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Science
Quarter 4 – Module 1
The Human Digestive System

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 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and developed to help you understand the lesson
about the human digestive system including ingestion, absorption, assimilation, and
excretion. Different activities are designed and provided to achieve the objectives of
the lessons.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe the coordinated functions of organs in the human digestive system; and
2. explain ingestion, absorption, assimilation, and excretion (S8LT-IVa-13).

Lesson
The Human Digestive System
1
The digestive system is responsible for breaking down the food mechanically
and chemically to convert complex molecules into the simplest units-- a fraction of
which is made up of nutrients that the body’s cells can absorb. The digestion of food
happens in the different digestive organs that secrete digestive enzymes.

In humans, digestion starts in the mouth, where food is chewed and broken
down into smaller pieces for easier digestion. This is called mechanical
digestion. Initial chemical digestion also starts in the mouth. This is carried out
by enzyme molecules that speed up the chemical digestion of carbohydrates.
Enzymes present in saliva such as amylase helps break down large complex
molecules of carbohydrates into simpler ones that the body can use.

After swallowing, the food called bolus enters the esophagus (gullet) and is
moved down into the stomach, where it mixes with gastric juices. Other enzymes
such as protease and lipase help break down proteins in the stomach and fats in the
small intestine, respectively. Digestion ends in the small intestine, where nutrients
are absorbed in the villi and enter the circulatory system. The wastes and undigested
food go to the large intestine, where water is also reabsorbed. These wastes,
including the water that are not reabsorbed, are temporarily stored in the rectum
before they are excreted out of the body through the anus.
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 This module introduces you to the different organs that make up the human
digestive system of a human and how they coordinate with each other to digest food
and nourish their bodies.

How does the digestive system break down food to nourish the body?

What’s In
Directions: Identify the organs of the digestive system. Choose your answers from
the word bank and write them in your notebook/ on a separate sheet of paper.

mouth pharynx esophagus liver

gallbladder stomach pancreas anus

large intestine small intestine

AA

Organs of the Human Digestive System

Source: chegg.com

What is It
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 The human body is composed of eleven organ systems. Each system has its
own specific task to carry out for an individual to survive. The digestive system is
responsible for providing energy and nutrients for the body.

Figure 1 The Human Digestive Organs

Source: Campo, Pia C., et.al,” Science 8 Learner’s Material”.2013.
Mouth

The tongue mixes the foods, and the teeth break down the foods into small
pieces and the saliva secreted by the salivary glands soften the food. These organs’
coordinated functions evidently elaborated that chemical digestion starts in the
mouth. The food is chewed into smaller pieces and lubricated by the saliva in the
mouth resulting in the smooth and easy swallowing of food.

Pharynx

The pharynx chamber connects the nasal and oral cavities of the body. After
chewing the food, it transports the food from the mouth to the esophagus.
Swallowing happens here. When you swallow, a small tissue closes the windpipe
called epiglottis. This prevents food from entering your lungs.

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Esophagus

The esophagus is a muscular tube that is approximately 10 inches in length.

It serves as a passageway of food to the stomach. It is wrapped with mucus so that
the food can quickly go down to your stomach.

Stomach

The stomach holds and breaks the food into a useful form. It also contains
enzymes and gastric juices that are good for breaking the food. Stomach juices are
chemicals produce by the stomach that helps digestion. The stomach is made up of
muscles that churn and help to mix and to break food into even smaller pieces.

The digestive glands in the stomach lining produce acids and enzymes that
digest proteins. These digestive juices could, in fact, harm the stomach. However, a
thick mucus layer helps keep this acidic chemical from destroying the tissues of the
stomach.

Small intestine

The food in the first part of the small intestine (duodenum) is acted upon by
secretions of bile from the liver, insulin produce by the pancreas, and intestinal
glands. Digested molecules of food are absorbed through the small intestine. The
walls of the small intestine contain many folds that are lined up with tiny fingerlike
protrusions called villi. These villi are in turn covered with even smaller protrusions
called microvilli. These structures increase the surface area through which nutrients
are absorbed.

During absorption, these nutrients pass through the walls of the intestine
and into the bloodstream, where they get transported to the different parts of the
body. The undigested parts of food or those that were not absorbed by the body
moves to the large intestine like cellulose of fruits and vegetables.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which breaks down fats,

carbohydrates, and protein. It also releases insulin into the blood that regulates the
use of sugar in your body.

Liver

The liver is located on the right side of the stomach and it is the largest organ
of the digestive system. It produces bile that helps to break fats into smaller ones.
This bile is stored in the gallbladder and it releases bile when food moves into the
small intestine.

Large intestine

The large intestine connects the small intestine to the anus, consisting of
three regions known as cecum, colon, and rectum. After food is digested, water is
absorbed in the large system. Waste food or substances that need to be removed
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from the body

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are stored here after water is absorbed. It also changes the undigested food into semi-
solid waste or feces which leave the body through the anus.

Path of Food

Digestion is the process of breaking down the food into smaller pieces so
that our body can absorb them. Food undergoes both physical and chemical
changes as it moves from one part of the gastrointestinal tract to the other. When
we bite and chew food using our teeth, it is called physical or mechanical
digestion. Some foods are soluble in water but some are not like meat. The
chemical breakdown of food is called chemical digestion which involves the use
of enzymes. Enzymes are protein molecules that help to fasten the chemical reaction
because when enzymes react with food, they break it into simpler substances.
Chemical digestion also happens in the mouth, this is when we chew the food and
mix it with saliva.

Digestion in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus

Digestion starts when food is taken into

the mouth. This is called ingestion. As you
chew, you are breaking the food into small pieces
as a means of mechanical breakdown. The pieces
mix with saliva before you swallow. Saliva is
watery liquid produce by the salivary glands. It
softens and wets the food in the mouth and starts
chemical digestion of carbohydrates through the
enzymes present in it. Then the food passes
through the esophagus. Muscle contractions in
the esophagus help move the food down to the
stomach. This process is called peristalsis (see
Figure 2).

