Fragmentation of Jainism

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FRAGMENTATION of JAINISM ( and Buddhism )

Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm


INTRODUCTION:
The history of Jaina religion is full of references to the various schisms that
had taken place from time to time, and some of these schisms contributed to
the rise of sects and sub-sects in Jaina religion. There is, however, no unity of
opinion on the manner and nature of such schisms. It is maintained that there
were eight schisms, of which the first was caused by Jamali during
Tirthankara Mahavira’s lifetime, and the eighth took place during the first
century of the Christian Era, that is after the lapse of nearly six hundred years
after the nirvana of Tirthankara Mahavira. Among these schisms, the eighth
schism was more important as it ultimately split the Jaina religion into two
distinct sects of Digambara Jainas and Svetambara Jainas. In this connection
it may be noted that in order to prove the antiquity of their particular sect,
both the sects have put forward their own theories regarding the origin of the
other sect.

Jainism is an ancient religion that is rooted in the philosophy that teaches the
way to liberation and a path to spiritual purity and enlightenment through
disciplined nonviolence to all living creatures.

Idols from southern India - post 10th century AD

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Origin

Jainism came into prominence in 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira propagated


the religion. There were 24 great teachers, the last of whom was Lord Mahavira.
These twenty-four teachers were called Tirthankaras-people who had attained all
knowledge (Moksha) while living and preached it to the people. The first Tirthankara
was Rishabnatha.

The word ‘Jain’ is derived from jina or jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’.


Cause of Origin
1. Hinduism had become rigid and orthodox with complex rituals and the
dominance of Brahmanas.
2. Varna system divided the society into 4 classes based on birth, where the
two higher classes enjoy several privileges.
3. Kshatriyas' reaction against the domination of the Brahmanas.
4. Spread of new agricultural economy in north-eastern India due to the
use of iron tools.
Tenets of Jainism
1. Belief in God: Jainism recognised the existence of god but placed them
lower than Jina (Mahavira).
2. It did not condemn the varna system but attempted to mitigate the evils of
the varna order and the ritualistic Vedic religion.
3. According to Mahavira, a person is born in higher or lower varna as the
consequence of the sins or the virtues in the previous birth. Thus,
Jainism believes in the transmigration of the soul and the theory of
Karma.
4. Anekantavada: Emphasises that the ultimate truth and reality is complex,
and has multiple-aspects i.e theory of plurality.
5. It refers to the simultaneous acceptance of multiple, diverse, even
contradictory viewpoints
6. Syadvada: All judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain
conditions, circumstances, or senses.
Syadavada literally means the ‘method of examining different probabilities’.

The basic difference between them is that Anekantavada is the knowledge of all


differing but opposite attributes whereas Syadavada is a process of the relative
description of a particular attribute of an object or an event.It mainly aims at
the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required.It can be attained through
three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.
 Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
 Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
 Right Action (Samyakcharita)

Five Doctrines of Jainism


o Ahimsa: Non-injury to a living being
1. Satya: Do not speak a lie
2. Asteya: Do not steal
3. Aparigraha: Do not acquire property
4. Brahmacharya: Observe continence

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2 Sects/ Schools
Scholar Bipin Shah, further reminds us that there were eight schisms, and one
of the most important took place involving the Jinakalpa tradition of Original
Jainism. This schism split the Jaina religion into two distinct sects of
"Digambara-Svetambara traditions". Digambara adhered to the Jinakalpa
tradition of monastic discipline, while Svetambara Jainas abandoned cave-
dwelling in preference of temple dwelling. Svetambara started wearing white
clothes and altered monastic codes but incorporated some of the rituals of
devotees including idol worship. (not recommended by Mahavira.) Digambara
to a lesser extent did the same thing by adopting idol-worshipping during
Medieval age. However, just after the breakup for many centuries, they stuck to
cave-dwelling practice. Mahavira's tradition never believed in any kind of idol
worshipping or Brahminic type of rituals that you find in Jaina temple today
with the Svetambara sect. Jain order has been divided into two major sects:
Digambara and Svetambara. 1

The division occurred mainly due to famine in Magadha which compelled a


group led by Bhadrabahu to move South India.During the 12 years famine, the
group in South India stick to the strict practices while the group in Magadha
adopted a more lax attitude and started wearing white clothes. From this, it is
said that a group of scholar ascetics entered the Kanyakumari region and practiced
their religion. They interacted with the local indigenous people. Their contribution to
the Tamil literature and culture is remarkable. Under Jainism, the services to the
humanity are considered under four heads, namely (1) Annadhanam (feeding the
needy), (2) Abayadhanam (shelter and support for the refugees),
(3) Aushadadhanam (distribution of the medicines), and (4) Sastradhanam (education).
This is borne by the descriptive epithet Kandarathita, the Chola king. The queen
mother, Chembian Mahadevi, is a great saivite devotee responsible for the
reconstruction of various saiva temples and also contributed to the asylum maintained
by the Jains.
The Jains who crossed over to south India stahyed in caves and gave shelter and food
to those escaping the vagaries of the famine as well as who kept ill health in their
caves

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An epigraphy found in Thirukovilur describing the presence of an asylum

They performed social service offering shelters to thestressed called: 


1.Anjuvaan Pugalidam, literally asylum for the fearful. The asylums were usually
adjacent to Samana Palli (Jain religious places).
2. The asylum maintained by the famous Jain ascetic Naminadha at Kandarathitha
Perumpalli in Palli Sandhal, Thirukovilur Taluk (it is worth noting that the ascetic is
named after the 22nd Thirthangara, Naminadhar). 2
After the end of famine, when the Southern group came back to Magadha, the
changed practices led to the division of Jainism into two sects. 1

TWO THEORIES
There are two theories of why the Jains split. That schism was apparent
during the life of Lord Mahavir is indisputable. Just like during the time of
Buddha, groups of disciples vied for each other to seize power during the last
stages of the life of both religious heads or / and after their deaths so did
those of the Lord mahavir.

Mahavir and Indra.


The Lord was born in the Nakshatra Uttarphalguni. It was noticed by the
Gods that certain celestial formtions would be unbeneficial to him and to his
proponents were he to take birth. So it is said in mythology that God Indra
begged him to delay it by a moment which would extinguish the forthcoming
and eminent dark clouds of the macro world on his life.

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To this the Lord mahavir refused,saying that this has never happened before
and it will never happen again regardless of the stature of the person taking
birth- a Tirthankar or a Layman.Hence “Honi ko nahi taal sakte”- What is
bound to happen cannot be avaided.

