Titanium Alloys 2017

Titanium Alloys
2017
Edited by
Mark T. Whittaker
Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Metals
www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
Titanium Alloys 2017
Special Issue Editor

Mark T. Whittaker
MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade

Special Issue Editor
Mark T. Whittaker
Swansea University
UK
Editorial Office
MDPI
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Basel, Switzerland
This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Metals
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issues/titanium-2017)
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Contents
About the Special Issue Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Mark T. Whittaker
Reprinted from: Metals 2018, 8, 319, doi: 10.3390/met8050319 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Changzhou Yu, Peng Cao and Mark Ian Jones

Titanium Powder Sintering in a Graphite Furnace and Mechanical Properties of Sintered Parts
Changzhou Yu, Peng Cao and Mark Ian Jones

Microstructural Evolution during Pressureless Sintering of Blended Elemental Ti-Al-V-Fe
Titanium Alloys from Fine Hydrogenated-Dehydrogenated Titanium Powder
Elena N. Korosteleva, Victoria V. Korzhova and Maksim G. Krinitcyn

Sintering Behavior and Microstructure of TiC-Me Composite Powder Prepared by SHS
Nina Radishevskaya, Olga Lepakova, Natalia Karakchieva, Anastasiya Nazarova,

Nikolai Afanasiev, Anna Godymchuk and Alexander Gusev
Self-Propagating High Temperature Synthesis of TiB2 –MgAl2 O4 Composites
Dongjun Wang, Hao Yuan and Jianming Qiang

The Microstructure Evolution, Mechanical Properties and Densification Mechanism of
TiAl-Based Alloys Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering
Fengyong Wu, Wenchen Xu, Xueze Jin, Xunmao Zhong, Xingjie Wan, Debin Shan and
Bin Guo
Study on Hot Deformation Behavior and Microstructure Evolution of Ti-55 High-Temperature
Titanium Alloy
Xiaoguang Fan, Qi Li, Anming Zhao, Yuguo Shi and Wenjia Mei
The Effect of Initial Structure on Phase Transformation in Continuous Heating of a TA15
Titanium Alloy
Shuyu Sun and Weijie Lu

Effect of Hybrid Reinforcements on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of
Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-Fe-Cr Titanium Alloy
Hongbo Ba, Limin Dong, Zhiqiang Zhang and Xiaofei Lei

Effects of Trace Si Addition on the Microstructures and Tensile Properties of
Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr Alloy
v
Le Chang, Chang-Yu Zhou and Xiao-Hua He
The Effects of Prestrain and Subsequent Annealing on Tensile Properties of CP-Ti
Guangbao Mi, Kai Yao, Pengfei Bai, Congqian Cheng and Xiaohua Min
High Temperature Oxidation and Wear Behaviors of Ti–V–Cr Fireproof Titanium Alloy
Xiaocong He, Cong Deng and Xianlian Zhang

Fretting Behavior of SPR Joining Dissimilar Sheets of Titanium and Copper Alloys
vi
About the Special Issue Editor
Mark T. Whittaker is an Associate Professor in the Institute of Structural Materials at Swansea
University and has produced over 70 publications, including three invited book chapters and 50
papers in leading international journals on topics including titanium alloys, high temperature lifing,
thermo-mechanical fatigue and modern creep lifing approaches. He is also a board member of the
IOM3 Structure and Properties of Materials committee. His current research programmes involve
sponsorship from Rolls-Royce, EPSRC and TIMET UK. He has over 15 years of experience in a wide
range of alloys. He is also heavily involved in research into the thermo-mechanical fatigue behaviour
and creep lifing of alloys for the power generation/aerospace sectors, with particular expertise in
property extrapolation using the recently developed ’Wilshire equations’.
vii
metals
Editorial
Mark T. Whittaker
Institute of Structural Materials, Bay Campus, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK;
[email protected]
Received: 20 April 2018; Accepted: 1 May 2018; Published: 5 May 2018
1. Introduction and Scope

Although titanium was originally discovered in the 18th century [1], significant developments
in the titanium industry only occurred in the middle of the 20th century. These changes resulted
from the emergence of the gas turbine engine and led to the development of industries focussing on
titanium sponge production in USA, Europe, and Japan [2]. Since that time, the aerospace sector has
dominated the titanium use worldwide. The metal has applications in both engines and airframe
structures. Titanium has a highly desirable combination of properties, which include excellent corrosion
resistance, a high strength-to-weight ratio, and good fatigue resistance. Such qualities enable extensive
applications, and only its high extraction and processing costs restrict further implementation.
Although the aerospace industry faces challenges related to increasing operating temperatures
and the development of polymer-based composites, innovative solutions, including metal–matrix
composites and titanium aluminides, provide pathways for future development. Furthermore,
improvements in extractive metallurgy and processing methods have made titanium-based alloys
more accessible to alternative industries. Industries currently utilising these materials include the
sports, biomedical, and marine sectors.
2. Contributions
As part of this Special Issue, I am delighted to present a collection of high-quality papers which
cover a range of topics from the extensive field of titanium alloys, including processing, mechanical
properties, microstructural evolution, titanium-based composites, and titanium aluminides. The paper
by Yu et al. [3] provides an insight into the possibilities of isothermal atmospheric sintering of
commercially pure titanium powders, generating satisfactory mechanical properties. A second paper by
the authors continues the theme of sintered titanium powders, this time investigating the microstructural
evolution of Ti–Al–V–Fe alloys [4]. Titanium-based composites, also produced by a vacuum sintering
process, have also found an application in the rapidly developing field of additive manufacturing,
and the paper by Korosteleva et al. [5] is an interesting investigation into the latest development
of these materials. Similarly, titanium boride-based composites as heat insulating materials are an
example of a material with a more unique application [6].
As more traditional applications are supplemented by exciting new opportunities, it is clear
that extensive research opportunities are likely to exist in the titanium industry for the foreseeable
future. Currently, an active area of research regards titanium aluminides, where the difficulties of
these low-ductility materials are offset by their potential for weight saving and higher-temperature
operation. The interesting work by Wang et al. [7] relating microstructure and mechanical properties is
a welcome addition to this compilation.
The more traditional areas of research into microstructure and mechanical properties of titanium
alloys, however, continue to provide fascinating and industrially relevant research. Processing parameters
and their effect on microstructure is a focus of the work presented by Wu et al. [8], and structure evolution
is also considered in the work by Fan et al. [9]. It is always fascinating to see papers in an area of my
Metals 2018, 8, 319; doi:10.3390/met8050319 1 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2018, 8, 319
own previous research interest, namely, the mechanical properties of titanium alloys, and the paper
by Sun et al. [10] aptly describes the effects of hybrid reinforcements on a titanium alloy. Similarly,
the work by Ba et al. [11] examines the effect of silicon addition on both microstructure and tensile
properties and provides an interesting read, as does the work by Chang on CP titanium [12]. Fretting
and wear behaviour is an important application-based topic and is currently being actively researched
in titanium alloys, as evidenced here by the papers by Mi et al. [13] and He et al. [14].
The titanium industry faces many challenges in the modern world, but the flexibility of the
material and its ability to adapt to an ever-widening range of industrial applications illustrates the
broad scope of opportunities for continuing research. It is my hope that this collection of papers
indicates the strength and continuing diversity of titanium alloys and provides a valuable addition to
an already comprehensive field of research.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
References
1. Bomberger, H.B.; Froes, F.H.; Morton, P.H. Titanium Technology: Present Status and Future Trends; TDA:
Dayton, OH, USA, 1985; p. 3.
2. Lutjering, G.; Williams, J.C. Titanium; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2003; p. 2.
3. Yu, C.; Cao, P.; Jones, M.I. Titanium Powder Sintering in a Graphite Furnace and Mechanical Properties of
Sintered Parts. Metals 2017, 7, 67. [CrossRef]
4. Yu, C.; Cao, P.; Jones, M.I. Microstructural Evolution during Pressureless Sintering of Blended Elemental
Ti-Al-V-Fe Titanium Alloys from Fine Hydrogenated-Dehydrogenated Titanium Powder. Metals 2017, 7, 285.
[CrossRef]
5. Korosteleva, E.N.; Korzhova, V.V.; Krinitcyn, M.G. Sintering Behavior and Microstructure of TiC-Me
Composite Powder Prepared by SHS. Metals 2017, 7, 290. [CrossRef]
6. Radishevskaya, N.; Lepakova, O.; Karakchieva, N.; Nazarova, A.; Afanasiev, N.; Godymchuk, A.; Gusev, A.
Self-Propagating High Temperature Synthesis of TiB2 –MgAl2 O4 Composites. Metals 2017, 7, 295. [CrossRef]
7. Wang, D.; Yuan, H.; Qiang, J. The Microstructure Evolution, Mechanical Properties and Densification
Mechanism of TiAl-Based Alloys Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering. Metals 2017, 7, 201. [CrossRef]
8. Wu, F.; Xu, W.; Jin, X.; Zhong, X.; Wan, X.; Shan, D.; Guo, B. Study on Hot Deformation Behavior and
Microstructure Evolution of Ti55 High-Temperature Titanium Alloy. Metals 2017, 7, 319. [CrossRef]
9. Fan, X.; Li, Q.; Zhao, A.; Shi, Y.; Mei, W. The Effect of Initial Structure on Phase Transformation in Continuous
Heating of a TA15 Titanium Alloy. Metals 2017, 7, 200. [CrossRef]
10. Sun, S.; Lu, W. Effect of Hybrid Reinforcements on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of
Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-Fe-Cr Titanium Alloy. Metals 2017, 7, 250. [CrossRef]
11. Ba, H.; Dong, L.; Zhang, Z.; Lei, X. Effects of Trace Si Addition on the Microstructures and Tensile Properties
of Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr Alloy. Metals 2017, 7, 286. [CrossRef]
12. Chang, L.; Zhou, C.; He, X. The Effects of Prestrain and Subsequent Annealing on Tensile Properties of CP-Ti.
Metals 2017, 7, 99. [CrossRef]
13. Mi, G.; Yao, K.; Bai, P.; Cheng, C.; Min, X. High Temperature Oxidation and Wear Behaviors of Ti–V–Cr
Fireproof Titanium Alloy. Metals 2017, 7, 226. [CrossRef]
14. He, X.; Deng, C.; Zhang, X. Fretting Behavior of SPR Joining Dissimilar Sheets of Titanium and Copper
Alloys. Metals 2016, 6, 312. [CrossRef]
© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
2
metals
Article
Titanium Powder Sintering in a Graphite Furnace and
Mechanical Properties of Sintered Parts
Changzhou Yu, Peng Cao * and Mark Ian Jones *
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019,
Auckland 1142, New Zealand; [email protected]
* Correspondences: [email protected] (P.C.); [email protected] (M.I.J.); Tel.: +64-9-923-6924 (P.C.)
Academic Editor: Mark T. Whittaker

Received: 23 January 2017; Accepted: 20 February 2017; Published: 22 February 2017
Abstract: Recent accreditation of titanium powder products for commercial aircraft applications
marks a milestone in titanium powder metallurgy. Currently, powder metallurgical titanium
production primarily relies on vacuum sintering. This work reported on the feasibility of powder
sintering in a non-vacuum furnace and the tensile properties of the as-sintered Ti. Specifically,
we investigated atmospheric sintering of commercially pure (C.P.) titanium in a graphite furnace
backfilled with argon and studied the effects of common contaminants (C, O, N) on sintering
densification of titanium. It is found that on the surface of the as-sintered titanium, a severely
contaminated porous scale was formed and identified as titanium oxycarbonitride. Despite the
porous surface, the sintered density in the sample interiors increased with increasing sintering
temperature and holding time. Tensile specimens cut from different positions within a large sintered
cylinder reveal different tensile properties, strongly dependent on the impurity level mainly carbon
and oxygen. Depending on where the specimen is taken from the sintered compact, ultimate tensile
strength varied from 300 to 580 MPa. An average tensile elongation of 5% to 7% was observed.
Largely depending on the interstitial contents, the fracture modes from typical brittle intergranular
fracture to typical ductile fracture.
Keywords: titanium alloys; sintering; powder metallurgy; fracture
1. Introduction
Structural applications of titanium and its alloys are limited because of the high cost of production
despite the fact that titanium exhibits admirable combined properties such as high strength-to-weight
ratio and excellent corrosion resistance [1,2]. In comparison with the mainstream titanium production
processes such as casting and wrought, the major advantage of powder metallurgical (PM) methods
including conventional press-and-sinter and novel additive manufacturing [3,4] is the potential of cost
reduction resulting from its near-net-shaping ability [5]. In recent major milestone developments in
the PM titanium industry, near-net-shaped Ti-6Al-4V products have been approved for commercial
airplane components by Boeing (Seattle, WA, USA) [5]. The manufacture of titanium powder metal
products has received standardized quality management system AS9100/ISO9001 certification in
April 2013 [6]. Titanium powders are generally sintered under vacuum rather than in an atmosphere
such as argon or helium so as to obtain high densification and superior mechanical properties [7].
Vacuum sintering with a pressure of the order of 10−2 Pa or lower [8–11] can effectively control the
active reaction between titanium and interstitial impurities such as oxygen, nitrogen and carbon.
The mechanical properties of as-sintered titanium are highly sensitive to the interstitials [5,12].
For example, in samples with a similar sintered density of 98%, the ductility of press-and-sintered
commercial purity titanium with an oxygen content of 3000 ppm (elongation: 11%) is less than 1/3
of that for Ti containing 700 ppm oxygen (elongation: 37.1%) [7,13]. Vacuum sintering can also

Metals 2017, 7, 67
remove detrimental volatiles such as chlorides that pre-exist in titanium sponges and help with
densification [13,14]. However, vacuum sintering is a batch process and has high capital equipment
requirement. Possible continuous mass production is suggested to be realized by atmospheric sintering
so as to reduce the production cost [14].
In 1937, Kroll conducted the first sintering trials of 14 Ti binary alloys in argon atmosphere [13].
Subsequent work in the late 1940s and early 1950s saw some other examples of the sintering of titanium
mill products [7,15]. Limberg et al. [16] studied the influence of sintering atmosphere on sintering
behavior of a titanium aluminide Ti-45Al-5Nb-0.2B-0.2C (at. %) through altering the argon atmosphere
pressure (from 10 to 80 kPa) in comparison with sintering under vacuum (10−3 Pa). In their study, the
residual porosity of sintered specimens increased proportionally with applied argon pressure to 1.1%
at the maximum pressure (80 kPa), but no other pronounced microstructural difference such as grain
size was observed due to the various sintering atmosphere pressures [16]. Limberg et al.’s study also
shows that the pressure of the sintering atmosphere had no obvious effect on the tensile properties of
the as-sintered compacts and all sintered specimens exhibited similar ultimate tensile strength (around
630 MPa) and elongation (0.15%–0.19%) [16]. Since titanium has a high affinity with nitrogen, oxygen,
hydrogen and carbon, atmospheric sintering typically has to be conducted in an inert atmosphere such
as argon [17]. Even then, purification of the inert atmosphere is still required [15] before a titanium
powder compact enters into the hot zone because even small amounts of reactive gases (nitrogen,
oxygen and hydrogen) are detrimental and make sintered specimens brittle. To address this issue,
Arensburger et al. developed a purification setup by allowing argon flowing through pre-heated
titanium sponges (900–1000 ◦ C) [17]. An alternative solution is to reduce the oxygen partial pressure
in the argon gas further by utilizing reactions with graphite materials in the furnace such as in a KYK
Oxynon furnace (Kanto Yakin Kogyo, Shinomiya, Japan) [18–20]. As a result, extremely low oxygen
pressure can be generated by the reaction between oxygen and carbon, which is deemed to be able
to reduce oxides such as titanium oxide (TiO2 ) into metal. The Oxynon furnace has been used for
titanium sintering in argon since 2002. However, a recent comparative study revealed that the ductility
of commercially pure (C.P.) Ti sintered in the Oxynon furnace is much lower than that sintered under
vacuum, although the oxygen and carbon contents in titanium sintered in Oxynon furnace were lower
than those in vacuum [18]. This signifies the necessity of investigating what causes the difference
between sintering in argon and vacuum.
The reports on the atmospheric sintering of titanium powder are very limited. Our previous
work using a furnace constructed of graphite heating elements and liners showed that the presence
of impurities resulted in a thick porous contaminated scale, which was identified as titanium
oxycarbonitride (Ti(CNO)) [21]. This is a follow-up study, which aims to understand the effects
of possible contaminants on the sintering and properties of C.P. Ti during sintering in a common
graphite furnace.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials, Compaction and Sintering

Hydrogenated-dehydrogenated (HDH) C.P. titanium powder (particle size <75 μm, nominal
impurities provided by the supplier: 0.4060 wt % O, 0.0470 wt % C, 0.0070 wt % N) was supplied
by Xi’an Lilin Ltd., Xi’an, China. The powder morphology and particle size distribution have been
reported previously [22]. The powders were pressed uniaxially under a compaction pressure of
400 ± 50 MPa into small disc samples 12 mm in diameter and 5 to 8 mm thick. These compacts had a
green density of ~77% theoretical density. The green compacts were then sintered at three different
temperatures (1100, 1250 and 1400 ◦ C) and three different holding times (4, 6 and 8 h). In order to track
possible interstitial diffusion from the atmosphere and understand its effects on mechanical properties,
a large cylindrical compact (32 mm in diameter and 30 to 40 mm high) was uniaxially pressed at a
pressure of 200 MPa followed by cold isostatic pressing (CIP) under a pressure of 600 MPa. This large
4
Metals 2017, 7, 67
green compact had a density of 87%. The large cylindrical compact was then sintered at a temperature
of 1250 ◦ C for 4 h. Tensile specimens were machined from different positions of this large cylinder.
The graphite furnace employed in this work (Mellen, WI, USA) has three sets of graphite heating
elements and uses graphite liners for insulation. The hot zone is 20 cm × 20 cm × 20 cm. The compacts
were placed on a boron nitride plate at the center of the hot zone. After the compacts were loaded, the
furnace was evacuated to a vacuum level of 0.1 to 0.01 Pa and heated to 850 ◦ C with a heating rate
of 5 ◦ C·min−1 . During this preheating, argon was purged a few times to remove possible volatiles
before argon gas backfilling. In order to avoid possible gas leaking at high temperatures, at this stage,
argon gas (purity 99.99%) was backfilled to the furnace and a pressure of 1.1 atm (1.1 × 105 Pa) was
maintained until completion of sintering. The positive net furnace pressure is designed to avoid
possible inwards airflow from ambient atmosphere.
2.2. Characterization
The sintered density was measured by the Archimedes method according to the ASTM B962-14
standard. Metallographic specimens were prepared as per the standard metallographic procedures.
The polished cross sections were etched with Kroll’s reagent (2 mL HF, 4 mL HNO3 , 100 mL H2 O).
Microstructural observations were carried out using an environmental scanning electron microscope
(ESEM, Quanta 200F, FEI, Hillsboro, OR, USA), equipped with energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS)
and an Olympus BX60M optical microscopy (Olympus, Waltham, MA, USA) coupled with polarized
light optics. The average grain size was measured as per the linear intercept method described in the
ASTM E112-12 standard. The pore size was estimated using an Image-J software (ImageJ Developers,
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA). A Bruker D2 PHASER (Bruker AXS, Karlsruhe,
Germany) X-ray diffraction (XRD) machine was employed to identify phase constituents. The patterns
were collected over a 2θ range of 20◦ to 80◦ with a step size of 0.02◦ . Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
contents in the as-received titanium powder and the sintered compacts were measured using a LECO
oxygen-nitrogen analyzer (TCH-600, Leco, St Joseph, MI, USA) and carbon-sulfur analyzer (CS-444,
Leco, St Joseph, MI, USA).
2.3. Mechanical Testing

Tensile slices were cut from the as-sintered large cylinder after removal of the contaminated scale,
as shown in Figure 1. The contaminated scale layer is designated as S1 and this porous scale contains
many cracks and can be easily removed to expose the interior bulk titanium. The S2 specimen cut
1.5 mm beneath the surface scale contains visible pores and is believed to contain too high impurity
levels and therefore is not suitable for tensile testing. The slices S3 to S7 do not have visible pores
with naked eyes and were then further machined into standard tensile specimens (~2 mm × 2 mm
cross-section, 16 mm shoulder-to-shoulder length, and 10 mm gauge length). Tensile testing was
performed on an Instron 3367 machine (Instron, Norwood, MA, USA) with a crosshead speed of
0.1 mm·min−1 (initial strain rate: 1.67 × 10−4 s−1 ). The precise displacement was determined using an
extensometer with a gauge length of 8 mm (model: 2630-120, Instron Co., Norwood, MA, USA).
5
Metals 2017, 7, 67
Figure 1. (a) Schematic illustration of the cylinder and the seven slices cut from the cylinder, only slices
S3 to S7 were further machined for tensile test and (b) the tensile specimens after fracture. S1 was the
outer scale, S2 to S7 were the slices cut from outer slice to the interior slices. S7 slices were cut from the
central of the sintered large cylinder.
3. Results
3.1. Sintering Densification

The sintered density (relative to theoretical density) and densification parameter are illustrated
in Figure 2, as a function of sintering temperature and holding time. Densification parameter, ϕ, is
calculated according to Equation (1) [23]

ϕ = ρs − ρg / ρth − ρg (1)
where ρs , ρg and ρth are sintered density, green density and theoretical density, respectively. The value
of ϕ represents how much porosity in the green compact has been removed by sintering. In general,
the sintered densities in all small samples (i.e., the 12 mm-in-diameter samples) were low and in the
range of 82.5% to 92.5% of theoretical density (see Figure 2a). A higher sintering temperature and/or
longer hold increased the sintered density and densification (Figure 2b). However, it must be noted
that the density was measured by weighing the entire sintered compact and therefore included the
contaminated porous surface scale.
Figure 2. Effects of sintering temperature and holding time on relative sintered density (a) and
densification parameter (b).
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Metals 2017, 7, 67
3.2. Microstructural Observation

Figure 3 presents an example of the compacts sintered at the three temperatures for 4 h.
The metallographic observations of the cross sections of these compacts clearly show a fairly thick
contamination scale on the compact surface. This porous layer was 300–500 μm thick, regardless of the
sintering temperature. Separation between this layer and the remaining compact is visible. XRD and
EDS analyses suggest that this layer is Ti(CNO) [21] and the formation mechanism will be discussed in
subsequent Section 4.2.
Figure 3. Micrographs of the cross-sections of sintered small compacts at different sintering

temperatures: (a) 1100 ◦ C; (b) 1250 ◦ C; and (c) 1400 ◦ C. All compacts were sintered for 4 h at the
respective temperature.
The microstructures in the interior of the sintered compacts were observed after the outermost
layer was removed. Under the polarized light microscope, macropores were evident in all the cases,
as shown in Figure 4. The pore size and morphology are dependent on the sintering temperature.
For instance, after being sintered at 1100 ◦ C for 4 h, the pore shape is irregular and interconnected.
This implies that, under this sintering condition, the compact might be still in the early stage of
densification (Figure 4a). By increasing the holding time to 8 h, the number and size of pores decreased,
although the majority of pores was still of irregular shape (Figure 4d). Pore spheroidizing occurred
at higher sintering temperatures of 1250 and 1400 ◦ C, in which cases the pores were spherical and
isolated. Sintering at 1250 ◦ C led to most pores being located either along grain boundaries or at the
triple junctions (Figure 4b). At 1400 ◦ C, some of these pores became trapped within grains as a result
of grain growth in the later stages of sintering (Figure 4c). In addition to the pore morphology, the pore
size is also related to the sintering conditions. The compact sintered at 1250 ◦ C for 4 h contained pores
of typically 20–40 μm in size (Figure 4b). The average pore size observed in the compact sintered at
1400 ◦ C increased to 50 μm (Figure 4c). When the holding time was increased to 8 h, these small pores
vanished and the number of pores decreased in both 1250 and 1400 ◦ C sintered compacts (Figure 4e,f).
3.3. Close-Up Observation of Surface Contaminants

The surfaces of the sintered compacts, regardless of sintering temperature, show powdery
morphology (Figure 5). To a much lesser content, some sinter-necks could be found. Shiny carbon
particles were also visible on the sample surface. This is validated by the EDS analysis. Further
evidence presented in the subsequent Section 3.4 suggests that this thick layer of surface contaminant
is a compound containing Ti, C, N and O.
7
Metals 2017, 7, 67
Figure 4. Microstructure of the cross sections of sintered small compacts at various sintering conditions.
The micrographs were taken under polarized light microscopy. The compacts were sintered at
various temperatures for different holding times: (a) 1100 ◦ C/4 h; (b) 1250 ◦ C/4 h; (c) 1400 ◦ C/4 h;
(d) 1100 ◦ C/8 h; (e) 1250 ◦ C/8 h; and (f) 1250 ◦ C/8 h.
8
Metals 2017, 7, 67
Figure 5. Surface morphologies of the small compacts sintered at 1250 ◦ C (a) and 1400 ◦ C (b),
respectively. Sintering time was 4 h.
3.4. Phase Characterization of the Surface and the Interior

Figure 6 compares the XRD patterns taken from the surface and the cross section of the compact
interior for samples sintered for 4 h. It is evident that the main phase constituents depend on the
sintering temperature. At 1100 ◦ C, three main phases are identified, i.e., Ti2 O (JCPDS # 73-1582), TiC
(JCPDS # 73-0472) and TiC0.2 N0.8 (JCPDS # 76-2484), while at 1250 and 1400 ◦ C, only Ti(C0.53 N0.32 O0.19 )
is present (JCPDS # 50-0681). In contrast, the only phase observed in the interior of samples sintered at
all temperatures is α-Ti (JCPDS # 44-1294) without any other phases present.
Figure 6. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the as-sintered small Ti compacts (a) on the surface
and (b) cross-sections of compact interior. The compact was sintered for 4 h at 1100, 1250 and
1400 ◦ C, respectively.
9
Metals 2017, 7, 67
3.5. Mechanical Properties and Fractography

Typical stress–strain curves of the tensile specimens taken from three different positions in the
sintered cylinder are shown in Figure 7. The contaminated surface scale was removed from the large
cylinder. It is clear that specimen S3, which was taken 2 mm underneath the outermost surface, failed
prior to yielding. Specimen S4 sliced 4 mm underneath the outermost surface attained a minor plastic
strain of 1.5%. Specimens taken from further inside demonstrated much greater plastic strain—up to
10% for specimen S5. The average tensile properties of the specimens taken from the different positions
are presented in Figure 7b. An average of ~6% plastic strain was obtained in the tensile specimens
that were taken from the compact interior while a negligible plastic strain for the specimens was taken
close to the contaminated surface. For the specimens taken from the interior, the yield strength (YS)
was in the range of 385 to 500 MPa and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) varied from 470 to 580 MPa. In
addition, the Young’s moduli of all the specimens were similar (100 to 110 GPa), which correspond to
the sintered densities (95.3% to 95.9%, Table 1).
Figure 7. (a) Representative engineering stress-strain curves and (b) a summary of tensile mechanical
properties for slices cut from different positions of the sintered cylinder.
Table 1. Sintered density in terms of percentage of theoretical density for slices taken from the
large cylinder.
Slices S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
Sintered density (%) 95.7 ± 0.1 95.6 ± 0.3 95.9 ± 1.0 95.3 ± 0.1 95.8 ± 0.2
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Metals 2017, 7, 67
Figure 8 shows the fracture surface of the specimens S4 and S5. Smooth facets and river patterns
are visible in S4 (Figure 8a), which indicate a brittle fracture mode. On the other hand, many dimples
can be found in specimen S5, indicating a ductile fracture mode. Similar fracture features were
observed on the fractured surface of specimens S6 and S7.
Figure 8. Fracture surfaces of tensile slices from sintered titanium samples: (a) S4 and (b) S5.
4. Discussion
4.1. Densification
As shown in Figure 2, the sintered density increases by 5%–10% with increasing of the holding
time from 4 to 8 h for all three temperatures. This increase is expected because powder densification
by sintering is accomplished through diffusion. For the same reason, increasing sintering temperature
also results in a higher sintered density. However, as pointed out in Section 3.1, the measured sintered
density does not reflect the densification level because of the presence of the porous contaminated scale.
In order to evaluate the effect of temperature and holding time on densification, the contaminated
surface scale should be removed before the density is measured. After removing the contaminated layer,
the density of the sintered compacts is presented in Figure 9, as a function of sintering temperature
and holding time. The favoring effect of increasing temperature or holding time is obvious. This is in
accordance with the microstructural observations (Figure 4). Although low densities were observed
in the small sintered compacts (Figure 9), the densification data of the large cylinder indicates a
96% relative density achieved after sintering at 1250 ◦ C for 4 h (Table 2). It is noted that a sintered
density ranging from 95% to 99% is common in PM Ti-6Al-4V if the blended elemental approach is
used [24]. However, it needs to point out that a sintered density >98% is necessary for PM Ti products
to achieve similar static property levels to wrought Ti. The use of fine particles, high compaction
pressure and proper sintering conditions could readily achieve such a densification level. Such a level
of densification in Ti powder products is acceptable for non-fatigue applications [4,14].
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Metals 2017, 7, 67
Figure 9. Relative sintered densities of compacts after removing contaminated scale.
Table 2. Densities and densification level for large cylinder prepared for tensile testing. CIP: Cold
isostatic pressing.
Specimen Green Density (600 MPa CIP, %) Sintered Density (%) Densification (%)
Cylinder 87.0 95.8. 69.2
4.2. The Formation of Contaminated Surface Layer and the Effect of Interstitials on Mechanical Properties
In contrast to the sintered compact interior where only α-Ti phase is present, the surface of the
sintered compact is a complex compound Ti(CNO). The carbon is thought to arise from the graphite
heating elements and insulation liner material within the furnace, while nitrogen may originate from
backfilled argon and oxygen from the raw powder and argon. In order to further understand the
formation of the surface scale resulting from the contamination of interstitials, a formation mechanism
is schematically shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Schematic of the formation process of the contaminated scale. (a) Starting powder compact;
(b) contaminants such as C are deposited on the Ti powder particles; (c) Ti reacts with the contaminants
forming Ti(CNO). Cracking occurs as a result of different coefficients of thermal expansion; (d) larger
cracks and more pores are formed at a higher temperature.
Upon heating, the residual carbon in the furnace or newly evaporated carbon from the graphite
heating element would deposit on the compact surface (Figure 10b) and react with Ti. Meanwhile,
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the oxygen and nitrogen in the backfilled argon are also involved in this reaction and, consequently,
a complicated Ti(CNO) solution of TiC, TiN and TiO forms (Figure 10c). The formed Ti(CNO) film
is porous. During sintering, the powder compact starts to densify and contraction occurs, which
poses a significant stress between the Ti(CNO) film and the underlying Ti. The interfacial stress can
also be caused by the difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion between Ti(CNO) and Ti.
Such interfacial stress is the cause of the many cracks and porous structure of the Ti(CNO) compound
(Figure 10d).
The formation of the Ti(CNO) compound would prevent the interior from interstitial
contamination if the film were dense and intact, which is supported by a study of Lefebvre et al.,
who observed that the O content in Ti solid solution remained constant although the thickness of the
surface oxide layer increased [25]. Unfortunately, this does not seem true in our study. Only when
the residual interstitials are completely consumed or the sintering procedure is terminated does the
Ti(CNO) layer stop growing. This explains a constant thickness of Ti(CNO) of approximately 300 μm
regardless of sintering temperature (for the same sintering time). In other words, the outermost layer
on the titanium powder compact acts as a scavenger of interstitials.
The analyses of interstitials on the transverse of the sintered compact indicate that C and O diffuse
inwards, as shown in Figure 11. The observed O content at position S2 to S7 (the center) ranges from
0.7% to 0.4%. The carbon content varies from 1000 to 300 ppm. In spite of a possible scavenging
effect of the outermost layer on the Ti compact, it seems impossible to avoid the inward diffusion of
the interstitials. Only the very interior of the compact appears to not have been contaminated—for
instance, specimens S5 and S6 in the large cylindrical compact (Figure 11).
Apparently, the measured tensile properties largely depend on the interstitials, on top of porosity,
present in the specimens. Interstitials, usually represented by oxygen, can increase strength but reduce
ductility dramatically [26]. It has been extensively reported that oxygen levels ~0.3 wt % significantly
reduce the ductility of PM C.P. Ti to 11% from 37% at 0.07% O (with the same sintered density) [7].
A similar finding was also reported in C.P. Ti produced by metal injection moulding and sintering [27].
At the same densification level, tensile specimen S3 does not show any plastic deformation and its UTS
value is also much lower than other specimens. Such poor properties are ascribable to the extremely
high C (~0.1 wt %) and O content (0.6 wt %). Specimen S4, which contains 0.5% O and 0.05% C, does
show a small plastic strain (average 3%, Figure 7b). On the other hand, specimen S5 contains 0.4% O
and 0.04% C and therefore demonstrates much greater plastic elongation. When the other impurities
are taken into account, an oxygen equivalent Oeq = O + 2N + 0.75C is usually used to reflect the effect
of the interstitials [28,29]. An oxygen equivalent level higher than 0.4% for C.P. Ti is likely unacceptable.
The same oxygen threshold applies for Ti-6Al-4V alloy [30]. In this present study, specimens S5 and S6
demonstrated the highest ductility, which is in accordance with their oxygen equivalents. Specimen S5
had an Oeq level of 0.47% while S4 had 0.60% oxygen equivalent. The ductility obtained in this study
is in agreement with an early study by Kusaka et al. [27] who observed an elongation of ~7.0% in the
as-sintered C.P. Ti that had a density of 99%. Such ductility is slightly lower than that specified in the
newest ASTM B988-13 for Grade 5 PM (i.e., 9% elongation).
Although the high levels of impurities in the starting powder did not affect the densification of
C.P. Ti, the resultant mechanical properties suffer significantly from the presence of these impurities.
In order to mitigate the adverse effect of interstitials, not only reasonably low impurity levels
are required, but also the sintering atmosphere should be controlled. It is expected that if some
purifying media are placed surrounding the powder compact to be sintered, the contaminated surface
could be minimized. Our additional experiments show that a contamination-free sintering could be
accomplished by a proper wrapping of the Ti compact. In this separate study, we used HDH Ti powder
(O: 0.29%, C: 0.04% and particle size <75 μm) as raw material and a Ti sponge as the scavenger to sinter
Ti in the same graphite furnace with identical sintering parameters. The sintered Ti demonstrated an
elongation of ~16%.
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Metals 2017, 7, 67
Figure 11. The distribution of interstitial contents at varied slices taken from different positions.
Superimposed is the contour of the cylindrical compact.
The fractography results (Figure 8) suggest that the fracture mode is also strongly related
to the interstitials, particularly O and C. At a low level of C and O, the sintered Ti-6Al-4V fails
through microvoid nucleation, growth and coalescence, which results in a typical dimple rupture.
However, at a high level of C and O, the sintered Ti-6Al-4V fails via cleavage and an intergranular
fracture mode. Macroscopically, a fracture at 45◦ with respect to the tension axis was observed in
a relatively low-interstitial specimen (S7, Figure 12b), whereas a flat (0◦ ) rupture was observed in a
high-interstitial specimen (S3, Figure 12a). The critical levels seem to be 0.05% C and 0.3% to 0.4% O
for the ductile-to-brittle transition. This follows the general consensus that an oxygen level >0.3% is
detrimental to the ductility of the PM Ti-6Al-4V [26]. The same speculation could be also applicable to
other Ti alloys, while the critical values for C and O contents might be different. It is postulated that, at
different interstitial levels, the dislocation mechanisms might be different as well. Further transmission
electron microscopic (TEM) investigations are necessary. In addition to the interstitial contents, the
morphology and size of the pores also affect the fracture behavior. A small pore size and spherical
pore shape would favor the ductile fracture mode from a fracture mechanics point of view.
Figure 12. Macroscopic fracture surface of the tensile specimens (a) S3 and (b) S7.
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Metals 2017, 7, 67
5. Conclusions
This work investigated the sintering of commercially pure titanium powders in a graphite furnace
backfilled with argon. A complex compound Ti(CNO) was formed on the surface with a thickness
of 300–500 μm. The interiors of sintered specimens were pure single α-Ti phase. The formation of
Ti(CNO) is caused by the residual interstitials in the furnace from the raw powder and in the argon gas
used for backfilling. Densification was enhanced by increasing sintering temperature and/or holding
time. Tensile properties were largely determined by the interstitial contents for samples where the
sintered density reached at least 96%. With 0.04% C and 0.4% O contents, the sintered Ti shows an
average of 6% elongation with yield strength of 385 to 490 MPa. On the other hand, for the sintered
specimens containing higher C and O contents, the ductility was significantly reduced. The critical
level of C and O content for ductile-to-brittle transition appeared to be ~0.04% C and 0.3% to 0.4%
O. This work indicates that it is feasible to realize isothermal atmospheric sintering of C.P. HDH
titanium powders in argon atmosphere in a graphite furnace and satisfactory mechanical properties
can be achieved.
Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by the Ministry of Business, Innovation and
Employment (MBIE), New Zealand.
Author Contributions: Changzhou Yu conducted experimental work as part of his Ph.D project. He also analyzed
the data. Peng Cao conceived and co-designed the experiments, analyzed the data and revised the manuscript.
Mark Ian Jones discussed the results and revised the manuscript. Mark Ian Jones and Peng Cao were the
supervisors of Changzhou Yu.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the
decision to publish the results.
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© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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metals
Article
Microstructural Evolution during Pressureless
Sintering of Blended Elemental Ti-Al-V-Fe Titanium
Alloys from Fine Hydrogenated-Dehydrogenated
Titanium Powder
Changzhou Yu, Peng Cao * and Mark Ian Jones *
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019,
Auckland 1142, New Zealand; [email protected]
* Correspondences: [email protected] (P.C.); [email protected] (M.I.J.);
Tel.: +64-9-9236924 (P.C.); +64-9-9234548 (M.I.J.)
Received: 10 June 2017; Accepted: 24 July 2017; Published: 26 July 2017
Abstract: A comprehensive study was conducted on microstructural evolution of sintered Ti-Al-V-Fe

titanium alloys utilizing very fine hydrogenation-dehydrogenation (HDH) titanium powder with
a median particle size of 8.84 μm. Both micropores (5–15 μm) and macropores (50–200 μm) were
identified in sintered titanium alloys. Spherical micropores were observed in Ti-6Al-4V sintered with
fine Ti at the lowest temperature of 1150 ◦ C. The addition of iron can help reduce microporosity and
improve microstructural and compositional homogenization. A theoretical calculation of evaporation
based on the Miedema model and Langmuir equation indicates that the evaporation of aluminum
could be responsible for the formation of the macropores. Although reasonable densification was
achieved at low sintering temperatures (93–96% relative density) the samples had poor mechanical
properties due mainly to the presence of the macroporosity and the high inherent oxygen content in
the as-received fine powders.
Keywords: titanium alloys; sintering; powder metallurgy; microstructural evolution
1. Introduction
Sintering is by far the most common consolidation method in titanium powder metallurgy.
The initial stage of sintering can be empirically modeled in terms of isothermal neck growth as
measured by the neck size ratio X/D [1]:
( X/D )n = Bt/D m (1)
where D is the particle diameter, X = neck diameter, t = isothermal sintering time, and B is a collection
of material and geometric constants. The values of n, m, B depend on the mechanism of mass
transport. The above empirical equation indicates that sintering is highly sensitive to the particle size,
with a smaller particle size giving rise to more rapid densification.
The sintering data compiled by Robertson et al. confirms that a finer particle size is beneficial
for titanium powder densification [2]. However titanium powders with very fine particle size are
not usually available, particularly if a low impurity level is required. A particle size of −100 mesh
(<150 μm), −200 mesh (<75 μm), or −325 mesh (<45 μm), is most commonly used [3–5]. A recent study
reports a novel technique to produce titanium powder with a mean particle size of <10 μm [6]. However,
the powder reported has a high impurity content of oxygen (>0.8 wt %) [6]. It is known that high
oxygen content can adversely affect mechanical properties, especially ductility [4,5,7], and therefore
the aim of this research is primarily to investigate the feasibility of using a very fine titanium powder

