(d) The Half-Bridge.

Of all the symmetrical high power converters, the half-bridge converter shown in Fig. 12 is the most
popular.
It is also referred to as the single ended push-pull, and in principle is a balanced version of the
forward converter.
Again it is a derivative of the buck. The Half-Bridge has some key advantages over the push-pull,
which usually makes it first choice for higher power applications in the 500 to 1000W range.
Operation:
The two mains bulk capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series and an artificial input voltage
mid-point is provided, shown as point A in the diagram. The two transistor switches are driven
alternately, and this connects each capacitor across the single primary winding each half cycle.
Vin/2 is superimposed symmetrically across the primary in a push-pull manner. Power is
transferred directly to the output on each transistor conduction time and a maximum duty cycle of
90% is available (Some dead time is required to prevent transistor cross- conduction.) Since the
primary is driven in both directions, (natural reset) a full wave buck output filter (operating at twice
the switching frequency) rather than a half wave filter is implemented.
This again results in very efficient core utilization. As can be seen in Fig. 13, the waveforms are
identical to the push-pull, except that the voltage across the transistors is halved. (The device
current would be higher for the same output power.)

Fig. 12 Half-Bridge converter.

Advantages.
Since both transistors are effectively in series, they never see greater than the supply
voltage, Vin. When both are off, their voltages reach an equilibrium point of Vin/2. This is
half the voltage rating of the push-pull (although double the current). This means that the
half-bridge is particularly suited to high voltage inputs, such as off-line applications.
For example, a 220V mains application can use two higher speed, higher efficiency 450V
transistors instead of the 800V types needed for a push-pull. This allows higher
frequency operation.
Another major advantage over the push-pull is that the transformer saturation problems
due to flux symmetry imbalance are not a problem. By using a small capacitor
(less than 10F) any dc build-up of flux in the transformer is blocked, and only symmetrical
ac is drawn from the input.
The configuration of the half-bridge allows clamp diodes to be added across the
transistors, shown as D3 and D4 in Fig. 12. The leakage inductance and magnetization
energies are dumped straight back into the two input capacitors, protecting the transistors
from dangerous transients and improving overall efficiency.
A less obvious exclusive advantage of the half-bridge is that the two series reservoir
capacitors already exist, and this makes it ideal for implementing a voltage doubling circuit.
This permits the use of either 110V /220V mains as selectable inputs to the supply.
The bridge circuits also have the same advantages over the single-ended types that the
push-pull possesses, including excellent transformer utilization, very low output ripple, and
high output power capabilities.
The limiting factor in the maximum output power available from the half-bridge is the peak
current handling capabilities of present day transistors. 1000W is typically the upper power
limit. For higher output powers the four switch full bridge is normally used.

Disadvantages.
The need for two 50/60 Hz input capacitors is a drawback because of their large size. The
top transistor must also have isolated drive, since the gate / base is at a floating potential.
Furthermore, if snubbers are used across the power transistors, great care must be taken
in their design, since the symmetrical action means that they will interact with one another.
The circuit cost and complexity have clearly increased, and this must be weighed up
against the advantages gained. In many cases, this normally excludes the use of the half-
bridge at output power levels below 500W.
Suitable transistors and rectifiers for the half-bridge are given in Table 6.
Fig. 13 Half-Bridge waveforms.
Influence of R.F.I. on the choice of converter
This section deals with R.F.I. considerations of primary switches and secondary
rectifying diodes only. The techniques will be applied to a power supply operating
at 500 kHz that has been developed to deliver a single 5V output at 15A, from
250V a.c. mains input. The converter choice is a half bridge circuit to minimize the
loss in the circuit due to COSS.
A single heatsink arrangement is required to minimise size, so primary and
secondary semiconductors need to be thermally cooled on the same heatsink.
R.F.I. currents need to be prevented from coupling primary to secondarythrough
the heatsink. Connection of R.F.I. screens underneath all components attached to
the metal is not necessary when the structure of the semiconductors is understood.

