, bow, shield in the left arms respectively and the one
hand is on her thigh. A buffalo head is shown below (Shape shifting demon, Mahisha)
and lion stands behind her.

“Brahma” (at the center above Komugham) – Four armed standing three headed (the fourth head
at the back not being visible) and bearded figure of Brahma standing erect position; holding sruk
and sruva (sacrificial ladles and spoons for pouring oblations of ghee) in the upper right arm and
a rosary of beads in the lower right; a bunch of dharbha grass in the upper left and a kamandala
in lower left; goddess Saraswathi on the right side holds a bunch of palm leaves in her left arm,
in the left goddess Savithri is present. In the side walls Surya, Chandra, devas and sages are
present.

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“Bhairava” (next to Brahma) – standing with eight arms in naked position wearing garland of
skulls, round eyes, protruded teeth, hair show like a flame, holding trident, parasu, sword and
noose in his right arm; fire, kapala, khatwanga and bell in his left arm and a coil of snake shown
around his thighs.

“Kamantaka” (at the northeast corner, next to Bhairava) – Seated figure of Lord Siva with four
arms; right upper arm holds a rossary while the lower arm pointing down. The left upper arm
holds a chouri and the lower is placed on thigh. In the right side wall a sage is shown in penance
attitude; two devotees are shown below him. On the left side at the top, Manmatha, the God of
love is shown aiming an arrow at Siva. Two devotees are shown in the middle; Manmatha and
Rathi are seen below the devotees.The interesting thing is that, one can see ancient inscriptions
(Grantha script) imprinted on the basement part below these sculptures. Together, they called ‘
Chola Prasasthi ‘. Prasasthi is a poetic way of expressing the extol of the king and his various
heroic activities. Prasasthi’s start with auspicious saying such as Swasthi Sri etc., they give

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historical details, name of the king, his title, name of his queen, the regnal year and later on about
donations, land details etc.

Western side of Great Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara….

“Gangadhara” (at the southwest corner) – Four armed standing figure of Siva, embracing and
pacifying Parvathi standing side by his side. The upper right arm of Siva receives the falling
river Ganga from his matted lock; the lower right moves gently around Parvathi. The upper left
arm holds usual attributes of Siva, the deer: the lower left is placed on the thigh. The right arm of
the Devi is placed on jer thigh while left is bent. Three rows of miniature sculptures are noticed
on the side walls. Surya is shown on the top of the wall right of Siva; Devas are in the middle
and two devotees at the bottom. In the left wall Chandra seen at the top, devotees in the middle
and Bhagiratha doing penance in the lower part.

This basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet and the foundation is square in structure and
raises 20 feet above the ground level. The courtyard in 566 ft in the length and 318 ft width and
has a transept at the west in line with the main sanctum.

Western side of the Srivimana of Brihadisvara temple – Compared to the Thanjavur Temple,
which has straight contours, this temple has a curvilinear contour, slightly concave towards the
top. It has divided in to eight zones. The roof cornice consists mainly of three parts: (a) the

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frieze of dwarfs at the bottom, (b) the cornice forming the outer edge of the ceiling roof proper
and, (c) the frieze of leogriffs (a mythical creature) on the top. The cornice is decorated with
plain spade-like ornamentation topped by the head of a leogriffs. A row of miniature shrines runs
around the tower like a garland, and is called a hara. It consists of square pavilions at the corners,
rectangular pavilions in the middle, with nest (nida) ornamentation in between.

Above this rises the main tower, consisting of nine stories including the ground floor. The upper
stories of the main tower carry the same type of ornamentation, consisting of square and oblong
pavilions except a change; the central wagon-shaped pavilion is flanked by square ones instead
of “the nests”, the whole being projected forward than the rest. Now, look at the different
sculptures shown in the lower course niches of West side (Sri Vimana)….