Metals 2017, 7, 285
to sinter titanium products and investigate the effects of these fine powders on densification. Ti-6Al-4V
is known as a “work-horse” α + β titanium alloy, which has high strength and good ductility. However,
the β-stabilizing element vanadium is not only expensive but also toxic to human beings if used as an
implant [8]. For blended elemental sintering of Ti-6Al-4V, better sinterability can be obtained using
a master alloy powder (Al-V) than when using elemental aluminum and vanadium [9]. Our first
objective of this work was to investigate the sinterability of Ti-6Al-4V by using fine titanium powder
and Al-V master alloy powder (60 wt % Al, 40 wt % V).
Current titanium powder metallurgy research has been largely devoted to cost reduction in
titanium components by both developing cost-effective powder manufacturing and developing
low-cost titanium alloys [10–12]. In the development of low-cost titanium alloys, the introduction
of iron (Fe) as a β-Ti stabilizer into the alloy compositions has been widely explored for powder
metallurgical titanium alloys [13,14].
Iron is much cheaper than titanium, and the application of 5% Fe is equivalent to saving the use
of 5% Ti [15,16]. The sinterability of titanium alloys can be enhanced by the addition of iron since the
mobility of titanium atoms is accelerated by the rapid diffusion of iron [13,17,18]. The fast diffusion of
iron in titanium alloy is evidenced by the fact that iron is essentially uniform in a blended elemental
Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al alloy when heated at 5 ◦ C/min to 1200 ◦ C [19]. Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al (O ≤ 0.13; N ≤ 0.05;
C ≤ 0.05; H ≤ 0.015; all in wt %), assigned formally as TIMETAL® 10-2-3, has been realized for
aircraft under-carriage applications [14,19]. Further experiments indicate that the enhancement in
sinterability observed through the addition of fine iron powder (mean particle size = 8 μm) is not seen
when working with coarser iron powder (mean particle size = 97 μm) [20].
Iron is a strong β phase stabilizer and suppresses the formation of the α phase and the eutectoid
transformation β → α + TiFe when it cools below 595 ◦ C, thus avoiding the formation of the brittle
TiFe phase [21]. Such a phenomenon is also observed and validated by the recent research works
conducted by Bolzoni et al. [11,12]. In addition to the fast diffusion mobility, iron additions also change
the sequence of chemical homogenization for other alloying elements such as Al, V [14]. In another
study, Yang et al. found a linear drop in ductility in Ti-xFe-0.5Si alloys with increasing Fe content from
3% to 6%. Such ductility drop is largely because the α-Ti phase becomes thinner and more acicular
with increasing Fe [22].
The second objective of this work was to investigate the sintering behavior of low-cost Ti-Al-V-Fe
titanium alloys with fine particle titanium powders through varying the amount of expensive master
60Al-40V powder and low-cost iron powder. The effect of the master alloy powder during sintering on
sinterability is also discussed.
2. Experimental Procedures
2.1. Materials
The starting material for these experiments was a fine Ti powder produced from Ti sponge fines
which were hydrogenated at 700 ◦ C with a holding time of 2 h followed by 5 h ball milling. In this
way, fine titanium hydride was produced with a median particle size <3 μm. An inhibitor (NaCl) was
introduced for the coating of titanium hydride powder, which was further dehydrogenated at 630 ◦ C
for 2 h. The fine hydrogenation-dehydrogenation (HDH) titanium powders were water-leached by
deionized water in order to remove the inhibitor. The median particle size was <10 μm. More detailed
description of the fine Ti production process can be seen in the literature [6].
The fine titanium powder (O: 0.82 wt %, C: 0.058 wt %, H: 0.414 wt %, N: 0.575 wt %) was
utilized to investigate the interaction effect of fine particle size and high impurity content on sintering
and densification, with the understanding that the high impurity content of this powder may not
result in outstanding mechanical properties. A commercially available 60Al-40V master alloy powder
(−120 mesh; O: 0.18 wt %, C: 0.029 wt %, H: 0.0005 wt %, N: 0.16 wt %) and iron powder (−300 mesh;
O: 0.67 wt %, C: 0.041 wt %, H: 0.0022 wt %, N: 0.262 wt %) supplied by Beijing Youxinglian Nonferrous
18
Metals 2017, 7, 285
Metals Co. Ltd., Beijing, China, was employed to balance the designed alloy composition into Ti
(0.6Al-0.4V)10−x Fex , where x = 0, 2, 4, and 6. i.e., the Fe content ranged from 0 to 6 wt % as a replacement
for the master alloy in a Ti-6Al-4V composition. The effect of beta stabilizing elements is generally
quantified by an equivalent molybdenum (Mo), as given by:
(Mo)eq = (Mo) + 0.67 (V) + 0.44 (W) + 0.28 (Nb) + 0.22 (Ta) +
(2)
2.9 (Fe) + 1.6 (Cr) + 1.25 (Ni) + 1.7 (Mn) + 1.7 (Co) − 1.0 (Al)
The calculated equivalent Mo values for the Ti-4.8Al-3.2V-2Fe, Ti-3.6Al-2.4V-4Fe, and

Ti-2.4Al-1.6V-6Fe are 3.1, 9.6, and 16 respectively. As such the Ti-4.8Al-3.2V-2Fe and Ti-3.6Al-2.4V-4Fe
can be regarded α/β alloys while the Ti-2.4Al-1.6V-6Fe is a metastable β alloy.
2.2. Press-and-Sinter
Compacts were uniaxially pressed at a constant pressure of 300 MPa into two different cylindrical
sizes: 16 mm diameter with 5–6 mm thickness, and 45 mm diameter with 3–4 mm thickness.
No lubricants were added in the powder mixture, or applied on the die walls. The green density for all
four alloys was 62.9 ± 0.5%. Compacts with dia = 16 mm were used for sintering densification
calculations and the dia = 45 mm samples were sintered for tensile testing. Vacuum sintering
(vacuum level: 2 × 10−3 Pa) was conducted in a high-temperature Mo-heating-element furnace
(Dingli, Changsha, China) at 1150, 1250, and 1350 ◦ C with a soaking time of 3 h. The racking material
was molybdenum plate. The specific heating profile is demonstrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Heating schedule for blended elemental sintered titanium alloys.
The initial heating rate was set at 7 ◦ C·min−1 from room temperature to 550 ◦ C. A holding time
of 30 min was introduced at both 550 and 850 ◦ C and a 10-min holding time at 1000 ◦ C were used
to prevent the possible pore formation caused by the exothermal reaction between titanium and the
master alloy or iron powder, and to allow sufficient time for homogeneous elemental diffusion [23].
A slower heating rate of 3–5 ◦ C·min−1 was employed from 1000 ◦ C to the final sintering temperature
for the same reason.
2.3. Characterization and Mechanical Testing

The particle size distribution was analyzed by a particle size analyzer (Mastersizer 2000, Malvern
Instruments, Malvern, UK). The sintered density was measured according to the Archimedes method
described in ASTM B962-08. Each data point was averaged from 3–5 specimens. Fine polishing was
19
Metals 2017, 7, 285
conducted with OP-S, a colloidal silica suspension with 10% hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), where the
size of the colloidal silica is ~40 nm. Microstructural morphology observations were conducted on an
environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) (Quanta 200F, FEI, Hillsboro, OR, USA) using
both back-scattered and secondary electron modes. Semi-quantitative compositional analysis was
carried out by energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS, Pegasus detector, EDAX Inc., Mahwah, NJ, USA).
Both elemental X-ray mapping and X-ray line scans were carried out using standardless quantification
techniques. An accelerating voltage of 20 kV was employed. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis to
determine phase constituents was carried out on a D2 PHASER (Bruker, Karlsruhe, Germany) equipped
with Cu X-ray source. X-ray patterns were collected over a scan range from 2θ of 20–80◦ with a step
size of 0.02◦ .
Tensile specimens were machined from the sintered specimens in compliance with ISO 2892-1:2009
(~2.65 mm × 2.65 mm cross-section, 15 mm gauge length and 20 mm parallel length), and tested on an
Instron mechanical tester (Model: 3367, Instron Co., Norwood, MA, USA) with a crosshead speed of
0.1 mm·min−1 (initial strain rate: 1.1 × 10−4 s−1 ). The precise displacement was determined using
an extensometer with a gauge length of 8 mm (Model: 2630-120, Instron Co., Norwood, MA, USA).
Three tensile specimens were prepared for each data point.
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of As-Received Powders

The micrographs of as-received powders are shown in Figure 2 including fine titanium, iron
and 60Al-40V master alloy powder as well as the particle size distribution of fine titanium and
60Al-40V powders.
Figure 2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images and particle size distribution of (a) fine Ti,
(b) 60Al-40V master alloy and (c) Fe powders.
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All three powders show angular morphologies, with Figure 2a demonstrating that the fine Ti
had a much finer particle size than the 60Al-40V (Figure 2b) and iron (Figure 2c) powders. This was
validated by particle size distribution analysis, which illustrates the median particle sizes of fine Ti and
master powder were 8.84 and 142.31 μm, respectively. The diameter of most iron particles was less than
50 μm estimated from Figure 2c, which is in accordance with its nominal particle size (−300 mesh).
XRD patterns of each powder are given in Figure 3.
Figure 3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of as-received powders.
The pattern from the reduced elemental iron powder is indexed as pure iron by JCPDS 87-0721 [24].
The master alloy powder (60Al-40V) is mainly ascribed to Al3 V (JCPDS 07-0399) with a small amount
of Al8 V5 (JCPDS 71-0141) [25]. The fine Ti is mainly composed of α-Ti referenced by JCPDS 44-1294
and some minor titanium oxides.
3.2. Densification
The effect of iron content on the relative sintered density and densification level is illustrated in
Figure 4 for specimens uniaxially pressed at a constant compaction pressure of 300 MPa and sintered
at different temperatures.
The relative density increases with iron content at sintering temperatures of 1150 and 1250 ◦ C
(Figure 4a). However at a sintering temperature of 1350 ◦ C the iron content seems to have little effect
on the relative sintered density. As expected, a higher sintering temperature causes an increased
sintered density and this effect was more pronounced for the Ti-6Al-4V than for the specimens with Fe.
The densification level offers an evaluation method for porosity elimination level of green compacts
by sintering. Figure 4b demonstrates that specimens with 6% Fe sintered at 1350 ◦ C have the highest
densification level, where ~90% of the porosity of the original green compacts has been eliminated by
sintering. The lowest densification level is observed in the Ti-6Al-4V specimens sintered at 1150 ◦ C,
where ~20% of the original porosity of the green compacts remains after sintering.
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Figure 4. Relative density (a) and densification level (b) as a function of iron content for samples
sintered at different temperatures.
3.3. Microstructure Observation and Compositional Analysis

Microstructural images taken from cross-sections of the specimens sintered at various
temperatures and compositions are shown in Figure 5, and confirm the density measurements.
When sintered at temperatures of 1150 and 1250 ◦ C, the porosity decreased with increasing Fe
content. At the highest temperature (1350 ◦ C) the relative sintered density of the sample with 2 wt %
Fe has the lowest density and the microstructure shows the highest porosity seen in Figure 5(b3).
In comparison, the least porosity is observed in the cross-section of the specimen with 6% Fe shown in
Figure 5(d3) which has the highest relative sintered density.
Two different types of pores are also observed in Figure 5 in regard to the pore size and shape.
Irregular-shaped macropores with an average size of 50–200 μm are noted in all specimens under
different sintering temperatures and compositions. The amount of these macropores decreased with
the addition of iron content when sintered at either 1150 or 1250 ◦ C. At 1350 ◦ C, a large quantity
of irregular-shaped macropores is observed in specimens with 2 wt % Fe. The other type of pores
observed is spherical with an average diameter of 5–15 μm. A large number of these micropores
are distributed throughout the cross-section of the 1150 ◦ C sintered Ti-6Al-4V, and decreases with
increasing sintering temperature. Interestingly, there are only very few micropores observed on the
cross-sections of sintered alloys containing iron although their diameter is slightly larger than those
in Ti-6Al-4V.
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Figure 5. Cross-sectional SEM images of sintered titanium alloys at various temperatures and
compositions. The horizontal axis represents the sintering temperature, while the vertical axis
represents the iron content.
As also shown in Figure 5, the microstructures show two distinct regions or phases which appear
as light and dark contrast in the SEM micrographs, with an increase in the light phase observed with
increasing Fe content. It is also observed that the darker contrast regions appear to be in two different
morphologies, with smaller needle-like or acicular grains and some much larger particles or grains. In
order to further understand these microstructures, compositional analysis was conducted on Ti-6Al-4V
sintered at 1150 and 1250 ◦ C including EDS line scanning (Figure 6) and EDS mapping (Figure 7).
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Figure 6. Energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) line scanning of blended elemental Ti-6Al-4V
specimens sintered at (a) 1150 ◦ C and (b) 1250 ◦ C.
Figure 7. EDS mapping of blended elemental Ti-6Al-4V specimens sintered at (a) 1150 ◦ C and (b) 1250 ◦ C.
The image in Figure 6 shows a line scan across the area containing the macropores typically seen
in the cross-section of Ti-6Al-4V (Figure 5).
For the sample sintered at 1150 ◦ C, the line scan (Figure 6a) is classified into three different regions
depending on the color contrast. The light contrast regions (particularly the particle at the center of
the pore) are rich in vanadium and contain no Al or Ti. The darkest contrast region around the pore
contains both Al and Ti but no V. Moving away from the pore into the mid-contrast, matrix region
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there is an increase in the Ti content and a corresponding decrease in Al. The sample sintered at the
higher temperature (Figure 6b) shows a much more homogenous distribution of all three elements
although vanadium is slightly elevated in the lighter contrast regions.
EDS mapping was also carried out on the same sample to investigate the element distribution as
highlighted in Figure 7.
The mapping results are in agreement with the line scanning observation in Figure 6. Figure 7a
shows that region 1 is noticeably rich in vanadium whereas region 2 is rich in aluminum. Also,
the intensity of titanium decreases gradually from region 3 to region 1 for specimens sintered at
1150 ◦ C. At the higher sintering temperature (Figure 7b), the diffusion area of aluminum became
distinctly wider and titanium achieved a more homogeneous elemental distribution when compared
with sintering at 1150 ◦ C. A remarkable difference was also witnessed for vanadium, which was no
longer isolated in discrete particles but was much more homogeneously distributed. EDS line scanning
and mapping of specimens with 4 wt % iron are highlighted in Figure 8 when sintering at the highest
temperature (1350 ◦ C).
Figure 8. EDS mapping (right column) and EDS line scanning (left column) of Ti-3.6Al-2.4V-4Fe
sintered at 1350 ◦ C.
In Figure 8, inhomogeneous microstructural zones can also be distinguished by dark and light
contrast regions. It is observed from the corresponding EDS line scanning and mapping that iron is
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rich in grains within the light region and is absent in the darker regions. The intensity of aluminum
in the blocky darker regions is slightly weaker than those in the lighter contrast areas while the
Ti concentration shows the opposite trend, being lower in the lighter regions than in the darker
grains. Comparing sintering at the highest temperature (Figure 8) to lower temperatures shown
in Figures 6 and 7, improved elemental distribution homogeneity is observed. For example, the
contrast of aluminum shown by EDS mapping in Figure 8 is not as strong as shown in Figure 7.
3.4. Phase Determination

The phase analysis of sintered titanium alloys is demonstrated in Figure 9, including the XRD
patterns of Ti-6Al-4V sintered under different sintering temperatures (Figure 9a) and the Ti-Al-V-Fe
alloys sintered under a constant temperature of 1350 ◦ C (Figure 9b).
Figure 9. XRD patterns of (a) Ti-6Al-4V sintered at various temperatures and (b) Ti-Al-V-Fe of various
Fe concentrations sintered at 1350 ◦ C.
The XRD patterns of specimens sintered at 1150 ◦ C (Figure 9a), show that the samples consisted
of α-, β-Ti with some Ti3 Al peaks [26]. The presence of the Ti3 Al phase when sintered at lower
temperatures is indicative of the alloying process being incomplete at these temperatures and supports
the microstructural observations. In Figure 9b, peaks attributed to the β-Ti phase are observed for
the sintered Ti-Al-V-Fe alloys, as suggested by the literature [19,21], and their intensity increases with
increasing iron content in the alloy composition, This indicates that iron stabilizes the β phase in
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titanium alloys and more β can be retained after cooling from the sintering temperature if the iron
content is increased.
4. Discussion
4.1. Microporosity Formation

Two different types of pores were formed during sintering, which are defined here as micropores
(5–15 μm) and macropores (50–200 μm) as shown in Figure 5. The micropores observed in Figure 5
were spherical and isolated in sintered specimens especially in Ti-6Al-4V even at the lowest sintering
temperature (1150 ◦ C). Pore spheroidization indicates that sintering had entered into the final stage at
this temperature (1150 ◦ C). Although the green density was only about 63% for all of these samples, the
sintered density at this lowest temperature was around 93% for the Ti-6Al-4V specimen and increased
with increasing iron content up to around 96%. It is considered that the reasonably high levels of
densification even at low temperatures and for samples with low green density, as evidenced by the
densification results and the presence of isolated small pores, is due mainly to the high sintering driving
force resulting from the high surface free energy when using the fine titanium powder, and improved
diffusion with the additions of iron.
The evolution of the microporosity for samples with different iron contents as a function of
temperature can be seen in the SEM fractographs shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. SEM fractographs with micropores of tensile specimens sintered at various temperatures
and compositions.
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The micropores shown in Figure 10 are in accordance with the observations made from Figure 5,
whereby the Ti-6Al-4V specimens show the largest number of micropores (diameter < 10 μm). Although
the amount of microporosity in these samples decreased with sintering temperature, the amount
of micropores in the Ti-6Al-4V at any temperature was higher than the titanium alloy specimens
containing iron. For the Fe containing samples, the microporisity decreased with increasing iron
content. This indicates that the addition of iron is beneficial to elimination of micropores; in other
words iron assists in densification during sintering.
The diffusion coefficient of elements follows an Arrhenius relationship:
D = D0 exp (− Q/RT ) (3)
where D0 is the pre-exponential factor (m2 ·s−1 ), Q the activation energy (kJ·mol−1 ), R the molar
gas constant, and T the absolute temperature (K). These parameters can be obtained for both the
self-diffusion of β-Ti and the inter-diffusion of Al, V, and Fe in β-Ti [27] as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Self-diffusion of β-Ti and inter-diffusion of Al, V, and Fe in β-Ti [27].
Specimen Diffusion Type Temperature (◦ C) D0 (m2 ·s−1 ) Q (kJ·mol−1 )

β-Ti Self diffusion 899–1540 3.58 × 10−8 130.6
Al in β-Ti Inter-diffusion 920–1600 1.14 × 10−5 213.1
V in β-Ti Inter-diffusion 902–1543 3.1 × 10−8 134.8
Fe in β-Ti Inter-diffusion 969–1645 7.8 × 10−7 132.3
Diffusion coefficients were calculated using the data presented in Table 1 and the ratio of
inter-diffusion of the different elements to the self-diffusion in Ti are presented in Figure 11 over
the temperature range of 1000–1400 ◦ C.
Figure 11. Temperature dependence of ratio of inter-diffusion coefficients to self-diffusion coefficient

of β-Ti.
The inter-diffusion coefficient of Fe in β-Ti is over 16 times higher than the self-diffusion coefficient
(β-Ti) and is also much higher than the inter-diffusion coefficients of Al and V in Ti (both <1). This
indicates that iron is a fast diffuser in β-Ti, and empirical rules of diffusion suggest that the addition of
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fast diffusers can enhance self-diffusion rates of both the solute and solvent atoms [28]. Additions of
a fast diffuser such as iron can therefore enhance the densification of titanium during sintering.
4.2. Macroporosity Formation

A fractograph of the Ti-6Al-4V sample sintered at 1150 ◦ C is presented in Figure 12 as well
as corresponding compositional analyses. Two macropores ~100 μm in diameter are observed in
Figure 12, and material with a “coral-like” structure was observed inside the pores. Compositional
analysis was conducted on the coral-like material (plot 1) and the more dense surrounding area
(plot 2). The EDS spectra and analysis show that the coral-like material was predominantly vanadium
(88.78 wt %) whilst the surrounding area was composed of titanium (93.82 wt %) and a small amount
of aluminum (3.55 wt %) but no vanadium. The presence of vanadium-rich “coral-like” material with
a smooth cellular wall is considered to be correlated with the evaporation of aluminum according to
the following analysis.
Figure 12. Macropores shown in fracture surface of Ti-6Al-4V specimens sintered at 1150 ◦ C.
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Theoretical calculation of the evaporation of binary alloys can be determined based on the
Miedema model and Langmuir equation [23,29,30]. For instance, Guo and co-workers calculated the
theoretical elemental evaporation of a Ti-Al melt during casting with this model, which had reasonable
agreement with the experimental data [29,30]. Chen et al. [23] and Xu et al. [31] also utilized this
model to calculate the evaporation of PM fabricated Fe-Al and Fe-Mn alloys in good accordance with
experimental observations.
The evaporation loss rate (Nm, A ) of the component A in a binary A-B alloy system is demonstrated
by the Langmuir theory [29,32]:

Nm, A = KL × ε × ( Pe A − P g A ) × M A /T (4)
The Langmuir constant (KL ) is equal to 4.37 × 10−4 when the partial pressure is described in
Pascal [29,30]. ε is the condensation constant (for metals = 1) [29,30]. Pe A indicates the saturated vapor
partial pressure of element A in the system and P g A is the partial pressure of the component. Since the
specimens were sintered under high vacuum and the volatiles are reactive with titanium substrate,
it is proposed that P g A can be considered to be zero. M A and T are the component’s atomic mass and
absolute temperature respectively.
The saturated vapor partial pressure Pe A can be defined by:
Pe A = χ A × γ A × PA0 (5)
where χ A and γ A indicate the molar fractions and activity coefficient of component A in the binary
system. The equilibrium pressure of pure component A, PA0 can be calculated for Al and V elements by
the following formula [33]:
0
log10 PAl = 14.465 − 17342T −1 − 0.7927 log10 T (6)
log10 PV0 = 14.75 − 27132T −1 − 0.5501 log10 T (7)
The activity coefficient of component A (γ A ) in a binary system is given by [34]:
Ω
ln γ A = (1 − χ A )2 (8)
RT
where R is the ideal gas constant and Ω is an interaction parameter which can be obtained by calculating
the molar enthalpy of mixing (ΔH mix ) for the binary system [34]:
ΔH mix = Ω × χ A × χ B (9)
where χ A and χ B are the molar fractions of component A and B respectively.

Substituting Equation (9) into Equation (8), gives:
χA
ln γ B = ΔH mix (10)
RTχ B
χB
ln γ A = ΔH mix (11)
RTχ A
Thus, the theoretical evaporation loss rate is dependent on the molar enthalpy of mixing (ΔH mix ),
which can be determined using the model of Miedema [35]:

2P f (cs )(χ A V2/3 + χ B V2/3
B ) Q A 1/3 B 1/3
2
ΔH mix = A
−1/3 −1/3
× −( ϕ A − ϕ B )2 + (n ws − nws ) − R/P (12)
(n A + (n Bws ) P
ws )
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where f (cs ) is given by:
2
f (cs ) = f (χ A s χ B s ) = χ A χ B V2/3 2/3 2/3 2/3
A VB / ( χ A V A + χ B V B ) (13)
1/3 1/3
V2/3 2/3 A
A , V B , nws
B
, nws , Q, P, R, ϕ A , and ϕ B are all constants and are available in the literature [35].
Once the molar enthalpy of mixing is determined, the activity coefficients of Al and V can be calculated
from Equations (10) and (11) and combined with the equilibrium pressure (Equations (6) and (7)) to
give the saturated vapor pressure (Equation (5)) and ultimately the evaporation rate (Equation (4)).
The weight ratio of Al to V in the 60 wt % Al-40 wt % V master alloy results in an atomic ratio of
Al to V of 17:6. Using these values and the model described above, the dependence of the saturated
vapor pressure and evaporation rate on temperature is plotted in Figure 13.
Figure 13. The dependence of evaporation rate and saturated vapor pressure on temperature.
From Figure 13 it can be seen that the saturation vapor pressure of aluminum is 9.2 × 10−3 Pa at
a temperature of 1000 ◦ C and increases with temperature. This is higher than the furnace vacuum level
of 2 × 10−3 Pa thus suggesting that the Al is in a state of free evaporation [29,30]. The evaporation rate
of aluminum and vanadium are 1.48 × 10−4 and 1.48 × 10−12 g·cm−2 ·s−1 respectively at a temperature
of 1150 ◦ C seen from Figure 13. The median diameter of the master powder particles was 142.31 μm as
shown in Figure 1. Assuming the particle is spherical and the compositional ratio is constant, the mass
of aluminum and vanadium in this particle would be 3.15 and 2.1 μg, respectively. When sintering was
conducted at the lowest temperature (1150 ◦ C) with a holding time of 3 h, the total loss of aluminum
and vanadium by evaporation would be 1.02 × 103 and 1.02 × 10−5 μg respectively. It can be seen that
the evaporation loss of aluminum is three orders of magnitude higher than the actual content, whereas,
the evaporation of vanadium can be neglected compared with its original mass. This indicates that
aluminum had completed the evaporation process before the sintering ends, which is validated by the
observation that aluminum is almost non-existent inside the pore shown in Figure 12. It is therefore
suggested that the macropores are formed due to the high saturated vapor pressure resulting in the
evaporation of aluminum and leaving a vanadium rich region inside the pores whose shape and size
are taken from original master particles. These macropores would dramatically decrease both tensile
strength and ductility.
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4.3. Microstructural Evaluation and Phase Transformation

Haase et al. [25] sintered c.p. Ti powder (<150 μm) blended with a 60Al-40V master powder
(<160 μm) prepared by equal-channel angular pressing and the investigation revealed retarded
dissolution of master alloy particles due to the formation of Al-rich and V-rich layers, which were
assumed to be comprised of intermetallic phases [25]. Therefore, for blended elemental Ti-6Al-4V
sintered at 1150 ◦ C shown in Figures 6a and 7a, the phase of region 2 (Figure 6a) can be suggested as
α2 -Ti3 Al [36], which is in agreement with the phase determination illustrated in Figure 9a. Moreover,
the diffusion of elements in α2 -Ti3 Al is much slower than in β-Ti, for example the diffusion coefficient of
Al in β-Ti is almost 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than in α2 -Ti3 Al [36]. Therefore, such intermetallic
phase may be considered to be a diffusion barrier for vanadium diffusion which was left by the
evaporation of aluminum from the master alloy powders. As indicated by Equation (3) the diffusion
coefficient increases with temperature and the intermetallic phases would become no longer stable
at higher temperatures (1250 and 1350 ◦ C) compared with 1150 ◦ C. This is in accordance with the
observation shown in the literature [25]. Therefore, only α-Ti phase was observed at higher temperature
with no intermetallic phase as shown in Figure 9a.
The light region shown in Figure 5 is considered to be β phase because of the abundance
of β-stabilizers such as iron and vanadium. The dark region is suggested to be α phase at high
temperature (1250 and 1350 ◦ C) including both the blocky regions and acicular grains. Interestingly,
the two different “alpha” morphologies are not consistent in composition. In the larger, blocky regions
the Al content is much lower and this is thought to be a result of incomplete diffusion of the alloying
elements into the Ti matrix because of the distance from the master alloy particle which is the source of
aluminum. This is compatible with the unusual microstructural observation.
4.4. Mechanical Properties

Although the microporosity was reduced with the addition of iron, the mechanical properties
of these samples were poor: fracture strength in the range of 20 to 100 MPa, with no or little plastic
deformation. This is thought to be due to the macroporosity in the sintered samples and high oxygen
content in the as-received titanium powders. High oxygen levels in particular are detrimental to the
mechanical properties in PM Ti components [4,5,7]. The dependence of oxygen content on median
particle size for HDH titanium powder is summarized from the literature [4,37] in Figure 14.
Figure 14. Dependence of oxygen content on median particle size of hydrogenation-dehydrogenation

(HDH) titanium powder.
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The correlation between oxygen content and median particle size shown in Figure 14 can be
expressed by a power-law equation:
w = 5.9738 d−0.928 (14)
where w is the oxygen content (wt %) and d is the median particle size (μm). The relationship between
oxygen content (0.82 wt %) and the median particle size (8.84 μm) of the fine powder used in this
work fits well with this relationship. Since oxygen has high solubility in β-Ti [38], the oxygen element,
in the form of oxides on titanium particle surfaces, will enter into the β-Ti lattice and therefore, the
oxide layer on the titanium particle surface does not affect the densification of blended alloys [5].
However, the oxygen dissolved in β phase would precipitate as oxides at a temperature below the β
transus, and these brittle oxides tend to precipitate at grain boundaries. This work has shown that
although good densification can be obtained at low temperatures when using the fine titanium powder,
the high levels of oxygen impurities results in poor mechanical properties. In order to remedy the
poor mechanical properties, the amount of oxides should be reduced and the oxides should not be
at the grain boundaries. One strategy is to use an oxygen scavenging element, which has significant
solubility in titanium and has more affinity for oxygen than Ti, thus forming non-Ti oxides that are
located in the titanium grain interior. Some rare earth elements might serve this purpose [39,40].
Another strategy is to use post-sinter thermomechanical treatments to mechanically move the oxides
from grain boundaries to the grain interior.
5. Conclusions
Four different blended elemental titanium alloys were designed and sintered through varying
the weight percentage of a fine Ti powder with (Al-V) master alloy and iron powders. Spherical
micropores were formed during sintering with fine titanium powder even at the lowest sintering
temperature for Ti-6Al-4V. With the addition of Fe, the microporosity was reduced and improved
microstructural and compositional homogenization was observed. This is due to fast diffusion of
iron in titanium thereby enhancing densification. However, the tensile mechanical properties of these
blended elemental titanium alloys were poor with values of <100 MPa tensile strength and almost
no elongation. This was mainly caused by high impurity content in the as-received powders and the
formation of macropores around the original master alloy particles. Incomplete dissociation of the
master alloy particles caused severe evaporation of aluminum resulting in the formation of macropores
during sintering.
Although reasonable densification could be obtained with fine titanium powders and this could
be improved with the addition of iron, the properties were low because of the high inherent oxygen
and macroporosity and therefore special precautions have to be taken when using these powders.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment (MBIE).
Author Contributions: Changzhou Yu conducted the experimental work as part of his Ph.D. study. He also
analyzed the data. Peng Cao and Mark Ian Jones conceived and designed the experiments and analyzed the data.
Peng Cao revised the manuscript. Mark Ian Jones discussed the results. Peng Cao and Mark Ian Jones were the
supervisors of Changzhou Yu.
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26. Bolzoni, L.; Esteban, P.G.; Ruiz-Navas, E.M.; Gordo, E. Mechanical behaviour of pressed and sintered
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Article
Sintering Behavior and Microstructure of TiC-Me
Composite Powder Prepared by SHS
Elena N. Korosteleva 1,2, *, Victoria V. Korzhova 2 and Maksim G. Krinitcyn 1,2
1 Department of High Technology Physics in Mechanical Engineering, Tomsk Polytechnic University,
30 Lenin av., 634050 Tomsk, Russia; [email protected]
2 Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
2/4, pr. Akademicheskii, 634055 Tomsk, Russia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +7-903-913-8002
Abstract: Titanium, its alloys, and refractory compounds are often used in the compositions of
surfacing materials. In particular, under the conditions of electron-beam surfacing the use of
synthesized composite powder based on titanium carbide with a metal binder (TiC-Me) has a positive
effect. These powders have been prepared via the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis
(SHS) present in a thermally-inert metal binder. The initial carbide particle distribution changes
slightly in the surfacing layer in the high-energy rapid process of electron-beam surfacing. However,
these methods also have their limitations. The development of technologies and equipment using
low-energy sources is assumed. In this case, the question of the structure formation of composite
materials based on titanium carbide remains open, if a low-energy and prolonged impact in additive
manufacturing will be used. This work reports the investigation of the sintered powders that were
previously synthesized by the layerwise combustion mode of a mixture of titanium, carbon black,
and metal binders of various types. The problems of structure formation during vacuum sintering of
multi-component powder materials obtained as a result of SHS are considered. The microstructure
and dependences of the sintered composites densification on the sintering temperature and the
composition of the SH-synthesized powder used are presented. It has been shown that under the
conditions of the nonstoichiometric synthesized titanium carbide during subsequently vacuum
sintering an additional alloy formation occurs that can lead to a consolidation (shrinkage) or
volumetric growth of sintered TiC-Me composite depending on the type of metal matrix used.
Keywords: titanium carbide; self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS); metal binder;

composite powders; sintering
1. Introduction
Titanium-based materials possess many unique properties that enable them to be used in a wide
range of applications in various industries [1–6]. Titanium-containing materials are in demand both as
casting alloys and as powder composites. Interest in the powder composite materials, in particular, has
grown considerably with the development of additive manufacturing, including surfacing processes
and 3D-printing of finished parts and products. The desire to create volumetric printing products with
complex surface geometry gave an additional incentive for the study of powder materials containing
titanium [4–6]. Composites based on titanium carbide occupy a special place among the known groups
of titanium materials. The high melting point, high strength, high thermal conductivity, stability in
aggressive media and low abrasion make titanium carbide indispensable in a many areas of human
activity [1–6]. Titanium carbide is remarkable in that, according to the equilibrium state diagram, it
has a wide homogeneity region in the titanium-carbon system [7]. The boundaries of this interval have
not yet been fully studied, but it can be assumed that it is wider than 40–50 at % of carbon at room