First Famine Theorey: The first theorey of the famine and the flight of the
followers has been mentioned above and there is epigraphical evidence to it.
The second of the ambitious devotees has been mentioned by several
scholars.
Quite possible that both circumstances were crystallized because of the
mythological mentions of the birth chat of mahavir? And could have been
avoided if the Lord had acceded to the request of God Indra.3

Idols from the Shrunga era (Chausa Hoard)

Shrunga (Shunga) Era (2 BC to 1 BC) –  The idols from this era were had primitive features with artistic
representation of Dharmachakra, Kalpavruksh etc. Idols of Lord Adinath were depicted with locks of hair and the
depiction of yaksh-yakshini’s had emerged. 18 Jain bronze idols were excavated from Chausa (Buxar, Bihar)
belonging to this period.

Migration of the followers due to the Famine theorey:

According to the account of the eighth schism, known as the great schism,
which is corroborated by historical evidence, the process of the split continued
from the third century B.C. up to the first century of the Christian Era. In the
third century B.C. famous Jaina saint Srutakevali Bhadrabahu predicted a
long and severe famine in the kingdom of Magadha (in modern Bihar and with
a view to avoid the terrible effects of famine Bhadrabahu, along with a body of
12,000 monks, migrated from Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha, to
Shravanabelagola (in modern Karnataka State) in South India. Chandragupta

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Maurya (322-298 B.C.). who was then the Emperor of Magadha and was very
much devoted to Acharya Bhadrabahu, abdicated his throne in favor of his son
Bindusara, joined Bhadrabahu entourage as a monk-disciple, and stayed with
Bhadrabahu at Shravanabelagola. Chandragupta, the devout ascetic disciple of
Bhardrabahu, lived for 12 years after the death of his teacher Bhadrabahu, in
about 297 B.C. and after practicing penance died according to the strict Jaina
rite of Sallekhana on the same hill at Shravanabelagola. This Bhadrabahu
Chandragupta tradition is strongly supported by a large number of epigraphic
and literary evidences of a very reliable nature. 

When the ascetics of Bhadrabahu-sangha returned to Pataliputra after the end


of twelve-year period of famine, they, to their utter surprise, noticed two
significant changes that had taken place during their absence, among the
ascetics of Magadha under the leadership of Acharya Sthulabhadra. In the first
place, the rule of nudity was relaxed and the ascetics were allowed to wear a
piece of white cloth (known as Ardhaphalaka). Secondly, the sacred books
were collected and edited at the council of Pataliputra specially convened for
the purpose. As a result the group of returned monks did not accept the two
things, introduced by the followers of Acharya Sthulabhadra, namely, the
relaxation of the rule of nudity and the recension of the sacred texts, and
proclaimed themselves as true Jainas. Eventually, the Jaina religion was split
up into two distinct sects, viz., the Digambara (sky-clad or stark naked) and
the Svetambara (white-clad).

In connection with this Great Schism it is pertinent to note that the practice
of nudity, strictly observed by Tirthankar Mahavira and the ascetic members of
his sangha, was later on found impracticable and discarded gradually by some
sections of the Ascetic Order of the Jainas. That is why Dr. Herman Jacobi, the
pioneer of Jaina studies in Germany, has made the following observation:

“It is possible that the separation of the Jaina Church took place gradually, an
individual development going on in both the groups living at a great distance
from one another, and that they became aware of their mutual difference about
the end of the first century A.D. But their difference is small in their articles of
faith.”

In this regard Dr. A.L. Basham, the renowned authority on Oriental Studies,
has given his positive opinion as follows: “Out of this migration arose the great
schism of Jainism on a point of monastic discipline. Bhadrabahu, the elder of
the community, who had led the emigrants, had insisted on the retention of the
rule of nudity, which Mahavira had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of
monks who had remained in the North, allowed his followers to wear white
garments, owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose
the two sects of Jainas, the Digambaras and the Svetambaras. The schism did
not become final until the first century A.D.”

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Not Acute Differences

Further it is worth noting that in the beginning when the schism materialized,
the differences between the two sects were not acute and did not take the form
of a dogmatic and doctrinaire rigidity as is clear from the fact that the Jainas
by and large agreed that nakedness was the highest ideal as it is the
characteristic of a Jina. Accordingly, they adored the nude images of
Tirthankaras without any reservation. In this context it is pertinent to note that
all the early images of Tirthankars found at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh are
nude. But slowly the question of clothing became important and accordingly
different views and approaches were put forward in regard to various aspects
and practices of the religious life. As a result with the passage of time and
changed conditions, attitudes and approaches began to stiffen, doctrines to
ossify and the sectarian outlook to dominate. This phenomenon is found
among the other religious sects of that time. Naturally, it affected the Jaina
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religion also.

Head of a Tirthankar, Mathura, 1st century BC

The First Seven Schisms 5

  The Main schism of the Jain faith was the one between the Svetambaras and


the Digambaras. The Svetambaras believe that even before this schism, there
had been seven other schisms. These schisms had started when certain
important leaders of the Church had disagreed with the views of the Main
Church on some points of philosophy or ritual. These leaders had then taken
away their followers and established what one might call separate sects.

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However, these schisms had little permanent effects, for the newly formed sects
had either disappeared or had joined the main Church again on the death of
their leaders. The seven schisms have been all described together
in Avashyaka Niryukti, VIII, 56-100. (The Digambaras do not know of these
seven schisms at all.)

1. The first of these schisms, as we have already seen, happened during the
life of Mahavira himself. Its leader was his own son-in-law Jamali. Jamali
broke away with his followers from Mahavira fourteen years after the
latter had attained omniscience. The point on which Jamali differed from
Mahavira would appear to an outsider to be a mere quibble.

2. The second schism was started by Tissagutta in Rajagriha. This


happened also during the life time of Mahavira and only two years after
Jamali's schism. Tissagutta's followers were called Jivapaesiyas. They
controverted Mahavira's view that the soul is permeated in all the atoms
of the body.

3. The third schism was led by Asadha at Seyaviya, 214 years after the
death of Mahavira. Asadha's followers were called Avattiyas, and they
held that there was no difference between Gods, saints, kings and other
beings.

4. The fourth schism was started by Assamitta in Mihila 220 years after
Mahavira's death. Assamitta was a disciple of Kidinna who was a disciple
of Mahagiri. Assamitta's followers were called Samuchchheiyas and they
held that after the end of all life will come one day, the effects of good or
bad deeds are immaterial.