Figure 2 Peristalsis in the esophagus

Digestion in the Stomach

As the food in the esophagus enters the stomach, gastric juices are secreted.
Stomach juices are chemicals made by the body that help digest food. The stomach
is made up of muscles that churn and help mix the food and break it into even
smaller pieces. At certain times of the day, you hear your stomach rumbling. This is
the sound you hear as the gastric juices are churned in an empty stomach. This
indicates that you are already hungry and it is time for you to eat. The stomach and
some glands start to produce gastric juices to prepare your stomach for the food you
will eat. These gastric juices provide an acidic environment in the stomach. Gastric
juice is composed of hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Hydrochloric acid is not an
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enzyme, while pepsin is an enzyme used to digest protein.

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 Food stays in the stomach for four hours
wherein is mixed, churned, and becomes fluid. A
sphincter is the regulator muscle of the stomach
which prevents the food from escaping. It is also
a soft muscle that serves as the valve at the
esophagus to the stomach then to the small
intestine.
Figure 3 Pyloric sphincter

The digestive glands in the stomach lining produce acids and enzymes that
digest proteins. These digestive juices could, in fact, harm the stomach. However, a
thick mucus layer helps keep this acidic chemical environment from destroying the
tissues of the stomach.

Digestion in the Small Intestine

Digested molecules of food are absorbed through the small intestine. The
walls of the small intestine contain many folds that are lined up with tiny fingerlike
protrusions called villi. These villi are in turn covered with even smaller protrusions
called microvilli. These structures increase the surface area through which nutrients
are absorbed. The starch is converted into sugar by the saliva and the protein is
broken down into simpler proteins. These sugar, carbohydrates, protein, and fats
are digested in the small intestine. The bile is produced by the liver. The bile is
stored in the gallbladder. The role of the bile is to breaks the fat and oil into smaller
particles.

The pancreatic juice is a mixture of enzymes that can break starch, fat, and
protein. It is released every time there is food in the small intestine.

Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars that are absorbed in
the small intestines; they are circulated to the different parts of the body as they join
the bloodstream. They are used up as sources of energy once they are assimilated by
the cells; those that are circulated into the liver are stored.

Proteins are broken down into their component parts, also called amino
acids in the stomach. This process is aided by acids secreted by the cells that make
up the stomach walls and enzymes present in the gastric juice. Like the simple
sugars, amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine through the villi -- the
fingerlike structures that line the walls of the small intestines and are circulated to
the different parts of the body. Those that are circulated into the liver are stored as
glycogen.

In the case of fats and lipids, their digestion is completed in the small
intestine where bile secreted from the liver disintegrates them into fatty acids and
glycerol particles that are circulated to the rest of the body and stored in fatty
tissues.

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The digestion ends when they become amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, and glycerin.

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Absorption and Assimilation

During absorption, these nutrients pass through the walls of the intestine
and into the bloodstream, where they get transported to the different parts of the
body. The food in the first part of the small intestine (duodenum) is acted upon by
secretions from the liver, pancreas, and intestinal glands. Digested molecules of food
are absorbed through the small intestine. The walls of the small intestine contain
many folds that are lined up with tiny fingerlike protrusions called villi. These villi
are in turn covered with even smaller protrusions called microvilli. These structures
increase the surface area through which nutrients are absorbed.

In the process of absorption and assimilation after digestion, the nutrients

present in the blood reach the target cells and tissues that utilize them for their
activities. This process of synthesizing the biological compounds (macromolecules)
from the absorbed simple molecules is called assimilation. It helps in cell growth
and development and new cell production.

The undigested parts of food or those that were not absorbed by the body
moves to the large intestine like cellulose of fruits and vegetables. It also changes the
undigested food into semi-solid waste or feces which leave the body through the
anus. This process is called elimination or excretion.

1. INGESTION
Mechanica
l
breakdow
n

2. DIGESTION

Nutrients 3. ABSORPTION AND

enter body ASSIMILATION
cells

4. EXCRETION

Undigested
material

Figure 4 shows how food is changed to soluble forms as it is moved from one part of
the digestive system to another. You can help your digestive system by drinking

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water and practicing a balanced diet by choosing nutritious foods that support your
digestive system over harmful foods that might harm your overall health.

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 Assessment

I. Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if otherwise.

Write your answer in your notebook /on a separate sheet of paper.

1. The digestion starts in the mouth and ends in the anus.

2. The pancreas produces bile that helps to break fats into simple forms.
3. Stomach juices are chemicals made by the body that help digest food.
4. After the digestion in the small intestine, the undigested food moves into the
esophagus.
5. The food remains in the small intestine for about ten hours for digestion and
absorption.

II. Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answers in your
notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Where does complete digestion take place?

a. small intestine c. stomach
b. large intestine d. pancreas

2. What does the liver do to to help in the digestion of food?

a. produces bile c. makes important enzymes
b. regulates insulin d. neutralizes stomach acid

3. All of the following are organs of the digestive system EXCEPT .

a. nose c. mouth
b. liver d. small intestine

4. Which of the following is NOT a digestive function?

a. ingestion c. filtration
b. absorption d. digestion

5. What is the function of the digestive system?

a. The body’s breathing system
b. The body’s system of nerves
c. The body’s food-processing system
d. The body’s blood-transporting system

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6. Which of the following parts of the digestive system removes solid
wastes such as feces from the body?

a. large intestine c. mouth

b. esophagus d. small intestine

7. Which of the following is the INCORRECT association of organs of the

human digestive system?
a. colon (large intestine)- absorbs food
b. pancreas-secretes digestive enzymes
c. small intestine- absorbs fluid and food
d. stomach-grinds and liquefies food

8. Why do we need to break down the food we eat?

a. So that it can fit into our stomach.
b. So that our bodies can use the nutrients from the food we eat.
c. So that liquids can be separated by solids.
d. So that our bodies’ ‘enzymes have something to do.

9. What process is taking place when the muscles of the esophagus

squeeze the food downward?
a. bile
b. bolus
c. chyme
d. peristalsis

10. What is the main role of the large intestine?

a. The main role of the large intestine is to churn food around with enzymes.
b. The main role of the large intestine is to break down solid food.
c. The main role of the large intestine is to absorb undigested food and water.
d. The main role of the large intestine is to chew and swallow foods.