“Lingodhbhava” (next to Gangadhara) – Four armed standing figure of Lingodhbhava coming

out from the shaft of fire. The upper right arm holds axe and the lower is in the abhaya pose; the
left upper holds deer and lower is placed on the thigh. The leg below the ankle is hidden, a
garland of flowers is shown around the Linga portion at the top. Vishnu as a boar is shown at the
bottom in an outline. Brahma as swan is not represented in the top.

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“Mahavishnu” (at the centre of west side) – Standing figure of Vishnu with four arms; the upper
two arms hold discus in the right and conch in the left respectively, the lower right arm is in the
abhaya pose while the left rests on the thigh. Sri devi with two arms present in the right
side while on the left Bhu devi is present also with two arms. Surya and Chandra on either side
of the top side walls, devas in the middle and sages at the bottom are seen.

“Subrahmanya” (next to Mahavishnu) – The Subrahmanya figure is seen in the west wall
standing with four arms carrying Sakti and Vajra in the upper arms while the lower right is in
abhaya pose and the left in thigh. A Chennavira (the chest belt worn by the heroes) is shown
across his chest and the prominent garland of Kanni flower are shown below the crown.

“Vishnuanugrahamurthi” (at the northwest corner) – Siva and Parvathi represented in the seated
position on a pedestal. Siva is shown with four arms carrying Parasu (axe), antelope in the upper

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right and the left arms respectively, while the left arm is placed on his thigh; the right holding
Chakra.

“Ganesha Shrine” situated at the southwest corner of Brihadisvara – To the south-west of the
main temple, is a small shrine dedicated to Ganesha. It has a sanctum preceded by a mandapa.
The structure could be assigned to the 13th century on stylistic grounds.

It is from the southwest corner that, one gets an infamous view of the Great Srivimana of
Gangaikondam Brihadisvara temple…….

Sri-vimana at Gangaikonda has nine storeys (talas) including those at the lower levels, in
contrast to the thirteen storeys at Thanjavur. Each storey has a square-circle-oblong artwork. The
upper levels repeat the lower level design in a rhythmic shrinking pattern. The symmetry
principles are dutifully embedded in, but the rate of shrinking is not linear with height. The lower
storeys shrink faster than the upper storeys. This gives the vimana an uncommon parabolic form.
Ganesha shrine is at the left corner and Southern Kailasa at the right corner.

Coming to the Southern side of Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara…..

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Southern side of the Sri Vimana, Brihadisvara temple – Sculptures on the upper courses
represent, besides some aspects of Siva, the guardian deities of the eight quarters. While on the
lower course of the vertical wall, one can see images of Nataraja, Harihara (Half Siva, Half
Vishnu), Ardhanareeshvara and Narthana Ganesha.

“Narthana Ganesha’ (on the southeast corner of south side) – Lord Ganesha in a dancing pose
with four arms.Pic at right

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“Nataraja (at the southwest corner of south side) and Harihara (next to Nataraja)” – Four armed
dancing Siva, holding drum in the upper right arm and showing Abhaya pose bestowing palm on
the lower right. The upper left arm carries fire and the lower left is throwing across the body
in gajahasta. The matted hair locks are depicted flying on either side. On the right side of the
matted hair river Ganga is shown. By the left side of the leg is shown dancing Kali, carrying
drum, sword, trident, abhaya, dandhasta in her hands. A three legged figure, probably
representing Bhringi is seen on the right. Below the feet is shown the women saint Karaikkal
ammayar. She is holding a musical instrument called as Kinkini. Three Ganas are also shown
playing symbols and drum. On the west side wall is shown Surya on top. Subrahmanya seated
on peacock is flying; Ganapati moves on his rat. Further down is four armed Nandikesvara
playing drum. Chandra is shown on the top of the side wall to east. Two armed Goddess Parvathi
is leaning on a bull looking Majestically; she holds lotus in her right arm. Harihara is the
combined form of Lord Siva and Lord Vishnu. A trident is shown in upper right arm and a discus
is shown in upper left arm.