5. The fifth schism was started by Ganga at Kullakatiriya, 228 years after
the death of Mahavira. Ganga was a disciple of Dhanagutta, another
disciple of Mahagiri. His followers were called Dokiriyas, and they held
that two opposite feelings such as cold and warmth could be experienced
at the same time.

6. The sixth schism arose in Antaranjiya and was started by Sadulaya,


otherwise known as Rohagutta, 544 years   after the death of Mahavira.
1

Sadulaya is said to have been the author of the Vaisheshika Sutras. His


followers were called Terasiyas and they held that between life (Jiva) and
non-life (Aliv), there is a third state `no-Jiva'. According to the Kalpa-
Sutra, the Terasiya sect was founded by Rohagutta a disciple of
Mahagiri. 2

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7. The seventh schism was led by Gotthamahila at Dashapura, 584 years
after Mahavira's death. His followers were called Abaddhiyas and they
asserted that Jiva was not bounded by karma.

8. No trace of these seven schisms is now left in the Jain religion.

 The Eighth Schism --- Digambaras and Svetambaras

Both the sects have exactly the same religious and philosophical beliefs and
practically the same mythology. The only noticeable difference in the mythology
of the two sects is regarding the sex of the nineteenth Tirthankara Mali.
The Svetambaras believe that Mali was a woman, while Digambaras think that
Mali was a man. This difference of opinion about Mali arises out of the few
differences in the beliefs of the two sects. The Digambaras think that it is not
possible for a woman to achieve salvation, and as all Tirthankaras do achieve
salvation, the nineteenth Tirthankara could not have been a woman. Another
difference between the two sects is that the Digambaras think that
all Jain ascetics should follow the example of Mahavira and remain nude, while
the Svetambaras think that the practice of remaining nude known
as JinaKalpa was given up by the great teachers of the church within a few
generations after Mahavira (i.e. after Jambu) and they had started wearing
white garments. This practice was known as sthaviraKalpa. the present-day
ascetics according to the Svetambaras need follow only these great teachers
(sthaviras), and it was necessary to practice the JinaKalpa. The third point on
which the two sects differ is regarding the food of the kevali (omniscient).
The Digambaras maintain that a kevali does not need any intake of food, while
the Svetambaras think that they do. The point is academic, for both the sects
are unanimous that nobody is going to become a Kevali in the foreseeable
future.

  Digambaras also deny two of the Shvetambara beliefs about Mahavira, viz.,


that Mahavira's embryo was taken from the womb of the Brahman woman
Devananda and transferred to the womb of Trishala, and also that Mahavira
had married and had a daughter. (Other minor differences between these two
communities are given later).

  It will be noticed that these and similar other differences are of a minor
nature and do not affect the main tenets of the religion which were essentially
same for both the sects. On the other hand, these differences minor though
they might be, have cleaved the Jain community into two distinct groups with
practically no inter-mixing on the religious or even social plane; for even inter-
marriage between the two sects is not ordinarily permissible. This was because
the two communities have necessarily their own temples,
the Digambaras having the images of the Tirthankaras nude, and
the Svetambaras clothed. The monks or ascetics who are the religious leaders

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of the sects are similarly nude, and clothed in white respectively. Also, due to
some reasons mentioned later, the Digambaras refuse to recognize the
canonical books of the Svetambaras, and have their own texts.

  Thus we see that the two sects both swearing allegiance to Mahavira and his
teachings, behave in their practical religious life as two different societies. How
a community with the same religious philosophy started behaving at some
point of time as two distinct communities is not clearly known. The early
religious literature of both the sects is practically silent on this point. It is thus
possible to conjecture that the Church was undivided in the beginning, the
more orthodox ones among the monks practicing nudity (JinaKalpa), and the
others not discarding clothes (sthaviraKalpa). Indeed we have in
the Parishishtaparvam of the Shvetambara polymath Hemchandra, the
narration that during the time of king Samparti in Ujjaini, the Church had two
leaders Mahagiri and Suhastin. After some time "Mahagiri made over his
disciples to Suhastin and lived as a Jinakalpika, though Jinakalps had by that
time fallen into disuse".  Thus perhaps while nudity was optional in the

beginning, it became later the fixed manner of all those who adopted it,
considering it to be the orthodox way of Jainism. The separation of
the Digambaras and Svetambaras according to this thinking was thus a
gradual process, and there was no point of time when there was any actual
schism. This appears to be a plausible theory.

Was Hemachandra wrong?

 A slight modification of this theory would be that Hemchandra was


wrong, and the jinkalpika was never given up. One group of Jain ascetics
continued to practice it throughout, and this group was later called Digambara.
The Great scholar of Jainism Hoernle has argued in his essay on
the Ajivikas in the Encyclopedia of religion and Ethics, that originally
the Digambaras were those Ajivikas * who were unhappy at the behavior of
their leaders Makkhali Goshala at the time of his death. After leaving his sect
they had joined Mahavira and had become the latter’s followers. Thus
the Digambaras as a group were separate from the time of Mahavira himself.
Hoernle's conjecture is based mainly on two grounds. Firstly, not only did the
Ajivikas practice strict nudity (they were achelakas), but also a few of their
other customs resembled those of the Digambara monks to some extent. On
this latter point Hoernle has cited some instances which do not seem to be
borne out by facts. For instance, Hoernle says that Ajivikas used to carry a
stick (ekadandi), and so do the Digambara monks now-a-days.

As a matter of fact, it is the Shvetambara monk who may carry a stick, and not


a Kigambara monk who can have practically no earthly possession. The second
point on which Hoernle bases his arguments is that many ancient authors and
lexicographers have confused the Ajivikas with the Digambaras. A. L. Basham

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in his Ajivikas  has shown that Hoernle has mis-read most of these ancient
4

authorities, and there was no such confusion in them as Hoernle alleges. But
Basham fails to explain one comment of the Shvetambara Pandit Shilanka (9th
century). In his commentary on the SutrakritAnga, speaking about those
ascetics who revile the followers of Mahavira, Shilanka said that these revelers
were the Ajivikas or the Digambaras.  Is it possible that such a
5

learned Jain author as Shilanka would by mistake equate Ajivikas with


the Digambaras? It is possible to think with Hoernle that Shilanka really
thought that the Ajivikas were the same as Digambaras. The bulk of the
evidence however, is against Hoernle's conjecture, and the theory that some
Ajivikas formed the nucleus of the Digambara sect cannot be built upon this
one stray reference by Shilanka.  (In the same commentary Shilanka makes
another enigmatic reference  to the Ajivikas.
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*
This time he equates the
followers of Goshala (i.e. the Ajivikas) with the Terasiyas the followers of
Rohagutta, the leader of the sixth schism of the Jain Temple). 