Metals 2017, 7, 290
temperature. TiC has a structure similar to that of NaCl (Bi) The carbon is usually located in the lattice
between the points of the lattice, forming an interstitial solution. It was found that decreasing carbon
content decreases the lattice period and hardness [2,3].
Most studies have been shown that TiC of stoichiometric composition is difficult to produce.
A number of researchers note that it is impossible to obtain TiC in which all interstitial sites are occupied
by carbon atoms [8–10]. One of the reasons is the ability of oxygen and nitrogen atoms to penetrate into
the TiC lattice together with carbon atoms. The TiO and TiN phases also have a lattice similar to the
NaCl (Bi) lattice and are isomorphous with TiC. Therefore, oxygen and nitrogen pose great difficulties
in obtaining pure TiC. Production of titanium carbide with the self-propagating high-temperature
synthesis (SHS) method is characterized by the fact that the combustion reaction in the compact of
titanium powder and carbon black completes in just a few seconds [11–18]. The synthesis is most often
carried out in a protective inert atmosphere. In addition, raw titanium must contain the least possible
amount of impurities, including oxygen. The combination of the structural characteristics of the hard
inclusions (titanium carbide) and the metal binder (matrix) provides the functional properties of the
composite material. There are many methods of producing metal matrix composites with titanium
carbide [19–27]. Classical methods of powder metallurgy (sintering, hot pressing and extrusion)
and combination of them with mechanical activation or chemical-thermal processes can be used.
In addition, the structure formation of the metal matrix composite can occur both as a result of heat
treatment of a powder’s mixture containing a metal base with titanium carbide, and as a result of
the synthesis of titanium with carbon components and other metals. In the first case, it is difficult to
use a large amount of titanium carbide. In the second case, the excess carbon content is desirable in
order to achieve an acceptable volume fraction of carbide. The method of producing a metal matrix
composite by the SHS method is quite simple when the synthesis takes place directly during the
reaction of titanium and carbon in the presence of a thermally-inert metal matrix [28–30]. In this case,
a structure with carbides surrounded by a metal binder is formed directly during the synthesis process.
This method allows us to achieve the optimum volume fraction, and a homogeneous distribution
with a high degree of dispersion of titanium carbide that has a positive effect on the properties of the
metal matrix composite. Such characteristics are difficult to achieve with the conventional method
of introducing the titanium carbide into a metal matrix. As a rule, such a synthesized compact is
quite fragile and easily subjected to grinding. After grinding, the resulting powder product is sieved
into fractions. As a result, the finished powder can be obtained with a predetermined structure of
a metal matrix composite based on titanium carbide. Subsequently, the synthesized powder can be
used as consumables (feedstock) for surfacing processes and other additive production. The behavior
of such powders under the conditions of the electron beam surfacing can be assessed by us already,
where high-energy fast processes are realized. However, at the moment it is difficult to answer how
the synthesized composite powders will behave under low-energy prolonged impact. This paper
presents the results of our research, which were carried out in order to explain the behavior of such
non-equilibrium heterogeneous structures during subsequent heat treatment.
2.1. Materials and Experimental Procedure

The powder materials under study were obtained in two stages:
(1). Synthesis of the powder base from the reaction mixture by a layerwise combustion mode in an
argon atmosphere, followed by milling of the synthesized material and sieving of the necessary fraction.
(2). Vacuum sintering of the synthesized powders into compacts.
Standardized industrial powders were used in the experiment:
Titanium TPP-8 (POLEMA JSC, Tula, Russia) with dispersion 50–130 μm;
Carbon black P-803 (Omsk Carbon Group, Omsk, Russia) (< 0.1 μm);
High-speed steel R6M5 (POLEMA JSC, Tula, Russia) (50–100 μm);
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Metals 2017, 7, 290
High-chromium cast iron PG-S27 (POLEMA JSC, Tula, Russia) (50–100 μm);
Nickel-based self-fluxing alloy PR-N77H15S3R2 (POLEMA JSC, Tula, Russia) (50–100 μm).
The titanium powder TPP-8 contains no less than 99.4% of the primary component, and no more
than 0.33% iron, 0.12% chlorine, and 0.1% oxygen. The high-speed steel powder contains 1% carbon,
alloying dopants (Cr, 4%; W, 6.5%; Mo, 5%; V, 2%) and impurities (Si, 0.5%; Mn, 0.55%; Ni, 0.4%).
Powder mixing was carried out in stationary conditions using axial mixing machine SMU-PB-180
(Agromash, Moscow, Russia). The metal binder content is determined by the maximally possible
volume fraction of the thermally-inert metal component that still permits the initiation and realization
of the SHS process in a mixture of titanium, carbon black, and the chosen metal matrix powders.
Calculation of the initial powder mixture was made based on the assumption that the estimated
volume fraction of equiatomic titanium carbide is formed during SHS. The following compositions
were chosen (Table 1).
Table 1. Compositions of experimental powder mixtures (SHS: Self-propagating high-temperature

synthesis).
The Calculated Content of Phases in the SHS Powders

Composition Number
(with the Assumption of Equiatomic TiC Formation)
1 TiC + 50 vol % Ti
2 TiC + 60 vol % Ti
3 TiC + 50 vol % high-chromium cast iron
4 TiC + 50 vol % high-speed steel
5 TiC + 20 vol % nickel-based self-fluxing alloy
The powder compositions were pressed into cylindrical compacts 35 mm in diameter to facilitate the
passage of the combustion front. Then the compacts were placed in a reactor for synthesis in a layerwise
combustion mode using argon gas with an excess pressure of about 0.5 atm. The reaction of layerwise
combustion was initiated using short-term heating by means of a molybdenum filament of an igniting
tablet pressed from the powder mixture of titanium and silicon corresponding to the stoichiometric
composition Ti5 Si3 . The combustion product remains of titanium silicide were removed after synthesis;
the reacted compact was milled and sieved into fractions. Using this procedure, synthesized powders
of all investigated compositions containing titanium carbide were obtained [28–32]. The typical
microstructure and morphology of the studied synthesized powder compositions are shown in Figure 1.
The finest fraction (not exceeding 50 μm) was selected for studying the behavior of composite powders
under vacuum sintering. Cylindrical specimens pressed using a plasticizer with residual porosity not
exceeding 45% were placed in a vacuum furnace and heated in vacuum at 10−2 Pa with a heating rate
of 3–5 ◦ C·min−1 to achieve sintering temperatures of 1300 ◦ C and 1350 ◦ C. The holding time at the
sintering temperature was 3 h.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Cont.
38
Metals 2017, 7, 290
(c) (d)
Figure 1. Morphology and microstructure of the following powder composites: (a,b) TiC-50% binder
of high-chromium cast iron; and (c,d) TiC-50% binder of high-speed steel.
2.2. Characterisation
The density of specimens was measured before and after sintering by the Archimedes method
according to the ASTM B962-17 standard. Metallographic specimens were prepared using the standard
metallographic procedures: grinding with abrasive materials; fine polishing and etching in Keller’s
reagent (95 mL H2 O; 2.5 mL HNO3 ; 1.5 mL HCl; 1 mL HF) for 5–10 s. An AXIOVERT-200MAT
metallographic microscope (Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) and a LEO EVO 50 scanning electron
microscope (Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) were used for the analysis of the SHS-powder
morphology, the microstructure of the SHS-powder, and the sintered compacts. The phase composition
was determined by X-ray analysis using Co Kα . For phase identification and calculation of the lattice
parameters of the phases was used the X-ray data of the ASTM data file and the software package
PDWin (4.0, NPP Bourevestnik, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, 2015).
3. Results
The results of vacuum sintering of SH-synthesized metal-matrix powders based on titanium
carbide are presented in Figure 2. These results are best analyzed by the change in density before and
after sintering. The density of the green compacts varies from 3.1 g/cm2 to 3.7 g/cm2 , depending on
the metal binder used. Our estimates show that this density corresponds to approximately 60–70%
of the theoretical maximum for the respective system. In our studies, we preferred to use the actual
density values of the sintered compacts. The porosity was determined by the metallographic method
(quantitative metallography). In multicomponent powder materials, it is difficult to calculate the
theoretical density of sintered compacts to estimate their residual porosity, since the real phase
relationship after sintering is unknown.
The experimental results show that vacuum sintering at 1300–1350 ◦ C has a significant effect on
the structure formation of composite materials sintered from SH-synthesized powders, i.e., from the
already-reacted powder composition. The process of diffusion interaction was once again activated
during the subsequent sintering. Comparing the values of densification for different compositions in
Figure 2, it is evident that the qualitative composition of the metal matrix affects the sinterability of the
composite powder compacts.
Titanium, as a metallic binder, will be well-sintered in any temperature range (Figure 3).
Its inclusions, which stimulate densification of the compact during sintering, are insignificant (by
volume) relative to the dominant titanium carbide (Figure 2a). However, the interaction of free
surfaces of “titanium-titanium” is not the only factor leading to shrinkage of the samples. According
to microstructure analysis, an additional carbon migration occurs during sintering, which increases
the proportion of non-stoichiometric titanium carbide (Figure 3b).
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Metals 2017, 7, 290
Figure 2. Density change of TiC-Me (titanium carbide with metal binder) compacts sintered at different
temperature: (a) TiC-50% Ti; (b) TiC-50% high-chromium cast iron; (c) TiC-50% nickel-based self-fluxing
alloy; (d) TiC-50% high-speed steel.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Microstructure of titanium powder: (a) TiC-50% Ti synthesized powder before sintering at
1350 ◦ C; (b) after sintering at 1350 ◦ C.
Composite powders with a high-chromium cast iron binder also densify well (Figure 4). In this
case, it can be assumed that the fixed carbon, which is a component of the cast iron alloy, acts as an
activator of sintering. Evidently, its affinity to titanium is stronger than the bond with iron and other
alloying components (chrome) that are alloy additives of cast iron.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Microstructure of high-chromium cast iron powder: (a) TiC-50% high-chromium cast iron
binder synthesized powder before sintering at 1300 ◦ C; (b) after sintering at 1300 ◦ C.
40
Metals 2017, 7, 290
The use of other alloys (high-speed steel and nickel-based self-fluxing alloy) as a metallic binder
demonstrates the opposite effect (Figure 5). Vacuum sintering of these synthesized powders causes the
residual porosity increase that leads to a density decrease.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5. Sintered at 1300 ◦ C: (a) microstructure of nickel-based self-fluxing alloy powder; (b)
high-speed steel powder; (c) TiC-50% nickel-based self-fluxing alloy synthesized powder; and (d)
TiC-50% high-speed steel synthesized powder.
Although the powders of high-speed steel and nickel-based self-fluxing alloys themselves are
well-sintered (Figure 5a,b), in the presence of the titanium carbide the “negative” redistribution of the
carbon takes place towards the metallic binder. This is assisted by the presence of carbon-active
components in the alloys of high-speed steel and nickel-based self-fluxing alloy: Tungsten and
molybdenum in high-speed steel and chromium in the nickel-based self-fluxing alloy, where nickel
can also have an active influence on the titanium bound in the carbide.
It was found that the non-equilibrium metal-matrix structure of the powders formed as a result of
SHS by the layerwise combustion method consisting mainly of non-stoichiometric titanium carbide [30,31].
Many works are devoted to the non-stoichiometricity of titanium carbide [6,8–10]. Unfortunately, there
are not enough publications showing the influence of this factor on the various processes of structure
formation. Our research shows that subsequent heat treatment in the mode of vacuum sintering
activates the tendency of the system to approach a more equilibrated state through the redistribution
of fixed carbon. In fact, despite the high affinity of carbon to titanium, some carbon atoms leave the
lattice of titanium carbide, which already has a carbon deficit. Some coarsening and coalescence of the
carbide particles after vacuum sintering occurs in comparison with the distribution and dispersion of
carbide inclusions in the synthesized powders before heat treatment (Figure 6).
Figure 7 shows the effect of temperature on the sinterability of TiC-50% Ti SHS-powders. The metal
binder type of synthesized powders have different effects on the sinterability of compacts. In the case
of a maximum binder content of titanium, high-chromium cast iron, and a nickel alloy. An increase in
temperature from 1300 ◦ C to 1350 ◦ C stimulates densification; in the case of a high-speed steel binder,
however, the density at 1350 ◦ C was less than at 1300 ◦ C. It is supposed by us that the temperature of
1350 ◦ C is insufficient to cause the shrinkage process to become dominant. At this temperature, the
alloy formation local processes continue, causing the formation of rigid skeletons.
41
Metals 2017, 7, 290
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Microstructure of TiC-50% Ti synthesized powder: (a) Before sintering at 1350 ◦ C and (b) after
sintering at 1350 ◦ C.
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Microstructure of TiC-50% Ti synthesized powder sintered at: (a) 1300 ◦ C and (b) 1350 ◦ C.
In the latter compositions, a rigid skeleton is formed from the high-alloy metal binder already at
1300 ◦ C. This rigid skeleton prevents consolidation of the material with an increasing temperature up
to the melting point of the binder.
At the same time, there is no noticeable qualitative change in the phase composition of the
synthesized powder materials after sintering (Figure 8). The main phases were recognized, and were
identical both for synthesized powder and for sintered compacts from them. The formation of any
additional phases was not detected. However, a number of the X-ray diffraction (XRD) lines have
a superposed view that may indicate the possibility of the existence of additional phases in small
volume fractions. It is assumed that additional structural studies are needed in this case.
(b)
(a)
Figure 8. Cont.
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Metals 2017, 7, 290
(c)
Figure 8. XRD patterns of the SHS-powder materials before (1) and after (2) sintering at 1350 ◦ C:
(a) TiC-50% high-chromium cast iron binder; (b) TiC-50% high-speed steel binder; (c) TiC-50% binder
of nickel-based self-fluxing alloy. (SHS: Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis).
The volume fraction of the metal binder affects the density change of the sintered materials
depending on its type. In the case of titanium binder, an increase in its bulk content contributes to the
shrinkage of the sintered compacts. In the case of a nickel alloy matrix, on the contrary, an increase in
the volume fraction of the binder leads to an increased volume growth of the compacts sintered at
1300 ◦ C (Table 2). When the temperature reaches 1350 ◦ C, the densification processes starts to dominate
for the compositions with 40–50% nickel-based binder.
Table 2. Relative densification of the SHS compacts with various volume content of metal binder
sintered at 1350 ◦ C.
Relative Densification, %
Composition
T sin = 1300 ◦ C T sin = 1350 ◦ C
TiC + 50 vol % Ti 40.1 42.0
TiC + 60 vol % Ti 43.2 50.6
TiC + 20 vol % nickel-based self-fluxing alloy −10.2 −14.1
4. Discussion
The results of our research show that metal matrix composites “TiC-metal binder” synthesized
from powders in a layerwise combustion mode have a non-stoichiometric composition and are in a
non-equilibrium state. It is assumed by us that carbon rearrangement occurs not only in the carbide
phase, but also at the interface between TiC and the metal matrix upon subsequent heat treatment.
Powder-synthesized composite materials of the type “TiC-high-chromium cast iron” and “TiC-Ti”
exhibit significant densification during vacuum sintering at temperatures starting from 1250 ◦ C, up to
1300 ◦ C. Conversely, use of high-speed steel and nickel-based self-fluxing alloy as the metal binder
leads to an increased pore fraction by volume and, as a result, to an increased volume growth of
specimens during sintering. The rise of the temperature up to 1350 ◦ C only increases this expansion.
For these multicomponent composites it is necessary to change a composition of synthesized powder
by means of metal binder addition. The ability of the two studied compositions (“TiC-high-chromium
cast iron” and “TiC-Ti”) to significantly densify during sintering at temperatures lower than the melting
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Metals 2017, 7, 290
point of the metal matrix may be of interest for the design of equipment for additive manufacturing,
including 3D-printing of composite materials at reduced temperatures.
Acknowledgments: The research was funded from Russian Science Foundation, grant number 17-19-01425.
The experimental calculations were carried out at Tomsk Polytechnic University within the framework of Tomsk
Polytechnic University Competitiveness Enhancement Program grant.
Author Contributions: Elena N. Korosteleva conceived and designed the experiments, analyzed the data, and
planned the manuscript; Victoria V. Korzhova conducted the experimental work for XRD analysis and discussed
the results; Maksim G. Krinitcyn carried out the experiments for sintering and microstructure analysis.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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phase transition of TiC. J. Alloys Compd. 2009, 478, 392–397. [CrossRef]
24. Yan, Y.; Zheng, Y.; Yu, H.; Bu, H.; Cheng, X.; Zhao, N. Effect of sintering temperature on the microstructure
and mechanical properties of Ti(C, N)-based cermets. Powder Metall. Met. Ceram. 2007, 46, 449–453.
[CrossRef]
25. Viljus, M.; Pirso, J.; Juhani, K.; Letunovitš, S. Structure Formation in Ti-C-Ni-Mo Composites during Reactive
Sintering. Mater. Sci. 2012, 18, 62–65. [CrossRef]
26. Luo, S.D.; Li, Q.; Tian, J.; Wang, C.; Yan, M.; Schaffer, G.B.; Qian, M. Self-assembled, aligned TiC
nanoplatelet-reinforced titanium composites with outstanding compressive properties. Scr. Mater. 2013, 69,
29–32. [CrossRef]
27. Li, S.; Sun, B.; Imai, H.; Kondoh, K. Powder metallurgy Ti-TiC metal matrix composites prepared by in situ
reactive processing of Ti-VGCFs system. Carbon 2013, 61, 216–228. [CrossRef]
28. Kalambaeva, S.S.; Korosteleva, E.N.; Pribytkov, G.A. Structure of Composite Powders “TiC-high Chromium
Cast Iron Binder” Produced by SHS Method. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical
Engineering, Automation and Control Systems, Tomsk, Russia, 16–18 October 2014. [CrossRef]
29. Krinitcyn, M.G.; Pribytkov, G.A.; Durakov, V.G. Structure and properties of electron beam coatings, overlaid
of SHS composite powders “TiC-Ti”, synthesized in air. Key Eng. Mater. 2016, 685, 719–723. [CrossRef]
30. Korosteleva, E.N.; Pribytkov, G.A.; Krinitcyn, M.G.; Baranovskii, A.V.; Korzhova, V.V.; Strelnitskij, V.E.
Fabrication of “TiC-HSS steel binder” composite powders by self-propagating high temperature synthesis.
Key Eng. Mater. 2016, 712, 195–199. [CrossRef]
31. Korosteleva, E.N.; Pribytkov, G.A.; Krinitcyn, M.G.; Baranovskii, A.V.; Korzhova, V.V. Problems of
Development and Application of Metal Matrix Composite Powders for Additive Technologies. IOP Conf. Ser.
Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 140. [CrossRef]
32. Dudina, D.V.; Pribytkov, G.A.; Krinitcyn, M.G.; Korchagin, M.A.; Bulina, N.V.; Bokhonov, B.B.; Batraev, I.S.;
Rybin, D.K.; Ulianitsky, V.Y. Detonation spraying behavior of TiCx -Ti powders and the role of reactive
processes in the coating formation. Ceram. Int. 2016, 42, 690–696. [CrossRef]
45
metals
Article
Self-Propagating High Temperature Synthesis of
TiB2–MgAl2O4 Composites
Nina Radishevskaya 1 , Olga Lepakova 1 , Natalia Karakchieva 2, *, Anastasiya Nazarova 1 ,
Nikolai Afanasiev 1 , Anna Godymchuk 3,4 and Alexander Gusev 4,5
1 Tomsk Scientific Centre SB RAS, Tomsk 634055, Russia; [email protected] (N.R.);
[email protected] (O.L.); [email protected] (A.N.); [email protected] (N.A.)
2 Physical-Technical Institute, Tomsk State University, Tomsk 634050, Russia
3 Department of Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University,
Tomsk 634050, Russia; [email protected]
4 Department of Functional Nanosystems and High-Temperature Materials,
National University of Science and Technology MISIS, Moscow 119991, Russia; [email protected]
5 Research Institute of Environmental Science and Biotechnology, G.R. Derzhavin Tambov State University,
Tambov 392000, Russia
Received: 27 June 2017; Accepted: 27 July 2017; Published: 3 August 2017
Abstract: Metal borides are widely used as heat-insulating materials, however, the range of
their application in high-temperature conditions with oxidative medium is significantly restricted.
To improve the thermal stability of structural materials based on titanium boride, and to prevent
the growth of TiB2 crystals, additives based on alumina-magnesia spinel with chemical resistant and
refractory properties have been used. The aim of this work is to study the structure of TiB2 with
alumina-magnesia spinel additives obtained by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS).
TiB2 structure with uniform fine-grained distribution was obtained in an MgAl2 O4 matrix. The material
composition was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis (DRON-3M, filtered Co kα-emission), FTIR
spectroscopy (Thermo Electron Nicolet 5700, within the range of 1300–400 cm−1 ), and scanning electron
microscopy (Philips SEM 515). The obtained material represents a composite, where the particles of
TiB2 with a size of 5 μm are uniformly distributed in the alloy of alumina-magnesia spinel.
Keywords: titanium diboride; alumina-magnesia spinel; self-propagating high-temperature

synthesis; composites
1. Introduction
Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) is used to develop new technologies for the
production of refractory nonmetallic composite materials with defined properties. In spite of the fact
that metal carbides and borides are widely used as insulation materials, the range of their application
in oxidative mediums at high temperatures is very restricted. To increase the refractory properties
of metal carbides and borides, alumina-magnesia spinel MgAl2 O4 with the melting temperature of
2105 ◦ C, which corresponds to the high level of refractoriness [1], is used as an additive.
Magnesium and aluminothermic synthesis is widely used for the production of refractory
ceramic materials, e.g., with the use of metallothermic reduction in a TiO2 –MgO–Al2 O3 –Al system,
the refractory materials based on MgAl2 O4 and titanium carbonitrides are obtained [2]. High-strength
porous ceramic material, containing in its composition MgAl2 O4 , TiB2 , TiO2 , Al4 B2 O6 , and Mg2 B2 O5
was obtained in a TiO2 –B2 O3 –Al system with MgO additives. This material can be used as a catalyst
at temperatures of 600 ◦ C–700 ◦ C in an open atmosphere [3]. Moreover, aluminum is widely used in
the synthesis of composite materials. In the structure of composites, the intermetallic matrices from

Metals 2017, 7, 295
both TiAl/Ti3 Al and MgAl2 O4 are incorporated [4]. In all of the abovementioned works, MgAl2 O4 is
synthesized in the form of particles.
Another method of heat-resistant composite production is through titanium diboride synthesis
from its elements with the use of chemical-resistant and refractory alumina-magnesia spinel (MgAl2 O4 ).
This method allows decelerating high-temperature solid-phase oxidative reactions in the process of
material exploitation.
The aim of this work is to study the phase composition and microstructure of a TiB2 + MgAl2 O4
heat-resistant composite obtained by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with MgAl2 O4
additives of different concentrations.
At high temperatures (~3000 ◦ C), spinel melts and spreads along the surface of TiB2 grains,
forming the matrix that protects the TiB2 grain surface with the spinel.

To prepare reaction mixtures, dried in a vacuum at temperature of 200 ◦ C for 2 h, titanium powders
(TPP-8, JSC “Avisma”; titanium composition ~96 wt %; particle size < 160 μm), amorphous boron
(B-99A-TU-6-02-585-75), and alumina-magnesia spinel (TU 6-09-01-136) were used. Four mixtures of
different compositions were prepared: (1) 90% (Ti + 2B) + 10% MgAl2 O4 ; (2) 75% (Ti + 2B) + 25% MgAl2 O4 ;
(3) 60% (Ti + 2B) + 40% MgAl2 O4 ; (4) 50% (Ti + 2B) + 50% MgAl2 O4 . Powders were thoroughly
mixed to obtain homogenous blends. Then, from the obtained mixtures, porous (40–45%) cylindrical
particles were formed with a diameter of 20 mm and a length of 30–32 mm by using a hydraulic press.
Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis was conducted in a constant pressure setup in argon
atmosphere at a pressure of ~6 atm. Samples ignition was carried out using an ignition mixture of
powders (Ti + 2B) with the help of a tungsten filament, which was supplied with a short-term electrical
impulse. The maximal combustion temperature was detected by the tungsten-rhenium thermocouple
BP5-BP20 with a diameter of 100 μm. Temperature registration was conducted with the use of an
analog-to-digital converter LA-20USB connected with a personal computer.
The compositions of the obtained materials were proved by X-ray phase analyses (Dron-3M,
filtered Co kα-emission, Saint Petersburg, Russia), IR spectroscopy (FTIR spectrometer Nicolet-5700,
Thermo Electron Corporation, Atkinson, USA). Measurements were carried out using an add-in device
of scattering reflection in KBr at a frequency interval of 1300–400 cm−1 . To study the microstructure,
an optical microscope (Axiovert 200M, OM, Karl Zeiss, Germany) and a scanning electron microscope
(SEM-515, Philips, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) were used.
3. Results and Discussion

Among gas-free systems, the Ti-B system is characterized by the highest exothermicity.
For a powder mixture with the ratio of components Ti:B = 1:2 the adiabatic temperature of combustion
is Tad = 3190 K [5]. Alumina-magnesia spinel MgAl2 O4 is inert in relation to the mixture Ti-2B.
In Table 1, the physicochemical properties of spinel are presented [6,7].
Table 1. Physicochemical properties of compounds.
Compound Melting Temperature, ◦ C Density, g/cm3 −ΔH◦ form , kJ/mol

MgAl2 O4 2135 3.8 2307.8
TiB2 2850 4.45–4.50 293.3
MgTiO3 1680 3.91 1573.6
α–Al2 O3 2045 3.99 1675.0
Figure 1 shows the combustion thermogram of the TiB2 (75 wt %) + MgAl2 O4 (25 wt %) system.
The maximal combustion temperature is 2300 ◦ C, which is higher than the spinel melting temperature.
Synthesis was conducted layer-by-layer in the steady state combustion conditions. Similar combusting
47
Metals 2017, 7, 295
conditions were observed for Ti + 2B + xCu and Ti + 2B + xFe systems. Depending on their content,
different metal alloys partially or fully surround particles of titanium borides [8,9].
Figure 1. Combustion thermogram of the TiB2 (75 wt %) + MgAl2 O4 (25 wt %) system.
Studies on the microstructure of the composite blends based on TiB2 with different MgAl2 O4
compositions showed that, depending on the amount of added spinel, the composite structure change
(Figure 2). If the amount of added MgAl2 O4 is <10%, the grains of titanium diboride in the microstructure
of the composite are partially surrounded by a solidified alloy of MgAl2 O4 (Figure 2a). The best
results were obtained at a spinel composition of 25%. The fine-grain microstructure from TiB2 grains
(light crystals) was observed, which is fully surrounded by spinel (dark areas). When 40% MgAl2 O4
was added to the blend during the synthesis, the formation of a non-homogeneous structure was
observed. The structure contains areas with the fine-grained titanium diboride and adjusting areas
from alumina-magnesia spinel (Figure 2c).
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 2. Microstructure of SHS composites based on titanium diboride with additions of MgAl2 O4 :
(a) 90% (Ti + 2B) + 10% MgAl2 O4 ; (b) 75% (Ti + 2B) + 25% MgAl2 O4 ; (c) 60% (Ti + 2B) + 40% MgAl2 O4 .
When 45% MgAl2 O4 is added to the composite, the mixture does not burn in this case, because
MgAl2 O4 is inert.
48
Metals 2017, 7, 295
Complete information on the structure of the product formed during SHS can be obtained
by analyses of fracture surfaces, studied with scanning electron microscopy. Figure 3 shows the
microstructure of fractures of SHS ceramic samples based on titanium diboride with the addition of
25% MgAl2 O4 (Figure 3a,b), and 0% MgAl2 O4 (Figure 3c,d).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3. Fractures of SHS samples: (a,b) 75% (Ti + 2B) + 25% MgAl2 O4 ; (c,d) (Ti + 2B).
As can be seen from Figure 3, the addition of 25% MgAl2 O4 leads to the decreasing of TiB2 crystals
(~2 μm), which are surrounded by a solidified alloy of alumina-magnesia spinel. The microstructure
of the SHS sample with Ti + 2B composition is formed by large TiB2 faceted crystals.
Figure 4 shows the diffraction patterns of TiB2 composites with different amounts of spinel. X-ray
diffraction analyses showed that in the composition of alumina-magnesia spinel, there is 12 wt % of
MgAl2 O4 . Figure 4 shows that spinel is identified in the composite containing 25 wt % of MgAl2 O4 ,
though, metallographically the spinel is identified at 10 wt % of MgAl2 O4 .
Figure 4. X-ray diffraction patterns of TiB2 composites with different contents of alumina-magnesia
spinel: (a) MgAl2 O4 ; (b) TiB2 + 10% MgAl2 O4 ; (c) TiB2 + 25% MgAl2 O4 ; (d) TiB2 + 40% MgAl2 O4 .
1-TiB2 , 2-MgAl2 O4 , 3-Al2 O3 .
49
Metals 2017, 7, 295
The composite with the fine-grained microstructure containing 25 wt % of MgAl2 O4 was studied
by FTIR spectroscopy. Figure 5 shows the FTIR spectrum of MgAl2 O4 , TiB2 –MgAl2 O4 composite,
corundum, and TiB2 .
Figure 5 (pattern 1) shows that alumina-magnesia spinel has two different absorption bands with
maximums at 692.0 cm−1 and 540.0 cm−1 , related to the tetrahedral coordinated magnesium MgO4 and
octahedral coordinated aluminum of AlO6 . The small peak in the frequency range of 800–900 cm−1 proves
the presence of Al2 O3 in spinel content. Irregularity of the spinel structure leading to a change of binding
force in the cation sub-lattice is identified by the emergence of an absorption band at 558.7 cm−1 [10].
100
1
891.3
981.7
868.4
2
1040.1
90
940.2
833.2
80
451.3
3
1001.7
70
566.4
471.4
548.3
Intensity, a.u.
592.0
507.8
613.6
464.5
60
638.4
523.9
445.2
667.2
1063.3
891.3
911.1
50
494.1
1162.4
40
751.6
727.2
558.7
452.4
804.7
782.1
30
418.0
473.5
4
422.3
692.0
20
1089.1
1179.3
639.0
605.8
540.0
456.9
1103.0
10
778.7
797.9
0
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400
-1
Wavenumber, cm
Figure 5. FTIR spectrum in the frequency range of 400–1300 cm− 1 : (1) MgAl2 O4 ; (2) TiB2 composite
25 wt % of MgAl2 O4 ; (3) gray corundum; (4) TiB2 .
FTIR spectrum of composite (TiB2 + 25 wt % of MgAl2 O4 ) consists of numerous absorption bands

typical for titanium diboride, spinel, and corundum (pattern 2).
According to the burning thermogram for the 75 wt % TiB2 + 25 wt % MgAl2 O4 system, the burning
temperature is 2300 ◦ C. Therefore, MgAl2 O4 is partially decomposed with corundum formation.
T
MgAl2 O4 → Al2 O3 + MgO
Pattern 3 shows the FTIR spectrum of gray corundum. Along with absorption bands at 639.0 cm−1 ,
605.8 cm−1 , and 456.9 cm−1 typical for octahedral coordinated aluminum AlO6 in α–Al2 O3 , there are
absorption bands at 1089.1 cm−1 , 797.9 cm−1 , and 778.7 cm−1 , related to the tetrahedral coordinated
aluminum AlO4 [11]. The same absorption bands are observed in the composite spectrum.
It is well known that α–Al2 O3 contains aluminum atoms which are octahedrally coordinated
by oxygen [10,12]. According to the literature data [13], the gray color of corundum is caused by
the presence of aluminous spinel AlOAl2 O3 . This spinel was identified during the electrocorundum
synthesis in reducing medium [13]. The melting temperature of spinel is 1980 ◦ C [1].
At the interference level, the absorption bands at 940.2 cm−1 , 727.2 cm−1 , and 507.8 cm−1 are
observed. They can be referred to MgTiO3 [12]. The formation of MgTiO3 is possible during the
synthesis at the phase boundary between TiB2 and MgAl2 O4 .
Oxygen and MgO can be borrowed during the thermal decomposition of spinel. In this case,
aluminum is moved from an octahedral coordination to a tetrahedral one with the formation of both
MgTiO3 and aluminous spinel with an intensive absorption band at 1089.1 cm−1 . It is well-known [14]
50
Metals 2017, 7, 295
that at high temperatures over Al2 O3 , the gas phase is formed as a result of thermal dissociation.
The gas phase contains aluminum sub-oxides Al2 O and AlO− .
T
Al2 O3 → Al2 O ↑ + O2 ↑
Aluminum sub-oxides can also participate in the formation of aluminous spinel AlOAl2 O3 .
2Al2 O3 + Al2 O + O → 2AlOAl2 O3
The FTIR spectrum of this composite (pattern 2) represents the envelope line along the spectrum
of alumina-magnesia spinel. The overlap of numerous bond oscillation frequencies, related to the TiB2 ,
corundum, aluminous spinel, and MgTiO3 , is observed.
Studies showed that the obtained composite consists of TiB2 fine grains, which are homogeneously
distributed in the alumina-magnesia matrix containing α–Al2 O3 . Traces of MgTiO3 and aluminous
spinel are also present in the composite.
According to the literature data [5], 12 mol % of MgO and 85.5 mol % of Al2 O3 can be dissolved
in alumina-magnesia spinel. In Table 2, the eutectic melting temperatures in the MgO–Al2 O3 system
are presented.
Table 2. Eutectic melting temperatures in the MgO–Al2 O3 system.
Chemical Compounds in Eutectics Al2 O3 Composition, wt % Melting Temperature, ◦ C

MgO, MgAl2 O4 55 1995
MgAl2 O4 , Al2 O3 98 1920
Melting temperatures of TiB2 , α–Al2 O3 , MgTiO3 , and MgAl2 O4 as well as their eutectics are
presented in Tables 1 and 2. As can be seen from Table 2, all values of the melting temperatures are
very high, which proves that the obtained ceramic material is refractory.
4. Conclusions
It was shown that structure with a homogeneous fine-grained distribution of TiB2 grains was
obtained by using 25 wt % of MgAl2 O4 .
The formed surface layer of MgAl2 O4 on the grains boundary of TiB2 serves as a blocking
protection from titanium diboride oxidation and prevents the growth of TiB2 crystals.
A partial decomposition of spinel occurred during the composite synthesis. This is proved by the
presence of MgTiO3 and corundum traces in the composite, which were identified by FTIR spectroscopy.
Acknowledgments: The work was carried out with financial support from the Ministry of Education and Science
of the Russian Federation in the framework of Increase Competitiveness Program of MISIS.
Author Contributions: Nina Radishevskaya performed FTIR-spectroscopy experiments and analyzed the data;
Olga Lepakova conducted the microstructure research of samples; Natalia Karakchieva conducted the X-ray
phase analyses of samples; Anastasiya Nazarova conducted the synthesis of samples; Nikolai Afanasiev wrote the
paper; Anna Godymchuk and Alexander Gusev studied SHS characteristics, such as combustion temperature and
combustion wave propagation mode and velocity.
References
1. Li, Y.B.; Li, N.; Ruan, G.Z.; Li, X.H. Reaction in the aluminotheric reduction nitridation reaction to synthesize
MgAl2 O4 /TiN. Ceram. Int. 2005, 31, 825–829. [CrossRef]
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Metals 2017, 7, 295
2. Omid, E.K.; Naghizadeh, R.; Rezaie, H.R. Synthesis and comparison of MgAl2 O4 –Ti (C,N) composites using
aluminothermic-carbothermal reduction and molten salts routes. J. Ceram. Process. Res. 2013, 14, 445–447.
3. Bae, Y.; Jun, B. Preparation of ultrafine TiC, MgAl2 O4 and AlON composite powder using chemical furnace.
J. Ceram. Process. Res. 2008, 9, 661–665.
4. Zaki, Z.I.; Ahmed, Y.M.Z.; Abdel Gawad, S.R. In situ synthesis of porous magnesia spinel/TiB2 composite
by combustion technique. J. Ceram. Soc. Jpn. 2009, 117, 719–723. [CrossRef]
5. Horvitz, D.; Gotman, I. Pressure-assisted DHD synthesis of MgAl2 O4 –TiAl in Situ composites with
interpenetrating networks. Acta Mater. 2002, 50, 1961–1971. [CrossRef]
6. Horoshavin, L.B. Spinel Nanorefractory Materials; UB RAS: Ekaterinburg, Russia, 2009; p. 600.
7. Merzhanov, A.G. Processes of Burning and Materials Synthesis; ISMAN: Chernogolovka, Russia, 1998; p. 511.
8. Lepakova, O.K.; Raskolenko, L.G.; Maksimov, Y.M. Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis of
composite material TiB2 –Fe. J. Mater. Sci. 2004, 39, 3723–3732. [CrossRef]
9. Vadchenko, S.G.; Filimonov, I.A. Burning modes of diluted system Ti + 2B. Phys. Burn. Combust. 2003, 39, 48–55.
10. Barabanov, V.F.; Goncharov, G.N.; Zorina, M.L. Modern Physical Methods on Geochemistry;
Leningrad University: Pushkin, Russia, 1990; p. 390.
11. Chernyakova, K.V.; Vrubelevskii, I.A.; Ivanovskaya, M.I.; Kotikov, D.A. Defective structure of anode alumina
oxide, formed by method of bilateral anodic oxidation. J. Appl. Spectrosc. 2012, 79, 83–89.
12. Nakamoto, K. IK-Spektry i Spektry KR Neorganicheskikh i Koordinatsionnykh Soedinenii (Infrared and Raman
Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds); Mir: Moscow, Russia, 1991; p. 536.
13. Solodkii, E.N.; Solodkii, N.F. Reasons for coloring corundum ceramics. Glass Ceram. 2000, 11, 24–26.
14. Kulikov, I.S. Metals Deoxidation; Metallurgy: Moscow, Russia, 1975; p. 504.
52
metals
Article
The Microstructure Evolution, Mechanical Properties
and Densification Mechanism of TiAl-Based Alloys
Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering
Dongjun Wang 1,2, *, Hao Yuan 3 and Jianming Qiang 3
1 National Key Laboratory for Precision Hot Processing of Metals, Harbin Institute of Technology,
Harbin 150001, China
2 Key Laboratory of Micro-Systems and Micro-Structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education,
3 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China;
[email protected] (H.Y.); [email protected] (J.Q.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-451-8640-2590; Fax: +86-451-8641-8714

Received: 27 April 2017; Accepted: 26 May 2017; Published: 2 June 2017
Abstract: The microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of a Ti-Al-Cr-Nb alloy prepared
by spark plasma sintering (SPS) at different temperatures and stresses were investigated in detail.
Sintering temperature plays a key role in the densification process and phase transformation, which
determines the microstructure. The mechanical properties of the sintered alloys depend on the
microstructure caused by the sintering. Furthermore, the densification process and mechanism of
TiAl-based metallic powders during SPS were studied based on experimental results and theoretical
analysis, the results of which will help fabricate these kinds of intermetallic alloys using a powder
metallurgy technique and accelerate their industrial applications.
Keywords: intermetallics; aerospace; powder metallurgy; microstructure evolution; mechanical

property; densification
1. Introduction
Alloys based on the intermetallic phase γ-TiAl are increasingly used as potential replacements
for nickel-based superalloys in different application fields, e.g., turbine blades, space vehicles,
and stationary turbines [1,2]. TiAl-based alloys have attracted this attention due to their low density
(about 4 g/cm3 ), high yield strength at high temperature, good oxidation resistance, and corrosion
resistance [3,4].
TiAl-based alloys can usually be produced by conventional casting or ingot metallurgy, etc.
However, microstructural defects such as porosity, coarse grain and composition heterogeneity,
and low material utilization ratio of TiAl-based alloys hinder their actual engineering applications.
The mechanical properties of TiAl-based alloys mainly depend on their microstructure [5,6], and thus
the alloys are regularly forcibly treated using hot isostatic processing (HIP), or hot processing [7,8] to
eliminate porosity or refine grains, which can improve their performance, but inversely gives rise to
a longer manufacturing duration and higher cost of investment.
In recent years, powder metallurgy (PM) has been considered as an alternative processing
technique for the preparation of TiAl-based alloys as the near-net-shape forming method [9,10].
Furthermore, TiAl-based metallic powders with fine grains and homogeneous composition can be
obtained during a gas atomization process. Afterwards, the atomized powders usually consolidate
into bulk by hot pressing, or the HIP method [11]. Particularly, spark plasma sintering (SPS) can

Metals 2017, 7, 201
satisfactorily compact powders through high intensity pulsed direct current and stress, and it is
currently attracting the attention of the industrial field due to its advantages such as rapidity, cheapness,
and simplicity [12–14]. Lin et al. [15] fabricated a high Nb-containing Ti-45Al-8.5Nb-(W, B, Y) alloy
using the SPS and HIP methods. Couret et al. [16] obtained a near-lamellar Ti-48Al-2W-0.02B alloy
and the effects of B addition were investigated. Liu et al. [17] conducted spark plasma sintering
of a beta phase-containing Ti-44Al-3Nb-1Mo-1V-0.2Y alloy with potentially good hot deformability.
To fabricate TiAl-based alloys with considerable properties through the PM route, it is necessary
to carry out a densification process by which the alloys with high density are obtained. Moreover,
the sintering parameters can affect the phase morphology and thus influence the mechanical properties.
To attempt the near-net fabrication of TiAl alloys and parts utilized at a temperature of ~800 ◦ C,
it was of importance to understand the relationship between the sintering process, densification,
microstructure, and properties of TiAl-based alloys during sintering, which can provide and supply
more information about this alloy using the PM technique.
In this paper, based on the study of the microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of
TiAl-based alloys prepared by SPS, the effect of parameters on the densification process was analyzed,
leading to a more basic understanding of intermetallic alloys for fabrication using the PM technique.