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Module 2: Cell Division

Lesson

1 Cell Division

Every living thing undergoes reproduction. The nutrients taken by an individual will
provide energy for metabolic processes, for growth and development as well as reproduction.
The cellular level of reproduction, in the form of cell division, provides the backdrop for the
organismal level of reproduction.

One of the characteristics of an organism is to reproduce. It is not only limited to

produce another organism, however, it also happens within the smallest unit of its body. For
instance, when your skin gets scraped, after several days, your wound heals. Your cells will
regenerate a new and exactly the same skin cell.

In this module, we will know the differences between the two types of cell division
(mitosis and meiosis) and the significance of meiosis in maintaining the chromosome
number.

Below is an illustration of the epidermis. When your skin is accidentally cut, it

undergoes a process to repair itself and this is called mitosis.

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 What is It

When you grow, the cell size in your body does not change. If a cell is too big, it may
affect its activities like the flow of materials inside it. Instead of growing bigger, the cells
divide and multiply.

The cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. It has several organelles like the nucleus
and mitochondria. The nucleus is the control center of all the activities of the cell including
the growth and development of plants and animals.

The nucleus has a nuclear membrane like the cell membrane. This allows the material
to pass through in and out of the nucleus. When you observe a nucleus under a high-powered
microscope, you can see threads called chromatin. During cell division, the chromatin forms
a rod-like structure known as a chromosome. Chromosomes are responsible for growth. They
contain the blueprint of life and they pass the traits of the cell to a new cell. For example, the
chromosomes of a skin cell will exactly reproduce the same skin cell.

Mitosis
This type of cell division produces two identical cells with
the same number of chromosomes. Mitosis is divided into four
Interphase
stages.
1. Prophase
During this stage, in the early prophase, the chromatin in
the nucleus begins to shorten and thicken which is called
chromatid and finally forming rod-like structures known as
chromosomes. Each chromosome has two chromatids connected
by a centromere. The centriole pair in the animal cell begins to Prophase
move away from one another. Then a spindle forms in the
cytoplasm that connects between the two opposite ends of the
cell. In the late prophase, the nuclear membrane starts to break.
2. Metaphase
In this stage, the spindle is fully developed and the
chromosomes begin to attach themselves to it. The spindle is
connected to the centromere which is the center of two
chromatids. The nuclear membrane disappears completely. Metaphase

3. Anaphase
In this stage, the sister chromatid begins to separate and
moves towards the poles. The chromatids again are called
chromosomes. The spindle fibers begin to elongate. The cell poles Anaphase
start to move farther apart. By the end of the anaphase, the cell
pole has a complete set of chromosomes

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4. Telophase
At this stage which will start to uncoil and become
indistinct under the light microscope. A new nuclear membrane
forms around them while the spindle fibers disappear. There is
Telophase
also cytokinesis or the division of the cytoplasm to form two
separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis.

Meiosis
This is a special type of cell division where the cell undergoes two rounds of cell
division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the chromosome number as the
original parent cell and with a unique set of genetic material as a result of the exchange of
chromosome segments during the process of crossing over.
The first round of meiotic division, also known as meiosis I, consists of
four stages: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I. Prophase of
meiosis I, unlike its counterpart in mitosis, is more elaborate and should be
understood well in order to grasp the mechanisms of heredity.
1. Prophase I
Meiosis starts with this stage and includes the following sub- stages:
In leptotene, each chromosome is made up of two long threads of
sister chromatids as a result of replication during the S phase of the cell
cycle.
In zygotene, the chromosomes begin to pair off.
Pairs of chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes, and this pairing process is exact.
In pachytene, the chromosomes contract due to
repeated coiling. Crossing over takes place during this
stage where a segment of a sister chromatid of one
chromosome is exchanged with the same
segment of the sister chromatid of the homologous chromosome through the formation of a
cross-linkage of the segments called a chiasma. After crossing over, the sister chromatids of
each chromosome may no longer be identical with each other based on the genetic material
they contain.
In diplotene, the chromosomes begin to uncoil.
In diakinesis, the paired chromosomes disperse in the nucleus.
2. Metaphase I
At this stage, the paired chromosomes arrange themselves along with the
equatorial plate.

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3. Anaphase I
At this stage, the spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of the
chromosomes. The homologous chromosomes separate from each other completely
and start their movement toward the poles of the cells as they are pulled by the
spindle fibers. As the centromere of each chromosome does not divide, the sister
chromatids remain together.
4. Telophase I
At this stage, when the chromosomes reach their respective poles.
Cytokinesis follows and two daughter cells are formed. Each cell now has
only half the chromosome number because only one chromosome from
each pair goes to the daughter cell which is called the haploid condition.
Note that each chromosome still has two sister chromatids; it
is, therefore, necessary for the cells to undergo another round of
division.
The second meiotic division, also known as meiosis II, is
mitotic in nature and consists of the following stages:
prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II;
these stages are identical to the mitotic
stages. The results are four cells, two from each
daughter cell from meiosis, with one half the diploid
chromosome number and with only one sister
chromatid for each chromosome.

Mitosis and meiosis are nuclear processes of cell divisions. Mitosis involves the division of
body cells, while meiosis involves the division of sex cells. The division of a cell occurs once in
mitosis but twice in meiosis. Two daughter cells are produced after mitosis and cytoplasmic
division, while four daughter cells are produced after meiosis. Daughter cells resulting from mitosis
are diploid, while those resulting from meiosis are haploid. Daughter cells that are the product of
mitosis are genetically identical. Daughter cells produced after meiosis are genetically diverse.
In a unicellular organism, the purpose of mitosis is to proliferate as a species. In a
multicellular organism, the purpose can be to grow during development, or to repair or regenerate
damaged tissue, for example. While meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA replication that
converts each chromosome into two sister chromatids. To create gametes with only one copy of the
organism’s genetic information, in preparation for sexual reproduction. Various steps in meiosis
create opportunities for genetic diversity in the daughter cells. This is the raw substrate for
evolution.