Taking the rectifiers first:-

The arrangement of the output bridge is shown in Fig. 7.
The cathodes of the diodes are connected to the substrate within their
encapsulation. Thus, as long as the cathodes are connected as close as possible
to the ceramic capacitor, C3, of the output filter, the common cathode/capacitor
junction is a solid a.c. earth point.
Therefore, no R.F.I. currents are connected into the common heatsink. An isolated
encapsulation for an electrical arrangement such as this is all that is needed to
minimize R.F.I. from diodes to heatsink.
Considering next the primary power transistors:-
The arrangement of power transistors is also shown in Fig. 7. The drains of the
transistors are connected to the substrates of their encapsulations. Thus, as long
as TR1 is connected as close as possible to the film-foil bridge capacitors, C1 and
C2, the common drain/capacitor junction is a solid a.c. earth point. A SOT-186,
SOT-186A, SOT-199 or TO-220 with mica washers may be suitable for TR1, the
final selection being dependent on the isolation requirements. For TR2, the drain
and therefore the substrate is modulated by the action of the circuit. Thus, without
preventive action, R.F.I. currents will be coupled to the heatsink.
The transistor TR2 is in a similar situation to one in a flyback or forward
configuration. A simple solution is to use a SOT-186 (F-pack), plus copper screen
connected to the transistor source lead and the film-foil capacitor, C2, plus
whatever degree of isolation is required to the heatsink.
This assembly was tested, and the result was that the screen reduced the line
R.F.I. peaks by an average of 10dB over the range 500kHz to 10MHz. A small
percentage of this can be attributed to the distance that the copper screen moves
the substrate away from the heatsink. Nevertheless, the majority is due to the
inclusion of the 0.1mm thick copper screen.
The conclusion is that a variety of encapsulations is necessary to allow R.F.I. to be
minimized when the power supply is constructed.
Conclusions
This paper shows how to calculate some of the limiting parameters in the
application of semiconductors to high frequency SMPS. It also highlights new
encapsulations developed for high frequency power conversion applications. Some
of the range of encapsulations was demonstrated in a 500kHz half-bridge off-line
switcher.
Reverse recovery
a) QS, trr and Irrm
Following VF, the most important feature of a high frequency rectifier is the reverse
recovery characteristic. This affects S.M.P.S. performance in several ways. These include
increased diode switching loss, higher peak turn-on current and dissipation in the power
transistors, and increased generation of electro-magnetic interference (e.m.i.) and voltage
transient oscillations in the outputs. Clearly, the rectifier must have optimum reverse
recovery characteristics to keep this catalogue of effects to a minimum. WhentheP-N diode
is conducting forward current, a charge is built up in the base region, consisting of both
electrons and holes. It is the presence of this charge which is the key to achieving low Vf.
The higher the forward current, the greater is this stored charge. In order to commutate the
diode (i.e switch the device from forward conduction into reverse blocking mode) this
charge has to be removed from the diode before the base can sustain any reverse
blocking voltage. The removal of this charge manifests itself as a substantial transient
reverse current spike, which can also generate a reverse voltage overshoot oscillation
across the diode.
The waveforms of the reverse recovery for a fast rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.

The rectifier is switched from its forward conduction at a particular rate, called dIF/dt.
Stored charge
begins to be extracted after the current passes through zero, and an excess reverse
current flows. At this point the charge is being removed by both the forcing action of the
circuit, and recombination within the device (dependent upon the base characteristics and
doping levels).
At some point the charge has fallen to a low enough level for a depletion region to be
supported across the base, thus allowing the diode to support reverse voltage. The peak
of reverse current, Irrm occurs just after this point. The time for the current to pass through
zero to its peak reverse value is called ta. From then on, the rectifier is in blocking mode,
and the reverse current then falls back to zero, as the remainder of the stored charge is
removed mostly by recombination. The time for the peak reverse current to fall from its
maximum to 10% of this value is called tb.
The stored charge, Qs, is the area under the current-time curve and is normally quoted in
nano-Coulombs. The sum of ta and tb is called the rectifier reverse recovery time, trr and
gives a measure of the switching speed of the rectifier.