Gas atomized TiAl powders (Ti-46.5Al-2.15Cr-1.90 Nb, atomic percent) with sizes between 20 and
80 μm were prepared and sintered using 3.20-MK-V SPS equipment for 7 min at different temperatures
(900, 1050, 1100, 1150, and 1250 ◦ C) under a pressure of 50 MPa. For comparison, more samples
were sintered under pressures of 10 and 30 MPa at 1150 ◦ C, as well as under pressure of 50 MPa
at 1000 ◦ C. The sintering temperatures were measured with a pyrometer on the external surface of
the graphite molds. The pressure and temperature started simultaneously at the time of zero and
the pressure was kept constant during sintering. The heating rate was initially 120 K/min, and was
reduced to 20 K/min for the last 100 K to mitigate temperature overshooting. The temperatures given
in this paper were the monitored temperatures. After holding at the sintering temperature, the heating
current and the pressure were released, followed by sample cooling in the SPS chamber. Two typical
samples were fabricated with cylindrical shapes of Φ 20 mm × 10 mm and Φ 45 mm × 15 mm,
respectively. The structural characteristics were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD, D/Max-RA
diffractometer (Rigaku Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), operated with Cu Kα), differential thermal
analysis (DTA, NETZSCH STA 449C, NETZSCH company, Selb, Germany), and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM, Quanta200FEG, FEI company, Hillsboro, OR, USA), equipped with energy dispersive
spectroscopy (EDS, FEI company, Hillsboro, OR, USA). For the SEM analysis, the back-scattered electron
(BSE) detector (FEI company, Hillsboro, OR, USA) was used. The densities of the sintered samples
were determined using the “Archimedes” method. Micro-hardness was measured using a Matsuzawa
SeikiMHT-1 micro-hardness tester ((MATSUZAWA SEIKI Co. LTD, Tokyo, Japan) under a load of 50 g.
The mechanical responses with a dimension of Φ 3 mm × 4.5 mm (aspect ratio of 1.5) were evaluated by
the quasi-static compression test at room temperature with a strain rate of 5 × 10−4 s−1 . The two sides
of each specimen were carefully ground and polished until they were parallel to each other in order to
mitigate the effect of friction during tests. The fracture surfaces of the samples were also examined by
SEM (secondary electron detector).
3.1. Microstructure Evolution

Figure 1 shows the XRD patterns of the TiAl powders and the samples sintered at different
temperatures. For the atomized powders, they were mainly composed of a single α2 phase due
to the rapid cooling rate. Similar phase constitution has been reported in small size TiAl powders
prepared by gas atomization in Reference [18]. These results also suggested that the atomized powders
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were in a non-equilibrium state caused by rapid solidification. The diffraction patterns of samples
after sintering were similar. As can be seen, the sharp diffraction peaks belonging to TiAl and Ti3 Al
confirmed that the TiAl-based alloys after SPS contained substantive amounts of γ (e.g., dark phase in
Figure 2D,E), and α2 phases (e.g., bright phase in Figure 2D,E). Moreover, the bulk TiAl-based alloy
with a dimension of Φ 45 mm × 15 mm and cylinder-shaped part with the dimension of Φ 30 (internal
diameter 10) mm × 30 mm prepared by SPS are shown in the inset of Figure 1. One can see that the
spark plasma sintered TiAl-based alloy exhibited a shining metallic luster in appearance.
Figure 1. X-ray diffraction patterns of the samples.
The SEM observations of the powders and samples sintered at different temperatures are shown
in Figure 2. As can be seen, the powder exhibited a dendritic-like microstructure containing a large
amount of out-of-equilibrium α2 phase (Figure 2A). Based on EDS analysis, the composition of metallic
powders was Ti50.46 Al45.61 Cr1.99 Nb1.94 (at %), which was close to the nominal composition of this alloy.
Figure 2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the atomized powder (A) and the sintered
samples at (B) 900 ◦ C; (C) 1050 ◦ C; (D) 1100 ◦ C; (E) 1150 ◦ C; and (F) 1250 ◦ C.
For the sample consolidated at 900 ◦ C, the microstructure had significant porosity, especially at
triple contact areas of powder particles (blue dashed region of Figure 2B). It was also noted that the
plastic deformation of some small powders occurred at this temperature (red dashed region of inset of
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Figure 2B), suggesting that densification initially took place. When the sintering temperature increased
to 1050 ◦ C (Figure 2C), a few pores could still be seen, although a more compact microstructure was
obtained. Moreover, more deformed features of small powders were observed (red dashed region in
Figure 2C). With an increase in temperature to 1100 ◦ C (Figure 2D), macroscopic pores disappeared
post-sintering. However, the grain boundaries (GBs) were still visible at the contact areas among the
deformed powders (e.g., red dashed region), which indicates that plastic deformation plays a key role
in the densification process. In addition, compared with the alloys at lower sintering temperatures
(Figure 2B,C), the non-equilibrium dendritic microstructure (Figure 2A) of the powders disappeared for
the sample sintered at 1100 ◦ C (inset of Figure 2D). With further increases in temperature (Figure 2E),
one could see a highly dense microstructure of the alloy sintered at 1150 ◦ C without GBs observed,
revealing a high sintering density and sufficient densification at this temperature. It is also of
importance to note that a double-phase microstructure was obtained. From a chemical composition
perspective, the composition of the bright α2 phase was Ti53.98 Al41.85 Cr2.24 Nb1.94 (at %, relatively rich
in Ti), and that of the dark γ phase was Ti47.48 Al48.76 Cr1.90 Nb1.86 (at %, relatively rich in Al). Aside from
the compact microstructure, the sample sintered at 1250 ◦ C exhibited lamella morphology (Figure 2F).
As shown, this lamella microstructure contained homogeneous lamellar colonies α2 /γ. Moreover,
the composition of these lamellas was Ti49.63 Al46.40 Cr2.15 Nb1.82 (at %) based on EDS, which is close to
the nominal composition of this alloy.
To verify the phase transformation point of TiAl-based powders, a DTA analysis was conducted,
and the experimental curve is shown in Figure 3. In this curve, two endothermal peaks based on
phase transformation were observed. Based on this, the eutectoid temperature (Te ) and the α transus
temperature (Tα ) of the powders were estimated to be approximately 1260 and 1315 ◦ C, respectively.
During the SPS, the temperature can induce phase transformation and thus affect the microstructure
and densification. For a given experiment, the actual temperature could even be 160 ◦ C higher than
the monitored SPS temperature [19]. When the sintering temperature was 1150 ◦ C, it was deduced that
the actual temperature of the powders could be higher than 1260 ◦ C (Te ). In this case, the sample was
composed of γ phase and α phase (α + γ phase region) at this sintering temperature. Upon cooling,
the α phase transformed into an ordered α2 phase, while the γ phase remained and a double-phase
microstructure formed for the sintered sample (Figure 2E). When the powders were sintered at 1250 ◦ C,
the actual temperature could be above Tα , thus the microstructure consisted of α grains in this
situation. During cooling, the formation of a lamellar microstructure (Figure 2F) took place following
the evolution of α → α + γ → α2 + γ. Meanwhile, it was also of interest to note that the dendritic-like
microstructure of rapid atomized powders was not seen after densification. To understand this, it is
well documented that recrystallization can occur dynamically during densification of the powders [12].
Since a clear tendency to recrystallize can occur in the deformed zones [20], the deformation of metallic
powders (Figure 2B–D) during densification will result in recrystallization, and in turn an equilibrium
microstructure, due to a large amount of stored deformation energy.
Figure 3. Differential thermal analysis curve of the powder sample.
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3.2. Mechanical Property

The density and micro-hardness of the samples sintered at different temperatures were
investigated and are shown in Table 1. One can clearly see that the density and hardness of the
sample with a lower sintering temperature exhibited relatively smaller values due to numerous pores
after sintering, e.g., 900 ◦ C. When the sintering temperature increased to 1050, 1100, 1150, and 1250 ◦ C,
the density increased sharply and then nearly kept at constant. Furthermore, the hardness of the
samples sintered at higher temperatures was also similar, which indicates that hardness is mainly
dependent on density.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of TiAl-based alloys sintered at different temperatures.
Temperature (◦ C) 900 1050 1100 1150 1250

Density (g/cm3 ) 3.392 3.944 3.966 3.967 3.965
Hardness (HV) 278.6 413.0 420.0 417.0 430.0
The relationship between fracture true strength, plastic strain, and sintering temperature is shown
in Figure 4, as are the true stress-true strain curves of the sintered samples. When the sintering
temperature was low (900 ◦ C), the sample broke with no plastic strain and a very low fracture strength
of ~350 MPa. Many pores in this sample (Figure 2B) resulted in its weak compressive response. When
the sintering temperature rose to 1050 and 1100 ◦ C, the densification process gradually took place and
more compact microstructures were achieved (Figure 2C,D). Therefore, the mechanical performances of
these two samples were significantly improved compared with samples sintered at lower temperatures,
e.g., the fracture true strength and plastic strain of the samples sintered at 1050 and 1100 ◦ C were
1795 MPa and 24.8%, and 1754 MPa and 26.2%, respectively. As shown, the sample sintered at 1150 ◦ C
with high density (Figure 2E) had optimal compressive properties at room temperature. The fracture
true strength was 1820 MPa and the plastic true strain could also be as high as 32.6%. Although the
density was like that of the sample sintered at 1150 ◦ C, both the fracture strength and the plastic strain
of the sample sintered at 1250 ◦ C dramatically decreased. Based on the above composition results,
it was noted that the change of composition before and after sintering was slight, suggesting that
a homogeneous composition was obtained during SPS. Further to composition, it is well known that
the mechanical properties of alloys are determined by the microstructure, namely the synergetic effect
of density and phase transformation for the sintered TiAl-based alloys. For the sample sintered at
1150 ◦ C, the high strength and considerable plasticity was attributed to the high density and small
grain size. However, the poor strength and limited plasticity of the lamellar microstructure (1250 ◦ C)
was caused by the lack of texture [19]. Therefore, the dislocations could propagate more easily and thus
initiate the crack, which eventually led to the rapid failure of the sample. It can be concluded from the
abovementioned results that the temperature of SPS has two main roles: (1) giving rise to densification;
(2) changing the microstructure through phase transformation. Thus, to improve the mechanical
properties of TiAl-based alloys, the PM technique can provide a simplified route, i.e., the combined
processing for fabrication and microstructural optimization for the required composition.
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Figure 4. Room temperature compressive properties of the sintered TiAl alloys. The true stress-strain
curves have been off-set for better visualization.
The typical fracture morphologies of the sintered samples are presented in Figure 5. Based on
Figure 5A, one can see melt-like features at the triple junctions of powder particles, suggesting that
spark plasma sintering promotes integration among the contact areas of the particles. Nevertheless,
it was evident that a few globate powder particles were removed from the surface by external loading,
which agrees with the high porosity and poor mechanical properties of the sample sintered at 900 ◦ C
(Figure 2B and Table 1). For the sample sintered at 1150 ◦ C (Figure 5B), intergranular fracture
characteristics were observed. This fracture morphology was like that of the as-cast TiAl-based
alloys, indicating its high density and good mechanical properties. When the sintering temperature
increased to 1250 ◦ C, cracks were seen on the fracture surface. In particular, the lamella-like imprints
dominated the fracture morphology and further confirmed the lamellar microstructure of the sample
sintered at this temperature.
Figure 5. Fracture morphologies of the sintered samples: (A) 900 ◦ C; (B) 1150 ◦ C; (C) 1250 ◦ C.
3.3. Densification Process

To better understand the effect of sintering parameters on the densification of TiAl-based metallic
powders during SPS, a model suggested by Bernard-Granger and Guizard [21] was used to analyze
the sintering process. In this model, the flow stress for high-temperature deformation of the alloy is
.
described as a function of strain rate (ε) and temperature (T) by Equation (1) [22].
. dε DG0 b b p σ n
ε= =A ( ) ( ) (1)
dt kT d G0
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.
where ε is the strain rate; A is the constant; D is the diffusion coefficient; G0 is the shear modulus; b is
the Burgers vector; k is Boltzmann’s constant; T is temperature; d is grain size; σ is the macroscopic
applied stress; p is the inverse grain size exponent; n is the stress exponent; and t is time.
During sintering, the strain rate is compared to the densification rate as per Equation (2) [23].
. 1 dρ
ε= (2)
ρ dt
where ρ is the density. By taking the integral transformation of Equation (2), one can obtain Equation (3):
ε = ln ρ (3)
As per Equations (1)–(3), there are three main factors that determine the densification (ρ) during
sintering: the diffusion coefficient D, the temperature T, and the applied stress σ. It is well documented
that the diffusion coefficient D is mainly dominated by temperature; namely, the higher the temperature,
the larger the diffusion coefficient. Therefore, when the temperature rises, the macroscopic sintering
density increases and is maintained at nearly constant (Table 1).
In addition, based on the experimental data, the relationships between temperature, punch
displacement, and sintering time were recorded, and a typical result of the sample sintered at 1150 ◦ C
is shown in Figure 6. During SPS, sintering can be divided into different stages to analyze the
densification [24,25]. As shown in Figure 6, there were two clear sintering stages in our study, namely
curve A-B and curve B-C-D for the displacement data. For the first stage (curve A-B), the punch
displacement decreased due to the powder thermal expansion caused by the increase in temperature.
The second stage (curve B-C-D) was important for densification, and the density increased sharply in
accordance with the increase in temperature and punch displacement.
Figure 6. Temperature and punch displacement curves versus time for sintering at 1150 ◦ C.
It was noted that sintering involved several mechanisms microscopically operating simultaneously
over these stages. Plastic deformation, e.g., in the form of dislocation movement, can play a role in
densification [26]. During sintering, the loose powders initially encounter each other through the
combined effect of temperature and sintering stress (upper left inset of Figure 6). When sintered
at 900 ◦ C, the particles were in contact and were forced to deform, followed by the formation of
sintering necks (inset of Figure 2B). Due to the applied pressure, densification took place through the
plastic deformation of the powder particles and the dislocation emitted atoms as it moved close to the
neck. However, this densification was not sufficient, and many large pores were visible (Figure 2B).
In particular, the pores at the contacts of the powder particles exhibited sharp cusps (blue dashed
region of Figure 2B) at this temperature. It is well known that the vacancy concentration that can act as
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an atomic diffusion path under a curved surface, depends on the curvature of the two perpendicular
radii of curvature for the surface. Based on the two-sphere sintering model, the particle surface is
convex and the sintering bond is concave, thus there will be a vacancy concentration gradient between
these two [27]. Moreover, the solid surface energy—due to a concave curvature at the neck—also
generates capillary stress as a driving force for atom diffusion. Therefore, the result is that vacancy
flows away from the neck and atomic diffusion moves into the neck, resulting in the blunting of sharp
cusps for the pores. Nevertheless, the pore cusps for the sample sintered at 900 ◦ C (blue dashed
region of Figure 2B) suggested that the diffusion mechanism played a minor role during this initial
stage of densification and the deformation was considered as a dominant mechanism in this stage.
By increasing the sintering temperature (1050–1100 ◦ C), densification could be further associated with
more plastic deformation of the particles (red dashed regions in Figure 2C,D) due to lower yield stress
with increased temperatures. It was obvious that some small rounded powders deformed into elliptic
shapes or even irregular shapes to fill the vacancies. The plastic deformation led to the flattening of
contact areas and the reduction of porosity (Figure 2C,D), as demonstrated in the lower right inset of
Figure 6. For the sample sintered at 1150 ◦ C (Figure 2E), sufficient densification occurred and a nearly
full dense microstructure was obtained.
In contrast, at the areas of the powder contacts during SPS there was current through the powder
particles. Coupled with the plastic deformation discussed above, electro-thermal and heat transfer
can occur at the contact interface when axial pressure applied. It is well known that motion such
as thermal diffusion caused by heat transfer can promote mass transfer driven by Gibbs-Thomson
driving forces [20], which is also responsible for interface bonding and causes densification from
a microscopic perspective. After neck formation through deformation in the initial stage (900 ◦ C),
the grain boundaries formed within the neck (Figures 7a and 2B–D) between individual particles as
random grain contacts led to misaligned crystals [28]. When the sintering temperature (such as 1000 ◦ C)
increased, the diffusion mechanism significantly affected densification in comparison with lower
temperatures. The evident sharp cusps (Figure 2B) of the pores were blunted and the pore structure
became rounded (Figure 7b). In addition, blunted neck morphology between adjacent particles was
observed and typical results are shown in the red dashed regions in Figure 7b. Similar neck features
were also seen in the samples sintered at 1050 and 1100 ◦ C. Based on the above discussions, our
results indicate that the diffusion mechanism occurred at a relatively higher temperature and the atoms
diffusion (caused by capillary stress due to concave curvature) was performed to remove this curvature
gradient. During diffusion, the collaborated mass moved from the solid particle to deposit on the pores,
i.e., the atoms moved along the particle surfaces (surface diffusion), along grain boundaries (grain
boundary diffusion), and through the lattice interior (volume diffusion). A schematic illustration of the
microscopic diffusion paths and interface bonding during the densification of TiAl powders is shown
in Figure 7a. Although the surface diffusion produced neck growth, it did not lead to a change in
particle spacing [29], that is, no densification occurred since the mass flow originated and terminated
at the particle surface. Densification took place only by bulk transport, as the mass responsible for
growing the sintering neck comes from inside the powder particles, for example, from grain boundary
diffusion and volume diffusion [30]. As seen in Figure 7a, the crystalline solid powders joined at
the interparticle neck with a misalignment of crystal planes, resulting in a grain boundary where
defective atomic bonding enabled rapid atomic diffusion and thus contributed to the densification [31].
Furthermore, effective volume diffusion involved the motion of vacancies along the lattice paths and
a counter flow of atoms into the pores, which required relatively higher activation energy. Compared
with volume diffusion activated at higher temperatures, there existed a sufficient grain boundary
area due to the small particle size of this work (Figures 2B–D and 7b). Therefore, the grain boundary
diffusion was considered as the dominant diffusion densification mechanism. Based on the above
analysis, the sintering necks would form and gradually grow among adjacent particles through the
synergetic mechanism of deformation and thermal diffusion. Thus, the pores were filled and the
microstructure became compacted.
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Figure 7. Schematic illustration of diffusion paths and interface bonding during spark plasma sintering
(SPS) densification of TiAl powders (a); and the microstructure of the sample sintered at 1000 ◦ C (b).
Besides temperature, it was also noted from Equations (1)–(3) that the applied stress could affect
densification. To verify the influence of sintering stress, more samples were sintered at 1150 ◦ C under
different applied stresses, as shown in Table 2. As seen, a higher sintering density was obtained by
applying larger sintering stress. Thus, the imposition of higher sintering pressure on powder-powder
interfaces led to more severe deformation and accelerated the mass transport of the particles, which
could promote the densification as per the abovementioned discussions.
Table 2. Sintering densities of TiAl-based alloys under different stresses at 1150 ◦ C.
Stress (MPa) 10 30 50
Density (g/cm3 ) 3.947 3.961 3.967
4. Conclusions
Sintering temperature mainly determines the densification and phase transformation of
TiAl-based metallic powders during SPS. By increasing the temperature, the density of sintered
alloys increased and then stayed nearly constant. For the alloys sintered at 1150 and 1250 ◦ C,
the microstructures exhibited double-phase and lamellar characteristics, respectively, due to the
phase transformation, despite having similar densities. The mechanical properties of the sintered
alloys depended on the microstructures caused by sintering conditions, such as porosity and phase
morphology. At lower temperatures and stress, the micro-hardness, fracture strength, and plastic strain
increased with the increase in density. For alloys with similar densities sintered at a high temperature
and stress, the phase morphology affected the mechanical properties. In this work, the alloy sintered
at 1150 ◦ C with a double-phase microstructure showed optimal properties for a fracture true strength
of 1820 MPa and a plastic true strain of 32.6% at a room-temperature compressive test. Thus, sintering
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parameters including temperature and pressure can influence the densification process and a high
density can be achieved through sufficient plastic deformation and thermal diffusion, such as the grain
boundary diffusion of metallic powders caused by the effect of temperature and pressure.
Acknowledgments: This work is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 51674093), the Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province (No. E201425), the Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities (No. HIT.KLOF.2013021 and HIT.MKSTISP.2016019), and the Postdoctoral
Scientific Research Development Fund of Heilongjiang Province (No. LBH-Q15040).
Author Contributions: Dongjun Wang conceived and designed the experiments. Hao Yuan and Jianming Qiang
searched literatures. Hao Yuan performed the experiments and collected the data. Hao Yuan and Jianming Qiang
interpreted the data. Dongjun Wang analyzed the data and wrote the paper.
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Article
Study on Hot Deformation Behavior and
Microstructure Evolution of Ti-55 High-Temperature
Titanium Alloy
Fengyong Wu 1,2 , Wenchen Xu 1,2, *, Xueze Jin 1,2, *, Xunmao Zhong 1 , Xingjie Wan 1 ,
Debin Shan 1,2 and Bin Guo 1,2
1 School of Materials Science and Engineering & National Key Laboratory for Precision Hot Processing of
Metals, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; [email protected] (F.W.);
[email protected] (X.Z.); [email protected] (X.W.); [email protected] (D.S.); [email protected] (B.G.)
2 National Key Laboratory for Precision Hot Processing of Metals, Harbin Institute of Technology,
* Correspondence: [email protected] (W.X.); [email protected] (X.J.);
Tel.: +86-451-8641-8732 (W.X.); +86-451-8640-3751 (X.J.)
Received: 29 June 2017; Accepted: 11 August 2017; Published: 20 August 2017
Abstract: The isothermal compression experiment of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy was carried out on a
Gleeble-3800 thermal simulation test machine at the deformation temperature range of 700–1050 ◦ C
and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s−1 . The hot deformation behavior and the microstructure evolution
were analyzed during thermal compression. The results show that the apparent activation energy
Q in α + β dual-phase region and β single-phase region were calculated to be 453.00 KJ/mol
and 279.88 KJ/mol, respectively. The deformation softening mechanism was mainly controlled
by dynamic recrystallization of α phase and dynamic recovery of β phase. Discontinuous yielding
behavior mainly occurred in β phase region, which weakened gradually with the increase of
deformation temperature (>990 ◦ C) and strain rate (0.01–1 s−1 ) in β phase region. The processing
map derived from Murty’s criterion was more accurate in predicting the hot workability than that
derived from Prasad’s criterion. The optimized hot working window was 850–975◦ C/0.001–1 s−1 ,
in which sufficient dynamic recrystallization occurred and α + β-transus microstructure was
obtained. When deformed at higher temperature (≥1000 ◦ C), coarsened lath-shape β-transus
microstructure was formed, while deformed at lower temperature (≤825 ◦ C) and higher strain
rate (≥0.1 s−1 ), the dynamic recrystallization was not sufficient, thus flow instability appeared
because of shear cracking.
Keywords: Ti-55 titanium alloy; hot deformation behavior; dynamic recrystallization; processing map
1. Introduction
Ti-55 alloy is a near α titanium alloy with the nominal chemical composition Ti-(5.0–6.0)Al-(3.0–4.0)
Sn-(2.5–3.3)Zr-(0.3–1.5)Mo-(0.2–0.7)Ta-(0.2–0.7)Nb-(0.1–0.5)Si (wt %), which shows high strength and
excellent corrosion resistance. Due to the addition of Si, Ta and Nb elements, the thermal stability
and oxidation resistance are obviously improved, so the alloy can meet the requirement of long-term
service with the temperature no less than 550 ◦ C [1]. As a potential structural material for engine
compressor, blade, sheet components in aviation and aerospace industries, Ti-55 alloy has gained
increasing attention in China in recent years [2,3].
Similar to other high temperature titanium alloys, such as Ti-1100 and IMI834, this alloy is quite
difficult to be formed into a complex shape because of its poor workability and high strength. Moreover,
the accurate control of microstructure morphologies and properties of final components is very difficult

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for those high temperature titanium alloys with high alloying elements in forming process [4,5].
In order to develop plastic forming methods of high temperature titanium alloys, such as forging,
extrusion and sheet hot forming, it is necessary to characterize the deformation behavior, including the
flow stress behavior, deformation mechanism and microstructure evolution of the materials. Currently,
quite a few investigations have been conducted to analyze the hot deformation behavior of high
temperature titanium alloys. For instance, Liu and Bake [6] analyzed the deformation characteristics
of IMI685 alloy and revealed its dynamic softening mechanism in β phase field, which was helpful for
widening its forging temperature range. Wanjara et al. [4,5] explored the flow stress behavior and the
microstructure evolution of near-α IMI834 alloy in β and α + β phase regions, respectively, through
isothermal compression experiment. Niu et al. [7] investigated the high temperature behavior of a
near-α Ti-600 alloy and determined its optimized superplastic forming window.
Although there is some research on the thermal stability and tensile formability of Ti-55 alloy [1,3,8],
the hot compression behavior has been rarely reported, which limits the application of hot plastic
forming processes, such as forging and extrusion, to this kind of titanium alloy. In this study, the
isothermal compression of Ti-55 titanium alloy has been conducted at different strain rates and
temperatures both in the α + β and β regions. The flow stress behavior has been analyzed and the
microstructure evolution has been observed. Subsequently, the processing map has been established
to understand the deformation mechanism during hot compression, and the optimum hot working
window has been determined for hot processing of Ti-55 alloy.

The starting material used in the study was as-rolled sheet of Ti-55 alloy with the thickness
of 12 mm, supplied by Baoji Titanium Industry Company Limited in China. The actual chemical
composition (wt %) of the present Ti-Al-Sn alloy was determined by an inductively coupled plasma
(ICP) test as follows: Al-5.2, Sn-3.3, Zr-2.9, Mo-1.0, Ta-0.4, Nb-0.4, Si-0.2 and the rest Ti. The β-transus
temperature was calculated to be about 990 ◦ C by a differential thermal analysis (DTA) test and
metallographic method. The experimental specimens with dimension of Φ6 mm × 8 mm, whose axial
direction was aligned with the sheet thickness direction (i.e., normal direction), were electro-discharge
wire cut from the as-rolled sheet for hot compression, as shown in Figure 1. The isothermal compression
test was carried out in the temperature range of 700–1050 ◦ C with 50 ◦ C intervals and strain rate range
of 0.001–1 s−1 on a Gleeble-3800 simulator manufactured by DSI Company, which locate at Sao Paulo,
Minnesota, America, with the low vacuum atmosphere of 1 × 10−3 Torr. All the specimens were heated
to the deformation temperature at a heating rate of 10 ◦ C/s and held for 2 min before hot compression,
and the deformation temperature was recorded by Pt–Rh thermocouple wires spot-welded in the
surface of the hot deformation specimens. In order to maintain the hot deformation microstructure, the
specimens were quenched by water immediately after hot compression with 60% height reduction in
low vacuum atmosphere. The tantalum chip of 0.1 mm was placed between crosshead and specimen to
provide lubrication and prevent cementation during hot compression. The specimens were sectioned
parallel to the compression axis after hot compression for microstructure observation. The specimens
for optical microscopy (OM) observation were etched in a solution of 2 mL hydrofluoric acid, 4 mL
nitric acid and 94 mL H2 O. Electropolishing was carried out in a solution of 12.5% perchloric acid
and 87.5% acetic acid with the voltage of 25 V and temperature of −20 ◦ C to prepare the samples
for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD) analysis.
The specimens for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis were mechanically ground to
about 100 μm, followed by two-jet electro polished at an ion voltage of 20 V under the temperature
of about −20 ◦ C. The SEM, EBSD and TEM testing were conducted on a Quanta 200FEG scanning
electron microscope and TecnaiG2F30 transmission electron microscope, respectively, manufactured
by FEI Company located at Hillsborough, Oregon, America.
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of specimens cutting from the as-rolled Ti-55 sheet (ND: Normal Direction;
RD: Rolling Direction; TD: Transverse Direction).
3. Results
3.1. Flow Stress Behavior
3.1.1. Flow Stress-Strain Curves

Figure 2 shows the stress-strain curves of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy during isothermal compression at
different temperatures and strain rates. Clearly, the flow stress increased with the increase of true strain
at the initial deformation stage to the peak stress because of work hardening, and then the flow stress
decreased with further increase of true strain due to flow softening occurring during hot compression.
Besides, the flow stress decreased with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate,
indicating the flow stress was sensitive to deformation temperature and strain rate. When deformed
at higher temperature and lower strain rate (≥900 ◦ C and ≤0.01 s−1 ), the flow stress-strain curves
reached to steady values with the increase of true strain, indicating the softening mechanism, including
dynamic recrystallization (DRX) of α phase or dynamic recovery (DRV) of β phase, proceeded quickly
to balance the rate of work hardening [9,10]. Besides this, the other secondary phase particles rich in
Sn, Mo, Ta and Nb elements at the grain boundaries may have pinning effect on dislocation motion
(see Figure 7a), which partly balanced dynamic softening during hot compression of Ti-55 alloy.
However, when deformed in other conditions, such as lower temperature and higher strain rate, the
curves exhibited continuous softening behavior after peak stress without the steady-state condition
occurring due to insufficient softening behavior.
Figure 2. Cont.
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Figure 2. Typical stress-strain curves at different temperatures and strain rates of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy:
(a) 700 ◦ C; (b) 750 ◦ C; (c) 800 ◦ C; (d) 850 ◦ C; (e) 900 ◦ C; (f) 950 ◦ C; (g) 1000 ◦ C; (h) 1050 ◦ C.
3.1.2. Discontinuous Yielding Behavior

Discontinuous yielding behavior, i.e., the sudden drop of flow stress beyond peak stress, was
observed for the deformation conditions performed above 900 ◦ C at strain rates of 0.01–1.0 s−1 , while
there was no obvious discontinuous yielding behavior appearing at lower strain rate of 0.001 s−1 .
Figure 3 shows the magnitude of the yield drop (i.e., σUY − σLY ) at various deformation temperatures
and strain rates. It can be seen that the yield drop reduced as the temperature increased over 950 ◦ C, and
the yield drop occurred only at the middle strain rate of 0.1 s−1 at 900 ◦ C. The discontinuous yielding
behavior has been found in many β titanium alloys, such as Ti-10V-4.5Fe-1.5Al, Ti-6.8Mo-4.5Fe-1.5Al
and Ti40 [11–13]. Recently, this phenomenon has been reported in some α + β and near α titanium
alloys. For instance, Li et al. and Wang et al. [14,15] discovered the discontinuous flow stress drop in α
+ β alloy Ti-3Al-5V-5Mo and TC8, respectively. In addition, Jia et al. [10] demonstrated the behavior in
near α alloy of Ti60. Generally, the discontinuous yield phenomenon could be explained mainly by
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two theories: static theory and dynamic theory. The first theory involved the dislocation locking and
unlocking, and the second one associated discontinuous yielding with the abrupt formation of large
quantities of new mobile dislocations originated from the grain boundary sources [14]. For titanium
alloys, more researchers indicated that the discontinuous yielding should be attributed to dynamic
theory, rather than static theory during hot compression at elevated temperatures [12,16,17].
<LHOGGURS ı8<íı/<
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of yield stress drop (a) and magnitude of yield drop in Ti-55 alloy as a
function of temperature and strain rate (b).
However, the influence of processing parameters, such as deformation temperature and strain
rate, on the discontinuous yielding was not clearly understood. For the present titanium alloy, the
yield drop appeared most pronouncedly at 950 ◦ C and reduced gradually with further increase of
deformation temperature, as shown in Figure 3b. Usually, the increase of deformation temperature
may induce two opposite results. On the one hand, the increase of deformation temperature could
enhance the thermal activation to promote the generation of new mobile dislocations. On the other
hand, the temperature rising may reduce the dislocation density and weaken the stress concentration
to restrain the operation of new mobile dislocation. At lower temperature less than 900 ◦ C, the increase
of dislocation density and stress concentration could not operate new mobile dislocations significantly
due to lower thermal activation and strong pinning effect of high content of alloy elements of Ti-55
alloy. With the increase of deformation temperature in β phase region (>990 ◦ C), the reducing of
dislocation density and stress concentration played a main role in restraining the generation of new
mobile dislocations, leading to the decrease of the yielding drop.
Besides this, the discontinuous yield behavior weakened progressively with the increase of strain
rate from 0.01 s−1 to 1 s−1 in this study. The magnitude of the yield drop changed slightly as the strain
rate increased from 0.01 s−1 to 0.1 s−1 , and pronouncedly reduced to the minimum when the strain rate
increased from 0.1 s−1 to 1 s−1 for all the tests at higher temperatures (>900 ◦ C). A similar evolution
tendency was found in the hot compression of Ti60 alloy at the strain rate of 1 s−1 [10]. The possible
reason was that high strain rate induced intense work hardening, which may conceal the discontinuous
yielding behavior. When the strain rate was too low (less than 0.001 s−1 ), the dislocations were easily
propagated and hard to be accumulated, which would lessen the stress concentration and lead to
the disappearance of yield drop. Moreover, dynamic recovery rather than dynamic recrystallization
was more prone to take place during hot compression in β phase region, which reduced dynamic
softening of titanium alloy. Therefore, the yield drop at low strain rate of 0.001 s−1 vanished during
hot deformation both in β and α + β phase regions.
3.2. Kinetic Analysis