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You can see two other interesting images on side walls of the southern entrance leading to the
ardhamandapa of main sanctum (near the 15 ft Dvarapalas on south side)……

“Kankaladhara” (at the west side wall of southern entrance ) – Lord Siva is standing in a
tribhanga pose with six arms, the upper right arm holds a snake, the middle feeds the deer
(antelope) and the lower one playing on udukkai or damaru, which is broken. The upper left arm
holds a trident across the back with a chowri hanging; the middle one is placed on the head of a
dwarf (Bhutha gana) standing by the side and the bottom holding the damaru is broken. Pair of
sandals adorn his feet.

Kankaladhara – On the wall to the right of Siva, Surya on top; Bhutaganas in the middle and
wives of sages at the bottom are shown. While on the left side wall, Chandra on top, ganas in the
middle and wives of sages at the bottom are present. Makara thorana decorations above this
niche carries a bas relief of Uma Maheshvara in the centre.

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‘Lakshmi Devi” (at the east side wall of southern entrance) – Goddess Lakshmi seated on a lotus
throne with two arms. Devi holds lotus flowers in her arms; above her are shown two elephants
pouring water from pots held in their trunks (Gajalakshmi).

The shrine, south of the main Vimana and called the Southern Kailasa has a sanctum preceded
by a mandapa which in turn is fronted by flights of steps from south and north of which the
basement alone remains.

“Southern Kailasa or Dakshina Kailasa” – The outer walls of the sanctum and the front mandapa
carry niches, housing images. The niches of the sanctum carry Dakshinamurthi in the
south and Lingodhbhava in the west, while the niche on the north is empty. The niches on the
front mandapa carry; in the south, Ganesha, Nataraja, Bhikshatana, and Subrahmanya and in the
north, Gauriprasada, Durga, Ardhanari and Bhairava. The
inner sanctum of the shrine is now in ruins.

306
A little to the north-east of this temple is a granite basement, probably the ruin of a mandapa. It
is now called the Alankara mandapa. To the west of this is a well, probably coeval with the
temple.

Completely ruined Alankar Mandapa in front of the Southern Kailasa.

South side of the Great Living Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram – How
spectacular, it is! Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) administers the temple as a protected
heritage monument. UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site in 2004, along with
the Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur and Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram. These are
referred to collectively as the Great Living Chola Temples.

307
.

The Great Brihadisvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram.: The symmetry, geometry and
symbolism of these temple architectures simply leaves you spell bound. Visualizing the stories of
more than 10 centuries, oh! that’s something you can’t just imagine. looking at these marvels,
one must appreciate the brilliance of Chola artisans. How skillful, they were! And can say, in
every block of stone, there is a story inside and the task of the sculptor is to discover it. Another
memorable day of discovering creations, enlightenment by the divine and touching the depths of
eternal happiness.

308
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS

A leading Astrologey, Vastu Consultant and Owner of the Indo Nordic Gem
Research Institute and Rudraksha Vaastu Dr Uday Dokras

About the Author

The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was
Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go
Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata
Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to Gorewada International
Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research,
Nagpur.
In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi millionaire.
He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of
Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour
laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from
Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in
Singapore.

309
A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund
Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by
the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles.
Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English
study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8 th
Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

BOOKS written by Dr Uday

1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990

Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden
This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions of
how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford and
Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA in
1990.

2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006

A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training,
development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as well
as medical and nursing staff and students.

3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007

How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be managed in
order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in more footfalls at
the same time not compromising on safety.

4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008

Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who move
it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater delivery
parameters.

5. Creativity and Architecture -2009

Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will raise
design quotients.

6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009

Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion or
how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the shots.

7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020

310
 Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of cranes
or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East. Biggest and
most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages.

8. Win Diet 2020

Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to win
over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU.Written by a 68 year old who has
been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart.

9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020

This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas from
India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology
and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done.