The Jains themselves both Svetambaras and Digambaras have their own


versions as to how the schism between them occurred. These appear in their
later books composed long after the alleged occurrences. As stated earlier these
are mere legends and cannot be verified as history. The Shvetambara version is
given in Avashyakabhashya a work of about 500 AD The legend is as follows:

 There was a person called Shivabhuti who had founded a sect called the
Bodiya in the city of Rathavirapura. The occasion for doing this arose in this
manner:  Shivabhuti had won many battles for his king, and the latter
showered honors on him. Naturally, Shivabhuti became very proud and used to
return home late at night. His mother on the complaint of her daughter-in-law
refused to open the door one night, and asked him to go to any place the door
of which he was likely to find open. Getting wild Shivabhuti entered such a
place that, however, turned out to be monastery. He asked the head priest to
initiate him but the priest refused to do so, where upon Shivabhuti himself
plucked out his hair and wandered as a monk.  After some time this self-
initiated monk Shivabhuti happened to come to the same place. The king, his
former friend came to know of his arrival, and sent him a costly garment
(ratnakambala) as a gift.

  Shivabhuti's superior protested and disallowed him to use such a garment.


When Shivabhuti did not listen to his advice the teacher tore off that garment
and used it as a mattress. Getting wild and excited Shivabhuti gave up all
clothing.  (A slightly different version of this says that the occasion for it arose
when once, his teacher, expounding the texts to a class, came up against

the following, alluding to a special stage


of JinaKalpa.)  "Jinakalpia ya... .. duviha". It meant that Jinakalpias were of
two kinds. Some of them might have the necessary requisites, and others not.
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On hearing it Shivabhuti asked his teacher, While there is the system
of JinaKalpa, why should there be
_____________________________________________________________________

***Read my Paper on Ajivikas. The ascetics of India on researchgate.net and


academia.edu

bondage of clothes? A monk following JinaKalpa and living in solitude should


follow the principles of austerity, including nudity". The teacher tried to bring
him round, but Shivabhuti would not be persuaded, and gave up all clothing.
He thus created a schism in the community. His sister Uttara also followed him
and she also became naked. But when the courtesans of the city complained
that nobody would go to them seeing the ugly nature of the female body,
Shivabhuti disallowed his sister to accept nudity. Thus nudity was started by
the Bodiyas under Shivabhuti. The Bodiyas presumably were later called
the Digambaras. This, the eighth schism according to
the Svetambaras occurred in 609 AV. or AD 83.

The Digambara  version of how the Svetambaras split

  The Digambara version of how the Svetambaras broke away from the main


Dogma that the Digambaras call the Mulasangha is completely different. It was
also recorded much later. The first record is found in Harisena's
Brihatkathakosa of AD 931. This is as follows:

  In the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, Bhadrabahu had predicted a terrible


famine in the country of Magadh, for a period of 12 years. Hence a part of the
community emigrated to South India under his leadership, while the rest
remained in Magadh. When after some time the leaders met together in
Ujjayini, the famine was still there, and hence they allowed the monks to wear
a piece of cloth (ardhaphalaka) to hide shame while on the begging tour. But
even when the famine was over these monks refused to give up the use of the
piece of cloth. The conservative elements protested against this. And thus
these Ardhaphalakas proved to be the forerunner of the Shvetambara sect. The
final separation came later due to Chandraledha, queen of king Lokapala of
Valabhipura. It is related that these Ardhaphalaka monks were invited by her;
but seeing them neither clothed nor naked, the king was disappointed, and the
queen, therefore, asked them to dress completely. Thenceforth
the Ardhaphalakas began to put on white clothes and came to be
called Shvetapatas. This happened in AD 80.

  (There is a reference to a Shvetapata community in a grant issued in his


fourth regnal year by the Kadamba king Mrigeshavarma, (AD 475-490). The
grant of a village was made to a community of Jains living in the city of
Vaijayanti. The Village was divided into three shares, the first to the holy Arhat,

12
the second to the eminent ascetics called Shvetapatas, who were intent on
practicing the true religion (Sad-dharma), and the third for the eminent
ascetics called Nirgranthas. Thus the Shvetapatas and Nirganthas in this city
in Karnataka were worshipping the same image of Arhat in a temple. Whether
the Shvetapatas referred to in the inscription and the Shvetapatas sect referred
to in the above Digambara legend were the same is not known). There is a
serious weakness in this Digambara version: It is not supported by the
earliest Digambara epigraph that mentions this famine. This epigraph, at
Shravana Belgola, says that Bhadrabahu had predicted the famine in Ujjayini
and not in Magadh, moreover he himself is not recorded to have accompanied
the community to South India. Thus there are contradictions in
the Digambara versions. On the other hand the Shvetambara version as to how
the Church split into two is a bit too puerile for such an important event. It
appears that all these stories were invented long after the actual split which in
the beginning must have been a gradual process that was completed some time
at the end of the 5th century.

It is not known when actually the two sects finally separated but we have
epigraphic records to prove that even in the 3rd century to 5 th Century AD the
difference, if any, within the community was not sharp. The images found
at Kankali-tila in Mathura belong to this period. They depict the Tirthankaras
in a nude state. Yet the donors of these images presumably belonged to
the Shvetambara sect for the Shakhas and Ganas to which they belonged are
the same as those which are mentioned in the Shvetambara Kalpa Sutra.
Moreover it appears from a few of the inscriptions that some of the donors were
nuns or the disciples of nuns. Thus though the images were in
the Digambara style the worshipers did not observe the Digambara orthodoxy
about disallowing women to become nuns. The exact dates of the Mathura
inscriptions cannot be determined. They are dated in the Kusana era and the
dates mentioned are from 5 to 98 of this era. However, the controversy as the
when the Dusana era started is not yet over, and if we go by the date suggested
by R. C. Majumdar then this era started in AD 244, and, therefore, the
Mathura Jain inscriptions belong to a period from the middle of the 3rd
century to the middle of the 4th century. Similarly, the
other Tirthankara images of this period found in northern India are also nude.
The Inscription  of Kahum in the Gorakhpur district refers to the installation of
8

five images of Adikartris. This inscription is dated AD 460. The images found
here are nude. The conclusion would be that the difference in beliefs of the two
sects, if they had at all parted company by that time, was not up to then clear-
cut and both of the sects worshipped nude images.