During hot plastic deformation, the relationship among the flow stress, strain rate and deformation
temperature can be described by a hyperbolic sine law [18]:
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. Q
ε = A[sinh(ασp )]n exp(− ). (1)
RT
This also can be given by the Zener–Hollomon parameter as follows [19]:
. Q
Z = ε exp( ) = A[sinh(α·σp )]n , (2)
RT
where Z is the Zener–Hollomon parameter; A, α and n is materials constants, and α = β/n1 ,
. . .
n1 = ∂ ln ε/∂ ln σ, β = ∂ ln ε/∂σ; R is the gas constant; ε is the strain rate; σp is the peak stress;
T is the deformation temperature; Q is the activation energy.
From Equation (1), the activation energy Q can be calculated as:
.
∂ ln ε ∂ ln[sinh(ασp )]
Q = R{ }T { }ε. . (3)
∂ ln[sinh(ασp )] ∂( T1 )
. .
By linear regression of the relations of σp − ln ε and ln σp − ln ε at different deformation conditions,
the value of α was calculated as 0.00573 and 0.0269 in the temperature range of 700–950 ◦ C and
.
1000–1050 ◦ C, respectively, as shown in Figure 4a,b. Through linear fitting of ln[sinh(ασp )] vs. ln ε and
◦ ◦
ln[sinh(ασp )] vs. 1/T in the temperature ranges of 700–950 C and 1000–1050 C shown in Figure 4c–e,
the average activation energy Q of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy were calculated to be 453.00 KJ/mol and
279.88 KJ/mol, respectively. Based on the linear relationship of ln[sinh(ασp )] vs. ln Z, the stress
constant n of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy in the temperature range of 700–950 ◦ C and 1000–1050 ◦ C was
calculated as 3.3851 and 2.6125, respectively, as shown in Figure 4f. Besides this, the correlation
coefficient of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy in the temperature range of 700–950 ◦ C and 1000–1050 ◦ C for
the linear relationship of ln Z vs. ln[sinh(ασp )] were 0.9150 and 0.9500, indicating it was reliable to
describe the hot deformation behavior of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy by using hyperbolic sine law. Therefore,
the dependence of peak stress on the strain rate and deformation temperature of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy
in the temperature range of 700–900 ◦ C and 950–1050 ◦ C, respectively, could be expressed as:
. 3.3851 453000
ε = 5.0129 × 1018 [sinh(5.73 × 10−3 σp )] exp(− ), (4)
8.314T
. 2.6125 279880
ε = 2.2101 × 109 [sinh(2.69 × 10−2 σp )] exp(− ). (5)
8.314T
Figure 4. Cont.
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Figure 4. Linear relationships fitting of peak stress with deformation temperature and strain rate for the
. . .
as-rolled Ti-55 alloy: (a) σp − ln ε; (b) ln σp − ln ε; (c) and (d) ln[sinh(ασp )] − ln ε; (e) ln[sinh(ασp )]-1/T;
(f) ln[sinh(ασp )]-ln Z.
The deformation activation energy of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy in α + β dual-phase region and β
single-phase region was calculated to be 453.00 KJ/mol and 279.88 KJ/mol, respectively, both of which
were greater than the lattice self-diffusion energy of α-Ti (150 KJ/mol) and β-Ti (153 KJ/mol) [4,9].
The results indicated that the main softening mechanism should be dynamic recrystallization in α + β
dual-phase region and dynamic recovery in β single-phase region, respectively [20,21]. It should be
noted that the activation energy in β phase region was mostly reported in the range of 180–220 kJ/mol
during hot deformation of some titanium alloys [10,21–23], while the activation energy in β region of
the Ti-55 alloy reached 279.88 kJ, which was higher than other titanium alloys. The possible reason is
that the initial material used in this study was an as-rolled sheet, which possessed finer microstructure
and intense deformation texture, so it was more difficult to deform plastically during hot compression.
Besides, the activation energy in α + β dual-phase region was greater than the activation energy in β
single-phase region, which should be caused by lower deformation temperature and less slip system of
α phase (hexagonal close-packed structure, HCP) than β phase (body-centered cubic structure, BCC).
3.3. Microstructure Evolution and Softening Mechanism

Figure 5 shows the microstructures of the as-rolled sheet and specimens deformed at different
conditions. It is evident that the strip-like microstructure of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy was elongated in the
rolled direction, as shown in Figure 5a. Due to the relatively lower deformation temperature, the initial
large grains were elongated along the flow direction, exhibiting obvious deformation feature under
the temperature of 700 ◦ C and strain rate of 0.01 s−1 (Figure 5b). When the deformation temperature
increased to 800 ◦ C, the deformed microstructure was locally globalized, indicating the occurrence of
dynamically recrystallization (Figure 5c). As the deformation temperature reached 900 ◦ C, sufficient
recrystallization took place, which contributed to the refinement of initial microstructure of the as-rolled
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Ti-55 alloy (Figure 5d). Besides this, the lath-shaped β-transus microstructure (see Figure 6d) appeared
because of the phase transformation from α to β during hot deformation and then the re-precipitation of
secondary α phase in β phase region during the cooling process. After deformation at 950 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ,
the amount of initial α phase further decreased obviously and the amount of β-transus microstructure
further increased dramatically due to the relatively higher deformation temperature close to β-transus
temperature and relatively lower strain rate (see Figure 5e). When the deformation further increased to
1000 ◦ C in β phase region, the initial α phase totally transformed to coarsened lath-shaped β-transus
microstructure (Figure 5e).
Under the same deformation temperature (900 ◦ C), as the strain rate increased to 0.1 s−1 ,
the elongated α grains could be clearly observed (Figure 5g), indicating less sufficient dynamic
recrystallization. When the strain rate decreased to 0.001 s−1 , the dynamically recrystallized
grains grew slightly and the volume fraction of β-transus microstructure increased since longer
deformation time contributed to the coarsening of recrystallized grains as well as more sufficient phase
transformation of α to β during hot deformation, as shown in Figure 5h. Hence, both strain rate and
deformation temperature exhibited remarkable influence on the microstructure evolution, including
dynamic recrystallization and phase transformation of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy.
Figure 5. Cont.
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Figure 5. Microstructures of as-rolled sheet and specimens deformed at different temperatures and
strain rates of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy: (a) As-rolled sheet; (b) 700 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ; (c) 800 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ;
(d) 900 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ; (e) 950 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ; (f) 1000 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ; (g) 900 ◦ C/0.1 s−1 ; (h) 900 ◦ C/0.001 s−1 .
Figure 6 shows the EBSD images of as-rolled sheet and deformed microstructure in different
processing conditions. It can be found that recrystallization occurred in the initial elongated
microstructure along the grain boundaries, as shown in Figure 6a. But there were a lot of low angle
boundaries and small amounts of β phase retained in α phase matrix because of hot rolling deformation
at relatively low temperature in the final pass. After hot compression at 800 ◦ C, compared to the initial
rolled microstructure, the fraction of low angle boundary reduced obviously and the area fraction of β
phase changed slightly because of the relatively low deformation temperature below the β-transus
(see Figure 6b,c). As the deformation temperature increased to 900 ◦ C at the strain rate 0.01 s−1 , the
fraction of low angle boundary continued to reduce, while the area fraction of β-transus microstructure
increased significantly due to higher deformation temperature (see Figure 6d). Besides, with the
increase of deformation temperature (Figure 6c,d) and the decrease of strain rate (Figure 6b,c), the
fraction of low angle boundary decreased and the area fraction of β-transus microstructure increased,
as shown in Figure 6e, which was basically consistent with the observation of OM microstructures.
Figure 6. Cont.
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Figure 6. Electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD) images of the specimens deformed at different
deformation conditions of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy: (a) As-rolled; (b) 800 ◦ C, 0.001 s−1 ; (c) 800 ◦ C,
0.01 s−1 ; (d) 900 ◦ C, 0.01 s−1 ; (e) Percent of β phase/β transus and low angle boundary.
Figure 7 shows the TEM images of the as-rolled sheet and hot compressed microstructure at different
deformation conditions. It can be seen that dynamic recrystallization occurred in the microstructure of
as-rolled sheet and the dislocations density was relatively low (Figure 7a). Besides, some secondary
phase particles rich in Mo, Sn, Nb and Ta elements existed at the grain boundaries, as shown in
Figure 7a and Table 1. When deformed at the strain rate of 0.01 s−1 under the temperature lower
than 900 ◦ C, there was no β-transus microstructure occurring because of relatively low deformation
temperature, as shown in Figure 7b,c. Especially at the temperature of 700 ◦ C, the α phase was
elongated perpendicular to the compression direction and amounts of dislocations existed in the
titanium matrix (see Figure 7b). As the deformation temperature increased to 800 ◦ C, some refined
dislocation cells and dynamically recrystallized grains appeared, accompanied with the decrease of
dislocations density, which indicated incomplete dynamic recrystallization appeared (see Figure 7c).
Obviously, dynamic recrystallization proceeded more sufficiently and β-transus microstructure came
into being at the temperature of 900 ◦ C because of relatively high deformation temperature, as shown
in Figure 7d. The phase transformation of α to β occurred during hot compression, and the secondary
α phase re-precipitated as needle shape in the cooling process. Generally, α + β-transus microstructure
was considered to be better for hot workability and mechanical property. But as the deformation
temperature increased to β phase region, the needle-shaped β-transus microstructure would be
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coarsened to lath-typed shape and no initial α phase could be found, thus the hot workability was
worsened, as shown in Figure 7e.
Figure 7. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) microstructure of the specimens deformed at

different deformation conditions of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy: (a) As-rolled; (b) 700 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ;
(c) 800 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ; (d) 900 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ; (e) 1000 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 ; (f) 900 ◦ C/1 s−1 . (DRX: Dynamic
recrystallization.)
When the strain rate increased to 1 s−1 at the temperature of 900 ◦ C, the volume fraction of
β-transus microstructure obviously decreased, in which the re-precipitated needle-shaped α phase
became finer (see Figure 7d,f). Albeit deformed at higher strain rate, dynamic recrystallization could
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be observed within the initial α phase due to relatively high deformation temperature, as shown in
Figure 7f.
Table 1. The composition of secondary phase particles at the grain boundary.
Elements Ti Al Sn Zr Mo Ta Nb Si
Weight % 67.86 1.26 4.83 2.32 16.98 2.55 3.41 0.75
Atomic % 79.39 2.61 2.28 1.42 9.91 0.79 2.05 1.50
It should be noted that the maximum yield drop appeared at the deformation temperature of
950 ◦ C, as shown in Figure 3, which should be ascribed to the transformation of α to β phase. Since the
β-transus temperature was about 990 ◦ C; there was a dramatic increase in β phase as the deformation
temperature increased from 900 ◦ C to 950 ◦ C, which could be seen in Figure 5d,e. The β phase
with body-centered cubic (BCC) structure possessed more operative slip systems than α phase with
hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure. Owing to high stress concentration at grain boundary of
β and α phase, more mobile dislocations were easily generated to enhance the yield drop at the
deformation temperature of 950 ◦ C. When the deformation temperature increased over 1000 ◦ C,
the primary α phase totally transformed to β phase, so the vanishing of α/β interphase boundary
would reduce the magnitude of yield drop.
3.4. Processing Map
3.4.1. Processing Map Theory

The processing map has been established recently by Prasad et al. [24–28] on the basis of the
dynamic material model, aiming at studying the microstructure evolution and avoiding flow instability
of many materials. In the dynamic materials model (DMM), the workpiece subjected to hot working
is considered as a nonlinear dissipator of power. The instantaneous total power dissipation (P) at a
given strain consists of two parts G and J, wherein the G represents the power dissipation for plastic
deformation and J co-content is related to the power dissipation through metallurgical mechanisms,
such as dynamic recovery, dynamic recrystallization and phase transformation, which can be described
as a function of flow stress and strain rate:
ε. σ
. . .
P = σε = G + J = σdε + εdσ. (6)
0 0
The power dissipation characteristics of workpiece usually depend on the materials’ flow behavior,
which follows the power law equation:
.m
σ = Kε , (7)
.
where K is the material constant; σ is the flow stress; ε is the strain rate; m is the strain rate sensitivity,
by which the content G and J can be related in the phenomenological model, and can be described
as follows:
dJ ∂(ln σ )
m= = . . (8)
dG ∂(ln ε)
The J co-content can be expressed as:
.
J = σεm/(m + 1). (9)
.
For the ideal linear dissipation body, m = 1 and J co-content reaches to the maximum: Jmax = 12 σε.
The power dissipation capacity of the material can be evaluated by the efficiency of power
dissipation, η, which can be defined as:
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J 2m
η= = . (10)
Jmax m+1
For the flow instability, Prasad developed a criterion from the extremum principle, which can be
expressed as follows:
. ∂ ln( mm+1 )
ξ (ε) = . + m < 0. (11)
∂(ln ε)
.
The variation of the instability parameter ξ (ε) with temperature and strain rate constitutes the
instability map, from which the instability region can be obtained.
Predictably, for some materials, especially for metals with high content of alloying element and
.
composites with high volume fraction of reinforcements, if the flow stress with respect to ε does not
obey the power law in Equation (7), the computation of η and ξ in terms of m from Equations (10)
and (11) becomes erroneous [29]. Hence, the DMM is further modified (MDMM) by Murty et al. [30],
who suggests that the strain rate sensitivity parameter m is a variable and redefined the efficiency of
power dissipation in terms of J co-content as:
ε.
1 .
η = J/Jmax = 2(1 − . σdε), (12)
σε 0
ε. ε. min ε. . ε.
. . . σε .
σdε = G = σdε+ σdε = + σdε. (13)
0 0
.
εmin m+1 . .
ε=εmin
.
εmin
The condition for the metallurgical instability is given as:
2m < η. (14)
The variation of η and ξ with deformation temperature and strain rate constitutes the power
dissipation map and instability map. Hence, the processing map can be obtained through
superimposing the instability map on the power dissipation map. Figure 8 shows the processing maps
at the true strain of 0.8 of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy derived from different instability criteria.
Figure 8. Processing maps at true strain of 0.8 of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy derived from different
instability criteria: (a) Dynamic materials model (DMM) and Prasad’s instability criterion; (b) modified
dynamic materials model (MDMM) and Murty’s instability criterion.
3.4.2. Instability Region

Clearly, the flow instability region predicted by Prasad’s instability criterion was located in the
temperature region of 700–975 ◦ C within the strain rate range of 0.1–1 s−1 , while the instability region
predicted by Murty’s instability criterion was significantly narrower within the temperature range
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of 700–825 ◦ C and strain rate range of 0.1–1 s−1 , as shown in Figure 8. Generally, the mechanism of
flow instability should be related to cracking or localized plastic flow [31]. Obviously, shear cracking
exhibiting the orientation of ~45◦ with the compression direction appeared when the specimen was
deformed at 700 ◦ C/1 s−1 , as shown in Figure 9. In this case, dynamic softening was difficult to take
place completely or even operate due to low temperature and short deformation time, which was prone
to induce flow instability. However, the microstructure at 900 ◦ C/1 s−1 and 900 ◦ C/0.1 s−1 exhibited
partial dynamic recrystallization, restraining flow instability effectively, as shown in Figures 5g and 7f.
It indicated that Murty’s criterion was more precise in predicting the flow instability of the as-rolled
Ti-55 alloy compared to Parasad’s criterion. Hence, the flow instability region of the as-rolled Ti-55
alloy was located in the temperature range of 700–825 ◦ C and strain rate range of 0.1–1 s−1 , and thus
the processing map of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy derived from Murty’s criterion was only discussed in the
following section, which was thought to have a wider application range for the type of flow stress
versus strain rate curves [29,31].
Figure 9. Microstructure of specimen deformed at 700 ◦ C/1 s−1 of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy.
3.4.3. Stability Region

Figure 8b shows the processing maps at the true strain of 0.8 of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy derived
from Murty’s instability criterion. It can be seen that the processing map exhibited three higher power
dissipation regions with peak dissipation efficiency of 48–64%: Region I: 750–850 ◦ C/0.001–0.1 s−1 ,
Region II: 850–975 ◦ C/0.001–1 s−1 and Region III: 975–1050 ◦ C/0.001–1 s−1 . Although the stacking
fault energy of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy was relatively higher, the softening mechanism of the three
steady deformation domains should be DRX because of the relatively higher dissipation efficiency of
48–64% [32]. Besides this, the occurrence of phase transformation also increased the efficiency of power
dissipation [33]. Hence, the greater efficiency of power dissipation in Region II and III indicated the
occurrence of phase transformation of α to β, which could be verified by the microstructure evolution
during hot compression.
The microstructures of the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy at 800 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 (Region I), 900 ◦ C/0.01 s−1
and 950 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 (Region II) and 1000 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 (Region III) are shown in Figure 5c–f.
Clearly, the dynamic recrystallization in Region I was the least insufficient due to relatively low
deformation temperature. When deformed at 900 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 (Region II), the microstructure of hot
compressed specimens was consisted of α phase and β-transus microstructure, in which dynamic
recrystallization took place sufficiently. Even when the strain rate increased to 1 s−1 at 900 ◦ C, dynamic
recrystallization still occurred relatively sufficiently (see Figure 7f). However, the coarse β grains
formed and precipitated as coarsened lath-shaped secondary α microstructure after hot compression
at 1000 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 (Region III), which was harmful for the mechanical properties of Ti-55 alloy.
Therefore, Region II (850–975 ◦ C/0.001–1 s−1 ) was considered to be the optimum deformation region.
77
Metals 2017, 7, 319
4. Conclusions
The hot compression experiment of as-rolled Ti-55 alloy was conducted in the temperature range
of 700–1050 ◦ C and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s−1 . The hot deformation behavior and workability of
the as-rolled Ti-55 alloy were studied and the optimized hot deformation parameters were obtained
through analyzing microstructure evolution and establishing hot processing map, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The flow stress decreased gradually with the increase of temperature and decrease of strain
rate. The deformation softening mechanism was primarily controlled by DRX of α phase and DRV of
β phase. The apparent activation energy Q was determined to be 453.00 KJ/mol and 279.88 KJ/mol in
α + β dual-phase region and β single-phase region, respectively, which should be caused by lower
deformation temperature and less slip system of α phase (HCP) than β phase (BCC). The constitutive
equation for hot deformation in α + β dual-phase region and β single-phase region, respectively, was
. 3.3851 453000
ε = 5.0129 × 1018 [sinh(5.73 × 10−3 σp )] exp(− ), (15)
8.314T
and
. 2.6125 279880
ε = 2.2101 × 109 [sinh(2.69 × 10−2 σp )] exp(− ). (16)
8.314T
(2) Discontinuous yielding behavior occurred mainly in the temperature range of 950–1050 ◦ C and
strain rate range of 0.01–1 s−1 . With the increase of deformation temperature, the yield drop decreased
gradually due to the decrease of dislocation density and stress concentration, which restrained the
generation of new mobile dislocation. Much higher strain rate could cause the reduction of yield drop
since intense work hardening at higher strain rate may conceal the discontinuous yielding behavior.
The increasing of β phase content could enhance the yield drop in α + β phase region and the vanishing
of α/β interphase boundary may reduce the yield drop in β phase region.
(3) The processing map derived from Murty’s instability criterion was more precise in predicting the
hot workability of Ti-55 alloy compared to that based on Prasad’s instability criterion. The processing
map exhibited the optimized hot working region with sufficient dynamic recrystallization and α +
β-transus microstructure: 850–975 ◦ C/0.001–1 s−1 . A coarsened lath-shape β-transus microstructure
was formed at higher temperature, while at lower temperature, dynamic recrystallization was not
sufficient, which contributed to appearance of shear cracking at higher strain rate (≥0.1 s−1 ) and
resulted in flow instability.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No.51275131).
Author Contributions: Wenchen Xu and Xueze Jin conceived and designed the experiments; Xunmao Zhong
and Xingjie Wan performed the experiments; Fengyong Wu analyzed the data and wrote the paper; Bin Guo and
Debin Shan provided guidance and all sorts of support during the work.
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Article
The Effect of Initial Structure on Phase
Transformation in Continuous Heating of a TA15
Titanium Alloy
Xiaoguang Fan *, Qi Li, Anming Zhao, Yuguo Shi and Wenjia Mei
State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern
Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China; [email protected] (Q.L.); [email protected] (A.Z.);
[email protected] (Y.S.); [email protected] (W.M.)

Received: 20 April 2017; Accepted: 23 May 2017; Published: 1 June 2017
Abstract: The effect of initial structure on phase evolution in continuous heating of a near-α
TA15 titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-2Zr-1Mo-1V) was experimentally investigated. To this end; three
microstructures were obtained by multiple heat treatment: I-bimodal structure with 50% equaixed
α, II-bimodal structure with 15% equiaxed α, III-trimodal structure with 18% equiaxed α and 25%
lamellar α. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dilatometry and quantitative metallography
were carried out on specimens with the three initial structures at heating rates from 5 to
40 ◦ C/min. The transformation kinetics was modeled with the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami (JMA)
approach under non-isothermal condition. It was found that there exists a four-stage transformation
for microstructures I and III. The secondary and third stages overlap for microstructure II. The four
stages of phase transformation overlap with increasing heating rate. In the presence of α laths,
the phase transformation kinetics is affected by the composition difference between lamellar α and
primary equiaxed α. Phase transformation is controlled by the growth of existing large β phase.
Keywords: titanium alloy; phase transformation; microstructure; DSC; dilatometry
1. Introduction
Titanium alloys have been gaining more applications in many industry fields due to the
high specific strength, good thermal stability and excellent corrosion resistance [1]. The near-α
TA15 titanium alloy which has moderate strength up to 400 ◦ C, excellent thermal stability, good
weldability and low growth rate of fatigue crack has been widely used to manufacture structural
components in airplanes. The mechanical properties of the titanium alloy are largely dependent on
the microstructure [1–3]. The equiaxed and bimodal structures are commonly used for traditional
α + β titanium alloys due to a balance in strength, ductility, creep and fatigue resistance (Table 1).
The trimodal structure which consists of 10–20% equiaxed α, 30–50% lamellar α and transformed β
matrix may also be required after secondary working due to its superior low-cycle fatigue resistance [4].
The diversity in microstructure results from the α-β phase transformation along with deformation
induced morphology evolution. Thus, the microstructure can be modulated by optimizing hot working
parameters (e.g., heating rate, heating path, heating temperature, strain, strain rate and cooling path).
The phase evolution in hot working involves the α-to-β transformation in heating, the β-to-α
transformation in cooling as well as the stress induced transformation during deformation. Numerous
researches have been carried out on the phase transformation in cooling. Tang et al. [5] and Sun et al. [6]
found that the α lamellae can nucleate in a sympathetic way or by interface instability during slow
cooling. He et al. [7] examine the orientation relationship between α and β phase after β working

Metals 2017, 7, 200
and found that the Burger’s orientation relationship is strictly obeyed. Though deformation has little
influence on the orientation relationship, the deformation induced texture can result in variation
selection and causes a strong texture of β phase [8]. Kherrouba et al. [9] examined the transformation
kinetics of Ti-6Al-4V alloy by Johnson–Mehl–Avrami (JMA) model and suggested that growth of β
lamellae may be controlled by the combination of solute diffusion and interface migration. The applied
stress in machining and deformation can also cause phase transformation. Liu et al. [10] found that
can trigger the formation of ω phase can be triggered even before plastic deformation. Jonas et al. [11]
reported that dynamic transformation from α to β occurs in hot deformation of several titanium alloys,
resulting in significant flow softening during deformation.
Table 1. The mechanical properties of different microstructures for TA15 titanium alloy (compared to
equiaxed structure).
Yield Fracture Creep HCF LCF

Microstructure Elongation
Strength Toughness Strength Strength Strength
Bimodal ++ −/o + + +/o +
Trimodal + −/o + + + ++
From the point of microstructure control, the phase transformation in heating is as important as
that in cooling and deformation. Wang et al. [12] used the dilatometry to investigate phase evolution
in a TC21 alloy during continuous heating. They found that the phase transformation includes three
stages, residual β → acicular α, acicular α → β and equiaxed α → β. The activation energy for α → β
transformation was also estimated with the classical JMA equation. A similar transformation behavior
was also reported for Ti-6Al-4V alloy by Sha and Guo [13]. Barriobero-Vila et al. [14] examined the
element partitioning and related phase transformation kinetics in heating of a bimodal Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn
alloy by in-situ high energy synchrotron X-ray diffraction. They found that partitioning of solutes
leads to nonlinear variation of the lattice parameters of the β phase. Elmer et al. [15] examined the
phase transition during welding of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy. They found that a large superheat is necessary
for the completion of α-to-β transformation due to the high heating rate. The overall transformation
mechanism may be diverse because the starting assumption determines the calculated parameters in
JMA equation. Guo et al. [16] investigated the microstructural developments by deformation induced
temperature rise in TA15 titanium alloy. A diffusion model was developed to depict the variation
of particle size and volume fraction of equiaxed α under different heating rates. Chen et al. [17]
investigated the phase transformation in continuous heating of a near-β titanium alloy. The phase
transformation sequence and dominate mechanism were determined. The transformation kinetics and
microstructural development in heating are not only dependent on the heating rate, but also greatly
affected by the microstructure prior to heating, which needs further investigation.
In this work, the effect of initial structure on the phase evolution in continuous heating of
TA15 titanium alloy was investigated. To this end, multiple heat treatments were employed to
obtain three different microstructures from a wrought billet. The phase transformation process was
determined by metallographic observation, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dilatometry.
The microstructure evolution under different heating rate and initial structures was studied. The effect
of initial structure on phase transformation kinetics was also measured. The results can be used for
quantative control of phase constitution in hot working.
2. Material and Procedures
2.1. Material
The as-received TA15 titanium alloy was a 1000 mm × 400 mm × 100 mm hot forged bar produced
by western superconducting technologies Co., Xi’an, China. The chemical composition of the alloy
was measured to be 6.69Al, 2.25Zr, 1.77Mo, 2.25V, 0.14Fe, 0.12O, 0.002H and balanced Ti (wt %) by
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Metals 2017, 7, 200
wet chemical analysis. The β transus temperature was determined to be 985 ◦ C by metallography.
The as-received material was annealed at 820 ◦ C to obtain a bimodal structure consisting of about 50%
equiaxed α within transformed β matrix (microstructure I, Figure 1a). The measured fraction and
particle size of the equiaxed α are about 0.5 and 12.5 μm, respectively.
Two other microstructures were obtained by heat treatments from microstructure I. Specimen with
initially microstructure I was heated at the rate of 10 ◦ C/min up to 970 ◦ C, held for 30 min and then
cooled in the air to get a bimodal structure composed of about 15% equiaxed α within transformed β
matrix (microstructure II, Figure 1b). The grain size of equiaxed α phases decreased to about 9.5 μm.
Usually, the trimodal structure can be obtained by a near β hot working and a subsequent heat
treatment in the α + β region. The hot working in the near β region aims to control the fraction of
equiaxed α. The subsequent heat treatment produces the α lamellae. Thus, the material with bimodal
structure was reheated to 940 ◦ C and air cooled to obtain the trimodal structure (microstructure
III, Figure 1c). The volume fraction of primary equiaxed and lamellar α were about 18% and
25%, respectively.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1. Optical microscopy images of the microstructures prior to heating: (a) microstructure I;
(b) microstructure II; (c) microstructure III.
2.2. Metallographic Examination

The φ 10 mm × 10 mm cylinder specimens were heated at the rates of 5 and 10 ◦ C/min to the
preset temperatures with a resistance furnace, and then water quenched to freeze the high temperature
microstructure. The specimen was coated with glass lubricant to prevent oxidation at high temperature.
The selected quenching temperatures were 700, 750, 800, 860, 900, 940, 970 and 1100 ◦ C. The specimens
were electrical discharge cut, mechanical grinded and polished, and etched in a solution of 13%
HNO3 , 7% HF and 80% H2 O. Micrographs were taken on a LECIA DMI3000 microscope (LECIA,
Shanghai, China). Moreover, the fine secondary lamellar α phases were examined using a scanning
electron microscopy TESCAN VEGA3 LMU (TESCAN, Shanghai, China). The volume fraction and
size of the α phase were determined by image-pro plus software. The fraction of the α phase was
measured by the ratio of the area of α phase to the overall area on a micrograph. The Optical microscopy
micrographs at 1000 times magnification were used to measure the fraction of equiaxed α (f 1 ). Scanning
electronic microscopy (SEM, TESCAN, Shanghai, China) images at 5000 times magnification were
employed to measure the fraction of α lamellae in β matrix (f 2 ). The overall volume fraction of α
is calculated by f = f 1 + (1 − f 1 ) × f 2 . The grain size of equiaxed α is measured to be the average
diameter of the equiaxed α particles on the micrograph. Due to the limitation of radiation heating,
phase transformation at higher heating rate was examined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
and dilatometry.
2.3. Differential Scanning Calorimetry

The characteristic temperatures for phase transformation were measured by the differential
scanning calorimetry with a Netzsch DSC-404 calorimeter (Netzsch, Shanghai, China). The specimens
were φ 4 mm × 0.5 mm disks with different initial structures. The specimens were heated at 10, 20
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Metals 2017, 7, 200
and 40 ◦ C/min up to 1100 ◦ C respectively. All tests were conducted under the shielding of high purity
Ar flow.
2.4. Dilatometry
Dilatometry was carried out on a Netzsch DIL402C dilatometer (Netzsch, Shanghai, China).
The specimens used in the experiment were φ 6 mm × 25 mm cylinders. The specimens were heated
at 5, 10 and 20 ◦ C/min up to 1100 ◦ C, respectively. The whole process was shielded under high purity
Ar flow with the flow rate of 50 mL/min. The change in the length of the specimen was recorded and
used to determine the linear thermal expansion.
3.1. Microstructure Observations

In continuously heating, there often exists a three stage phase transformation, including β
decompostion at low temperature, lamellar α to β at intermediate temperature and equiaxed α to β at
high temperature. For initially microstructure I which was annealed at low temperature, the β-to-α
transformation at low temperatures has little influence on the microstructure. The microstructure after
heated up to 700 ◦ C is close to the initial structure, as shown in Figure 2a. With increasing temperature,
the primary equiaxed α remains unchanged. Meanwhile, the lamellar α is slightly thickened (Figure 2b).
Significant β-to-α transformation occurs with further heating. Blocks of β phases firstly appear between
the equiaxed and lamellar α phases (Figure 2c). The volume fraction of equiaxed α decreases slightly
while the lamellar α are shortened significantly (Figure 2d). The transformation rate of lamellar α
is so high that there exists a large fraction of equiaxed α when the lamellar α has already dissolute
(Figure 2e). The size of equiaxed α particles becomes more inhomogeneously distributed when the
equiaxed α began to dissolve. For diffusion controlled phase transformation process, the dissolution
rate of a secondary particle is inverse proportional to its radius. Therefore, the difference in particle
size is strengthened during α-to-β transformation (Figure 2f).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 2. Optical microscopy micrographs of samples with initially microstructure I after heated up to
(a) 700 ◦ C; (b) 800 ◦ C; (c) 860 ◦ C; (d) 900 ◦ C; (e) 940 ◦ C and (f) 970 ◦ C at 10 ◦ C/min.
Microstructure II was obtained by high temperature annealing followed by a rapid cooling.

The microstructure is more affected by the phase transformation in heating. Metallographic observation
suggests that the volume fraction of equiaxed α varies little until the heating temperature is high
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Metals 2017, 7, 200
enough to transform all α lamellae, as shown in Figure 3. On the other hand, the fraction, size and
morphology of the lamellar α change significantly.
Figure 3. Optical microscopy micrographs of specimens with initially microstructure II after heated up
to (a) 750 ◦ C; (b) 800 ◦ C; (c) 860 ◦ C; (d) 940 ◦ C at 10 ◦ C/min.
Figure 4 shows the change of lamellar α phase during continuous heating with initially
microstructure II. The lamellae varied little up to 700 ◦ C (Figure 4a). For Ti-6Al-4V alloy, the β-to-α
transformation occurs around 500 ◦ C. The metastable β phase may have already taken place before
700 ◦ C. However, it is hard to measure it by metallographic observation. Barriobero-Vila et al. [14]
reported an increase of 3% in the volume fraction of α phase at a heating rate of 5 ◦ C/min for the
Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The increase in volume fraction decreases to 1% at the heating rate of 20 ◦ C/min.
It can be found from Figure 3a that the secondary grain boundary α becomes more continuous,
which indicates the decomposition of residual β phase. However, the increase in α fraction is
trivial comparing to the overall volume fraction of α lamellae (>60%). Meanwhile, the low heating
temperature prohibits the coarsening of α lamellae. As a result, the microstructural change is
not significant.
During temperature range of 700 to 900 ◦ C, the volume fraction of lamellar α decreases slightly
with temperature and the fine lamellar α disappeared (Figure 4b). They either transform to β phase
or merge to become thicker lamellae, resulting in relatively thick α lamellae. The average thickness
of the lamellar α increases significantly. Above 900 ◦ C, the transformation of lamellar α is greatly
accelerated. Thin and short lamellae transform faster than the long and thick ones. The lamellae
become isolated by the β matrix. The thickness of the lamellae increases first and then decreases
(Figure 4c,d)). The dissolution of secondary α laths is dominated by the shortening along the major
axis, which can be taken as a reverse process of the growth of the Widmanstatten α.
Figure 4. Secondary electron images of the lamellar α from initially microstructure II after heated up to
(a) 700 ◦ C; (b) 900 ◦ C; (c) 940 ◦ C; (d) 970 ◦ C.
In continuous heating of the trimodal structure (microstructure III), the primary equiaxed α and
lamellar α are unchanged when the heating temperature is below 700 ◦ C (Figure 5a). With increasing
temperature, the significant increase in the fraction of secondary lamellar α is observed (Figure 5b),
which is often interpreted in terms of lamellae thickening. The residual β between the lamellar α
consists of a large fraction of thin and disordered secondary α laths (Figure 6a). These α lathes
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Metals 2017, 7, 200
transform preferentially to β phase with increasing temperature, as shown in Figure 6b. Though the
secondary α laths are stabilized by annealing at 940 ◦ C, the lower α stabilizer and the higher specific
surface area, they transform more rapidly than the primary equiaxed α (Figure 6c,d)). The dissolution
behavior of the α laths is similar to that of initially microstructure II. The α laths in microstructure
III are formed by additional heat treatment. Their properties (chemical composition, morphology,
interfacial coherency, etc.) are similar to the high temperature α lamellae formed in continuous heating
of microstructure II.
Figure 5. Optical microscopy images of the specimens after heated up from initially microstructure III:
(a) 700 ◦ C, Water quenched (WQ); (b) 800 ◦ C, WQ; (c) 940 ◦ C, WQ; (d) 970 ◦ C, WQ.
Figure 6. Secondary electron images of the lamellar α with initially microstructure III: (a) 800 ◦ C, WQ;
(b) 860 ◦ C, WQ; (c) 900 ◦ C, WQ; (d) 970 ◦ C, WQ.
3.2. Analysis of Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Dilatometry

α-β phase transformations involve heat absorption or heat release, which correlate to the
endothermic or exothermic peaks in DSC curve. The starting and ending temperatures of the
transformation can be estimated from the onset and offset points of the peak. This method has
been employed to investigate the phase transformation in continuous cooling and heating of Ti-6Al-4V
titanium alloy [13,18].
DSC curves of different initial structure heated at the rate of 10, 20 and 40 ◦ C/min are given
in Figure 7. From the DSC curves, it can be seen that there exists a slight exothermic peak around
500 ◦ C at the heating rate of 10 ◦ C/min for all three initial structures. This peak corresponds to the
decomposition of residual β phase. The β-to-α transformation temperature ranges from 430 to 530 ◦ C
for a bimodal two-phase Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn alloy [14] and it ranges from 590 to 735 ◦ C for a bimodal
two-phase TC21 alloy [12] at a heating rate of 5 ◦ C/min, which are close to the current study. However,
as the exothermic peak is not significant, it is impossible to determine the temperature range by
DSC curves.
After the first exothermic peak, the heat flux increases continuously and reach the first
endothermic peak at 760 to 780 ◦ C. The starting temperatures of endothermic peak for the bimodal and
trimodal structures are similar (<600 ◦ C), which are much lower than that for the equiaxed structure
(about 730 ◦ C). Metallographic observation suggested that α-to-β phase transformation has begun in
this temperature range. The tiny α phase inside residual β phase transforms prior to other α phases,
as shown in Figure 7. Microstructure III has the highest exothermic peak because there are plenty of
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tiny α phase inside β matrix (Figure 7a). On the other hand, microstructure I was annealed at the
lowest temperature, which stabilizes the constituent phase. As a result, it has the lowest peak and
highest starting temperature.
A second endothermic peak appears at 850 to 870 ◦ C. The tiny α phases inside residual β
matrix has transformed completely (Figure 7b). As this peak is not significant for microstructure
II, it may correspond to the rapid transformation of larger secondary α lamellae. The lamellar
α in microstructure II is not as stable as that in microstructure I and III because it is formed
during cooling from high temperature annealing. Actually, it is the same to the tiny α phase in
microstructure III. The transformation process would be smooth and continuous for microstructure II
in this temperature range.
A third endothermic peak is observed at 950 to 970 ◦ C. Apparently, this corresponds to the
transformation of equiaxed α to β phase. Microstructure I has the highest peak and the corresponding
temperature for the third peak is the lowest, which may be attributed to the large volume fraction of
primary equiaxed α phase. The finishing points of the peaks are all around 1000 ◦ C, indicating the β
transus temperature at a specific heating rate may not be affected by the initial structure.
No matter what initial structure is, there are three obvious endothermic peaks between the room
temperature and the β-transus temperature, which correspond to the transformation of tiny secondary
α lamellae, the coarse secondary α lamellae and the primary equiaxed α. The multiple forms of the
α phase result in such a three stage α-to-β transformation behavior. The starting and ending points
of each stage is affected by the initial structure. As the three stages of transformation overlap, it is
impossible to obtain the specific starting and ending temperatures.
The three endothermic peaks can also be observed at the heating rate of 20 ◦ C/min. The temperature
for each peak increases as expected. However, the temperature interval between different peaks is deceased,
indicating the overlapping of the three stages of phase transformation. When the heating rate increases to
40 ◦ C/min, only the first peak can be clearly observed. The high heating rate increases the driving force for
α-to-β transformation, which promotes the transformation of equiaxed α and the coarse lamellar α.
microstructure I microstructure I
exo
0.1 0.0
microstructure II microstructure II
exo
microstructure III microstructure III

-0.5
0.0
DSC (W/g)
-1.0
DSC (W/g)
-0.1
-1.5
-0.2 -2.0
-0.3 -2.5
-3.0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Temperature(°C) Temperature(°C)
(a) (b)
0
microstructure I
exo
microstructure II
-2 microstructure III
-4
DSC (W/g)
-6
-8
-10
-12
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Temperature(°C)
(c)
Figure 7. DSC curves of the different initially structures at the heating rate of (a) 10 ◦ C/min;
(b) 20 ◦ C/min; (c) 40 ◦ C/min.
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The β-to-α phase transformation is accompanied by a volume contraction of 0.15–0.3% [19].