10. Cosmology of the Holy Flower-LOTUS

RESEARCH PAPERS

50 + most of them published on academia.edu

Act on Co-Determination at Work-An Efficacy Study, Almqvist & Wiksell International,

Sweden

REVIEWS

311
Outstanding contribution to the unique Swedish legislation that defines management-employee tradeoffs.
Must Read. Highly recommended./books. google. co. in

********

Part of the collection of Soren Oman, www.sorenoman.se

********

Part of the Collection of the Royal National Library of Sweden, Harvard University, Stanford
University,the University of Neuchatel and The Swiss Institute of comparative Law, Lousanne, Switzerl
and The European Library (The Conference of European National Librarians - CENL of 46 countries) etc

“Superb. Worth reading"- 5 stars"

Review by Dr. Shantanu Joshi, JNU on 5th February, 2013

“This work is an empirical examination of a statute and has been done for the first time in an
comprehensive manner. What is striking isn the juxtapositioning of the factual material gathering
the efficacy of the MBL with translations of the labour and supreme Court decisions that has bee
flawlessly woven to produce a work that throws considerable light on this unique Swedish statute
that has been under the microscope of an curious world. Readable and outstanding in its
academic nuances.”

____________________________________________________________________

Referred by

1. Company Law Reform in OECD Countries- A Comparative Outlook of Current ,Trends, OECD--
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmnent, Paris. France. 2000
2. Sweden: Joint Councils under Strong Unionism, Goran Brulin, professor of industrial relations at
the School of Business of Stockholm University & research associate of the Swedish Institute of
Work Life Research, Stockholm Published by National bureau of Economic Research, Sweden
3. Works Councils: Consultation, Representation, and Cooperation in Industrial Relations, edited by
Joel Rogers, Wolfgang Streeck, University of Chicago,Press, 1995
4. Codetermination in Sweden: myth and reality, K Levinson - Economic and
5. Industrial Democracy, 2000 .Sweden
6. Working for McDonald's in Europe: the unequal struggle, T Royle - books,google. com. 2004
7. Employee representation and pay in Austria, Germany, and Sweden, M Muller-International studies
of management & organization, 1 999 - Taylor & Francis, U .S.A.
8. Diedeutsche Mitbestimmung im internationalen Vergleich, KThelen, L Turner - Mitbestimmung in
Deutschland. Tradition, 1 999 - books.google.com West Germany

312
 9. Svedska druzba, sindikati in delavska participacija, M Nikolic-Teorija in praksa,1 999 - dk.fdv.uni-
lj.si Slovenia
10. Fackets nya roll Fran forhandling till partssamverkan i lokalt utvecklingsarbet, Tommy Nilsson,
Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv,

REVIEW of Health Human Resource management

I am glad for this contribution to health human resource management by Dr Uday Dokras. As a medical
practitioner and Head of administration of a large hospital, I see the need for a constructive approach that
can be given to the human resource department of hospitals to follow and
restructure/arrange/symmeticalize the workers. This is just that book. Amazing. Stimulating and the right
thing at ther right time.

Dr Alpana Chimurkar https://archive.org/details/ _201609/page/n9

______________________________________________

REVIEW of Theme Park Human Resource Enginering co-authored with Ms. Mansse Bhandari

Excellent contribution to the rare Theme Park research sources

Joginder Singh Uberoi, J.S. Uberoi & Co.

313
 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure
factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

314
About the Author

About the Author-Dr Uday Dokras

The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

BOOKS written by Dr Uday

1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990

Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden
This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions
of how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford
and Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA
in 1990.
2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006
A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training,
development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as
well as medical and nursing staff and students.
3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007
How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be
managed in order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in
more footfalls at the same time not compromising on safety.
4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008
Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who

315
move it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater
delivery parameters.
5. Creativity and Architecture -2009
Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will
raise design quotients.
6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009
Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion
or how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the
shots.
7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020
Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of
cranes or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East.
Biggest and most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages.
8. Win Diet 2020
Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to
win over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU .Written by a 68 year old
who has been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart.
9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020
This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas
from India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology
and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done.
10. LOTUS the Celestial Flower
11.Light house at Alexandria
12. Lighthouses in words and Pictures
13.Vayu- Man’s taming of the Winds
14. My Best Foot Forward- story of the Footware Industry in India
15.16,17- DEVARAJA- TRILOGY. The Celestial King and the Mysteries of South
Asian Hindu Temples -3 Volumes 1200 pages
18. VARDHAMAN- Jainism- for not the layman

19. ATIVIR- The saga of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Saint.

20.Hindu Temple Architecture- A panorama

21.Randezvous with Sri Ram- quintessentials of Hinduism-ESSAYS.