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 Importance of maintaining the chromosome numbers in Meiosis
Meiosis may not always proceed normally. Accidents sometimes happen. These accidents
may affect the functioning of the spindle fibers or the movement of one or more chromosomes. In
humans, some accidents have been known to cause abnormal conditions. For example, when
chromosomes in a pair fail to separate from each other during Meiosis I, the resulting gamete
acquires both members of a pair of chromosomes. If this involves chromosome pair 21, for
example, and one of the gametes contains two copies of the chromosome, then the individual
produced will have 47 chromosomes in his or her cells (with three copies of chromosome 21).
This condition is known as Down's syndrome, named after Dr. Langdon Down who first studied
the condition. The extra chromosome 21 will lead to an imbalance of genetic material in the cell.
People with this condition suffer from variable degrees of mental retardation, sterility, and
increased risk beyond the age of 40 of Alzheimer's disease, which affects the functioning of the
brain. Down's syndrome is usually associated with pregnancy in women above 35 years of age.
Sometimes, a piece of chromosome breaks off and gets lost. The effects of this accident
depend on the particular genetic material lost. For example, when a part of chromosome 5 is lost,
the afflicted individual will have a face that is round, moonlike, cries feebly, and is mentally and
physically retarded. This condition is called Cri du chat syndrome; cri du chat is French for cat's
cry, which is the sound a baby with this condition makes when he/she cries.
Several drugs may cause breaks or other abnormalities in the chromosomes.
Chlorpromazine (a popular tranquilizer), diphenhydramine (an antihistamine), and lysergic acid
diethylamide or LSD (a hallucinogen) are some drugs known to cause breaks in the
chromosomes.

What’s More

Directions: Answer the puzzle on a separate sheet of paper/in your notebook. Be guided by the
given clues.

ACROSS
4. process of cell division where the nucleus produces two identical daughter cells
7. stage where the spindle is fully developed and the chromosomes begin to attach themselves to
it

DOWN
1. stage where the chromatin in the nucleus begins to shorten and form rod-like structures
known as chromosomes
2. process of cell division the produces sex cells or gametes
3. stage where the chromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the spindle
5. stage where the sister chromatid begins to separate and moves towards the poles
6. helps an organism to grow, repair damaged cells and produce offsprings

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 Assessment

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper/in your notebook.
1. What is the smallest unit of a living thing?
a. cell
b. neuron
c. nucleus
d. tissue

2. Which is a function of meiosis?

a. growth
b. wound repair
c. production of reproductive cells
d. replacement of worn-out tissues

3. Which of the following makes the chromatid attached to a spindle fiber?

a. nucleolus
b. centromere
c. centriole
d. chromosomes

4. What is the correct sequence of stages in cell division?

a. anaphase, prophase, interphase, metaphase, telophase
b. interphase, anaphase, metaphase, prophase, telophase
c. interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
d. prophase, metaphase, interphase, anaphase, telophase

5. What stage of mitosis where the sister chromatids separate from each other?
a. anaphase
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 b. metaphase
c. prophase
d. telophase

6. Which of the following statements about mitosis is TRUE?

a. The centromere of the chromosomes separates during metaphase.
b. The chromatid number in a daughter cell is the same as the chromatid
number in the parent cell.
c. The chromosome number in a daughter cell is the same as the chromatid
number in the parent cell.
d. The chromosome number in the daughter cell is the same as the
chromosome number in the parent cell.

7. Which of the following is NOT a reason why we need mitosis?

a. growth
b. replacement of dead cells
c. recovering from injuries
d. reproducing

8. Which of the following is the importance of mitosis?

a. formation of sex cells
b. death of unnecessary cells
c. growth and repair of tissues
d. maintain a healthy number of sex cells

9. How many daughter cells are produced in meiosis?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5

10. Which of the following does meiosis produce?

a. chromosomes
b. DNA
c. sex cells
d. zygote

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Module 3: Mendelian Genetics

Lesson 1 Genetics: Mendelian

Simple Patterns of
Inheritance
What is Genetics?

Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the transmission and variation of
inherited characteristics in particular chromosomes and DNA.
Genetics is the science of the way traits are passed from parent to offspring. For all
forms of life, the continuity of the species depends upon the genetic code being passed from
parent to offspring. Evolution by natural selection is dependent on traits being heritable.
Genetics is very important in human physiology because all attributes of the human body are
affected by a person’s genetic code. It can be as simple as eye color, height, or hair color. Or it
can be as complex as how well your liver processes toxins, whether you will be prone to heart
disease or breast cancer, and whether you will be color blind.

Genetic inheritance begins at the time of conception. You inherited 23 chromosomes

from your mother and 23 from your father. Together they form 22 pairs of autosomal
chromosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes (either XX if you are female, or XY if you are
male). Homologous chromosomes have the same genes in the same positions but may have
different alleles (varieties) of those genes. There can be many alleles of a gene within a
population, but an individual within that population only has two copies and can be
homozygous (both copies the same) or heterozygous (the two copies are different) for any
given gene.

What is It

Pairs of Unit Factors, or Genes

Gregor Mendel proposed that paired unit factors of heredity were transmitted
faithfully from generation to generation by the dissociation and reassociation of paired
factors during gametogenesis and fertilization, respectively. After he crossed peas with
contrasting traits and found that the recessive trait appeared in the F2 generation, Mendel
deduced that hereditary factors must be inherited as separated units. This finding
contradicted the belief at that time that parental traits were blended in the offspring.

A gene is made up of short sections of DNA that are contained on a chromosome

within the nucleus of a cell. Genes control the development and function of all organs and all
working systems in the body. A gene has a certain influence on how the cell works; the same
gene in many different cells determines a certain physical or biochemical feature of the
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whole body (e.g., eye color or reproductive functions). All human cells hold approximately
21,000 different genes.

Phenotypes and Genotypes

The observable traits expressed by an organism are referred to as its phenotype. An

organism’s underlying genetic makeup, consisting of both physically visible and non-
expressed alleles, is called its genotype. Johann Gregor Mendel’s (1822–1884)
hybridization experiments demonstrate the difference between phenotype and genotype.