In two-phase titanium alloy, the overall expansion was related to the expansions of the constituent
phases and the relative volume fractions. During continuous heating, the length change of the
specimens was influenced in the following aspects: the dilatation by lattice change, the thermal
expansion of the lattice and additional expansion of the β lattice due to the impoverishment of β
stabilizers [20]. Because the sample length variation during phase transformation was not apparent in
two-phase titanium alloy, the derivatives of length change with respect to temperature (dL/dT) were
used to investigate β-α-β phase transformation, as shown in Figure 8. During continuous heating,
the metastable β matrix firstly decomposed to acicular α phases and an increase of length change may
be observed in dilatometric curves [12]. However, due to the element partitioning, the lattice of the β
phase also contracts [20]. As a result, the thermal expansion rate varies little below 600 ◦ C irrespective
of initial structure and heating rate in this work. Due to the lattice expansion of β phase, the TA15
titanium alloy shows a slight increase in expansion rate when the heating temperature is above 600 ◦ C.
A similar behavior was also observed in the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. At the lowest heating rate of 5 ◦ C/min,
a substantial increase in expansion rate was observed for the initially microstructure I and III, while
the variation in expansion rate was low for microstructure II. This is because the residual β phase
and lamellar α are cooled from the high temperature β phase, which has a relatively low content of V.
The lattice expansion would be low as the element partitioning is not significant. On the other hand,
when the equiaxed α transforms to β phase, β stabilizers would diffuse over a long distance as the
deviation of β stabilizer content in equiaxed α and β phase is very large. So the degree of enrichment
of β stabilizers in β matrix would severely decrease, which increased the lattice parameter of β phase.
Therefore, there was an apparent expansion in dilatometric curves in the third stage.
4 2.0
Equiaxed structure Equiaxed structure
Trimodal structure Trimodal strucuture
1.8 Bimodal structure
3 Bimodal structure
d(ΔL/L0)/dT(x10 C )
-1
-1
-5o
1.6
-5o
2
1.4
1
1.2
0 1.0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
o
Temperature ( C)
o Temperature ( C)
(a) (b)
2.0
Equiaxed structure
1.8 Trimodal structure
Bimodal structure
1.6
-1
-5o
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
o
Temperature ( C)
(c)
Figure 8. Derivatives of length change with respect to temperature (dL/dT) of the different initially
structures at the heating rate of (a) 5 ◦ C/min; (b) 10 ◦ C/min; (c) 20 ◦ C/min.
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A sudden decrease in expansion rate occurs at about 950 ◦ C for initially microstructure I and III.
Barriobero-Vila et al. [14] found that the expansion in β lattice is more significant when the fraction
of β phase is low. With the increase of β fraction, the phase transformation has less effect on the
composition of β phase. The expansion of β lattice is more sluggish. Meanwhile, the rapid phase
transition may cause significant volume contraction. Thus, the expansion rate drops dramatically.
As the α-β phase transition was dominant in the four stages of β-α-β transformation, the obvious peak
(Figure 8a) in the curves of derivative of length change corresponded with the starting and ending of
the transformation from α to β phase.
The phase transformation sequence in continuous heating is summaried in Table 2.
Microstructures I and III undergo a four stage phase transformation: the decomposition of residual β
phase to the tiny secondary α laths, the transformation of tiny α laths, the transformation of coarse α
laths and the transformation of equiaxed α. The secondary and third stages overlap for microstructure
II because the existed α laths are thin. The four stages of phase transformation overlap with increasing
heating rate.
Table 2. Phase transformation sequence in continuous heating of TA15 alloy.
Microstructure Phase Transition

I residual β-secondary α, secondary α-β, lamellar α-β, equaixed α-β
II residual β-secondary α, secondary α/lamellar α-β, equaixed α-β
III residual β-secondary α, secondary α-β, lamellar α-β, equaixed α-β
Dilatometry and DSC can be used to quantify the kinetics of phase transformations [21,22]. In this
paper, the dilatometric methods have been adopted. Commonly, the transformed rate increases with
temperature in a sigmoidal way. So the results are not presented in this work. In fact, the transformation
rate was not measured by the volume contraction in α to β transformation but evaluated by the rapid
increase in lattice parameter of β phase, as an increase in expansion rate during transformation is
observed at all heating rates. Due to the nonlinearity in lattice expansion and the volume contraction by
transformation, it may be concluded that the dilatometry can not be used to estimate the transformation
kinetics in TA15 titanium alloy.
3.3. Transformation Kinetics

The kinetics measured for different initial structures showed that the effect of initial microstructure
is negligible especially when the transformation of equiaxed α becomes dominant, as shown in Figure 9.
For each initial structure, the volume fraction of β phase increases slowly with the temperature before
800 ◦ C and the increases sharply until all the α phase was transformed. At the heating rate of 5 ◦ C/min,
the volume fraction of β phase around 940 ◦ C was the highest for microstructure I. With increasing
heating rate, the specimen with microstructure I has the lowest fraction of β phase.
In this temperature range, there still exists a large fraction of lamellar α in specimens with initially
microstructure II and III (Figure 10). On the contrast, only the equiaxed α phase is left for microstructure
I. At a low heating rate, the phase fraction is more close to the equilibrium value. The phase fraction is
more affected by the chemical compositions of the constituent phases. The content of β stabilizers in α
lamellae is higher than that in equiaxed α. In the presence of lamellar α, the fraction of α phase is larger
according to the lever rule. At a higher heating rate, the transformation rate is more determined by the
diffusion of the β stabilizer (Mo and V for the TA15 alloy). The α lamellae are thin and distributed in
the residual β matrix. Along with the high content of β stabilizer, the phase transformation is faster
when there are large amount of α lamellae.
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Figure 9. Measured fraction β with temperature at different heating rates.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 10. Optical microscopy micrographs of specimens after heated up to 940 ◦ C at 5 ◦ C/min:
(a) equiaxed structure; (b) bimodal structure; (c) trimodal structure.
The phase transformation kinetics in isothermal condition is often depicted by the

Johnson–Mehl–Avrami (JMA) approach:

f (t) = 1 − exp −(kt)n (1)
where f (t) is the transformed fraction at a specific time t, n is the JMA exponent, and k is a rate constant.
In non-isothermal conditions, k is taken to be a function of temperature which is given by:

Q
k = k0 exp − (2)
RT
where k0 is a constant, Q is the activation energy of the transformation, R is the gas constant, and T is the
absolute temperature. Elmer et al. [15] suggested that a unique activation energy under non-isothermal
conditions is not always possible because the nucleation and growth of the β phase are simultaneously
operating. Their contributions are temperature and rate dependent and influenced by the initial
structure. However, the α-to-β transformation in titanium alloys often has a large growth component
and it is possible to simplify it by using the activation energy of growth. It has been found in the
continuous cooling of TA15 titanium alloy that Mo diffusion through β matrix controls the epitaxial
growth of primary α due to its slowest diffusivity [23]. Assuming the diffusion of V in β phase controls
the transformation and the mobility of the α-β interface is high, Elmer [15] suggested to use the
activation energy for the diffusion of V to represent the activation energy for phase transformation in a
Ti-6Al-4V alloy. These assumptions are also valid in the TA15 titanium alloy [23].The activation energy
for diffusion of Mo is determined to be 154 kJ/mol [24]. It is used as a starting value for parameter
identification. The JMA exponent n also has physical significance. Elmer et al. [15] used a value of
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n = 4 to represent a transformation mechanism involving both growth and nucleation. For diffusion
controlled transformation under isothermal condition, the value should be larger than 2.5. The value
of 4 is also employed as a starting value.
Using the numerical procedure in Ref. [18], the optimized parameters are given in Table 3.
The calculated JMA exponent is near 1. This means the phase transformation is controlled by the
growth of existing large β phase. This is in accordance with the microstructural developments in
the current work. Elmer [15] reported a much higher value of JMA exponent. In their work, the
heating rate is hundreds of times larger than the current work, which may change the mechanism of
phase transformation.
Table 3. Calculated Johnson–Mehl–Avrami (JMA) parameters for the continuous heating of TA15
titanium alloy.
ln (k0 ) n Q (kJ/mol)
26.9 0.75 333
4. Conclusions
Experimental study was carried out on the effect of initial structure on microstructure evolution
in continuous heating of a near-α TA15 titanium alloy. The following conclusions were drawn:
(1) A four stage phase transformation occurs during continuous heating of the TA15 titanium alloy
for microstructure I and III: the decomposition of residual β phase, the transformation of tiny α
laths, the transformation of coarse α laths and the transformation of equiaxed α. The secondary
and third stages overlap for microstructure II. The four stages of phase transformation overlap
with increasing heating rate.
(2) The α-to-β transformation is accompanied by the coarsening of secondary α laths for
microstructure II, resulting in significant changes in the size and volume fraction of α laths.
(3) The phase transformation kinetics is not affected by the initial structure when the transformation
of equiaxed α becomes dominant. In the presence of lamellar α, the specimen with initially
microstructure I has the highest transformed fraction under slow heating but the lowest
transformed fraction under rapid heating.
(4) The transformed fraction increases with temperature in a sigmoidal way which can be fitted by
the JMA model. The determined JMA exponent is close to 1, suggesting phase transformation is
controlled by the growth of existing large β phase.
Acknowledgments: This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51575449),
Research Fund of the State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing (NWPU), China (No. 104-QP-2014), and 111
Project (B08040).
Author Contributions: Xiaoguang Fan conceived and designed the experiments and interpret the data, Qi Li and
Xiaoguang Fan wrote the paper, Anming Zhao analyzed the data and Yuguo Shi performed the experiments,
Wenjia Mei collected the literatures.
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5. Tang, B.; Kou, H.; Zhang, X.; Gao, P.; Li, J. Study on the formation mechanism of α lamellae in a near β
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9. Kherrouba, N.; Bouabdallah, M.; Badji, R.; Carron, D.; Amir, M. β to α transformation kinetics and
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the α–β phase transformation kinetics of a bi-modal Ti–6Al–6V–2Sn alloy during continuous heating.
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by temperature rise during (α + β) deformation of TA15 titanium alloy. Rare Met. 2016, 35, 223–229.
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metals
Article
Effect of Hybrid Reinforcements on
the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of
Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-Fe-Cr Titanium Alloy
Shuyu Sun 1, * and Weijie Lu 2
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, China
2 State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China;
[email protected]
Received: 27 May 2017; Accepted: 27 June 2017; Published: 5 July 2017
Abstract: In order to investigate the different effects of trace TiB and TiC on the microstructure
and the mechanical properties of Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Fe-1Cr Ti alloy, two different modified
Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Fe-1Cr Ti alloys are fabricated via a consumable vacuum arc-remelting furnace
in this work. Though the volume fractions of the reinforcements are the same in the two alloys,
the molar ratio of short fibers to particles is different. The materials are subjected to thermomechanical
processing and heat treatment. The effects of TiB short fibers and TiC particles on the spheroidization
of α phase or the refinement of β phase have no obvious difference during heat treatment.
Subsequently, the room temperature tensile test is carried out. The area covered by the σ-ε curve
of the tensile test is used to compare toughness. It is revealed that the refinement of the β phase
and the load bearing of TiB play key roles in promoting the toughness of the alloys. TiB tends to
parallel the external load during tensile tests. The distribution of TiB also changes during isothermal
compression test. Owing to the competition of dynamic softening with dynamic hardening, the length
direction of TiB tends to parallel to the direction of maximum shear stress during the compression,
which makes TiB play the role of load bearing better.
Keywords: Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-Fe-Cr titanium alloy; trace TiB and TiC; microstructure; toughness
1. Introduction
Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Fe-1Cr titanium alloy is an important aviation structural material. The alloy
composition results in the tendency of the spheroidization of α phase during heat treatment. Owing to
the special microstructural characteristics, the alloy presents a good combination of strength and
plasticity after heat treatment [1,2]. The most common processing method for this alloy is isothermal
forging. However, it may appear serious microstructural heterogeneity during isothermal compression.
The experiment shows that reinforcement can solve the problem by accelerating the spheroidization of
α phase [2].
While continuous-SiC fiber-reinforced Ti alloys have significantly superior mechanical properties,
widespread application of them has been hindered by economic factors associated with high processing
costs, as well as design limitations imposed by the anisotropy of properties (exacerbated by the presence
of relatively weak fiber/matrix interfaces) [3,4]. Conventional Ti alloys modified with discontinuous
reinforcements, on the other hand, have been widely used in recent years [5–7]. The application
of the hybrid reinforcements can achieve better results in improving mechanical properties [8–10].
However, little information is available to date concerning the different effects of short fibers and
particles on Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-Fe-Cr Ti alloy.

Metals 2017, 7, 250
Two different compositions of Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-Fe-Cr Ti alloys are fabricated in this work.

One alloy is modified with only B4 C, the other is modified with B4 C and C. The volume fractions
of the reinforcements in the two alloys are the same. Addition of B4 C to Ti produces TiB and TiC
during solidification by in situ chemical reaction. C to Ti also produces TiC. The reinforcements
are both thermomechanically stable and essentially insoluble in Ti at all temperatures in the solid
state. The in situ synthesized intermetallic reinforcements have good interfacial bonding strength
due to the orientation relationships [11–13]. The advantages of the reinforced alloys also include
reaction-free interfaces and ease of processing. In order to obtain good toughness, the addition of B4 C
or C is very small.
The solid solubility of B and C is low in Ti alloy during the solidification. Solute enrichment
results in constitutional supercooling which in turn provides the driving force for nucleation and
increases the nucleation rate. Furthermore, excess B and C in the solid-liquid interface also lower
the growth rate of the grains [11]. The refinement of β grains and intersection of different orientated
acicular α colonies within β grains retard the further growth of α [1,14].
The area covered by σ-ε curve of room temperature tensile test is used to compare toughness.
The experiments show that the toughness of the modified alloys is superior to that of the alloy.
The different toughening effects of trace short fibers and particles are investigated by studying
the improvement of the plasticity and the strength of the modified alloys.
The β phase with BCC structure is considered with high stacking fault energy, which could
accelerate dislocation climbing and crossing-slipping for dynamic softening process during isothermal
compression [15]. The dynamic softening dominates the competition with the work hardening.
The distribution of the reinforcements changes during isothermal compression. For comparison,
the alloy specimen with the two ends not polished is used. The specimen preserves the shallow
circular groove caused by turning machining on the two ends, which causes serious microstructural
heterogeneity during the compression. Some α grains are elongated obviously along the direction of
maximum shear stress [16]. The length direction of TiB in the B4 C-modified alloy is almost the same
as that of the elongated α phase in the alloy after the compression. The distribution variation
of the reinforcements can promote the effective aspect ratio (length/diameter) of TiB. Therefore,
the distribution variation law of the reinforcements is also the key research of this work.
2. Experimental Procedure
The modified alloys are fabricated by in situ synthesis method. The stoichiometric weight
fractions of the raw materials including sponge Ti, B4 C powder, Al, Al-Mo, Al-V, Fe, and Cr are blended
uniformly, and then are compacted into pellets by forging press. The pellets are melted in a consumable
vacuum arc-remelting furnace (Model VCF-10, Shanghai, China). Small addition of B4 C to Ti produces
TiB and TiC during solidification by chemical reaction [12]:
5Ti + B4 C = 4TiB + TiC (1)
The molar ratio of TiB to TiC is 4:1. In addition to B4 C, small addition of C powder is added
in the other modified alloy. The molar ratio of TiB to TiC is 1:1. C to Ti produces TiC by chemical
reaction [12]:
Ti + C = TiC (2)
The volume fractions of the reinforcements in the two alloys are the same. The weight fractions of
the reinforcements are shown in Table 1.
The as-cast ingots are forged at 1150 ◦ C and are rolled at 840 ◦ C into rods with a diameter of
15 mm. Then the rod is subjected to heat treatment. In order to control the overgrowth of grains and
obtain good mechanical properties, the triplex heat treatment is employed with the following process:
830 ◦ C/1.5 h + furnace cooling, 750 ◦ C/1.5 h + air cooling, 600 ◦ C/4 h + air cooling.
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Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Fe-1Cr Ti alloy is also prepared with the same method. The ingot of the alloy
is subjected to the same thermomechanical processing and heat treatment as the modified alloys.
Table 1. Program materials and weight fractions of reinforcements.
Sample B4 C/wt % C/wt % TiB/wt % TiC/wt % TiB/TiC Molar Ratio

Alloy A 0.1 0 0.4 0.1 4:1
Alloy B 0.06 0.04 0.27 0.27 1:1
The specimens for the tensile test and the isothermal compression test are machined from
the heat-treated rods.
For tensile testing, 30 mm gage length cylindrical specimens (6 mm wide) is used. Tensile tests
are performed in a servohydraulic testing machine (Model YF28A-315/200, Shanghai, China) with
a strain rate of 0.001 s−1 . An extensometer is mounted on the specimens to measure the tensile strains.
The compression specimens are 8 mm in diameter and 12 mm in height. The two ends of
the alloy compression specimen are not polished. The isothermal compression tests are performed
on a Gleeble simulator (Model GLEEBLE 3500, Shanghai, China). The compression condition
is 840 ◦ C/0.01 s−1 /60% (temperature/strain rate/deformation reduction). The specimens are water
quenched at room temperature immediately after the compression and then are axially sectioned.
Microstructure observations by optical microscope (OM, Model CM12, Shanghai, China), scanning
electron microscope (SEM, Model JSM-6460, Shanghai, China) are conducted after the specimens
are polished and etched. Moreover, transmission electron microscope (TEM, Model JZM-100CX,
Shanghai, China) is also used to observe the microstructure of the specimens.
3.1. Microstructure of the Materials after Heat Treatment

Figure 1a shows the microstructure of alloy A after thermomechanical processing.
The reinforcements can accelerate the recrystallization of β grains by providing nucleation sites and
accelerating diffusion. However, the microstructure is still very heterogenerous due to the segregation
of the alloying elements.
Figure 1. Optical microscope (OM) images of (a) alloy A after thermomechanical processing;
(b) unmodified alloy after heat treatment; (c) alloy A after heat treatment; and (d) alloy B after
heat treatment.
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In order to measure the average grain size, the other heat treatment is used with the following
process: 910 ◦ C/1.5 h + furnace cooling, 750 ◦ C/1.5 h + air cooling, 600 ◦ C/4 h + air cooling.
910 ◦ C is higher than the phase transformation temperature. Therefore, it shows the characteristics of
the Widmannstatten structure in the alloys after the heat treatment [1]. The average grain size of β
in alloy A is decreased by about 56%, and in alloy B it is decreased by about 59%. This is mainly ascribed
to the Zener dragging force exerted by the reinforcements [2]. The length scales of the reinforcements
are nearly the same since the additions of B4 C and C are very small. TiB has an average length of
7.9 μm after heat treatment, while TiC 2.6 μm. The size of TiC ranges from less than 200 nm to more
than 4 μm. A broad size distribution of particles gives rise to a larger Zener dragging force than
a narrow size distribution of particles [17]. Moreover, the segregation can also exert a pinning effect on
the boundary migration of β grain during heat treatment.
Figure 1b–d show the microstructures of the materials after heat treatment. The phase contrast
is α phase, white; β phase, black. The dislocation density in α decreases significantly during
the heat treatment. It appears the tendency of the spheroidization process to decrease interfacial
energy due to the dispersivity of α [1]. However, it is observed that trace reinforcements have no
obvious effect on the spheroidization of α phase during heat treatment. The decisive factor affecting
the spheroidization of the α phase is the first stage temperature during triplex heat treatment [18].
The increase in temperature can accelerate the boundary migration of α grain, which helps to overcome
the dragging force of the segregation on the boundary migration of the α grain. Since the weight
fraction of the reinforcements is very small, the segregation caused by the reinforcements counteracts
the promoting effect of the reinforcements on the spheroidization of α phase. When the temperature
approaches to the phase transformation temperature, the degree of the recrystallization of α phase
is enhanced greatly. The reinforcements may overcome their negative effect on the spheroidization of
the α phase by accelerating recrystallization [18].
Figure 2 shows the microstructure of the alloy after thermomechanical processing. The phase
contrast is α phase, black; β phase, white. Primary α phase almost shows as rod shaped. The α phase
cannot be spheroidized due to insufficient recrystallization. It appears the division of α grain during
heat treatment [18]. It is suggested that the rod-shaped α formed during thermomechanical processing
should be an important source of spheroidization grain after splitting.
Figure 2. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of the alloy after thermomechanical processing.
3.2. Effect of Reinforcements on the Toughness of the Alloy

Figure 3 shows σ-ε curves of the alloy, alloy A, and alloy B. The results in Figure 3 are the average
values of three tensile tests for each material. The yield stresses of the materials are 1195, 1232,
and 1224 MPa, respectively. If the area covered by the curve is used to compare toughness,
the toughness of the reinforced alloys is superior to that of the alloy (in Figure 3). The average
aspect ratio of TiB is 7.1. The critical aspect ratio of TiB can be calculated by the Kelly formula,
approximately [19]:
lc /d = σ f /(2σym ) (3)
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where lc is critical length of TiB, d is radius of TiB, σf is tensile strength of TiB (3500 MPa), and σym
is yield stress of matrix (1195 MP). The critical aspect ratio of TiB is about 1.46, which is lower than
the average aspect ratio of TiB, significantly.
The promotion of the strengths of the modified alloys is ascribed to the load bearing of TiB,
the dispersion strengthening of TiC and the grain refinement strengthening [18,20–22].
TiB short fibers tend to parallel the external force during the tensile test, which promotes the load
bearing effect. The load bearing of TiB extends the strengthening process of the modified alloys.
Meanwhile, the load bearing of TiB and the increase of the number of the β grains can improve
the homogeneity of the loads applied to each β grain. The deformation homogeneity helps to decrease
the crack nucleation.
Figure 3. Stress-strain curves of the alloy, alloy A and alloy B.
Since the weight fraction of the reinforcements is very small, the negative effect of
the reinforcements on the plasticity is limited. The elongation of the modified alloys is still increased
during the strengthening process.
The broken TiB short fibers and TiC particles increase the propagation of crack during the necking
process. Therefore, the toughening effect of the load bearing of the short fibers is mainly reflected
in the strengthening process. The improvement of the reduction of area is mainly attributed to
microstructural refinement during the necking process. The increase of β grain boundary contributes
to retard crack propagation.
The tensile properties of alloy A are different from those of alloy B. The weight fraction of TiB
in alloy A is higher than that in alloy B. Therefore, the load bearing of short fibers plays a more
important role in alloy A. The effect of the microstructural refinement plays more important role
in alloy B.
3.3. Microstructure of the Modified Alloy after Isothermal Compression

Figure 4 shows the microstructure of the alloy after isothermal compression. The phase contrast
is α phase, black; β phase, white. The compression specimen shows as a drum shape due to the friction
between the specimen and the push rod. The macrosegregation in Figure 4a is induced by the shallow
circular groove on the two ends of the specimen [16]. The metal at the center of the specimen
is extruded towards the side of the specimen. Therefore, in addition to the spheroidized α, some α
grains are elongated. Moreover, the distribution of the reinforcements in the modified alloys changes
for the same reason.
The elongation of α phase in Figure 4b is associated with vacancy flow. It produces
a vacancy chemical potential gradient in the direction parallel to the maximum shear stress during
the compression. The atomic motion is opposite to the vacancy flow. The dynamic softening dominates
the competition with the dynamic hardening in α. Therefore, the obstacles to the vacancy flow that
caused by the dislocations is greatly reduced. The length direction of the elongated α is approximated
as the direction of maximum shear stress.
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As shown in Figures 5 and 6, the distribution of TiB is similar to the elongated α in the alloy
specimen. The distribution of TiB continuously changes in order to seek the equilibrium of forces until
the length direction tends to parallel to the direction of maximum shear stress during the compression.
Figure 4. OM images of the longitudinal section of the alloy specimen after isothermal compression
(a) the macrosegregation; and (b) the spheroidized and the elongated α.
Figure 5. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of the distribution of the reinforcements in alloy A
after isothermal compression.
Figure 6. OM image of the distribution of the reinforcements in alloy A after isothermal compression.
Figure 7 shows TEM images of TiB and TiC in alloy A after isothermal compression. There also
exists the competition of dynamic softening with dynamic hardening in β phase. As shown in Figure 7a,
the end of TiB induces relatively large lattice distortion. The lattice distortion is nearly the largest
when the length direction approximately parallels to the direction of maximum shear stress. Thus,
the dynamic hardening gets the advantage in the competition at the ends of TiB. This plays a pinning
effect on the distribution variation of TiB.
Figure 7. TEM images of the reinforcements in alloy A after isothermal compression (a) TiB (b) TiC.
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The distribution variation of the reinforcements increases the effective aspect ratio of TiB,
which allow TiB short fibers to play the role of load bearing better.
4. Conclusions
(1) The load bearing of TiB extends the strengthening process of the modified alloys. Moreover,
the load bearing of TiB and the increase of the number of β grains can improve deformation
homogeneity of the modified alloys, which decreases the crack nucleation. Therefore,
the reinforcements increase the plasticity of the modified alloys. The toughening effect of
the load bearing of TiB is mainly reflected in the strengthening process. The improvement of
the toughness of the modified alloys is mainly attributed to the microstructural refinement during
the necking process.
(2) The distribution of TiB constantly changes in order to seek the equilibrium of forces until
the length direction tends to parallel to the direction of maximum shear stress during isothermal
compression. Moreover, the lattice distortion is nearly the largest when the length direction
of TiB approximately parallels to the direction of maximum shear stress. This plays a pinning
effect on the distribution variation of TiB. Therefore, the length direction of TiB tends to parallel
the direction of maximum shear stress during the compression, which can promote the effective
aspect ratio of TiB.
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by Foundation of

Zhejiang Educational Committee (grant No. Y201533396).
Author Contributions: Shuyu Sun and Weijie Lu designed and conducted the experiments. Shuyu Sun analysed
the results.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interesting, and the founding sponsor has no role
in the design of the study; in the collection; analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript,
and in the decision to publish the results.
References
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3. Tamirisakandala, S.; Bhat, R.-B.; Miracle, D.-B.; Boddapati, S.; Bordia, R.; Vanover, R.; Vasudevan, V.-K.
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6. Wang, B.; Huang, L.-J.; Geng, L.; Rong, X.-D. Compressive behaviors and mechanisms of TiB whiskers
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Article
Effects of Trace Si Addition on the
Microstructures and Tensile Properties of
Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr Alloy
Hongbo Ba, Limin Dong *, Zhiqiang Zhang and Xiaofei Lei
Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China;
[email protected] (H.B.); [email protected] (Z.Z.); xfl[email protected] (X.L.)
Abstract: The microstructural evolution and tensile properties of Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr titanium

alloys with various Si contents were investigated. The results revealed that the addition of trace Si
and the presence of Zr induced the formation of (TiZr)6 Si3 silicides, in the size range from 100 nm to
300 nm. The fine silicide precipitates refined β grains. The tensile strength increased about 40 MPa
due to precipitation strengthening and grain refinement, and the ductility of the two alloys was
similar. The tensile fracture mode of the alloys was dimple ductile fracture.
Keywords: titanium alloy; microstructure; silicide; tensile properties
1. Introduction
Titanium alloys are widely used in aerospace applications due to their high strength to weight
ratio and excellent corrosion resistance [1–3]. Except for compressor disks and blades, a considerable
fraction of fasteners and springs are fabricated from α + β and β titanium alloys, because they exhibit
a favorable strength/toughness combination and high fatigue strength [4,5]. Among these titanium
alloys, the β type Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr (known as Beta C) alloy has attracted the attention of
researchers in recent years [6,7]. This alloy is developed from Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al, and it is easier to
melt and exhibits less segregation due to a low Cr content [8]. In addition, the alloy can be hardened
by solution plus aging treatment, and its ultimate tensile strength can reach 1380 MPa [8,9]. It can
be utilized in either solution-treated or solution-aging-treated conditions; thus, a wide variation
in mechanical properties can be obtained for different applications. However, the rapid β grain
coarsening is still an open problem when they are solution-treated above the β transus, especially for
β type titanium alloys.
The changes in microstructures and phase structures influence the mechanical properties of
titanium alloys significantly. For β type titanium alloys, the body-centered cubic β phases possess good
ductility, and precipitated α phases enhance their strength after aging treatment. For high-temperature
titanium alloys, such as Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.35Si-0.06C [10] or Ti-6.3Al-1.6Zr-3.4Mo-0.3Si [11],
the addition of Si can improve their creep performances due to the precipitation of silicides. Up to now,
two different types of Ti-Zr-Si ternary silicides have been recognized in titanium alloys, S1 (a = 0.780 nm,
c = 0.544 nm) and S2 (a = 0.701 nm, c = 0.368 nm), with stoichiometries (TiZr)5 Si3 and (TiZr)6 Si3 [12–14],
respectively. Flower et al. [15] reported that they have a hexagonal crystal structure in aged Ti-5Zr-1Si
alloy, using X-ray diffraction.
Apart from improving the creep properties, the addition of Si also plays an important role in inhibiting
β grain growth. Bermingham et al. [16] showed that a small amount of Si addition to commercial purity Ti
produced fine prior-β grains. Tavares et al. [17] presented that the Si addition to the β type Ti-35Nb alloy
made beta phases more stable and achieved grain refinement. However, the addition of high amounts of Si

Metals 2017, 7, 286
will decrease the ductility of titanium alloys at room temperature. Ramachandra and Singh [18,19] showed
that the presence of 0.25 wt % Si in Ti-6Al-5Zr-0.5Mo-0.25Si alloy led to a drastic reduction in tensile
ductility at room temperature. In terms of Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr alloy, Morito et al. [20] also investigated
the effect of higher than 0.2 wt % Si addition on the microstructure and aging behavior, but high contents
of Si was found to possibly embrittle this alloy. In order to obtain the balance of strength and ductility
for industrial applications, it is necessary to gain more insight into the effect of trace Si addition on the
microstructures and properties of Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr alloy.
Based on the above, trace Si as an alloying element was added to Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr alloy,
and the objective of the experiment was to investigate the influence of Si either in solution or in the
form of silicides on its microstructures and performances.