Factors influencing reverse recovery

In practice, the three major parameters trr, Qs and Irrm are all dependent upon the
operating condition of the rectifier.
This is summarised as follows:-
• Increasing the forward current, IF, increases trr, Qs and Irrm.
• Increasing the dIF/dt rate by using a faster transistor and reducing stray inductance,
significantly decreases trr, but increases Qs and Irrm. High dIF/dt rates occur in the high
frequency square wave switching found in S.M.P.S. applications. (MOSFETs can produce
very small fall times, resulting in very fast dIF/dt).
• Increasing diode junction temperature, Tj increases all three.
• Reducing the reverse voltage across the diode, Vr , also slightly increases all three.

Specifying reverse recovery

Presently, all manufacturers universally quote the trr figure as a guide. This figure is
obtained using fixed test procedures. There are two standard test methods normally used:-
Method 1
Referring to the waveform of Fig. 7:
IF = 1A; dIF/dt =50A/sec; Vr > 30V; Tj= 25°C.
trr is measured to 10% of Irrm.
Fig. 8 E.I.A. trr test procedure.
Method 2

IF = 0.5A, the reverse current is clamped to 1A and trr is measured to 0.25A.

This is the Electronics Industries Association (E.I.A.) test procedure, and is outlined in Fig.
8.
The first and more stringent test is the one used by Philips.
The second method, used by the majority of competitors will give a trr figure typically 30%
lower than the first, i.e. will make the devices look faster. Even so, Philips have the best
trr / Qs devices available on the market.
For example,
the Philips BYW29 200V, 8A device has a trr of 25ns, the competitor devicesquote 35ns
using the easiersecond test.
This figure would be even higher using test method 1.
Reverse recovery is specified in data by Philips in terms of all three parameters trr, Qs and
Irrm. Each of these parameters however is dependent on exact circuit conditions. A set of
characteristics is therefore provided showing how each varies as a function of dIf/dt,
forward current and temperature, Fig. 9. These curves enable engineers to realise what
the precise reverse recovery performance will be under circuit operating conditions. This
performance will normally be worse than indicated by the quoted figures, which generally
speaking do not reflect circuit conditions. For example, a BYW29 is quoted as having a trr
of 25 ns but from the curves it may be as high as 90 ns when operated at full current and
high dIF/dt.
Similarly aquotedQs of 11 nC compares with the full current worst case of 170 nC.
In the higher voltage devices (500V and 800V types) trr and Qs are much higher, and will
probably be the most critical parameters in the rectification process. Care must be taken
to ensure that actual operating conditions are used when estimating more realistic values.
Frequency range
Figure 10 compares the recovery of a Philips 200V FRED with a double diffused type. The
FRED may be switched approximately10 times faster than the double diffused type.
This allows frequencies of up to 1MHz to be achieved with the 200V range.

In the higher voltage devices where the base width is increased to sustain the
reverse voltage, the amount of stored charge increases, as does the trr. For a
500V device, 500kHzoperation is possible,andfor 800Vtypically 200kHz
is realistic.
Fig. 10 Comparison of reverse recovery of FRED vs double diffused.
(a) Philips 200V FRED.
(b) Double-diffused diode.

Effects on S.M.P.S operation

In order to analyse the effects of reverse recovery on the power supply, a simple
non-isolated buck converter shown in Fig. 11 is considered. The rectifier D1 in this
application is used in freewheel mode, and conducts forward current during the
transistor off-time.

Fig. 11 Buck converter.