  The actual parting of the ways perhaps came some time near the middle
of the 5th century, when the Valabhi Council was held. It is said that the
canon of the Svetambaras had been reduced to a state of disorder and was
even in danger of being lost altogether. Hence in the year 980 (or 993) after the

13
death of Mahavira (i.e. about the middle of the 5th century AD), a Council was
held in Valabhi in Gujarat, presided over by Devarddhi Ksahmashramna the
head of the shool, for the purpose of collecting the texts and writing them
down. The twelfth Anga containing the Purvas, had already gone astray at that
time. This is why we find only eleven Angas in the recension which has come
down to us, and which is supposed to be identical with that of Devarddhi.

 The Digambaras completely deny the authority of the texts collected by this


council. They say that not only was the knowledge of the 14 Purvas lost at an
early period, but that 436 years after Mahavira's Nirvana the last person who
knew all the 11 Angas had died. The teachers who succeeded him knew all the
11 Angas had died. The teachers who succeeded him knew less and
less Angas as time went on, until the knowledge of these works was completely
lost 683 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. Thus the Valabhi Council marks the
final split between the Svetambaras and Digambaras.

Iconographic evidence

Five Bronzes recovered from Vallabhi (ABOVE)

Site of the II nd Council meet

 There is some iconographic evidence that supports the theory that it was the
period of the Valabhi council when the two sects actually parted company. As
stated earlier all the Tirthankara images found at Mathura and datable up to
the Kusana period depict the Tirthankaras either in the standing position and

14
nude, or, if seated, in the crossed legged position, are sculptured in such a way
that neither garments, nor genitals are visible. Thus up to the Kusana period
both the sects worshipped nude images. The earliest known image of
a Tirthankara with a lower garment, is a standing Rishabhnatha discovered at
Akota in Gujarat. The date of his image has been fixed at the later part of the
fifth century.  This was shortly after the period of the Valabhi Council.
9

  The geographical distribution of the two sects also would give some support to
the theory that the Valabhi Council was the chief reason of the schism. It is
found that the main concentration of the Svetambaras is round about and
within 500 kilometers of Valabhi. Most of the Jains in Gujarat, and western
Rajasthan are Svetambaras, while most of the Jains of eastern Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, and the Jains of South India are Digambaras.

 It is possible that so far as the Jains of Northern India were concerned, they
might have had a Council of their own at Mathura. Its president was Skandila.
This name does not occur in the list of Sthaviras of the Kalpa-Sutra, but the
name of Shandilya occurs 33rd in the list. Jacobi remarks  in this connection:
10

"I think Shandilya is the same as Skandila, who was president of the Council of
Mathura, which seems to have been the rival of that in Valabhi."

The Role of Kundakanda:  In other words, those who accepted the literature
edited and collected at Valabhi as canonical were later called Svetambaras, and
those whom either had their own Council at Mathura, or did not have any
Council at all, as in South India, later called Digambaras.   The Digambaras of
South India, long before the time the Valabhi Council of the Svetambaras had
met, had started developing their own sacred literature. They had to do this
because according to them the last of the acharyas who knew even a part of
the Angas had died 683 years after the death of Mahavira. The Name of
this acharya was Bhutavali. Nobody was left who knew even a part of the
original canon. The next pontiff according to some Digambara lists was
Bhadrabahu II. Kundakunda who claimed to be a disciple of this Bhadrabahu,
therefore, started writing the sacred books for the Digambaras. He is said to
have written altogether 84 such books. The names of all the works composed
by Kundakunda are not known. But three of his works,
viz., Samayasara, Pravachanasara, and Panchastikayasara are considered so
important by the Digambaras that together they are
called Prabhritatraya or Saratraya, a name that reminds one of
the Prasthanatraya of the Vedantists. Indeed Kundakunda is considered so
important a personality in the Digambara hagiology that a popular Digambara
benedictory runs thus:

 
MAngalam Bhagavana Viro, mAngalam Gautamogani,
MAngalam Kundakundyadyau, Jain dharmostu mAngalam.

15
To the Digambaras thus Kundakunda is as important a teacher as Sudharma
is to the Svetambaras.
 
 Kundakunda was followed by many other Digambara writers such as
Vattakera, Kartikeya Svamin, etc. Practically all these authors belonged to
South India. Thus by the early centuries of the Christian era while the
intellectual center of the Svetambaras was developing in western India,
the Digambaras had their own intellectual center in south-west Karanataka.
Perhaps this geographical separation of the intellectual centers was the main
reason why the two sections of the Jains drifted. The Digambaras had their
own intellectual center in south-west Karanataka. Perhaps this Geographical
separation of the intellectual centers was the main reason why the two sections
of the Jains drifted. To some extent even the Gods began to differ:
The Digambaras in south-west Karnataka made Bahubali, a son of the
first Tirthankara, one of the most important deities and built colossal statues
for him. Bahubali on the other hand is scarcely, if at all, mentioned in
the Shvetambara mythology.
 
Mula Sangha

  The Digambaras called their faith, the Mula Sangha or the Main


denomination. The Mula Sangha is then said to have branched off into Nandi,
Sinha, etc. But all Digambaras to whatever gaccha (sub-sect) they might
belong, claim the descent of their gaccha ultimately from the Mula Sangha.

16
Possible idols of Jain Tirthankars from the Indus Valley
Civilization
 
In the few centuries of the Christen era, the dominant sect among the Jains of
the Deccan and South India were the Digambaras. Only one inscription - a
grant - has been found in these parts of India, which refers to
the Shvetapatas (Svetambaras) by name. This is the Devagiri (Dharwar district)
inscription  of king Mrigeshavarmana referred to earlier. His period according to
11

Saletore  was AD 475-490.


12

The difference between the Svetambaras and the Digambaras


 
     The total number of points by which the Digambaras differ from
the Svetambaras are eighteen. These are listed below:
      The Digambaras do not accept the following Shvetambara beliefs:
 1. A kevali needs food;
 2. A kevali needs to evacuate (nihara);
 3. The women can get salvation. If she is born again as a man.
 4. The Shudras can get salvation;

17
 5. A person can get salvation without forsaking clothes;
 6. A house holder can get salvation;
 7. The worship of images having clothes and ornaments is permitted;
 8. The monks are allowed to possess fourteen (specified ) things;
 9. The Tirthankara Mali was a woman;
 10. The eleven of the 12 original Angas (Canonical works) still exist;
 11. Bharat Chakravarti attained kevali hood while living in his palace;
 12. A monk may accept food from a Shudra;
 13. The Mahavira's embryo was transferred from one womb to another; and
his mother had 14 auspicious dreams whereas Digambaras believe she had 16
such dreams;
 14. Mahavira had a sickness due to the tejolesya of Goshala.
  15. Mahavira had married and had a daughter.
 16. A cloth offered by the Gods (devadusya) fell on the shoulders of
a Tirthankara.
 17. Marudevi went for her salvation riding an elephant;
 18. A monk may accept alms from many houses.