In this study, Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr (designated C1) and Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr-0.05Si
(designated C2) alloys were fabricated from pure Ti, Al, V, Cr, Mo, Zr and Si (≥99.9% purity) by
three times vacuum arc melting and conventional rolling. The chemical compositions of the two alloys
are listed in Table 1. The β transus for the alloys was ~740 ◦ C, as measured by a metallographic
technique. The rolled bars, 12 mm in diameter, for both alloys were cut and subjected to solution
treatment at 800 ◦ C for 1 h, and were then water quenched to room temperature.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the alloys.
Composition (wt %)
Alloy
Al V Cr Mo Zr Si Ti
C1 3.54 8.00 6.02 4.05 4.00 0.02 Bal.
C2 3.48 8.00 5.95 4.05 4.00 0.06 Bal.
The microstructures were characterized using an optical microscope (OM, ZEISS Axiovert
200MAT, Carl Zeiss Shanghai Co., Ltd, Shanghai, China) and scanning electron microscope (SEM,
ShimadzuSSX-550, Shimadzu Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) equipped with an Energy Dispersive X-ray
(EDX) detector, after samples were manually grounded, polished and chemically etched for 30 s in
a solution of 5% HF, 10% HNO3 , and 85% water at room temperature. The back-scattered electron
(BSE) mode was utilized for the observation of precipitates, and the polished samples were not
be etched to avoid the dissolution of silicides into the HF etchant. Image-Pro Plus software was
utilized for grain size analysis, and the grain size distributions were obtained. The average grain
size and standard deviation were calculated on the basis of the grain diameter. TEM specimens were
manually ground down to a thickness of 50 μm, punched into discs of ˟ 3 mm, and then ion-milled
to electron transparency in a Gatan ion miller. TEM observation was performed on a Tecnai G2
20 transmission electron microscope (TEM) (FEI Company, Hillsboro, OR, USA) with an Energy
Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS).
Tensile tests at room temperature were carried out on an Instron 5582 testing machine (Instron,
Chicago, IL, USA) at a constant cross-head speed of 1 mm/min. Two specimens were tested for
each alloy. Tensile specimens with a gage diameter of 5 mm and a gage length of 30 mm were used.
The fracture morphologies were observed by SEM.
3.1. Microstructure Characteristics

Figure 1 presents the optical microstructures of the alloys after solution treatment at 800 ◦ C for
1 h. The microstructures were composed of equi-axed β grains, and the grain size of alloy C2 was
finer than that of alloy C1. The grain size distribution histograms, average grain size, and standard
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deviation of both alloys are shown in Figure 2. It can be observed that the grain size distribution is
markedly different for the two alloys. In C1, the average grain size was 58 μm, the grain size ranged
from 10 μm to 140 μm, and over 44% of the grains were larger than 60 μm. In C2, the average grain size
was 31 μm, and almost all grains were in the grain size range between 10 μm and 60 μm. The standard
deviation of the alloys was 25 μm and 9 μm, respectively. These results indicate that the grain size
uniformity of alloy C2 is superior to that of C1.
Figure 1. Optical microstructures of the alloys after solution treatment at 800 ◦ C for 1 h: (a) alloy C1;
(b) alloy C2.
Figure 2. Grain size distributions of alloys: (a) alloy C1; (b) alloy C2.
Figure 3 shows the BSE images and EDX spectra of the alloys in solution-treated condition before
etching. No resolvable precipitates are observed in C1 (Figure 3a), while white particles are clearly
observed in C2 (Figure 3b). Although the distribution and morphologies of particles are not exactly
confirmed in polished C2 samples, the size is very tiny. By comparison, no Si peak is found in the
EDX spectra for the matrix (Figure 3c), but the white precipitates are rich in Zr and Si (Figure 3d).
This confirms that the white particles are Ti-Zr-Si silicides.
Figure 3. Cont.
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Figure 3. BSE (Back-Scattered Electron) images of microstructures of C1 (a) and C2 (b) before etching; EDX
(Energy Dispersive X-ray) spectra of matrix marked by 1 (c) and white precipitates marked by 2 (d).
The selected area electron diffraction (SAED) and EDS analysis were carried out on TEM, and
the precipitate was particle shaped, about 200 nm in size (Figure 4a). The precipitate is rich in Zr
and Si, identified as the (TiZr)6 Si3 silicides through the electron diffraction pattern (Figure 4b) and
composition information (Figure 4c,d).
(c) (d)
Figure 4. TEM image (a); corresponding SAED (Selected Area Electron Diffraction) pattern for
the silicide (b); EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) spectra of β matrix (c) and silicide (d) for
solution-treated alloy C2.
Earlier studies demonstrated that Zr addition will promote the formation of silicides in titanium
alloys [11,12,21]. Therefore, the precipitation of silicides resulted from the addition of Si and the
presence of Zr in alloy C2. However, the Si content in C1 is only ~0.02 wt % from raw materials,
which is below the saturation concentration of Si in the alloy, therefore Si dissolves in the β matrix.
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Figure 5 shows the SEM morphologies of microstructures of both alloys after etching. There are
no etch pits in C1, but a large number of etch pits are observed in alloy C2, marked by the arrow. It is
a common chemical phenomenon that silicides are dissolved by the HF etchant, hence the formation
of etch pits should result from the dissolution of silicides. Meanwhile, it is reasonable that the quantity
and sites of etch pits correspond to those of silicides in alloy C2. According to the distribution of
etch pits, it is deduced that silicides precipitate both on the β grain boundaries and in the interior of
grains (Figure 5b).
Figure 5. SEM morphologies of microstructures of the alloys after etching: (a) alloy C1; (b) alloy C2.
Singh et al. [22] reported that the kinetics of silicide precipitation in Ti-6Al-1.6Zr-3.3Mo-0.3Si (VT9)
alloy was faster than in Ti-6Al-5Zr-0.5Mo-0.25Si (IMI685), which was attributed to the higher content
of strong β-stabilizing element Mo in the former alloy. Therefore, it is understandable that the kinetics
of the precipitation of silicides is fast in C2. On one hand, fine dispersed silicide precipitates promote
the recrystallization nuclei during solution treatment at 800 ◦ C. On the other hand, fine silicides play
an important role in hindering the movement of the grain boundaries during the grain growth. This is
the reason why alloy C2 has a much finer grain size.
3.2. Tensile Properties

The tensile stress-strain curves of both alloys are presented in Figure 6. A summary of the data is
given in Table 2. Based on these data, it can be seen that the yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) of alloy C2 are about 40 MPa higher than those of C1, respectively. Meanwhile, there is
a slight decrease in the elongation (El) and the reduction in area (RA). These results are similar to those
found in the literature [23–25], where the silicide precipitates are considered to lead to an increase in
strength and a slight drop in ductility for near α titanium alloys.
Figure 6. Tensile stress-strain curves of C1 and C2 alloys solution-treated at 800 ◦ C for 1 h.
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Table 2. Tensile properties of both alloys solution treated at 800 ◦ C for 1 h.
Alloy YS, MPa UTS, MPa El, % RA, %

852 853 29.0 73
C1
852 854 27.5 76
888 891 23.5 62
C2
893 896 24.0 61
The differences in the tensile properties of the alloys are largely due to their microstructures.
Firstly, the β grain size of alloy C2 was finer than that of C1. According to the Hall-Petch law, grain
refinement enhances yield strength [26,27]. Secondly, a large number of fine silicides dispersed in alloy
C2, which have an effect of precipitation strengthening. These explain the difference in the tensile
properties of the alloys.
The changes in ductility also result from the precipitation of dispersed silicides, which would
hinder the dislocation motion during tensile deformation. The precipitates tend to induce local stress
concentration and crack initiation, resulting in the slightly low plasticity of alloy C2.
Figure 7 shows the fracture morphologies of both alloys. The fracture consists of fiberous and
shear lip zones (Figure 7a,b). A large number of dimples spread across the fracture surfaces, which are
the characteristic of ductile fracture. Dimples are more uniform and smaller in alloy C2 than those
in C1 (Figure 7c,d). This is related to the presence of the dispersed silicides in alloy C2. Compared
with C2, alloy C1 experiences a larger plastic deformation before fracture, resulting from its single β
phase microstructure.
Figure 7. Tensile fractographies of the alloys: (a,c): alloy C1; (b,d): alloy C2.
4. Conclusions
(1) The addition of trace amount of Si (~0.05 wt %) and the presence of 4 wt % Zr induced the
formation of (TiZr)6 Si3 silicides in Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr-0.05Si alloy.
(2) The dispersed silicides refined β grains, and the average grain size of Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr-0.05Si
alloy was more uniform than that of Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr alloy. Adding Si was an effective way to
refine β grains for the Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr alloy.
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(3) The silicide precipitates enhanced the tensile strength of Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr-0.05Si alloy, and
the change in ductility was slight. The increase in strength was attributed to both precipitation
strengthening and grain refinement. The fracture mode of both alloys was ductile.
Author Contributions: Hongbo Ba and Limin Dong conceived and designed the experiments; Hongbo Ba,
Zhiqiang Zhang, and Xiaofei Lei performed the experiments and analyzed the data; Hongbo Ba wrote the paper.
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metals
Article
The Effects of Prestrain and Subsequent Annealing
on Tensile Properties of CP-Ti
Le Chang, Chang-Yu Zhou * and Xiao-Hua He
School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China;
[email protected] (L.C.); [email protected] (X.-H.H.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel./Fax: +86-25-5813-9951

Received: 14 February 2017; Accepted: 14 March 2017; Published: 17 March 2017
Abstract: The aim of the present work is to investigate the effects of prestrain and subsequent
annealing on tensile properties of commercial pure titanium (CP-Ti). According to tensile test results,
yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increase with the increase of prestrain. Elongation and
uniform strain decrease linearly with prestrain. In the case of prestrain that is higher than 3.5%, the
macro-yield of specimens changes from gradual yielding to discontinuous yielding. It is supposed
that considerable numbers of dislocations introduced into the material lead to the appearance of
yield plateau. The quantitative analysis of the contribution of dislocation hardening to the strain
hardening shows that dislocation-associated mechanisms play an important role in strain hardening.
Moreover, a modified Fields-Backofen model is proposed to predict the flow stress of prestrained
CP-Ti at different strain rates. Both strain rate sensitivity and strain hardening exponent decrease with
prestrain. Fracture surfaces of the specimens show that fracture mechanism of all tested specimens is
dimple fracture. The more ductile deformation in prestrained CP-Ti after annealing indicates that its
ductility is improved by annealing.
Keywords: CP-Ti; prestrain; yield plateau; tensile properties; flow stress; fracture
1. Introduction
During the manufacture of materials (stamping, cold rolling, equal channel angular pressing,
bending) and the installation and service history of the equipment components (such as creep,
overload), different degrees of plastic deformation will happen in the materials. The extent of prior
plastic strain introduced into the material can significantly change the mechanical properties and
consequently affect the plastic deformation behavior. At present, the investigation of the influence
of prestrain on the materials has been focused on steels [1–7], titanium alloys [8–10], aluminum
alloys [11,12], magnesium alloys [13–15], Zr-based alloys [16] and so on. Usually, prior heavy cold
work leads to a considerable increase in strength by creating dislocation barriers to inhibit subsequent
dislocation movement during plastic deformation at room temperature. For instance, Zhang et al. [2]
found that by pre-straining and bake hardening, the strength of C–Mn–Si TRIP steel was enhanced.
Further, they supposed that the unlocking from weak carbon atmospheres of dislocations newly
formed during prestraining led to the appearance of yield point on the stress–strain curve [3].
Lee et al. [6,7] found that work hardening rate and strain rate sensitivity (SRS) of 304 L stainless
steel were dependent on the variation of prestrain. Sarker et al. [13,14] suggested that the variation
of strain hardening rate of AM30 magnesium alloy with pre-straining was related to deformation
twinning and detwinning. Thus, it can be seen that prestrain has important effects on the subsequent
plastic deformation behavior for many materials. Also, it provides that the effects of prestrain
on the performance of hexagonal close-packed materials are associated with twinning structures
produced in the prior deformation [13–15]. Many researchers have studied the effects of prior severe

Metals 2017, 7, 99
plastic deformation, such as cold rolling and equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) on mechanical
properties of CP-Ti [17–19]. The activation of twinning in CP-Ti is affected by many factors, such
as deformation temperature, strain rate, deformation value, deformation direction [20,21]. Prior
deformation (cold rolling and ECAP) produces many twins in the initial microstructure of CP-Ti, which
is different from tensile prestrain [18,19,22–24]. The effects of stretching prestrain on the mechanical
properties of CP-Ti have not been examined. Thus, in this paper, different amounts of prestrain were
applied to CP-Ti and a uniaxial tensile experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of prestrain
on mechanical properties, work hardening rate, flow stress and fracture mechanism.
2. Experimental Materials and Procedures

The materials used in the present study were CP-Ti in the form of a cold-rolled and annealed plate.
The chemical composition was given in Table 1. The specimens with 3 mm thickness (see Figure 1)
were machined from the as-received plate by wire electrical discharge machining. In order to exclude
the effect of surface roughness, the specimens were ground and polished by metallographic abrasive
paper. The tensile testing was carried out by Instron tensile experimental equipment (INSTRON,
Norwood, MA, USA). The strain was automatically measured by extensometer (INSTRON, Norwood,
MA, USA). Different levels of pre-deformation along rolling direction were applied at the same
strain rate (0.0005 s−1 ) with the control of extensometer. Then, the specimens were unloaded and
reloaded to fracture. The strain rate during reloading ranged from 0.00005 to 0.004 s−1 . In addition, to
investigate the effects of subsequent annealing on tensile properties of prestrained samples, isothermal
heat-treatment was conducted using a vacuum furnace equipped with an auto tune temperature
controller (HUAHONG, Suzhou, China). The annealing temperatures were 500 ◦ C and 600 ◦ C with
dwell times ranging from 30 min to 1 h. The detailed annealing experimental scheme was listed
in Table 2. The microstructure was characterized using optical metallography. The specimens were
mechanically ground and chemically etched in a solution consisting of 10 mL nitric acid, 2 mL
hydrofluoric acid and 88 mL distillated water. Study on the fracture surface of tensile specimens was
carried out using a JSM-6360LV scanning electron microscope (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan).
Table 1. Chemical composition of used commercial pure (CP)-titanium (wt. %).
Element Ti Fe C N H O
Composition Balance 0.06 0.01 <0.01 0.001 0.12
Table 2. Annealing experimental scheme.
Annealing
Prestrain (εpre )/%
500 ◦ C, 30 min 500 ◦ C, 40 min 500 ◦ C, 60 min 600 ◦ C, 30 min
√ √ √
1 √ √ -
√
2 √ √ √ -
√
3.5 √ √ √
5 √ √ -
√
6.5 -
Figure 1. The geometry of the test specimens.
110
Metals 2017, 7, 99
3.1. Tensile Properties of As-Received Commercial Pure (CP)-Ti

According to uniaxial tensile experiment, mechanical properties of CP-Ti were determined.
Engineering stress–strain curves of the as-received material were given in Figure 2. Plastic deformation
process can be divided into three stages by the three characteristic points (A, B, C) on the tensile curve.
The first feature point is yield strength point (point A), deformation before this point is the elastic
deformation stage. Obviously, in the range of 0.00005–0.004 s−1 , the yield of CP-Ti is continuous as
no yield plateau appears. The second feature point is the highest point (point B). Generally, when
maximum tensile force reaches, sample necking starts, the corresponding point B is the demarcation
between uniform plastic deformation and non-uniform plastic deformation. When plastic deformation
is concentrated, load-bearing capacity decreases quickly, the corresponding feature point is point C.
The strain of diffuse necking and localized necking were expressed as follows:
εd = n (1)
εl = 2n (2)
where εd is initial strain of diffuse necking, εl is initial strain of localized necking and n is strain
hardening index. The stress–strain curve in plastic stage is divided into three stages, via uniform
deformation, diffuse necking stage and localized necking stage by the two perpendicular lines. As the
work hardening exponent is different under different strain rates, distinguish area of stress–strain
curve was only given at strain rate of 0.0005 s−1 , as shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that CP-Ti has
obvious strain rate sensitivity. With the increase of strain rate, tensile stress–strain curve of CP-Ti
ascends. Moreover, the yield strength and tensile strength increase and the elongation decreases.
Figure 2. Engineering stress–strain curves of as-received CP-Ti.
3.2. Tensile Properties of Prestrained Specimens

The prestrain was taken from the uniform plastic deformation zone and the dispersion instability
region (1%, 2%, 3.5%, 5%, 6.5%, 10%, 15%, respectively). According to tensile stress–strain curves of
different prestrained specimens, as shown in Figure 3a, it can be seen that, after pre-stretching, tensile
stress–strain curve ascends. Both yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increase. The strength of
CP-Ti is enhanced at the cost of ductility, as fracture strain decreases a lot with prestrain. By comparing
the engineering stress–strain curves of 3.5%, 5% and 6.5% prestrained specimens, it can be seen that
engineering stress–strain curves of these specimens are close, that means when prestrain is ranging
from 3.5% to 6.5%, flow stress increases slightly with prestrain. When prestrain reaches 10% and above,
the ultimate strength is rapidly reached and yield strength is very close to tensile strength. It is worth
noting that as prestrain reaches 3.5%, the macro-yield changes from gradual yielding to discontinuous
yielding, as shown in Figure 3b. The discontinuous increase of flow stress shows the appearance of
yield plateau.
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Figure 3. Engineering stress–strain curves of different prestrained specimens. (a) 0%–15% prestrained
CP-Ti and (b) the appearance of yield plateau.
In order to evaluate the variation of flow stress with true strain, work hardening rate θ (dσ/dε)
is derived from the true stress–strain curve. Figure 4 displays variations of θ with true strain for
as-received and prestrained CP-Ti. An often reported feature for pure titanium, in particular in
compression conditions, consists in a three-stage character of deformation curve [25,26]. Work
hardening rate of as-received CP-Ti shows three decrease stages (A, B and C stage), as shown in
Figure 4a. Work hardening rate decreases sharply at the beginning of plastic deformation (stage A)
and then decreases gradually at moderate strain (stage B). In stage C, work hardening rate decreases
slowly with strain, as the slopes flatten with the increase of true strain. Between stages A and B the
transition occurs at a true plastic strain of 0.018, between stages B and C at a true plastic strain of 0.096.
The transition points between stages A and B and that between stages B and C of as-received CP-Ti are
consist with results of Becker et al. [27] and Hama et al. [28]. For prestrained CP-Ti in Figure 4b, its θ is
dependent on true strain and prestrain. With the increase of prestrain (εpre ≥ 2%), a rise stage B of work
hardening rate occurs. Stage B is characterized by an increasing strain hardening rate with true strain
at the range of 0.5%–2%. With increasing prestrain, the rise tendency in stage B is more remarkable.
In the case of εpre ≥ 3.5%, strain hardening rate at the end of stage A is negative, also indicates that
yield plateau appears in tensile stress–strain curves, which is consist with Figure 3b. Additionally,
compared with as-received CP-Ti, θ of prestrained CP-Ti decreases, indicating the decrease of work
hardening ability. Li et al. [29] and Ghaderi et al. [30] investigated the effect of grain size on the tensile
deformation mechanisms of CP-Ti and found that as grain size decreased to about 26 μm, yield plateau
occurred. In this paper, the grain size of CP-Ti is about 30 μm, as shown in Figure 5a, determined
by linear intercept method. Li et al. [29] supposed there were two possible reasons for the observed
variation of the macro-yield. First is the high number of dislocation tangles and the mobile dislocation
density. The second reason is the presence of deformation twinning. However, as grain size decreases
to 30 μm, the activation of twinning in CP-Ti during tensile deformation is non-significant [29]. Thus,
ascribing the initial yield plateau of CP-Ti during tensile deformation to the presence of twinning is
unreasonable. It is no doubt that dislocation structure exists in the prestrained samples and its density
increases with prestrain. However, the volume fraction of twinning is tremendously small, as shown in
Figure 5b–f, though its density increases with prestrain. Almost no twinning structure can be observed
in 2%–3.5% prestrained samples and few twins exists in 5%–15% prestrained samples indicated by
white arrows. According to quantitative statistical analysis of microstructure in the process of tensile
deformation along rolling direction [31–34], the twin volume fraction is always considerably small and
the plastic deformation can be attributed to dislocation slip. Therefore, as prestrain reaches 3.5%, high
dislocation density in the initial microstructure leads to the presence of yield plateau.
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Metals 2017, 7, 99

D strain rate (b) SUHVWUDLQ
V
0.00005s
-1

-1
0.0005s
A 0.004s
-1

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Figure 4. The variation of work hardening rate with true strain. (a) As-received CP-Ti at different strain
rates and (b) prestrained CP-Ti at 0.0005 s−1 .
Figure 5. Metallographic figures of different prestrained samples: (a) as-received; (b) 2%; (c) 3.5%;
(d) 5%; (e) 10% and (f) 15% prestrained specimens. Twins are indicated by white arrows in Figure 5d–f.
The variations of strength and ductility of CP-Ti as functions of tensile prestrain are shown in
Figures 6 and 7 respectively. It is observed that with the increase of prestrain, both yield strength and
tensile strength increase. The increment in yield strength with the amount of prestrain is gradually
slow, which can be seen from the slope of variation of yield strength with the increase of prestrain.
The increase of yield strength with prestrain can be rationalised by following two reasons. One is that
dislocation density increases quickly with increasing prestrain. As a result, the resistance to start plastic
deformation on reloading increases sharply with increasing prestrain. The other is that as prestrain
increases, few twins also contribute to the increase of yield strength. The yield strength increases more
and more slowly with prestrain. The logarithmic curve of the yield strength versus the prestrain is
linear. Thus, a power law can be used to describe the relationship between prestrain and yield strength,
expressed as follow:
σ = 68.08ε pre 0.43 + 305.34 (3)
It is shown that the curve of the Equation (3) is consistent with the original data point, and the
correlation coefficient R is 0.999. When prestrain is less than 6.5%, ultimate tensile strength increases
slowly with prestrain. As prestrain increases up to 10%, ultimate tensile strength increases rapidly
and yield strength is close to tensile strength. According to relationships between uniform strain,
elongation (ε), total elongation (εtotal = εpre + ε) and prestrain, both uniform strain and elongation
decrease linearly with prestrain. As prestrain increases up to 10%, plastic deformation of CP-Ti quickly
develops into the diffuse necking stage. However, total elongation of CP-Ti remains constant about
30.5%, slightly less than the as-received material, that means the total ductility keeps in constant.
During the initial prestrain process the higher the prestrain is, the lower elongation on reloading is.
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Metals 2017, 7, 99

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Figure 6. Variation of strength parameters.

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Figure 7. Variation of ductility parameters with amount of prestrain.
3.3. Tensile Properties of Prestrained Specimens after Annealing

In order to further analyze the phenomenon of discontinuous yielding occurs in higher prestrained
specimens, subsequent annealing was conducted to remove dislocations. According to National
military standard of the People’s Republic of China [35], stress relieving temperature is in the range
of 445–595 ◦ C and heating holding time is from 15 to 360 min. In order to establish proper heating
parameters, the prestrained specimens were conducted heat-treatment at the temperature of 500 ◦ C
with 30–60 min and 600 ◦ C with 30 min respectively. The results show that when prestrained specimens
are heated at 500 ◦ C, the yield and tensile strength no longer decrease as holding time up to 40 min.
Additionally, compared with prestrained specimens without annealing, yield and tensile strength
decrease. That means when holding time reaches to 40 min at 500 ◦ C, most of dislocations can be
eliminated. At the same time, after heat treatment at 600 ◦ C and 30 min holding time, yield and tensile
strength of prestrained specimens are equal to those of the as-received material. That indicates that
recrystallization process of grain could be realized and both dislocations, twinning structures and other
defects have been removed through heat-treatment at 600 ◦ C and 30 min holding time. According to
metallographic figures of different prestrained samples after annealing at 500 ◦ C and 40 min, grain size
and shape do not change, as shown in Figure 8. No twinning is observed in the two percent prestrained
specimen and twinning structures in the five percent prestrained specimen keep same as these without
annealing. This also implies that twinning structures in prestrained specimens couldn’t be annealing
twins. Therefore, the heat treatment temperature and holding time were established as 500 ◦ C and
40 min, which can eliminate the dislocations generated by prestrain and remain the twins. Engineering
stress–strain cures of prestrained specimens after annealing are shown in Figure 9. It is observed that
yield plateau of relative higher prestrain (εpre ≥ 3.5%) specimens disappears after annealing. Also,
work hardening rate of prestrained CP-Ti after annealing is calculated according to true stress–strain
curve. As most of dislocations is eliminated after annealing, it is expected that the variation of θ for
prestrained specimens with annealing is consist with that of as-received CP-Ti, as shown in Figure 10.
Work hardening rates of all specimens are positive and no rising stage can be observed. Additionally,
the transitions between different stages of θ are consistent with those in Figure 4. Therefore, it is
114
Metals 2017, 7, 99
obviously demonstrated that the high dislocation density in prestrained specimens results in the
appearance of yield plateau on reloading and rising stage of work hardening rate.
Figure 8. Metallographic figures of different prestrained samples after heat-treatment (500 ◦ C, 40 min):
(a) two percent prestrain with annealing; (b) five percent prestrain with annealing. Twins are indicated
by white arrows in Figure 8b.
Figure 9. Engineering stress–strain cures of prestrained specimens after annealing (500 ◦ C, 40 min).
Figure 10. Three stages of work hardening rate in prestrained specimens after annealing: Sharp
decrease in stage A, moderate decrease in stage B and slow decrease in stage C.
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Metals 2017, 7, 99
Further quantitative analysis of the contribution of dislocation hardening to the strain hardening
of the material was made. In this paper, two parameters (Δσ1 , Δσ2 ) were introduced, expressed
as follows:
Δσ1 = σR − σRA (4)
Δσ2 = σRA − σS (5)
Δσ1 , Δσ2 represents hardening contributions from dislocations associated mechanisms and other
mechanisms, respectively. σS , σR and σRA refer to yield strength of as-received CP-Ti, prestrained
specimens and prestrained specimens with annealing, respectively. From Figure 11, it can be seen
that below the strain of two percent, the hardening mainly comes from the dislocations associated
mechanisms and other hardening mechanisms are not important at this stage (about 3–4 MPa). As strain
increases to 3.5%, Δσ2 (about 21–31 MPa) increases fast. With the increase of strain, the contribution on
strain hardening from both the dislocations associated mechanisms and other mechanisms increases.
Nevertheless, according to the variation of Δσ1 /(Δσ1 + Δσ2 ) with prestrain in Figure 11, despite the
decrease of contribution from dislocation hardening, dislocations associated mechanisms still occupy
80% of the overall strain hardening. Therefore, dislocations play an important role in strain hardening
of CP-Ti during room temperature tensile along rolling direction. Also, it indicates that dislocation slip
is the predominant plastic deformation mechanism. This is consistent with the results of Amouzou [31]
and Roth et al. [33]. Based on Taylor-type relations between dislocation density and local flow stress,
the quantified contribution of dislocation density to the increase of strength is expressed as follows:
σ p = σ0 + MαGbρ1/2 (6)
where M, α, G and b are the Taylor factor, Taylor constant, shear modulus and Burgers vector,
respectively; and σ0 is the lattice friction stress. According to the literature [31], the relation between
dislocation density (ρ) and tensile strain (ε) is linear:
ρ = a1 + a2 ε (7)
where a1 and a2 are constants. Thus, the variation of dislocation hardening stress (Δσ1 ) with prestrain
(εpre ) should satisfy the following relationship:

1/2
Δσ1 = c1 + c2 a1 + a2 ε pre (8)
where c1 and c2 are constants. From Figure 11, it is obviously that the relationship between Δσ1 and
εpre satisfies Equation (8) and the correlation coefficient R is 0.97. After annealing treatment, ultimate
tensile strength decreases, compared with prestrained specimens. The decrease of ultimate tensile
strength in the 3.5% prestrained specimen is maximum, as shown in Figure 12. The elongation of
prestrained specimens increases after annealing, as shown in Figure 13. When prestrain is less than
3.5%, the elongation of prestrained specimens after annealing is higher than the as-received CP-Ti.
However, when prestrain is above five percent, the elongation of prestrained specimens after annealing
starts to decrease compared with the as-received CP-Ti. This indicates that by proper heat treatment
and certain prior plastic deformation, both the strength and ductility of CP-Ti can be improved.
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Metals 2017, 7, 99
Figure 11. The quantified analysis of effects of dislocations associated mechanisms (Δσ1 ) and other
mechanisms (Δσ2 ) on strain hardening.
Figure 12. Decline of ultimate tensile strength after annealing: σb-R , σb-R-A , Δσ represent tensile
strength of prestrained specimens, prestrained specimens with annealing and the difference between
prestrained and prestrained specimens with annealing.
Figure 13. Elongation of prestrained specimens with annealing.
3.4. Constitutive Model of Prestrained CP-Ti

The Fields-Backofen model [36], expressed as follows:
.m
σ = kεn ε (9)
is commonly used to quantitatively describe the effects of strain rate sensitivity and strain strengthening
on stress–strain curves of the homogeneous strain strengthening region, where k is the strength
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Metals 2017, 7, 99
coefficient, n is the strain hardening exponent, and m is the strain rate sensitivity exponent. According
to true stress–strain curves of prestrained CP-Ti at different strain rates, the variation of strain rate
.
sensitivity index m(log σ/ log ε) with prestrain is presented in Figure 14a. SRS of prestrained CP-Ti
decreases linearly with prestrain. Strain hardening exponent n(log σ/ log ε) and strength coefficient
.m
k(σ/εn ε ) of prestrained CP-Ti at different strain rates are calculated in Figure 14b,c. The values of
strain hardening exponent and strength coefficient almost keep constant at different strain rates, as
shown in Figure 14b,c. Both n and k decrease with prestrain. Based on experiment data, m, n and k as
functions of prestrain were fitted as follows:
m = −0.17ε pre + 0.03 (10)
n = −1.19ε pre 0.87 + 0.14 (11)
k = −4440.70ε pre + 859.49 (12)
Figure 14. Variation of parameters with prestrain: (a) Strain rate sensitivity; (b) strain hardening
exponent and (c) strength coefficient.
Thus, the modified Fields–Backofen model containing prestrain is finally obtained as follows:

. −0.17ε pre +0.03
σ = −4440.70ε pre + 859.49 ε−1.19ε pre +0.14 ε
0.87
(13)
In order to investigate the prominence of the modified constitutive model, comparisons between
the experimental data and the flow stress predicted by the modified constitutive model at different
strain rates are shown in Figure 15. In addition, the predictability of the constitutive equation is
verified via employing standard statistical parameters, such as absolute deviation (ΔA) and correlation
coefficient (R), as shown in Figure 15a–d. At different strain rates, the values of correlation coefficient
R in Figure 15a–d are above 0.97, hence the modified Fields-Backofen model shows a very high
degree of goodness of fit. It is found that the absolute deviation of flow stress obtained from the
modified constitutive model varies from 1.87 to 6.88 MPa. The constitutive equations gives the least
absolute deviation of 1.87 at 0.004 s−1 of as-received CP-Ti and the largest absolute deviation of 6.88
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Metals 2017, 7, 99
at 0.00005 s−1 of 3.5% prestrained sample. Thus, the proposed constitutive equation presents a good
estimate of the plastic flow stress for prestrained CP-Ti at different strain rates.
Figure 15. Comparison between the experimental and predicted flow stress data from the modified
Fields-Backofen model: (a) as-received CP-Ti; (b) 2% prestrained CP-Ti; (c) 3.5% prestrained CP-Ti;
(d) 1%, 5%, 6.5% prestrained CP-Ti.
3.5. Fracture Behavior

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the fracture surfaces of as-received CP-Ti were
presented in Figure 16. SEM images of the fracture surfaces show that the fracture mode of as-received
CP-Ti is mostly ductile at room temperature. In Figure 16a, the central region is a crack propagation
area with massive strong nests, and the outer region is a shear lip zone with shallow dimples and
micro-pores. The central region shows more ductile deformation features than the outer shear-lip
region, which has a flat surface with shallow dimples, as shown in Figure 16c,d. The mechanism for
ductile crack growth can be characterized by micro-void nucleation, growth and coalescence. As the
specimen is loaded, local strains and stresses at the crack tip become sufficient to nucleate void. These
voids grow and link with the main crack [37].
The failure locations of prestrained and prestrained samples with annealing present pronounced
necking feature, as shown in Figure 17 from macro view. The failure locations of all tested samples
show that ragged fracture surface with some macro voids across the whole cross section of fracture
surface, and relatively flat shear lip zone was detected in marginal area. Magnified images of central
region of fracture surfaces were presented in Figure 18. It is obvious that the size of dimples shown in
Figure 18d,f is larger than that in Figure 18a–c, the depth of dimples is much deeper and its distribution
is more uniform. The more ductile deformation in prestrained CP-Ti after annealing indicates that the
ductility of prestrained CP-Ti is improved by annealing. The increase in ductility is a result of high
dislocation mobility, where the crack tip is proceeded by a plastic deformation mechanism that forms
dense arrays of dimples without cleavage steps and facets [38].
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Metals 2017, 7, 99
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 16. Micrographs of fractured surfaces of as-received CP-Ti with no prestrain: (a) macro view
showing necking with microcracks and shear lip zone at the outer area; (b) magnified view of crack
propagation region from central region in Figure 16a; (c) magnified image showing deep and large
dimples from central region; (d) magnified image showing the shallow dimples at the shear-lip region.
Figure 17. Macro view of fractured surfaces of prestrained CP-Ti: (a) 1% prestrained; (b) 3.5%
prestrained; (c) 6.5% prestrained; (d) 1% prestrained with annealing; (e) 3.5% prestrained with
annealing; (f) 6.5% prestrained with annealing.
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Figure 18. Micrographs of fractured surfaces of prestrained CP-Ti: (a) 1% prestrained; (b) 3.5%
prestrained; (c) 6.5% prestrained; (d) 1% prestrained with annealing; (e) 3.5% prestrained with
annealing; (f) 6.5% prestrained with annealing.
4. Conclusions
In the present paper, the effect of prestrain and subsequent annealing on the mechanical behaviors
of CP-Ti along cold rolling direction was investigated. The main results presented in this paper are
as follows:
• Engineering yield strength and tensile strength increase with the tensile prestrain. The relationship
between prestrain and yield strength can be described by power law. Elongation and uniform
strain decrease linearly with increasing the tensile prestrain, and total strain is almost constant,
which is slightly less than as-received CP-Ti.
• At the condition of prestrain higher than 3.5%, yield plateau is observed in the engineering
stress–strain curves. Through metallographic observations and heat treatment, considerable
number of dislocations produced in prestrain is determined as the factor account for the
appearance of yield plateau during reloading.
• Dislocations play an important role in strain hardening along cold rolling direction tension. With
the increase of strain, the contribution on strain hardening from both the dislocation-associated
mechanisms and other mechanisms increases.
• The strain rate sensitivity exponent, strain hardening exponent and strength coefficient decrease
with the increase of prestrain. Flow stress of prestrained CP-Ti is predicted accurately by the
modified Fields-Backofen model.
• With annealing at 500 ◦ C and 40 min, the 3.5% prestrained specimen shows the highest ductility,
and its yield strength is enhanced. The more ductile deformation features on the fracture surfaces
after annealing confirms that the ductility of prestrained CP-Ti can be improved by annealing.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports of the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51475223) and the Graduate Student Scientific Innovative Project of Jiangsu Province
(KYLX15_0801).
Author Contributions: All contributed to the design of the experimental plan. Le Chang performed the
experiments; Chang-Yu Zhou and Xiao-Hua He analyzed the data; Le Chang wrote the paper.
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Metals 2017, 7, 99
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Article
High Temperature Oxidation and Wear Behaviors of
Ti–V–Cr Fireproof Titanium Alloy
Guangbao Mi 1 , Kai Yao 2 , Pengfei Bai 2 , Congqian Cheng 2 and Xiaohua Min 2, *
1 Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Advanced Titanium Alloys, AECC Beijing Institute of
Aeronautical Materials, Beijing 100095, China; [email protected]
2 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China;
[email protected] (K.Y.); [email protected] (P.B.); [email protected] (C.C.)
Received: 26 April 2017; Accepted: 14 June 2017; Published: 19 June 2017
Abstract: The high temperature oxidation and wear behaviors of Ti–35V–15Cr–0.3Si–0.1C fireproof
titanium alloy were examined at 873 and 1073 K. The oxidation weight gain after oxidation at 1073 K
for 100 h was significantly larger than that at 873 K. Based on the analyses of the oxidation reaction
index and oxide layer, the oxidation process at 1073 K was mainly controlled by oxidation reaction
at the interface between the substrate and oxide layer. Dry sliding wear tests were performed on
a pin-on-disk tester in air conditions. The friction coefficient was smaller at 1073 K than that at 873 K,
while the volume wear rate at 1073 K was larger due to formation of amount of oxides on the worn
surface. When the wearing temperature increased from 873 to 1073 K, the wear mechanism underwent
a transition from a combination of abrasive wear and oxidative wear to only oxidative wear.
Keywords: titanium alloy; fireproof; oxidation; high temperature wear; mechanism
1. Introduction
Titanium and its alloys are widely used in aerospace, chemical, and biomedical industries
because of high specific strength and excellent corrosion resistance, especially for their applications
in aero-engines [1–3]. However, conventional titanium alloys can be ignited and burned, known
as “titanium fire,” under specific conditions of high temperature, high pressure, and high-speed
airflow, which limits their application for advanced aero-engines [4–6]. With the improvement of the
thrust-weight ratio, the work conditions of components such as the case, blade, and disk becomes
more complex and severe, resulting in an increase in the occurrence of titanium fire. Compared with
other techniques including structural optimization design, surface alloying, and surface coating,
the development of advanced fireproof titanium alloys is more desirable to completely prevent the
occurrence of titanium fire in aero-engines, as well as to meet its high thrust-weight ratio [4,7].
Titanium fire is known to a typical accident of igniting, which occurs usually through high-energy
friction and load impact as an ignition source, for example, between the blade and case. The whole
combustion behavior goes through high temperature oxidation, super high temperature oxidation,
burning, self-sustained combustion, and burning out [4]. If titanium alloys are ignited, the components
in the compressor burn continually only for 4–20 s under gas flow with high temperature and pressure.
The burning time is too short to take extinguishing measures. There are two types of fireproof titanium
alloys: Ti–V–Cr base alloys, such as Ti–35V–15Cr (Alloy C), Ti–35V–15Cr–0.6Si–0.05C (Alloy C+ ),
Ti–25V–15Cr–2Al–0.2C, Ti–25V–15Cr–0.2Si (Ti40), and Ti–35V–15Cr–0.3Si–0.1C (TF550) alloys [8–11];
and Ti–Cu–Al base alloys, such as Ti–13Cu–4Al–4Mo–2Zr (BTT–1), Ti–18Cu–2Al–2Mo (BTT–3), and
Ti–13Cu–1Al–0.2Si (Ti14) [12–14]. Note that abovementioned and other compositions in this study
are expressed in mass%. Ti–V–Cr base alloys are highly stabilized β-type titanium alloys with better
performance than that of Ti–Cu–Al base alloys.