22 .T2 – TEMPLE TECH

23. Design your Destiny Astrology and gem therapy
24.Chidambaram Temple

RESEARCH PAPERS- 200+ in Researchgate and academia.edu

Followers(readers) 50,000 consolidated as on 28 th July,2020.

316
Act on Co-Determination at Work-An Efficacy Study, Almqvist & Wiksell International,
Sweden

REVIEWS

Outstanding contribution to the unique Swedish legislation that defines management-employee tradeoffs.
Must Read. Highly recommended./books. google. co. in

********

Part of the collection of Soren Oman, www.sorenoman.se

********

Part of the Collection of the Royal National Library of Sweden, Harvard University, Stanford
University,the University of Neuchatel and The Swiss Institute of comparative Law, Lousanne, Switzerl
and The European Library (The Conference of European National Librarians - CENL of 46 countries) etc

“Superb. Worth reading"- 5 stars"

Review by Dr. Shantanu Joshi, JNU on 5th February, 2013

317
“This work is an empirical examination of a statute and has been done for the first time in an
comprehensive manner. What is striking isn the juxtapositioning of the factual material gathering
the efficacy of the MBL with translations of the labour and supreme Court decisions that has bee
flawlessly woven to produce a work that throws considerable light on this unique Swedish statute
that has been under the microscope of an curious world. Readable and outstanding in its
academic nuances.”

____________________________________________________________________

Referred by

11. Company Law Reform in OECD Countries- A Comparative Outlook of Current ,Trends, OECD--
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmnent, Paris. France. 2000
12. Sweden: Joint Councils under Strong Unionism, Goran Brulin, professor of industrial relations at
the School of Business of Stockholm University & research associate of the Swedish Institute of
Work Life Research, Stockholm Published by National bureau of Economic Research, Sweden
13. Works Councils: Consultation, Representation, and Cooperation in Industrial Relations, edited by
Joel Rogers, Wolfgang Streeck, University of Chicago,Press, 1995
14. Codetermination in Sweden: myth and reality, K Levinson - Economic and
15. Industrial Democracy, 2000 .Sweden
16. Working for McDonald's in Europe: the unequal struggle, T Royle - books,google. com. 2004
17. Employee representation and pay in Austria, Germany, and Sweden, M Muller-International studies
of management & organization, 1 999 - Taylor & Francis, U .S.A.
18. Diedeutsche Mitbestimmung im internationalen Vergleich, KThelen, L Turner - Mitbestimmung in
Deutschland. Tradition, 1 999 - books.google.com West Germany
19. Svedska druzba, sindikati in delavska participacija, M Nikolic-Teorija in praksa,1 999 - dk.fdv.uni-
lj.si Slovenia
20. Fackets nya roll Fran forhandling till partssamverkan i lokalt utvecklingsarbet, Tommy Nilsson,
Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv,

REVIEW of Health Human Resource management

I am glad for this contribution to health human resource management by Dr Uday Dokras. As a medical
practitioner and Head of administration of a large hospital, I see the need for a constructive approach that
can be given to the human resource department of hospitals to follow and
restructure/arrange/symmeticalize the workers. This is just that book. Amazing. Stimulating and the right
thing at ther right time.

Dr Alpana Chimurkar https://archive.org/details/ _201609/page/n9

318
______________________________________________

REVIEW of Theme Park Human Resource Enginering co-authored with Ms. Mansse Bhandari

Excellent contribution to the rare Theme Park research sources

Joginder Singh Uberoi, J.S. Uberoi & Co.

Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure
factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

319
320
Virat hridaya padma sthalam

Dr Uday Dokras

Celestial Mysteries of the

CHIDAMBARAM Temple
321