The waveforms for the diode and transistor switch during the reverse recovery of
the diode when the transistor turns on again are given in Fig. 12.
As the transistor turns on, the current ramps up in the transistor as it decays and
reverses in the diode. The dIF/dt is mainly dependent on the transistor fall time
and, to some extent, the circuit parasitic inductances. During the period ta the
diode has no blocking capability and therefore the transistor must support the
supply voltage. The transistor thus simultaneously supports a high voltage and
conducts both the load current and the reverse recovery current, implying a high
internal power dissipation. After time ta the diode blocking capability is restored
and the voltage across the transistor begins to fall. It is clear that a diode with an
Irrm half the value of IF will effectively double the peak power dissipation in the
transistor at turn-on. In severe cases where a high Irrm / trr rectifier is used,
transistor failure could occur by exceeding the peak current or power dissipation
rating of the device.
Fig. 12 Formas de onda do Tempo de recuperação do diodo e do Transistor.

There is also an additional loss in the diode to be considered. This is a product of

the peak Irrm and the diode reverse voltage,Vr. The duration of current recovery to
zero will affect the magnitude of the diode loss. However, in most cases the
additional transistor loss is much greater than the diode loss.
Diode loss calculation
As an example of the typical loss in the diode, consider the BYW29, 8A, 200V
device as the buck freewheel diode, for the following conditions:-
IF = 8A; Vr =100V; dIF/dt = 50A/s;
Tj = 25°C; duty ratio D = 0.5; f = 100KHz.
The diode reverse recovery loss is given by:-

From the curves of Fig. 7, trr=35ns, Irrm = 1.5A. Assuming tb = trr/2 gives:
This is still small compared to the diode VF conduction loss of approximately 3.6 W.
However, at Tj=100°C, dIF/dt=100A/s and f=200kHz, the loss becomes 1.05W, which is
fairly significant. In the higher voltage devices where trr and Irrm are significantly worse,
then the frequency dependent switching loss will tend to dominate, and can be higher than
the conduction loss. This will limit the upper frequency of operation of the diode.
The turn-on current spike generated in the primary circuits due to diode reverse recovery
can also seriously affect the control of the S.M.P.S. when current mode control is used
(where the peak current is sensed). An RC snubber is usually required to remove the spike
from the sense inputs.
Good reverse recovery removes the need for these additional components.

b) Softness and dIR/dt

When considering the reverse recovery characteristics, it is not just the magnitude (trr and
Irrm) which is important, but also the shape of the recovery waveform. The rate at which
the peak reverse current Irrm falls to zero during time tb is also important. The maximum
rate of this slope is called dIR/dt and is especially significant. If this slope is very fast,
it will generate significant radiated and conducted electrical noise in the supply,
causing R.F.I. problems.
t will also generate high transient voltages across circuit inductances in series with the
diode, which in severe cases may cause damage to the diode or the transistor switch by
exceeding breakdown limits.

Fig. 13 "Soft" and "snappy" reverse recovery.

A diode which exhibits an extremely fast dIR/dt is said to have a "snap-off" or "abrupt"
recovery, and one which returns at a relatively smooth, gentle rate to zero is said to
have a soft recovery. These two cases are shown in the waveforms in Fig. 13. The
softness is dependent upon whether there is enough charge left in the base, after the
full spread of the depletion region in blocking mode, to allow the current to return to zero
smoothly. It is mainly by the recombination mechanism that this remaining charge is
removed during tb.
Maintaining tb at a minimum would obviously give some reduction to the diode internal
loss. However, a snappy rectifier will produce far more R.F.I. and transient voltages.
The power saving must therefore be weighed against the additional cost of the snubbers
and filtering which would otherwise be required if the rectifier had a snappy characteristic.
The frequency range of R.F.I. generated by dIR/dt typically lies in the range of 1MHz
to 30MHz, the magnitude being dependent upon how abrupt the device is. One
secondary effect that is rarely mentioned is the additional transformer losses that will occur
due to the extremely high frequencies generated inside it by the diode recovery waveform.
For example, core loss at 10MHz for a material designed to operate at 100kHz can be
significant. There will also be additional high frequency loss in the windings due to the
skin effect. In this case the use of a soft device which generates a lower frequency noise
range will reduce these losses.
Characterising softness
A method currently used by some manufacturers to characterise the softness of a device
is called the softness factor, S. This is defined as the ratio of tb over ta.