Metals 2017, 7, 226
In case of TF550 fireproof titanium alloy, we previously investigated the fireproof behavior by the
frictional ignition method, and found that the presence of oxides on the worn surface such as TiO2 ,
V2 O5 , and Cr2 O3 affected the lubrication behavior in the local area of friction [15–17]. However, the
high temperature oxidation and wear behaviors remain unclear for this alloy, which are considered
to be closely associated with their fireproof properties. The shortage of studies results in uncertainty
of the fireproof level of titanium alloys used in aero-engines and restricts the material selection of
fireproof titanium alloys for engine designers. Thus, the purpose of present study is to examine the
oxidation and wear behaviors of TF550 alloy at high temperatures of 873 and 1073 K, and to discuss
the mechanisms of high temperature oxidation and wear.
2. Experimental Procedures
2.1. Materials Preparation

An ingot of approximately 150 kg of TF550 alloy was fabricated by consumable vacuum arc
melting (ZHT-650, Baoji institute of rare metal research, Baoji, China) with the raw materials of
titanium sponge, pure vanadium rods, and chromium sponge. Subsequently, it was subjected to
sheathed extrusion, forging and rolling, and its actual composition was Ti–35.5V–14.6Cr–0.32Si–0.11C.
For oxidation testing, samples with a dimension of 12 mm (l) × 10 mm (w) × 6 mm (t) were cut from
the rolled plate and their surfaces were mechanically polished with SiC abrasive paper in order to
evaluate their high temperature oxidation behavior. As-received Ti–6Al–4V alloy was used to evaluate
the oxidation behavior as a comparison. For wear testing, pins and disks were also cut from the
rolled plate (HQ1UP, Hanqi Company, Suzhou, China). The rod as pins was designed in the form of
a cylinder with a diameter of 5 mm and a height of 9 mm, and the contact surface was a half-ball with
a diameter of 5 mm. Disks with the dimensions of 25 mm diameter and 10 mm thickness were used.
The contact surfaces of pins and disks were mechanically polished (UNIPOL-1200M, Kejing Company,
Shenyang, China) with SiC abrasive paper and then cleaned in alcohol.
2.2. Oxidation Testing

Before oxidation testing, the samples and crucibles were ultrasonically cleaned (XY-CS-S, Xinyi
Company, Shanghai, China) in alcohol. In addition, the crucibles were baked at 1373 K for 20 h to
ensure their constant weight during the whole oxidation process. Oxidation tests were carried out
at 873 and 1073 K for a total oxidation time of 100 h. During the oxidation period, they were cooled
down to room temperature at an interval of 10 h in order to measure their weight and observe their
surface morphology. Oxidation kinetics were examined based on the weight gain per unit area versus
oxidation time.
2.3. Wear Testing

Dry sliding wear tests were performed on a pin-on-disk tester (THT-04015, CSM Company,
Carouge, Switzerland) in air conditions at temperatures of 873 and 1073 K. A pin was loaded against a
rotating disk through the mechanical loading system with a normal load of 4.9 N for 30 min. The sliding
velocity was 0.2 m/s along a diameter of 10 mm circular path with total sliding distance of 3.6 × 102 m,
which was proved to be sufficient to attain a steady-state condition [18–21]. The friction coefficient
was recorded by the tester automatically, and the mean friction coefficient was calculated based on
the whole data, which was recorded during the sliding wear tests. Volume wear rate was calculated
as follows:
Ws = ΔV/( PL) (1)
where ΔV, P, and L are the volume loss of disk, applied loading and sliding distance, respectively.
For the disk, four different regions of the wearing indent were measured by using nanomap-3D
microscopy (AEP Company, Columbus, OH, USA) for 3D micrograph and the corresponding
cross-section area of the wearing indent, and then the volume loss was obtained by the mean
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Metals 2017, 7, 226
cross-section area multiplied by the circumference of the wearing indent. For the pin, the volume loss
was obtained by the wearing volume of the half-ball of pin.
2.4. Microstructural Characterization

Phase identification was made by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) using an EMPYREN diffractometer
with Cu-Kα radiation operated at 40 kV and 300 mA (Panalytical, Almelo, The Netherlands).
Morphologies including backscattered electron image (BEI) and secondary electron image (SEI), and
chemical compositions were examined by a SUPRA55 type scanning electron microscope (SEM, Carl
Zeiss Jena Company, Oberkochen, Germany) equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS).

Figure 1 shows the oxidation kinetics curves of TF550 alloy along with Ti–6Al–4V alloy after
oxidation at 873 and 1073 K for 100 h. As shown in Figure 1a, with increasing oxidation time, the
oxidation weight gain of each alloy showed an increase tendency, and it was much larger at 1073 K
than that at 873 K. The oxidation weight gain of TF550 alloy was 2 mg/cm2 after oxidation at 873 K
for 100 h, which was similar with that (1.4 mg/cm2 ) of Ti–6Al–4V alloy, while the oxidation weight
gain of TF550 alloy (90 mg/cm2 ) was larger than that (40 mg/cm2 ) of Ti–6Al–4V alloy at 1073 K.
The smaller oxidation weight gain of Ti–6Al–4V alloy was attributed to the formation of the compact
Al2 O3 layer, which could prevent the further oxidation of the substrate [22,23]. Although the oxidation
weight gain of Ti–6Al–4V alloy was smaller than that of TF550 alloy, the oxide layer of Ti–6Al–4V alloy
flaked seriously at 1073 K, as shown in Figure 2a. While V2 O5 which formed in the oxide layer of
TF550 alloy, it melted and flowed into the crucible (yellow matters in Figure 2b) due to its low melting
point (about 948 K) [24,25]. The formation of V2 O5 in TF550 alloy at high temperatures improved
the wear properties resulting from their lubrication, which could enhance its burn-resistant behavior.
The detailed discussion is shown in Section 3.
100 5
873 K 1073 K 873 K 1073 K
TF550 TF550 TF550 TF550
80 4
Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6Al-4V Ti-6Al-4V
Weight gains (mg/cm )
2
3
ln'W (mg)
60
2
40
1
20
0
0
-1
0 20 40 60 80 100 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Oxidation time (h) lnt (h) ȱ
(a)ȱ (b)ȱ
Figure 1. Oxidation kinetics curves of TF550 alloy along with Ti–6Al–4V alloy at temperatures of
873 and 1073 K. (a) Oxidation weight gain curves and (b) double logarithmic curves.
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Metals 2017, 7, 226
ȱ
(a)ȱ (b)
Figure 2. Macroscopic morphologies of TF550 alloy along with Ti–6Al–4V alloy after oxidation at
1073 K for 100 h. (a) Ti–6Al–4V and (b) TF550.
Figure 3 shows the X-ray diffraction profiles of TF550 alloy at 873 and 1073 K for 100 h. The surface
oxide product was identified as TiO2 and V2 O5 at 873 K, while it was detected to be only TiO2 at
1073 K. In addition, the peak intensity of V2 O5 was weaker than that of TiO2 at 873 K. Based on the
oxidation kinetic relationship [26],
ΔW = ktn (2)
where ΔW is the oxidation weight gain, n is the oxidation reaction index and t is the oxidation
time, respectively. The oxidation reaction index (n) could be obtained to discuss the oxidation
mechanism [26–29]. For example, when n is equal to 1, the oxidation reaction rate follows the linear
law and the oxidation process is controlled by the reaction rate of oxygen and the substrate. When n
is equal to 0.5, the oxidation reaction rate follows the parabolic law and the oxidation process is
controlled by the diffusion of reactants in the oxide film. Based on the oxidation weight gain curves
(Figure 1a), oxidation reaction indices were obtained through double logarithmic transformation, as
shown in Figure 1b. However, considering the influencing factors of a lower oxidation weight gain
and measurement deviation at 873 K, it was difficult to discuss the oxidation mechanism of TF550
alloy based only on the oxidation reaction index.
ȱ
Figure 3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) profiles of TF550 alloy after oxidation at different temperatures for
100 h. (a) 873 K and (b) 1073 K.
Figure 4a shows the morphology of the oxide layer in TF550 alloy after oxidation at 873 K for 100 h,
by SEM observation. The average thickness of the oxide layer was measured to be 7 μm. Figure 4b–f
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Metals 2017, 7, 226
show the EDS mapping of main elements of Ti, V, Cr, Si, and O. The concentration of O element in
the oxide layer was higher than that of the substrate, while those of Ti and V elements in the oxide
layer were lower. Combined with XRD results (Figure 3), the surface oxide layer consisted of TiO2 and
V2 O5 . Consequently, the oxidation process of TF550 alloy at 873 K was deduced to be controlled by the
oxidation reaction at the interface between the substrate and oxide layer.
ȱ
(a)ȱ (b)
ȱ
(c)ȱ (d)
ȱ
(e)ȱ (f)
Figure 4. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) morphology and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS)
mapping of the oxide layer in TF550 alloy after oxidation at 873 K for 100 h. (a) Secondary electron
image (SEI); (b) Ti element; (c) V element; (d) Cr element; (e) Si element; and (f) O element.
After oxidation at 1073 K for 100 h, the oxidation reaction index of TF550 alloy was analyzed to
be 0.91, which was slightly larger than that (0.71) of Ti–6Al–4V alloy. The average thickness of the
oxide layer as shown in Figure 5a was 460 μm after oxidation at 1073 K, which was much thicker
than that of the oxide layer at 873 K. Based on the EDS mapping from Figure 5b–f, the Ti and O
elements were clearly detected in the oxide layer, indicating that the oxide layer mainly consisted of
TiO2 combined with XRD results (Figure 3). The detected Si element on the top of Figures 4e and 5e
was a residual polishing solution (SiO2 ), which was considered to have no effect on the oxidation
mechanism. Thus, the oxidation reaction rate at 1073 K followed the linear law and its oxidation
process was controlled by the oxidation reaction at the interface between the substrate and oxide
layer [26]. As shown in Figure 5c, the V element was clearly identified in the oxide layer, while
the V2 O5 was not detected by XRD as shown in Figure 3. Due to the low melting point of V2 O5 ,
they flowed into the crucible rather than adhered to the specimen, resulting in an absence of V2 O5 ,
which was in accordance with aforementioned occurrence of yellow matters in the crucible (Figure 2b).
Furthermore, a positive concentration gradient of V occurred from the substrate to the surface due to
the continuous consumption of V2 O5 in the oxide layer, which accelerated the diffuse rate of V [30].
Consequently, V element was clearly detected in the oxide layer in terms of the EDS analysis.
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Metals 2017, 7, 226
ȱ
(a)ȱ (b)ȱ
ȱ
(c)ȱ (d)ȱ
ȱ
(e)ȱ (f)ȱ
Figure 5. SEM morphology and EDS mapping of the oxide layer in TF550 alloy after oxidation at
1073 K for 100 h. (a) SEI; (b) Ti element; (c) V element; (d) Cr element; (e) Si element; and (f) O element.
Figure 6 shows the friction coefficients of TF550 alloy as a function of wearing time at 873 and
1073 K. The friction coefficient at 873 K was largely fluctuated with wearing time up to 10 min, and
then reached a steady-state condition. Compared with 873 K, the friction coefficient at 1073 K became
smaller, and its fluctuation became much weaker. The mean friction coefficient (f m ) at 873 and 1073 K,
as listed in Table 1, were calculated to be 0.394 and 0.286, respectively. On the other hand, the volume
wear rate of the disk (W sd ) at 873 K was obtained to be 2.21 × 10−13 m3 /Nm (Table 1), while it could not
be measured at 1073 K because of the amount of oxides formed on the worn surface. For a comparison,
the volume wear rate of the pin (W sp ) at 873 K was 0.197 × 10−13 m3 /Nm, which was smaller than
that (0.566 × 10−13 m3 /Nm) of the pin at 1073 K (Table 1). Figure 7 shows the XRD profiles of worn
surfaces for disks at different testing temperatures. Besides the β-phase, weak peaks of TiO2 were
detected on the worm surface at 873 K. Only peaks for both oxides, i.e., TiO2 and V2 O5 , were present
at 1073 K, while the peaks of the β-phase disappeared.
Table 1. Mean friction coefficient (f m ), volume wear rate of the disk (W sd ), and the pin (W sp ) in TF550
alloy after wearing at high temperatures of 873 and 1073 K.
Temperature (K) fm W sd (10−13 ·m3 /Nm) W sp (10−13 ·m3 /Nm)

873 0.394 ± 0.095 2.21 ± 0.35 0.197 ± 0.072
1073 0.286 ± 0.050 - 0.566 ± 0.039
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Figure 6. Friction coefficient curves of TF550 alloy as a function of wearing time at high temperatures
of 873 and 1073 K.
Figure 7. X-ray diffraction profiles of worn surfaces in TF550 alloy after wearing at high temperatures.
(a) 873 K and (b) 1073 K.
Figure 8a shows the morphology of worn surfaces with a width of the wearing indent equal to
about 1.2 mm at 873 K. Furrows indicated by arrows in Figure 8b were readily identified on the worn
surface. Black smooth regions were also observed, which were regarded as tribo-layers containing the
oxide of TiO2 in terms of the EDS analysis (Figure 8c). In addition, some white particles consisting of
not only metal debris but also the oxide of TiO2 were confirmed by the EDS analysis as well (Figure 8d).
Figure 9 shows the morphologies and compositions of worn surfaces at 1073 K. An average width
of the wearing indent was 1.6 mm, and snowflake-like features were present on the worn surface
(Figure 9a). The furrows were not observed and few black smooth regions appeared, as shown in
Figure 9b; instead, a large amount of particles were present on the worn surface. The particles were
further observed in Figure 9c and they were confirmed to be a mixture of the oxides of TiO2 and V2 O5 ,
as shown in Figure 9d. Figure 10 shows the morphologies of the cross-section near the worn surfaces
at 873 and 1073 K. The tribo-layer with an average thickness of 4 μm formed on the worn surface at
873 K (Figure 10a). However, this tribo-layer was not compact and it contained trace oxide of TiO2. ,
identified by EDS in Figure 10b. At 1073 K, the tribo-layer became thicker (7 μm) and more continuous,
and it contacted with the matrix compactly in Figure 10c. This tribo-layer was identified as both TiO2
and V2 O5 oxides by EDS in Figure 10d.
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ȱ
(a)ȱ (b)ȱ
Element Weight% Element Weight%
Ti CK 4.12
CK 8.44
O OK 22.97 Ti
OK 28.31
V Si K 0.35 Si K 0.20
Ti K 33.21 Ti K 36.42
Cr V V K 25.36 V
V K 19.67
Ti Ti
Counts
Cr K 10.02 Ti Cr K 10.94
Counts
O
Totals 100 Totals 100
V
Cr
V Ti
Cr V
C
Cr
Si
Cr C Si
Cr
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Energy (KeV) Energy (KeV)
ȱ
(c)ȱ (d)ȱ
Figure 8. SEM morphologies and EDS spot-analyses of the worn surface in TF550 alloy after wearing
at 873 K. (a) Low magnification SEI; (b) high magnification SEI; (c) compositions of the oxide layer
region; and (d) compositions of the particles region.
ȱ
(a)ȱ (b)ȱ
ȱ
(c)ȱ (d)ȱ
Figure 9. SEM morphologies and EDS spot-analysis of the worn surface in TF550 alloy after wearing at
1073 K. (a) Low magnification SEI; (b) high magnification SEI of area in black square in (a); (c) SEI of
area in black square in (b); (d) compositions of the white particles region.
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Metals 2017, 7, 226
ȱ
(a)ȱ (b)ȱ
ȱ
(c)ȱ (d)ȱ
Figure 10. SEM cross-section morphologies and EDS line-analyses of the worn surface in TF550 alloy
after wearing at high temperatures. (a) backscattered electron image (BEI) at 873 K; (b) compositions
along the white line at 873 K; (c) BEI at 1073 K; and (d) compositions along the white line at 1073 K.
Based on the results of the friction coefficients, volume wear rates, and morphologies of worn
surfaces, TF550 alloy presented different dry sliding wear behaviors at different testing temperatures.
At 873 K, the tribo-oxide layer was not formed in the initial stage of dry sliding wear, and direct
contact was not avoided completely, which resulted in a large friction coefficient. With an extension
of wear time, a tribo-layer containing the oxide of TiO2 , i.e., black smooth regions formed, as shown
in Figure 8b [31]. This tribo-oxide layer presented a partial protection from wearing for a decrease in
the friction coefficient and its fluctuation. Some furrows appeared on the worn surface, while they
were not covered with the tribo-oxide layer. Thus, the wear mechanism at 873 K was dominated by a
combination of abrasive wear and oxidative wear. Amounts of oxides formed on the worn surface
before the sliding test wear at 1073 K, because the temperature rose to the testing value in advance.
The oxides formed before the sliding wear were loose, and thus were easily peeled off under the sliding
in the initial period. Furthermore, V2 O5 oxides could be melted during the sliding wear according
to the oxidation morphology of TF550 alloy at 1073 K (Figure 2b). The molten V2 O5 as a soft phase
provided a lubricating effect, which led to a decrease in the friction coefficient, leading to a reduction
of calorific value. Also, they filled defects between the hard phases, such as TiO2 and metal debris,
which could release the internal force between them, as shown in Figure 10c. Not only the loose
oxides but also the molten V2 O5 acted as a lubricant, leading to the absence of the running-in period
and a relatively small friction coefficient during the wear process. The molten V2 O5 flowed into the
wear scratch and was subjected to solidification after wear testing, to exhibit the aforementioned
snowflake-like features (Figure 9a), which was not in agreement with that of the single oxidation at
1073 K. In addition, the presence of amounts of oxides at relatively high temperatures made it difficult
to measure the volume wear rate of the disk and resulted in an overestimated volume wear rate of the
pin (Table 1). The furrows were not observed on the worn surface and amounts of oxide particles were
present at 1073 K, indicating a typical feature of the oxidative wear mechanism.
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4. Conclusions
In this study, the oxidation and wear characteristics of TF550 fireproof titanium alloy were
investigated at high temperatures of 873 and 1073 K, and corresponding high temperature oxidation
and wear mechanisms were also discussed. The main results are summarized as follows.
(1) The oxidation gain of TF550 alloy was much larger than that of Ti64 alloy, attributed the abundant
addition of vanadium, which was regarded as a positive factor to improve the burn resistance.
The oxidation weight gain of TF550 alloy after oxidation at 873 K for 100 h was much smaller than
that at 1073 K for 100 h. The thin surface oxide film was identified as oxides of TiO2 and V2 O5 at
873 K, while the thick one was detected to be TiO2 only at 1073 K. The oxidation reaction rate
at 1073 K followed the linear law, indicating that the oxidation process of this alloy was mainly
controlled by the oxidation reaction at the interface between the substrate and oxide layer.
(2) The friction coefficient at 873 K was larger than that at 1073 K, while the volume wear rate at
1073 K was larger because a large amount of oxides formed on the worn surface. The TiO2 oxide was
detected on the worn surface at 873 K, and both oxides of TiO2 and V2 O5 were present at 1073 K.
(3) The presence of furrows and a tribo-oxide layer at 873 K indicated that the wear mechanism
was dominated by a combination of abrasive wear and oxidative wear. The continuous
tribo-oxide layer was present at 1073 K, indicating that the wear mechanism was dominated by
oxidative wear.
Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China,
China (Grants Nos. 51471155 and 51471040). The authors would like to thank Jie Zhao and Wei Zhang of Dalian
University of Technology for their assistance.
Author Contributions: Xiaohua Min and Guangbao Mi conceived and designed the experiments; Kai Yao and
Pengfei Bai performed the experiments, analyzed the data and wrote the paper; Congqian Cheng contributed
some analysis tools.
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Article
Fretting Behavior of SPR Joining Dissimilar Sheets of
Titanium and Copper Alloys
Xiaocong He *, Cong Deng and Xianlian Zhang
Innovative Manufacturing Research Centre, Kunming University of Science and Technology,
Kunming 650500, China; [email protected] (C.D.); [email protected] (X.Z.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-871-65930928

Received: 18 October 2016; Accepted: 2 December 2016; Published: 9 December 2016
Abstract: The fretting performance of self-piercing riveting joining dissimilar sheets in TA1 titanium
alloy and H62 copper alloy was studied in this paper. Load-controlled cyclic fatigue tests were
carried out using a sine waveform and in tension-tension mode. Scanning electron microscopy and
energy-dispersive X-ray techniques were employed to analyze the fretting failure mechanisms of
the joints. The experimental results showed that there was extremely severe fretting at the contact
interfaces of rivet and sheet materials for the joints at relatively high loads levels. Moreover, the
severe fretting in the region on the locked sheet in contact with the rivet was the major cause of the
broken locked sheet for the joints at low load level.
Keywords: titanium alloy; copper alloy; fretting; self-piercing riveting; SEM; EDX
1. Introduction
Facing a decreasing amount of resources, lightweight design principles continue to prosper
rapidly in different engineering fields. As a result, lightweight materials for different applications
have been developed. Fusion welding and friction stir welding techniques are normally used to
join lightweight metal sheets [1,2]. However, it is not easy to weld dissimilar metal sheets due to
the formation of intermetallic phases. Self-piercing riveting (SPR) is a new high-speed mechanical
fastening technique suitable for point-joining advanced lightweight sheet materials that are dissimilar,
coated, and hard to weld [3].
In the past few years, the mechanical properties of SPR joints and the SPR technique itself have
been studied by many scholars. Kang et al. [4] aimed to evaluate the static and fatigue strengths of
the joints using coach-peel, cross-tension and tensile-shear specimens with experimental tests and
numerical analysis. Su et al. [5] investigated the fracture and fatigue behaviors of SPR and clinch
joints in lap-shear specimens of 6111-T4 aluminum sheets based on experimental observations, and
examined the optical micrographs of both types of joints before and after failure under quasi-static
and cyclic loading conditions. Calabrese et al. [6] conducted a long-time salt spray corrosion test for
steel/aluminum hybrid joints obtained by SPR technique to evaluate the mechanical degradation in
these critical environmental conditions. The influence of resistance heating on dissimilar SPR joints
with unequal thickness was studied systematically by Lou et al. [7]. They reported that SPR joints
using rivet-welding could obtain higher tensile-shear strength than with conventional SPR joints.
Haque et al. [8] developed a simple geometrical method to calculate rivet flaring without having to
cross-section a joint. It is a nondestructive testing method to determine rivet flaring based on the
characteristic force-displacement curve, and could be a very useful tool in joint product development
and process optimization.
A newly developed solid state joining technique—friction self-piercing riveting (F-SPR)—has
been applied for joining high strength aluminum alloy to magnesium alloy [9,10]. The process was

Metals 2016, 6, 312
performed on a specially designed machine where the spindle can achieve a sudden stop. The effects
of rivet rotating rate and punch speed on axial plunge force, torque, joint microstructure, and quality
were analyzed systematically. A 3-D thermo-mechanical finite-element (FE) model of F-SPR process
was developed using an LS-DYNA code [11]. Temperature-dependent material parameters were
utilized to calculate the material yield and flow in the joint formation. A preset crack failure method
was used to model the material failure of the top sheet. The calculated joint geometry exhibited a good
agreement with the experimental measurement.
In a recent study, Haque and Durandet [12] described a parametric study of the mechanical
behavior of SPR joints of steel sheets in two loading conditions (lap-shear and cross-tension).
An empirical model was developed to predict the joint strength in cross-tension loading using
characteristic joint data determined directly from the SPR process (force-displacement) curve.
The tensile and fatigue behavior of SPR in carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) to aluminum 6111
T82 alloys were evaluated by Kang et al. [13]. The SPR lap-shear joints under fatigue loads failed
predominantly due to kinked crack growth along the width of the bottom aluminum sheet. The fatigue
cracks initiated in the plastically deformed region of the aluminum sheet close to the rivet shank in
the rivet–sheet interlock region. Mucha and Witkowski [14] discussed the strength of riveted joints
of various sheet materials: DC01 steel, AW-5754 aluminum alloy, and their hybrid arrangements.
The fracture mechanism of riveted joints in unilateral tensile tests of T-shaped specimens made of
various sheet materials was also analyzed. Chung and Kim [15] investigated the fatigue strength of
SPR joints in tensile-shear specimens with dissimilar Al-5052 and steel sheets. A structural analysis
of the specimen was conducted. For this specimen, the upper steel sheet with stood applied load in
a monotonic test and played a major role in the low-cycle region. In the high-cycle region, however,
the harder surface of the upper steel sheet reduced the fatigue strength by enhancing fretting crack
initiation on the opposite softer aluminum surface.
Titanium alloy sheets and copper alloy sheets have been widely used in different engineering
fields due to excellent strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance. However, it is not easy to weld
titanium sheets with copper alloys, as their melting points and thermal conductivity are very different.
It is widely accepted that dissimilar metal sheets of titanium with copper alloys can be jointed well
by SPR. In a previous paper by He et al. [16], the static strength of SPR joints in dissimilar sheets of
titanium and copper alloys was studied. However, no investigation on fretting behavior of such SPR
joints has been reported so far.
The present paper deals with the fretting performance of SPR joints in dissimilar sheets of
titanium (TA1) and copper (H62) alloys (defined as STH joints). Fatigue load–fatigue life curves were
obtained via tension-tension fatigue tests to characterize the fatigue properties of the joints. The typical
fracture interfaces were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDX) techniques. The results showed that there was extremely severe fretting at the
contact interfaces of rivet and sheet materials for the joints at relatively high load levels. In addition,
the severe fretting in the region of the locked sheet in contact with the rivet was the major cause of
broken locked sheets for the joints at low load level.
2. Experimental Procedure
2.1. Materials
The materials used in this study were TA1 titanium alloy (TA1) sheets (Baoji Chuangxin Metal
Materials Co. Ltd., Baoji, China) and H62 copper alloy (H62) sheets (Baoji Chuangxin Metal Materials
Co. Ltd., Baoji, China) with the dimensions 110 mm length × 20 mm width × 1.5 mm thickness.
To obtain the sheet mechanical properties, material tests were conducted using an MTS 634.31F-24
extensometer (MTS System Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA) with a 20 mm gauge length on an
MTS servo hydraulic test machine (MTS System Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA). The chemical
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Metals 2016, 6, 312
compositions of TA1 and H62 sheets are shown in Table 1, and the stress–strain curves at a constant
crosshead speed of 5 mm/min are exhibited in Figure 1.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of TA1 and H62 sheet materials.
Material Fe C N H O Ti
TA1 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.08 Rest
Material Zn Fe Pb P Cu -
H62 36.8 0.15 0.08 0.01 Rest -
Figure 1. Stress–strain curves for TA1 and H62 sheet materials.
2.2. Specimens Preparation

As mentioned previously, SPR is a new high-speed mechanical fastening technique for point
joining of sheet materials. To date, no agreed standard for testing SPR joints exists. The most common
test configuration performed in previous studies was the single overlap joint, since it is simple and
quick to fabricate. All specimen designs and joint tests referred to China welding standard (GB-2649).
As shown in Figure 2, the specimens used for experimental investigation were of the lap-shear type.
All specimens were produced with a rivet and a flat bottom die on a RIVSET VARIO-FC servo-driven
riveting machine by Böllhoff (Böllhoff Produktion GmbH & Co. KG, Bielefeld and Sonnewalde,
Germany). Both the rivet and the die were fabricated from high-strength steel, and were supplied
by Böllhoff Produktion GmbH & Co. The mechanical properties of the rivets used in present paper
were as follows: Young’s modulus 206 GPa, Poisson’s ratio 0.3, yield strength 1720 MPa, compressive
strength 1595.6 MPa, and Rockwell hardness 44 HRC. The dimensions of the rivet and the die are
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Specimen geometry (dimensions in mm).
To increase the material formability, TA1 sheets in STH joints were heated to 700 ◦ C by an
oxyacetylene flame gun. The temperature was controlled by an infrared thermometer (Shenzhen
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Metals 2016, 6, 312
Jumaoyuan Science And Technology Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China). The SPR processes were produced
immediately after heat treatment. The quality of specimens was monitored by an online window
monitoring system (Böllhoff Produktion GmbH & Co. KG, Bielefeld and Sonnewalde, Germany) in the
riveting equipment during the SPR process. The monitoring was carried out by measuring the actual
SPR setting force through a force sensor and the punch travel through a position sensor, and generating
a force-travel curve for one SPR joint [17]. The force-travel curves should be almost identical under
the same working conditions for different joints. This indicates that the quality of corresponding
joints is good. Through the online window monitoring system, all specimens used were judged as
qualified. The satisfied joining parameters of STH joints in terms of punch travel, pre-clam pressure,
riveting pressure, and compressing pressure were 131.20 mm, 50 bar, 195 bar, and 110 bar, respectively.
Twenty-five STH joints were made, ten of which were selected randomly for the static tests. The rest
were prepared for the fatigue tests.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Dimensions of the rivet and the die (dimensions in mm): (a) Rivet; (b) Die.
3. Static Tests and Results Analysis

The static tests were conducted on an MTS servo hydraulic testing machine using tensile-shear
mode. Spacers with dimensions of 25 mm length × 20 mm width × 1.5 mm thickness were glued
on both ends of the specimens to reduce the influence of additional bending and to centralize the
load. Ten tests for the STH joints were conducted in turn. The tests were performed with a constant
displacement rate of 5 mm/min and terminated when the sheets were separated or the force dropped
to 5% of the peak force value. Continuous records of the applied force-displacement curves were
obtained during each test. The tensile process of the STH joints is exhibited in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Tensile process of the STH joints.
Figure 5 shows the force-displacement curves and histogram of maximum shear strength of the
STH joints. It can be seen from Figure 4 that in static tests of the STH joints, rivets were broken for
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seven samples, corresponding to the seven relatively low maximum load force-displacement curves
in Figure 5. Three joints were not separated completely, which correspond to the force-displacement
curve characterized by both high maximum load and high failure deflection in Figure 5.
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Force-displacement curves and histogram of maximum shear strength of the STH joints.
(a) Force-displacement curves; (b) Histogram of maximum shear strength.
From Figure 5, it can be seen that the data for the failure load and failure displacement of the
STH joints were relatively stable, showing that the results were reliable and repeatable. To examine
the rationality of the test data, the normal hypothesis tests were performed using MATLAB software
(MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA). As shown in Figure 5, the results show that the tensile-shear
strength of the STH joints follow normal distributions. All test data fitting the region bounded by the
95% confidence limits.
4. Fatigue Tests and Results Analysis

It can be obtained from Figure 5a that the average peak load of the STH joints was 6.076 kN.
The fatigue test parameters were determined based on the average peak load. The load-controlled
cyclic fatigue tests were carried out on the MTS servo hydraulic testing machine using a sine waveform
and in tension-tension mode. The load ratio R = 0.1 and the frequency f = 10 Hz were employed for all
specimens. Each test was run until 2 million cycles were attained or visible failure occurred. Three load
levels of 35% (around 2.1 kN), 30% (around 1.8 kN), and 25% (around 1.5 kN) were performed for the
STH joints. Three specimens tested at each load level were randomly selected from the fifteen joints
prepared well. To reduce the bending of the sheets and ensure straight-line load paths, spacers were
glued to both ends of all specimens in the clamping area. Figure 6 shows the fatigue process of the
STH joints.
Figure 6. Fatigue process of the STH joints.
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The fatigue data and the fatigue load-fatigue life (F-N) curve fitted by the least square method
are presented in Figure 7. The calculated linear equation of the STH joints is F = 4.739 − 0.549 lgN.
It can be seen from Figure 7 that the STH joints had an average cycle number of 72,102 (lgN = 4.9) at
the fatigue load of approximately 2.1 kN.
Figure 7. F-N curve of the STH joints.
During the static tensile-shear tests, the most STH joints failed with the rivets broken as shown in
Figure 4. However, as presented in Figure 6, the failures during the fatigue tests were quite different.
At the load level of 35%, all three specimens fractured in the rivet. At the load level of 25%, the locked
sheets were broken for all specimens. At the load level of 30%, however, specimens fractured in both
failure models.
5. Fretting Failure Mechanism

To analyze the fretting failure mechanisms of the STH joints, SEM (A.S. Tescan Inc., Brno,
Czech Republic) and EDX (EDAX Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) techniques were employed to examine
the typical fatigue fracture surfaces. As stated previously, the STH joints had an average cycle number
of 72,102 at the fatigue load of approximately 2.1 kN. Thus, the macroscopic fatigue fracture surfaces
of the STH specimens that failed in the rivet at 2.1 kN were chosen to discuss in detail.
The SEM image of the rivet fracture surface is exhibited in Figure 8, from which the fatigue
striations can be obviously observed. This characteristic belongs to the ductile fatigue fracture. It can
be seen from the direction marked by an arrow in Figure 8 that fatigue cracks propagated from the
outside of the rivet to the inside.
As shown in Figure 9a, the fretting debris could be found in the region near the broken rivet.
The corresponding local images of fretting debris are shown in Figure 9b. Based on these features of
wear debris, it is inferred that there was extremely severe fretting in the STH joints at load levels of
35% and 30%. Moreover, the severe fretting in the region on the locked sheet in contact with the rivet
was the major cause of the broken locked sheet for the STH joints at low load level of 25%.
140
Metals 2016, 6, 312
(a) (b)
Figure 8. SEM (scanning electron microscopy) images of fracture surface for the STH specimens
(load level of 35%). (a) Fracture surface of the rivet; (b) Enlarged fracture area.
(a) (b)
Figure 9. An example of SEM analysis of oxide debris in the STH specimens (load level of 35%).
(a) Fretting debris; (b) Enlarged fretting debris.
Figure 10 shows the spectrum of fretting debris near the broken rivet on the locked sheet for STH
joints by EDX (EDAX Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) tests. The main ingredient of the fretting debris was
deemed to be CuO, and some zinc, stannum, ferrum, and titanium and other elements in smaller
quantities were tested. It could be deduced that the metallic oxide at the contact interface was caused
by the continuous cyclic load and micro-movement between the rivet and the sheet. In short, the
corresponding elements were fallen off from the sheet or the rivet by the fretting wear processes and
oxidized to the relevant oxide: TiO2 and CuO.
141
Metals 2016, 6, 312
ȱ
Figure 10. An example of energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis of oxide debris in the
STH specimens.
6. Summary
In this paper, the fretting performance of SPR joining dissimilar sheets in TA1 titanium alloy and
H62 copper alloy was studied. The static tests were conducted using tensile-shear mode, and the
histograms of maximum shear strength of the STH joints were obtained. Fatigue load–fatigue life
curves were obtained via tension-tension fatigue tests to characterize the fatigue properties of the
joints. To study the fretting behavior of the STH joints, the typical fracture interfaces were analyzed
by SEM and EDX techniques. The results showed that there was extremely severe fretting at the
contact interfaces of rivet and sheet materials for the joints at relatively high load levels. Moreover, the
severe fretting in the region of the locked sheet in contact with the rivet was the major cause of the
broken locked sheets for the joints at low load level. It could be deduced that the metallic oxide at the
contact interface was caused by the continuous cyclic load and micro-movement between the rivet and
the sheet.
Acknowledgments: This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 51565023) and Major Program Foundation of the Education Department of Yunnan Province, China
(Grant No. ZD201504).
Author Contributions: Xiaocong He conceived and designed the experiments; Cong Deng and Xianlian Zhang
performed the experiments and analyzed the data; Xianlian Zhang contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools;
Xiaocong He wrote the paper.
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Titanium Alloys

Special Issue Editor

MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade

ISBN 978-3-03897-304-1 (Pbk)

Cover image courtesy of Fengyong Wu.

About the Special Issue Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Changzhou Yu, Peng Cao and Mark Ian Jones

Changzhou Yu, Peng Cao and Mark Ian Jones

Elena N. Korosteleva, Victoria V. Korzhova and Maksim G. Krinitcyn

Nina Radishevskaya, Olga Lepakova, Natalia Karakchieva, Anastasiya Nazarova,

Dongjun Wang, Hao Yuan and Jianming Qiang

Shuyu Sun and Weijie Lu

Hongbo Ba, Limin Dong, Zhiqiang Zhang and Xiaofei Lei

Xiaocong He, Cong Deng and Xianlian Zhang

Received: 20 April 2018; Accepted: 1 May 2018; Published: 5 May 2018

1. Introduction and Scope

Metals 2018, 8, 319; doi:10.3390/met8050319 1 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

Academic Editor: Mark T. Whittaker

Keywords: titanium alloys; sintering; powder metallurgy; fracture

Metals 2017, 7, 67; doi:10.3390/met7020067 3 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials, Compaction and Sintering

2.3. Mechanical Testing

3.1. Sintering Densiﬁcation

3.2. Microstructural Observation

Figure 3. Micrographs of the cross-sections of sintered small compacts at different sintering

3.3. Close-Up Observation of Surface Contaminants

3.4. Phase Characterization of the Surface and the Interior

3.5. Mechanical Properties and Fractography

Figure 9. Relative sintered densities of compacts after removing contaminated scale.

Received: 10 June 2017; Accepted: 24 July 2017; Published: 26 July 2017

Abstract: A comprehensive study was conducted on microstructural evolution of sintered Ti-Al-V-Fe

Keywords: titanium alloys; sintering; powder metallurgy; microstructural evolution

( X/D )n = Bt/D m (1)

Metals 2017, 7, 285; doi:10.3390/met7080285 17 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

The calculated equivalent Mo values for the Ti-4.8Al-3.2V-2Fe, Ti-3.6Al-2.4V-4Fe, and

Figure 1. Heating schedule for blended elemental sintered titanium alloys.

2.3. Characterization and Mechanical Testing

3.1. Characteristics of As-Received Powders

Figure 3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of as-received powders.

3.3. Microstructure Observation and Compositional Analysis

3.4. Phase Determination

4.1. Microporosity Formation

D = D0 exp (− Q/RT ) (3)

Table 1. Self-diffusion of β-Ti and inter-diffusion of Al, V, and Fe in β-Ti [27].

Specimen Diffusion Type Temperature (◦ C) D0 (m2 ·s−1 ) Q (kJ·mol−1 )

Figure 11. Temperature dependence of ratio of inter-diffusion coefﬁcients to self-diffusion coefﬁcient

4.2. Macroporosity Formation

log10 PV0 = 14.75 − 27132T −1 − 0.5501 log10 T (7)

The activity coefﬁcient of component A (γ A ) in a binary system is given by [34]:

where χ A and χ B are the molar fractions of component A and B respectively.

where f (cs ) is given by:

4.3. Microstructural Evaluation and Phase Transformation

4.4. Mechanical Properties

Figure 14. Dependence of oxygen content on median particle size of hydrogenation-dehydrogenation