Mendel crossed or mated two true-breeding (self-pollinating) garden peas, Pisum

sativum, by manually transferring pollen from another mature pea plant of one variety to the
stigma of a separate mature pea plant of the second variety. Plants used in first-generation
crosses were called P0, or parental generation one, plants. Mendel collected the seeds
belonging to the P0 plants that resulted from each cross and grew them the following season.
These offspring were called the F1, or the first filial (filial = offspring, daughter, or son),
generation. Once Mendel examined the characteristics in the F1 generation of plants, he
allowed them to self-fertilize naturally. He then collected and grew the seeds from the F1
plants to produce the F2, or second filial, generation.

Po generation

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 Figure 1. Cross between true-breeding pea plants
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/patterns-of-inheritance/

When true-breeding plants in which one parent had white flowers and one had violet
flowers were cross-fertilized, all the F1 hybrid offspring had violet flowers. That is, the hybrid
offspring were phenotypically identical to the true-breeding parent with violet flowers.
However, we know that the allele donated by the parent with white flowers was not simply
lost because it reappeared in some of the F2 offspring. Therefore, the F1 plants must have
been genotypically different from the parent with violet flowers.

In his 1865 publication, Mendel reported the results of his crosses involving seven
different phenotypes, each with two contrasting traits. A trait is defined as a variation in the
physical appearance of a heritable characteristic. The characteristics included plant height,
seed texture, seed color, flower color, pea pod size, pea pod color, and flower position. To
fully examine each characteristic, Mendel generated large numbers of F1 and F2 plants,
reporting results from 19,959 F2 plants alone. His findings were consistent. First, Mendel
confirmed that he had plants that bred true for white or violet flower color. Regardless of
how many generations Mendel examined, all self-crossed offspring of parents with white
flowers had white flowers, and all self-crossed offspring of parents with violet flowers had
violet flowers. In addition, Mendel confirmed that, other than flower color, the pea plants
were physically identical.

Mendel conducted 2 main experiments to determine the laws of inheritance.

These experiments were:

1. Monohybrid Cross Experiment

2. Dihybrid Cross Experiment

While experimenting, Mendel found that certain factors were always being
transferred down to the offspring in a stable way. Those factors are now called genes. Genes
are called the units of inheritance.
The following are the terminologies to remember in solving and analyzing the results
of a Punnett square.

Monohybrid is the result of a cross between two true-breeding parents that express
different traits for only one characteristic.

Dihybrid is the result of a cross between two true-breeding parents that express
different traits for two characteristics.

Dominant traits are traits that appear to mask (or hide) other traits.

Recessive traits are traits that can be hidden in one generation and then appear in
the next.

Genotypic Ratio describes the number of times a genotype would appear in the
offspring after a test cross.

Phenotypic ratio is the number of times a specific combination of alleles appears in

24
the predicted phenotypes of any offspring.

Figure 2. Monohybrid Cross Figure 3. Dihybrid Cross

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/patterns-of-inheritance/

Interpretation of the Punnett square of monohybrid cross and dihybrid cross

Genotypic ratio: 4 Heterozygous green Pod 4 heterozygous round and yellow
Phenotype: 4 green pea pods 4 round and yellow

The Punnett Square Approach for a Monohybrid Cross

A Punnett square applies the rules of probability to predict the possible outcomes of a
monohybrid cross and their expected frequencies.

When fertilization occurs between two true-breeding parents that differ in only one
characteristic, the process is called a monohybrid cross, and the resulting offspring are
monohybrids. Mendel performed seven monohybrid crosses involving contrasting traits for
each characteristic. Based on his results in F1 and F2 generations, Mendel postulated
that each parent in the monohybrid cross contributed one of two paired unit factors to each
offspring and that every possible combination of a unit factor was equally likely.

To demonstrate a monohybrid cross, consider the case of true-breeding pea plants

with yellow versus green pea seeds. The dominant seed color is yellow; therefore, the
parental genotypes were YY (homozygous dominant) for the plants with yellow seeds and yy
(homozygous recessive) for the plants with green seeds, respectively.
A Punnett square, devised by the British geneticist Reginald Punnett, can be drawn
that applies the rules of probability to predict the possible outcomes of a genetic cross or
mating and their expected frequencies.
To prepare a Punnett square, all possible combinations of the parental alleles are
listed along the top (for one parent) and side (for the other parent) of a grid, representing
their meiotic segregation into haploid gametes. Then the combinations of egg and sperm are
made in the boxes in the table to show which alleles are combining.

Each box then represents the diploid genotype of a zygote, or fertilized egg, that could
25
result from this mating. Because each possibility is equally likely, genotypic ratios can be
determined from a Punnett square. If the pattern of inheritance (dominant or recessive) is
known, the phenotypic ratios can be inferred as well.
For a monohybrid cross of two true-breeding parents, each parent contributes one
type of allele. In this case, only one genotype is possible. All offspring are Yy and have yellow
seeds.

Figure 4. Cross of Two true-breeding parents

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/patterns-of-inheritance/

Punnett square analysis of a monohybrid cross: In the P generation, pea

plants that are true-breeding for the dominant yellow phenotype are crossed with plants with
the recessive green phenotype. This cross produces F1 heterozygotes with a yellow
phenotype. Punnett square analysis can be used to predict the genotypes of the F2
generation.

26
 Step-by-Step: How to set up a Punnett Square?

Step 1: Write out the cross T = tall, t = short Tt x Tt

Step 2: Draw 2 by 2 Punnett square

Step 3: Write the alleles for parent 1 on the left side of the Punnett square.

Step 4: Write the alleles from parent 2 above the Punnett square.
T t
T

Step 5: Fill in the squares for parent 1.

T t
T TT Tt
t

Step 6: Fill in the squares for parent 2.

T t
T TT Tt
t TT Tt

27
How to interpret your results?
We now have the information for predicting the outcome of the cross. The genotypes
in the four boxes of the Punnett square are equally possible to occur among the offspring of
this cross. We can now figure out the results.

Genotypes that resulted from sample cross (Tt X Tt)

TT Tt

Tt tt

25 % 50 % 25 %
homozygous heterozygous homozygous
dominant recessive

Phenotypes that resulted from this sample cross (Tt X Tt)

75 % tall and 25 % short

What’s More

Activity 1. Problem Solving

Directions: Solve the simple monohybrid cross using the Punnett square. Write your
answers in your notebook or on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Predict the offspring in a cross between a dwarf pea plant (homozygous recessive) and a
tall pea plant (heterozygous). What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?