An abrupt device would have S much less than 1, and a soft device would have S greater
than 1.
A compromise between R.F.I. and diode loss is usually required, and a softness factor
equal to 1 would be the most suitable value for a fast epitaxial diode.

Fig. 14 Different diode dIR/dt rates for same softness

factor.
Although the softness factor does give a rough guide to the type of recovery and helps in
the calculation of the diode switching loss, it does not give the designer any real idea of
the dIR/dt that the rectifier will produce. Hence, levels of R.F.I. and overvoltages could be
different for devices with the same softness factor. This is shown in Fig. 14, where the
three characteristics have the same softness factor but completely different dIR/dt rates.
In practice, a suitable level for dIR/dt would be to have It very similar in magnitude to
dIF/dt. This would keep the noise generated to a minimum.

At present there is no universal procedure used by manufacturers to characterise

softness, and so any figures quoted must be viewed closely to check the conditions of
the test.
Comparison with competitor devices
Figure 15 compares a BYV32 with an equivalent competitor device. This test was carried
out using an L.E.M. Qs test unit.
The conditions for each diode were identical. The results were as follows:-
Fig. 15 Comparison of softness of reverse recovery.
(a) Philips BYV32 200V 8A device
(b) Equivalent competitor device
BYV32:- S = 1.2, dIR/dt = 40A/ms, Voltage overshoot = 5V
Competitor:- S = 0.34, dIR/dt = 200A/ms, Voltage overshoot = 22V
For the Philips device, apart from the very low Qs and Irrm values obtained, the S factor
was near 1 and the dIR/dt rate was less than the original dIF/dt of 50A/ms. These
excellent parameters produce minimal noise and the very small overshoot voltage
shown. The competitor device was much snappier, the dIR/dt was 4 times the original
dIF/dt, and caused a much more severe overshoot voltage with the associated greater
R.F.I. The diode loss is also higher in the competitor device even though it is more
abrupt, since Qs and Irrm are larger.
The low Qs of the Philips FRED range thus maintains diode loss to a minimum while
providing very soft recovery. This means using a Philips type will significantly reduce
R.F.I. and dangerous voltage transients, and in many cases reduce the power supply
component count by removing the need for diode snubbers.
Forward recovery
A further diode characteristic which can affect S.M.P.S. operation is the forward recovery
voltage Vfr. Although this is not normally as important as the reverse recovery effects
in rectification, it can be particularly critical in some special applications.

Fig. 16 Forward recovery characteristics.

Forward recovery is caused by the lack of minority carriers in the rectifier p-n junction
during diode turn-on. At the instant a forward bias is applied, there are no carriers
present at the junction. This means that at the start of conduction, the diode impedance
is high, and an initial forward voltage overshoot will occur. As the current flows and
charge builds up, conductivity modulation (minority carrier injection) takes place. The
impedance of the rectifier falls and hence, the forward voltage drop falls rapidly back to
the steady state value.
The peak value of the forward voltage is known as the forward recovery voltage, Vfrm.
The time from the forward current reaching 10% of the steady state value to the time the
forward voltage falls to within 10% of the final steady state value is known as the forward
recovery time (Fig. 16).
The magnitude and duration of the forward recovery is normally dependent upon the
device and the way it is commutated in the circuit. High voltage devices will produce
larger Vfrm values, since the base width and resistivity (impedance) is greater.
The main operating conditions which affect Vfr are:-
• If; high forward current, which produces higher Vfr.
• Current rise time, tr; a fast rise time produces higher Vfr.
Effects on s.m.p.s.
The rate of rise in forward current in the diode is normally controlled by the switching
speed of the power transistor.
When the transistor is turned off, the voltage across it rises, and the reverse voltage bias
across the associated rectifier falls. Once the diode becomes forward biased there is a
delay before conduction is observed. During this time, the transistor voltage overshoots
the d.c supply voltage while it is still conducting a high current. This can result in the
failure of the transistor in extreme cases if the voltage limiting value is exceeded. If not, it
will simply add to the transistor and diode dissipation. Waveforms showing this effect are
given in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17 Forward recovery effect on transistor voltage.