MAJOR DIFFERENCES
Digambara

1. Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do


not wear clothes while female monks wear unstitched plain
white sarees.
2. Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and
Brahmacharya).
3. Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
4. Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
5. Major Sub-Sects
 Mula Sangh
 Bisapantha
 Terapantha
 Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha
6. Minor Sub-Sets
 Gumanapantha
 Totapantha
Svetambara
7. Monks wear white clothes.
8. Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
9. Believe women can achieve liberation.
10. Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
11. Major Sub-Sects

18
 Murtipujaka
 Sthanakvasi
 Terapanthi
Spread of Jainism

 Mahavira organised an order of his followers which admitted both men


and women.
 Jainism did not very clearly mark itself out from Hinduism, therefore it
spread gradually into West and South India where brahmanical order
was weak.
 The great Mauryan King Chandragupta Maurya, during his last years,
became a jain ascetic and promoted Jainism in Karnataka.
 Famine in Magadha led to the spread of Jainism in South India.
 The famine lasted for 12 years, and in order to protect themselves,
many Jains went to South India under the leadership of
Bhadrabahu.
 In Odisha, it enjoyed the patronage of Kalinga King of Kharavela.

There are several Jain councils mentioned in Jain texts associated with


revision and redaction of Jain Agamas (sacred texts). The first council was held
at Pataliputra. The second councils were probably held simultaneously at
Mathura and Vallabhi. The third council was held at Vallabhi under auspices
of Devarddhigani Kshamashramana when the texts were written down. The
definite dates of councils are not mentioned in the texts before
Jinaprabhamuni's Sandehavisausadhi of 1307 CE. The later texts states that
the last Vallabhi council was held 980 or 993 years after the death ( Nirvana) of
last Tirthankara Mahavira (After Vardhamana = AV).
Jain Council
 First Jain Council
o Held at Patliputra in 3rd Century B.C. and was presided
by Sthulbhadra.
 Second Jain Council
o Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D. and was presided by Devardhi
Kshmasramana.
o Final Compilations of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
Vallabhi (or Valabhi or Valabhipur, modern Vala) is an ancient city located in
the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat, near Bhavnagar in western India. It is
also known as Vallabhipura and was the capital of the Suryavanshi Maitraka
Dynasty. Religious inscriptions are known from Valhabi, which were dedicated
to the Brahmans as well as the Buddhist and Jains. The Indologist Sylvain
Lévi wrote an article entitled "Les donations religieuses des rois de Valhabi".
The numerals used in the Valhabi inscriptions and on their coins, dated to
circa 600CE, are often mentioned as an intermediary step in the evolution
of Hindu-Arabic numerals.
19
1. Pataliputra Council or the first council was held
at Pataliputra (now Patna, Bihar, India). The Avashyaka-churni (dated
between Samvat 650 and 750=593–693 CE) describes: There was twelve
years long famine which resulted in the monks moving to the coast.
When the famine ended, they gathered at Pataliputra. They gathered the
sacred knowledge and put together the eleven Angas but could not
gather the Ditthivada (Drstivada). Bhadrabahu who knew the
fourteen Purvas was then in Nepal. The sangha sent emissaries to him
and informed to come and teach Dittivada. He refused to come citing that
he had undertaken a practise Mahaprana. The emissaries returned and
informed the sangha. The sangha sent emissaries again and asked,
"What is the punishment for someone who disobeys an order of
the sangha?" He replied "That one is to be expelled." He added, " Do not
expel me, send intelligent [students], I will teach them."

Hemchandra's Parishishtaparvan, probably based on Avashyaka-churni; also


known as Sthaviravali (stories on the lives of elders or Jain patriarchs),
contains detailed information about the council and how the knowledge of the
Purvas was lost.

2. Mathura Council and Vallabhi Council I-The second councils


were held simultaneously at Mathura (now in Uttar Pradesh, India) under
auspices of Skandila and at Vallabhi (now in Gujarat, India) under auspices of
Nagarjuna to continue the transmission of sacred knowledge after famines.
Vallabhi Council II
3. The Vallabhi Council was convened by Svetambara Jain
monks at Vallabhi (now in Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, India) to reduce
down to writing sacred texts (Jain Agama) that had so far been
transmitted orally. The council was presided by
Devarddhigani Kshamashramana. Vallabhi was then under
the Maitraka rule
No dates are cited for Pataliputra 5 council in Avashyaka-churni.
Hemchandra's Parishishtaparvan (dated Vikram Samvat 1216–1229) states the
Pataliputra council was held in 160 AV.
Nandisutra by Devavachaka mentions Skandila and Nagarjuna
in Sthaviravali (list of elders) who had organised the sacred texts. It is
demonstrated by Jambuvijaya that the text was known to Mallavadin in the
fifth century. So the earlier version of it must be older than that. Nandisutra-
churni which comments on it is dated 676 CE. So it is established that
Skandila and Nagarjuna existed before 676 CE.

20
The following sources mentions them in the list of elders but continues the
older accounts:

1. Jinadasagani, Nandisutra-curni (676 CE) (plus


the Ayara- and Dasasrutaskandha-curnis).
2. Haribhadra (700–770 CE) Laghuvrtti on Nandisutra.
3. Silakka (9th century CE) Ayarattka.
4. Santyacarya Vadivetala (d. Samvat 1096
[1039]?), Sisyahita on Uttaradhyayana.
5. Hemachandra (1088–1172 CE), Yogashastra commentary.
6. Malayagiri (c. 1093–1193 CE) tika on
the Prakirnaka entitled Joisakarandaga.
The Kalpasutra (Kalpasutra, Jinacaritra, section 148) mentions redaction dates
of 980 AV or 993 AV but does not mentions places or persons. [1] Bhadresvara's
(c. 1150–1200 CE) Kahavali is not considered as reliable source for date
though it contains tales mentioned in earlier literature. Jinaprabhamuni's
(1307 CE) Sandehavisausadhi, commentary on Kalpasutra, was the first
indication of associating 980 AV with Vallabhi Council but also cite other
possibilities.[1]

The 980 AV or 993 AV dates are associated with these events


in Sandehavisausadhi:

1. The Vallabhi council under the presidency of Devarddhigani where


redaction carried out.
2. The council of Mathura under the presidency of Skandila who seems to
have revised the sacred knowledge.
3. The public reading of the Kalpasutra before king Dhruvasena to relieve
him from grief of death of his son.
4. The change of last day of Paryusana by Kalakacharya from the fifth to
the fourth day of Bhadrapada month.
The following late sources associates 980 or 993 AV with Vallabhi council:

1. Vinayavijaya (1559 CE) Subodhika, commentary on Kalpasutra.


2. Dharmasagara (1571 CE), Kiranavali or Vyakhanapaddhati commentary
on Kalpasutra.
3. Samayasundara (c. 1630 CE), Samacarishataka.
4. Samayasundara (1642 CE), Kalpalata, commentary on Kalpasutra.
5. Laksmivallabha ( 1835 CE) Kalpadruma, commentary on Kalpasutra.