Given: gg - dwarf pea plant

GG - tall pea plant
G G
g

28
Activity 2. Identification
Directions: Understand each of the following statements. Write TRUE if the statement is
correct and FALSE if it is incorrect. Write your answers in your notebook/on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. Phenotypes are observable traits expressed by an organism.
2. Phenotypes refer to an organism’s underlying genetic makeup, consisting of both
physically visible and non-expressed alleles.
3. Monohybrid cross is the process when fertilization occurs between two true
breeding parents that differ in only one characteristic.
4. A Punnett square applies the rules of probability to predict the possible
outcomes of a monohybrid cross and their expected frequencies.
5. Recessive are traits that appear to mask (or hide) other traits.

6. Dominant are traits that can be hidden in one generation and then appear
in the next.

7. Inheritance can be defined as the process of how a child receives genetic

information from the parent.

8. Punnett square analysis can be used to predict the genotypes of the F2

generation only.

9. The whole process of heredity is dependent upon inheritance and it is the reason
that the offspring is similar to the parents.

10. Genes are called the units of traits.

Assessment

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer and write it in your notebook or on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. He is known as the father of Genetics.

a. August Weismann c. Nettie Maria Stevens
b. Gregor Johann Mended d. Thomas Hunt Morgan

2. American biologist and geneticist who was one of the first scientists to find that
sex is determined by a particular configuration of chromosomes.
a. August Weismann c. Nettie Maria Stevens
b. Gregor Johann Mended d. Thomas Hunt Morgan

3. American zoologist and geneticist, famous for his experimental research with the fruit
fly (Drosophila) by which he established the chromosome theory
of heredity.
29
 a. August Weismann c. Nettie Maria Stevens
b. Gregor Johann Mendel d. Thomas Hunt Morgan

4. He is a German biologist and one of the founders of the Science of Genetics.

a. August Weismann c. Nettie Maria Stevens
b. Gregor Johann Mendel d. Thomas Hunt Morgan

5. The branch of biology that deals with the transmission and variation of inherited
characteristics, in particular chromosomes and DNA.
a. genes c. genetics
b. geneticist d. genus

6. A biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of
organisms.
a. genes c. genetics
b. geneticist d. genus

7. It applies the rules of probability to predict the possible outcomes of a monohybrid cross
and their expected frequencies.
a. Punnet Square c. Panett Square
b. Punet Square d. Punnett Square

8. When two parents of heterozygous genes of curly hair are crossed, what percent of their
offspring (F1) would have curly hair?
a. 25% c. 75%
b. 50% d. 100%

9. Juan is heterozygous brown. If B is for brown hair, and b is for blonde hair, what is Juan’s
genotype?
a. BB c. bb
b. Bb d. bB

10. Pedro is heterozygous. If B is for brown hair, and b is for blonde hair, what is Pedro’s
phenotype?
a. black hair c. brown hair
b. blonde hair d. brown and blonde hair

30
Module 4:
Species: Its Classification and
Biodiversity

Lesson

1 The Concept of a Species

The variety of life in a certain area of ecosystem is commonly known as biodiversity.

It renders direct and indirect values or standards to humans, which helps maintain a healthy
environment. Thus, biodiversity is made up of all living forms from its smallest unit like
bacterium to the trees and human beings.

Furthermore, a group of living organisms containing similar individuals capable of

interbreeding is called a species. Approximately, there are around 8.7 million different species
of living forms on the Earth, but only 1.3 million of them have been discovered and described.
From this, it can be said that the diversity of living organisms make life on Earth truly
astonishing.
As you proceed to the lesson, you will learn more about the three concepts of
a species.

What is It

As mentioned from Lesson 1, we define biodiversity as the variety of life in a

particular habitat or ecosystem that renders direct or indirect values or standards to humans,
which help sustain a healthy environment.

There are three levels of biodiversity, namely:

 Genetic diversity  simply implies the variability or variety of versions of

the same genes within species.
 Species diversity  refers to the variety of species or organisms within an
ecosystem.
 Ecosystem diversity  refers to the variety of habitats or ecosystems that
exist within the biosphere.

31
What is a species?
It is the contingents or class of animals and plants, which usually establishing
subdivisions of genus. These are having common and permanent traits that can be
distinguished from other groups.

Additionally, it denotes the fundamental taxonomic unit. All living forms or

organisms have their species classification. However, differentiating what makes one
group of organisms different from another group is another thing, and it is not easy.

Why identify species?

Scientific communication  to categorize and communicate their work on various

organisms.
Phylogeny  to discern and scrutinize what makes groups different and how organisms are
related to one another.
Conservation  to track the status and diversity of population within an ecosystem.

Species Concepts
Scientists have developed various ideas on how to define a species. Here are a few
possible species concepts:

Biological species concept:

 Species are the groups of actually and potentially interbreeding natural
populations that are reproductively separated from such groups. (Mayr, 1940)

 A Species is a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated

from others) that inhabit a distinct position in nature (Mayr, 1982)
 Species are the members of a group of populations that breed or potentially
interbreed with each other under natural state or conditions (Futuyma, 1986)

 Use the ability to mate and produce offspring that can also mate and reproduce to
classify species.

Figure 1. The Western meadowlark (left) and

the Eastern meadowlark (right) appear to be
identical, and their ranges overlap, but their
distinct songs prevent interbreeding

Source: USFWS Mountain – Prairie, 2016

J. Amorin, 2014

Sturnella neglecta Sturnella magna

32
 Other Species Concepts

Typological or Morphological Species Concept.

The concept of typological species was coined
by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and botanist Linnaeus.
They thought that species are distinctive from other
organisms based on their physical characteristics.
However, they were wrong. This is due to some organisms
still classified as the same species even though they
have different colors.
Organisms alter at a certain time. Later on, the
concept has changed. Figure 2. Plant hydrangea having
pink "flowers" and modified leaves
 Use physical similarities to classify species. — or blue "flowers."