Table 1 outlines typical Vfrm values specified for rectifiers of different voltage rating. This
shows the relatively low values obtained. No comparable data for any of the competitor
devices could be found in their datasheets. It should be noted that in most S.M.P.S.
rectifier applications, forward recovery can be considered the least important factor in the
selection of the rectifier.

Table 1. Vfrm values for different Philips devices.

Reverse leakage current

When a P-N junction is reverse biased, there is always an inherent reverse leakage
current that flows. In any piece of undoped semiconductor material there is a thermally
generated background level of electron and hole pairs.
These pairs also naturally recombine, such that an equilibrium is established. In a p-n
junction under reverse voltage conditions, the electric field generated will sweep some of
the free carriers generated out of the device before they can recombine, hence causing a
leakage current. This phenomenon is shown in Fig. 18.
Fig. 18 Clarification of reverse leakage current.
When the rectifier base is gold doped to decrease Qs and trr, a new energy level is
introduced very close to the centre of the semiconductor energy band gap. This provides
lower energy transition paths as shown, and thermal generation (and recombination) of
hole-electron pairs is more frequent.
Thus, the reverse leakage current is greater still in the killed, fast rectifier.
Since the pairs are generated thermally, it is obvious that raising the junction temperature
will increase the leakage significantly. For example, the leakage current of a FRED can
increase by up to 20 times by raising the junction temperature, Tj from 25°C to 100°C.
This increase can be far greater in other diode technologies.
Many S.M.P.S. designers have a misconception about leakage current, and believe that
it renders the rectifier poor quality, giving high losses, and is unreliable. This is not so.
Leakage is a naturally occurring effect, and is present in all rectifiers. The leakage in an
S.M.P.S. diode is normally extremely small and stable, with very little effect on the
rectification process. Some manufacturers have over-emphasised the benefits of very
low leakage devices, claiming that they have great advantages. However, this will be
shown to be groundless, since any reduction in the overall diode power loss will be
minimal.
In practice, the reverse leakage current only becomes significant at high operating
temperatures (above 75°C) and for high reverse blocking voltages (above 500V), where
the product of reverse voltage and leakage current (hence, power loss) is higher. Even
then, the leakage current is still usually lower than 1mA.
Table 2 lists the maximum leakage currents for some of the devices from the Philips
range (gold killed), revealing low levels, even in the higher voltage devices, achieved
through optimised doping.
Table 2. Maximum reverse leakage currents for Philips devices.
The power dissipation due to leakage is a static loss and depends on the product of the
reverse voltage and the leakage current over a switching cycle. A worst case example is
given below where the data sheet leakage current maximum is used at maximum reverse
blocking voltage of the diode.
S.M.P.S example:-Flyback converter
Consider first the BYV29-500 as the output rectifier in the discontinuous flyback converter
(Note: the reverse blocking occurs during the transistor on time, and a minimum duty
of 0.25 has been assumed.) The BYV29-500 could generate a possible maximum output
voltage of 125V. The maximum leakage power loss is:-

Alternatively, for the BYR29-800, maximum rectified output is approximately 200V, and
by similar calculations, its maximum loss is 40mW. Lower output voltages would give
leakage losses lower than this figure.
These types of calculation can be carried out for other topologies, when similar low
values are obtained.
Conclusion
Philips produces a comprehensive range of Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diodes. The devices
have been designed to exhibit the lowest possible Vf while minimising the major reverse
recovery parameters,Qs, trr and Irrm. Because of the low Qs, switching losses within the
circuit are minimised, allowing use up to very high frequencies. The soft recovery
characteristic engineered into all devices makes them suitable for use in today’s
applications where low R.F.I. is an important consideration. Soft recovery also provides
additional benefits such as reduced high frequency losses in the transformer core and, in
some cases, the removal of snubbing components.