Schism in Jainism is still forthcoming. Such is the intellectual radition of


the faith.Jainism - the 2,600-year-old religion of godmen and businessmen and

21
practically nothing in between underwent its latest schism last fortnight. It
happened in a small, dark house at Jowhuree Bazaar, the crowded shopping
district of Jaipur, tucked away from public gaze.

Nineteen centuries ago, the ancient faith had split into two broad divisions -
the Svetambar and the Digambar - following a polemical exchange that
reverberated through the Jain monasteries. Last fortnight's schism split into
two the Svetambar Jain Terapanthi Sangh, a sect of 3,50,000 within India's
(and the world's) two million Jains. However, the cause of the latest split was
hardly enmeshed in spiritual debates: the breakaway group that parted
company with the official sect hurled at the latter charges that are commonly
heard in committee hall polities - namely, groupism and misuse of authority.

The birth ceremony of the Nav Terapanth, the new sect, was observed without
much fanfare. It was presided over by Muni Chandanmal, the seniormost of the
700 Terapanth monks and nuns, who chanted the hymns of Kalpasutra - the
oldest Jain tract - with the familiar white band-aid strung across his mouth
(the Jain sadhus abjure even such marginal violence as the forcing out of
breath while speaking).

Target: The rebellion of the white-robed Terapanthi priests is directed at the


65-year-old head of the order, Acharya Tulsi, the peripatetic saint who was
consecrated the leader of the sect in 1936. Tulsi, who joined the order at the
age of 14, comes from Ladanu in the Nagaur district of Rajasthan. A man of
impeccable religious erudition, he came to wield enormous authority within the
sect in course of time. In the process, however, he rubbed quite a few the
wrong way. 3

In a 2017 Doctoral thesis of the Florida International University the thesis


argued that the Jain community in the diasporic context of the USA has
invented a new form of Jainism. Sectarian negotiations are the distinguishing
marks of the diaspora Jain community and their invented form of Jainism.
Based on ethnographic study that is, interviews and observations conducted at
four different sites (Jain temples/communities) from June-August 2016, the
thesis examined the sectarian negotiations among the diaspora Jain
community in the USA and the invented Jain tradition that is resulting from
these negotiations. The central questions of the research on which this thesis
was based were: 1) what are the levels, processes and results of sectarian
negotiations within the Jain diaspora community in the USA, and 2) what is
the nature and characteristic of the new form of Jainism, the invented
tradition; and how do Jains in the USA experience and use it.

Will changing what Jainism means in the diasporic context take away the faith
the Jain immigrants have in their tradition? If religion is shaped to a new form,
and it helps to fulfill the needs of a group in their social and spiritual world,

22
then is it not an adequate adoption of a religion? I argue that for the Jains in
the USA, the diaspora condition is the main reason for which they have formed
and shaped their traditions in a new version.

All of the four Jain communities in the USA studied were minority
communities and constituted a segment of the larger Indian diaspora. However,
the Jains have constructed their negotiation in the orbit of their religion-
Jainism and have succeeded in meeting the desired result for their social,
cultural and religious need. All inclusive and yet not governed by any sectarian
tradition, the invented Jainism is a well-thought, well perceived, well-organized
and well-received Jainism for the diaspora Jains in the USA.

She articulated the positive and constructive aspects of the Jains and the
sectarian negotiations and consequent invention of a new form of Jainism at
various levels by Jains in the USA.There is consequently, more enthusiasm
about their future inventions at the social and religious spheres thus
highlighting the interplay between diaspora, religion, and people, bringing them
.6
together by relinquishing rigidity, bias and intolerance
Similarly, Bipin Shah stated that to attract followers,, the Jain teachers or
propagators will need to include the social and political concerns of the people
to be popular According to him the first schism was started during Mahavira's
lifetime, when his own son-in-law Jamali rejected his Jinakalpa tradition of five
vows. Further on some followers left Mahavira's religion and either started a
short lived different religion. Thus Jainism has witnessed many division from
time to time, and some of these contributed to the rise of sects and sub-sects
in Jaina religion. 1

When will a Thirthankar be born again and will he unite the factions?
According to Ravindra Jain author of GYAM MUKTA, Jainism has a set time
frame for each of the 24 Tirthankaras that are born in each half-time-cycle in
Bharat Kshetra. In the Avasarpini Kal that is currently going on, the first
Tirthankara is born towards the end of 3rd Era (Sukham Dukham Kal, that is,
happiness with some unhappiness). He has an age of 8.4 million poorva and
attains moksha three years and eight and a half months before the end of the
3rd Era.

Likewise, the 24th and last Tirthankara has an age of 72 years and attains
moksha three years and eight and a half months before the end of the 4th Era
(Dukham Sukham Kal, that is, unhappiness with some happiness).
The time frame of the birth of Tirthankaras is reversed in Utasarpini Kal. The
first Tirthankara is born three years and eight and a half months after the start
of the 3rd Era (Dukham Sukham Kal, equivalent to the 4th Era of Avasarpini
Kal).

23
The total time gap between the end of the 4th Era of Avasarpini Kal and start of
the 3rd Era of Utasarpini Kal is 84,000 years (21,000 years each for 5th and
6th Era of Avasarpini Kal and 1st and 2nd Era of Utasarpini Kal). Thus, the
time gap between the moksha of 24th Tirthankara of Avasarpini Kal (Bhagwan
Mahavira in this case) and birth of the 1st Tirthankara of the Utasarpini Kal
(Tirthankara Padmanabh, soul of king Shrenik in this case) will be 84,007
years and 5 months (84,000 +3 years and 8.5 months+3 years and 8.5
months).