Source: M. LaBar, 2011

Figure 3. A species of Eurasian coot, Fulica

atra (left), resembles to a duck (right) but it is
not actually a duck species.

Source: I. Morton, 2018

Phylogenetic or
Evolutionary Species Concept. This concept suggests
that two or more groups that evolved independently from an ancestral population can be considered
and classified as belonging to various species. Also, it defines the species in terms of population and
ancestry.
Phylogeny. This concept posits that if the living organism goes to a similar species, it is evident that
they have common ancestry and must be distinct from the other contingents. To top it all, it refers to
the evolutionary history of a species.
Use shared, unique genetic history of classifying
species.

Ecological Species Concept. Basically, species are groups of populations that have similar
ecological requirements and nutritional needs. This concept says that members of the same
species occupy the same niche. However, species are ecologically different.
 Use the same ecological role or niche to classify species.

Figure 4. The Anopheles mosquito (left) and the Aedes mosquito (right) represent different species because they
are active at different times of the day, and prefer different breeding grounds, among other things.

Source: A. Guitarte, 2009

33
 J. Ragai, 2013

What I Can Do

Directions: Complete the paragraph by providing the correct answers found in the
word pool. Write your answers in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

sympatric
biological
adapted
ecological
reproductively isolating mechanisms

According to the species concept, a species is composed of

populations in which members mate with each other and produce fertile offspring. Members
of different species cannot interbreed successfully due to . Furthermore, this
species concept mainly is used for
species because it is difficult to apply to geographically separated
populations.

In contrast, the species concept suggests that

separation of species is maintained by natural selection in which each distinct species has
to its own specific part of the environment.

Assessment

Directions: Read each item analytically. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your
answers in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

1. It refers to the number and variety of species that live in an area.

a. Biodiversity
b. Community
c. Habitat
d. Population

2. Genetic biodiversity covers different varieties of a species.

a. different
b. equal genes
c. same
d. united
3. The phylogenetic species concept can be applied

34
 a. to sexually and asexually reproducing organisms.
b. only to sexually reproducing organisms.
c. without regard for trait differences.
d. based upon the presence or absence of a single gene pool.

4. Which of the following choices correctly describes the biological species concept?
a. This concept does not apply to asexual organisms.
b. Members of a species have a single gene pool.
c. Members of the same species can interbreed.
d. All of these choices describe the biological species concept correctly.

5. Which is not the type of biodiversity?

a. ecosystem
b. genetic
c. population
d. species

6. Which of these definitions of species most closely fit the biological species concept?
a. Members of the same species are all morphological species.
b. Members of the same species are all genetically identical.
c. Members of the same species look almost exactly alike.
d. Members of the same species can mate and produce fertile offspring.

7. Which of the following refers to the variety of species or organisms within an ecosystem?
a. species diversity
b. ecosystem diversity
c. genetic diversity
d. kingdom diversity

8. According to the biological species concept, a species is a population of organisms that

.

a. can successfully interbreed but cannot breed with other groups.

b. has a similar structure and appearance.
c. is physically separated from other organisms with a similar appearance.
d. can hybridize with each other to produce infertile offspring.

9. One limitation of the morphological species concept is that .

a. morphological characteristics are not easy to observe.

b. it cannot be applied to extinct organisms.
c. members of different species often appear quite different.
d. there can be morphological differences among individuals in a single
population.
10. How do you call the evolutionary history of a species?
a. diversity
b. interbreeding
c. phylogeny
d. species

35
 Lesson Classification of Organism
2 Using the Hierarchical
Taxonomic System
The process of grouping and putting things in order is called classification. This
concept can be useful in your life, in your studies, and even in your home. For instance, you
may use a classification system to organize your things in their appropriate places, like your
shoes on a shelf and your clothes in a locker.

Moreover, classification is a skill that a person may practice for a lifetime. There are
approximately more than ten million different species of plants and animals that exist on
Earth. With this existing diversity of organisms, and more new organisms being discovered
each day, a system for organizing living things is more than what society needs.

What is It

Classification of Living Things

Living organisms can be classified into groups depending on their shared
characteristics. Basically, living organisms within each group are divided into smaller groups.
These smaller groups are grounded on their detailed similarities from each larger group. Thus,
it makes scientists analyze and study groups of organisms because of this grouping system.
The main basis of this is the so-called characteristics such as appearance, reproduction,
mobility, and functionality. These specialized groups are collectively called the classification
of living things. There are seven levels of classification of living things which include:
kingdom, phylum, classes, order, families, genus, and species.

The Hierarchical Taxonomic System of an Organism

Do you at any point thought about how a letter from abroad arrives at your place in the
midst of the large numbers of houses and many nations around you? The solitary route by
which the postal carrier could give you the letter is through the location composed on the
envelope.
After the sender's end, the postal workers arrange each letter to organize all letters with
a similar nation of objective. This means letters are arranged by country. In this manner,
letters set out toward the Philippines will be independently stuffed. After arriving in the
Philippines, a mail is once more arranged by territory and city where further arranging will
happen.
Each one of these degrees of arrangement intended to help the mailman discover you
effectively relate to the progressive level devised by Linnaeus. This framework is arranged as
follows:

36
 Letter Linnaean System

Philippines Kingdom
Nueva Ecija Phylum
Science City of Muñoz Class
Matingkis Order
032 Family
Dela Cruz Genus
Maribeth Species

Figure 1: Carolus Linnaeus Source: P. R. Vignéron, 1872

A Greek Philosopher namely Aristotle, classified animals based on their habitat,
characteristics, and many more. After him, Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist in traduced
Taxonomic Hierarchy Categories way back 18th Century, we have tools that we are still using today
because of this system of classification. That is why he was considered the Father of Modern
Taxonomy.
The sequence of categories in increasing or decreasing order is called Taxonomic hierarchy. In
other words, it is an ordered group of taxonomic ranks which classify living forms from general to
specific. Consequently, each of these levels of the hierarchy is called taxonomic category or
rank. In this method, the kingdom is always ranked as the highest followed by division, class,
order, family, genus, and species.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Categories