Bhagwan Mahavira attained moksha in 527 B.C. which is about 2543 years
ago. The next Tirthankara will thus be born about 81,464 years (84,007 minus
2543) from now.7
COMPARATIVE study of the Spread & Fragmentation of BUDDHISM in short
Buddhists, he attained nirvana and was released from the cycle of rebirth and death
after being served a meal by one Cunda, a student, who some scholars claim may have
poisoned him, perhaps accidentally. Before dying of dysentery, he requested his
remains be placed in a stupa at a crossroads, but his disciples divided them between
themselves and had them interred in eight (or ten) stupas corresponding to important
sites in Buddha's life. When Ashoka the Great embraced Buddhism, he had the relics
disinterred and then reinterred in 84,000 stupas across India.He then sent
missionaries to other countries to spread Buddha's message where it was received so
well that Buddhism became more popular in countries like Sri Lanka, China,
Thailand, and Korea than it was in India - a situation which, actually, is ongoing –
and Buddhist thought developed further after that.
Spread & Fragmentation
Buddha preached his vision from the time of his enlightenment until his death at 80
years of age, at which point he requested that his disciples should not choose a leader
but that each should lead themselves. He also requested that his remains be placed in
a stupa at a crossroads. Neither of these requests was honored as his disciples fairly
quickly organized themselves as a group with a leader and divided his remains among
themselves, each choosing to place them in a stupa in a location of their choice.
Around 400 BCE, they held the First Council at which they established accepted
Buddhist doctrine based on the Buddha's teachings and, in 383 BCE, they held a
Second Council at which, according to the standard account of the meeting, the
Sthaviravada school insisted on the observance of ten proscriptions in the monastic
discipline which the majority rejected.
At this point, either the Sthaviravada school left the community (known as
the sangha) or the majority distanced themselves from the Sthaviravada and called
themselves Mahasanghika ("Great Congregation"). All the later schools then developed
from this first schism.

24
These schools had to contend with the more well-established belief systems
of Hinduism and Jainism and, in an effort to level the playing field, developed an
illustrious foundation story for their founder and attributed to him a number of
miracles. Still, Buddhism remained a small sect in India, one among many, until it
was championed by the Mauryan king Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE) who
embraced the faith and initiated its spread. He sent missionaries to other nations such
as Sri Lanka, China, Korea, Thailand, and Buddhism was accepted in these places far
more quickly than in its home country.
Doctrinal differences, however, led to further divisions within the community of
adherents. As the belief system became more institutionalized, these differences
became more significant. Different canons of scripture developed which were held by
some as true while rejected by others and different practices arose in response to the
scripture. For example, the Pali canon, which emerged from Sri Lanka, maintained
that Buddha was a human being who, although endowed with great spiritual power,
still attained enlightenment through his own efforts and, when he died, he was set free
from samsara and achieved total liberation from human affairs.

25
The Spread of Buddhism
As Buddhism spread, however, the founder was deified as a transcendent being who
had always existed and would always exist. Buddha's death was still understood as
his nirvana, a “blowing out” of all attachment and craving, but some adherents no
longer saw this as simply an escape from samsara but an elevation to an eternally
abiding state; freed from samsara, but still present in spirit. The Mahasanghika school
held to this belief as well as many others (such as the claim that the Buddha had
never existed physically, only as a kind of holy apparition) which stood in direct
contrast to the Sthaviravada and, later, the Theravada schools. Although the central
vision of the Buddha was retained by adherents, doctrinal differences like this one led
to the establishment of the different schools of Buddhist thought.
Although there were actually many schisms before the establishment of Theravada,
Mahayana, and Vajrayana (the Mahasanghika school alone produced three different
sects by c. 283 BCE), the division of these schools from the original sangha is said to
have been predicted by the Buddha himself in what is known as The Three Turnings.
This concept is based on that of the Dharmachakra (wheel of eight spokes, a familiar
Buddhist symbol) which represents the Eightfold Path, informed by dharma which, in
Buddhism, is understood as “cosmic law”. The Dharmachakra has always been in
motion and always will be but, as far as human recognition of it goes, it was set in
motion when Buddha gave his first sermon, would then make the first turn with the
establishment of Theravada Buddhism, a second with Mahayana, and a third with
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Vajrayana.
Maitreya (Sanskrit) or  (Pali) is regarded as a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist
eschatology. In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus
Sutra, the being is referred to as .

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According to Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is a bodhisattva who will appear on Earth in
the future, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma. According to
scriptures, Maitreya will be a successor to the present Buddha, Gautama
Buddha (also known as Śākyamuni Buddha).[2][3] The prophecy of the arrival of
Maitreya refers to a time in the future when the dharma will have been forgotten by
most on the terrestrial world.
Maitreya has also been employed in a millenarian role by many non-Buddhist
religions in the past, such as Theosophy, the White Lotus, as well as by modern new
8
religious movements, such as Yiguandao.

References

1. The Sects and subsects of Jainism and their formation and history, Bipin Shah
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341387104_The_Sects_and_subsects_of_Jainism_and_their_f
ormation_and_history

2. Asylum for the fearful: A Jain innovation of the early Tamil land, O Somasundaram and Vijaya
Raghavan Indian Journal of Psychiatry,2020-
 doi: 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_149_19

3.Muni Chandanmal https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19820115-jainism-


svetambar-jain-terapanthi-sangh-splits-into-two-771381-2013-10-21

3A.Mahaveer Darshan, Pujya Ganivarga Shri Bhuvanavijayaji Maharaj, disciple of Acharya Deva Shri
Vijayachandra Surishawji Maharaj
Published by Shri Jsin Shwetambar Murtipujaka Tapagccha Sanstha, Nagpur city,India 2000

4.https://jainworld.com/library/jain-books/books-on-line/jainworld-books-in-indian-languages/antiquity-of-
jainism/the-great-schism-of-jainism/

5. Wiles, Royce (2006). "The dating of the Jaina councils: Do scholarly presentations reflect the traditional
sources?". In Flügel, Peter (ed.).  Studies in Jaina history and culture : disputes and dialogues. London and
New York: Routledge. pp.  61–84. ISBN  9780415360999. OCLC 71148706.

6.AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF SECTARIAN NEGOTIATIONS AMONG DIASPORA JAINS IN THE USA A
thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in
RELIGIOUS STUDIES by Venu Vrundavan Mehta, FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY Miami,
Florida, 2017 https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4176&context=etd
7. https://www.quora.com/When-will-the-next-tirthankar-come-in-Jainism

8.https://www.worldhistory.org/article/492/a-short-history-of-the-buddhist-schools/

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