Figure 2: Hierarchy of Biological

Classification Source: earth.com, 2018

37
 The main purpose of the classification of organisms is to place them into an existing
group or even create a new group depending on their resemblances to and/or differences from
known forms. Through stepping down in classification, groups of organisms can be more
specific.
To enumerate, there are eight distinct taxonomic categories. These are Domain,
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. With each step down in
classification, organisms are split into more and more specific groups. Domains refer to the
largest category that splits organisms into three groups. These three domains of life are
namely: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya

 Bacteria Domain (Regular Bacteria). All bacteria belong to the Domain Bacteria.
Domain Bacteria is made up of prokaryotes that usually have a cell wall and reproduce by
cell division. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus in their cells.
Bacteria live in almost any environment - soil, water, and even inside the human body.
 Archaea Domain (Ancient Bacteria). Archaea Domain is additionally composed of
prokaryotes. They vary from microorganisms in their hereditary qualities and the
composition of their cell dividers. Archaea live in stiff conditions, for example, hot

springs and warm vents, where different living things couldn't endure. Some archaea are
found in vast seas and soil.
 Eukarya Domain Organisms with a nucleus are considered to be eukaryotes. These are
made up of cells with the presence of a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. As
compared to prokaryotes, cells of eukaryotes are more complex. To sum it all up, Domain
Eukarya is made up of all eukaryotes.

Figure 3: The Three Domains of Life

Kingdom

The divisions of subgroups have been under the level of classification called "kingdom,"
and living things have been categorized into the following: Animalia; Plantae; Fungi; Protista;
and Monera.

Phylum (plural: Phyla)

This is more specific than the kingdom. Also, there are 35 phyla in the kingdom
Animalia. For Example – Porifera (sponges), Chordata, all organisms were having dorsal nerve
cords, Arthropoda (arthropods,) etc.

38
Class
This is considered to be the most general in the taxonomic hierarchy in the absence of
phyla. To consider, Kingdom Animalia comprises 108 classes, including Mammalia
(mammals), Reptilia (reptiles), Aves (birds), and the like. The classes utilized in today’s
education are dissimilar and most frequently used than the proposed classes of Carolus
Linnaeus in ancient times.
Order
This is a more specific rank than class. The order constitutes one or more than one
similar family. There are around 26 orders of Mammalia depending on how organisms are
classified such as Cetaceans (whales, dolphins), Carnivora (large carnivores/omnivores),
Chiroptera (bats)

Family
This classification of ordered chain of importance incorporates different genera that
share a couple of similarities. E.g., the families, accordingly, Carnivora incorporate Canidae
(canines, wolves, foxes), Felidae (felines), Ursidae (bears), and so on
Genus (plural: Genera)
This is a group that belongs to the same species. In line with this, the) terms monotypic
refers to some genera having only one species, while polytypic have more than one species.
(e.g., lion and tiger are placed under the genus Panthera.
It is more specific than family. It is also the first part of an organism’s scientific name
with the utility of the so-called binomial nomenclature. This is defined as a two-part
system of naming species; species are referred to by their genus name followed by their species
name.
Another is the species name. It is said that organisms’ scientific names are italicized
while the genus name is capitalized. However, the species name is not. In relative to this,
genus and species are the only taxonomic ranks that are italicized. The scientific name for
humans is Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus name, while sapiens is the species name.
Species
This is the lowest but the most specific major taxonomic rank. These are sometimes
separated into subspecies. However, not all species have multiple forms that are different
enough to be called subspecies. For instance, Ursus americanus is the American black bear,
while Bufo americanus is the American toad. The species name is always italicized, but never
capitalized. In this case, species name is always italicized, but never capitalized. Thus, it is the
only taxonomic rank that is not capitalized.

Figure 3: The Three Domains of Life Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/

39
 What’s More

Activity 1
Directions: Organize the seven levels of classification in their proper order. Write
your answers in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

Species Kingdom Family Phylum Genus Order Class

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Activity 2
Directions: Examine the table showing the classification of four organisms. Then answer the
questions in your notebook/ on a separate sheet of paper.

TAXON HUMAN HOUSE CAT DOMESTIC DOG MOUNTAIN LION

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Order Primates Carnivora Carnivora Carnivora
Family Hominidae Felidae Canidae Felidae
Genus Homo Felis Canis Felis
Species sapiens domesticus familiaris concolor
1. Which two organisms are most closely related?
2. What three taxa do all four organisms have in common?

3. Which taxon includes organisms that have hair or fur and produce milk?

4. Which taxon includes animals with backbones?

40
 5. Write the scientific name for each of the organisms above.

Assessment

Directions: Read each item analytically. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your
answers in your notebook/on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What makes up a phylum?

a. species
b. order c. families
d. classes
2. Besides belonging to the same class, what other taxon do both humans and
monkeys have in common?
a. genus
b. family c. order
d. phylum
3. The largest division of a kingdom is called .
a. phylum
b. class c. order
d. family
4. Which among the following areas of taxonomy refers to the giving of names to living
organisms?
a. identification
b. nomenclature c. classification
d. taxon
5. Branch of biology that deals with naming and classifying things such as animals and plants
within a larger system, according to their similarities and differences.
a. Taxonomy
b. Botany c. Zoology
d. Geology
6. In the binomial system of classification, an organism is given two names. What is it
composed of?
a. species and genus name
b. family and genus name c. order and species name
d. class and species name
7. He is considered the Father of Modern Taxonomy that developed the hierarchical system of
an organism.
a. Anton van Leeuwenhoek c. Carolus Linnaeus
b. Aristotle d. Hippocrates

41
 8. Which is used by scientists to classify organisms?
a. common names
b. structural similarities c. scientific names
d. identification keys
9. Which is the CORRECT sequence from broad to a specific classification of
organism?
a. Domain, Genus, Family, Order, Class, Phylum, Kingdom, Species
b. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
c. Domain, Species, Kingdom, Genus, Phylum, Family, Class, Order
d. Domain, Order Kingdom, Species, Phylum, Family, Class, Genus
10. What taxonomical hierarchy do all organisms that interbreed belong?
a. family
b. species c. order
d. genus

42
43