CHROMOSOMAL

BASIS OF HEREDITY

Lecture 2
Q#1 - Genetics
1. List the 8 branches of Genetics and
what are being studied in each
2. Give 3 applications of genetics and
briefly explain/give examples each.
Comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
Criteria Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Organisms Bacteria Protists
Cyanobacteria Fungi
Plants
Animals
Cell Size 1-10µm 10-100µm
Organelles none present
Nuclear Membrane absent present

Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis and Meiosis

Prokaryotic Chromosome
•The DNA of
prokaryotes is one,
circular chromosome
attached to the
inside of the cell
membrane
 Eukaryotic Chromosome
• All eukaryotic cells store
genetic information in
chromosomes
• Most eukaryotes have
between 10 and 50
chromosomes in their body
cells
• Human body cells have 46
chromosomes or 23 identical
pairs
 Eukaryotic Chromosome

• Each chromosome is composed of a single, tightly coiled DNA molecule

• Chromosomes can’t be seen when cells aren’t dividing and are called
chromatin
Structure of the Chromatin
• composed of chain
of nucleosome
• nucleosome core +
DNA
• nucleosome core
(2 each of H2A,
H2B, H3 and H4)
Chromosome
•folded chromatin
fiber
•carrier of genes
•composed of
chromosome arms
and centromere
Genome
• complete set of
genes/chromosomes coming
from male or female parent
• basic chromosome number
• Somatic chromosome number
– diploid no. (2n)
• Gametic chromosome number
– haploid no. (n) – 22IIA + XX
or XY
Karyotype
•metacentric
•submetacentric
•acrocentric
•telocentric
 Cell
Reproduction
 Types of Cell Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to
make 2 new, identical daughter cells
• Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual
reproduction
• Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm)
joining to make a new cell (zygote) that is NOT identical
to the original cells
• Meiosis is an example
Cell Reproduction in
Prokaryotes
1.parent cell
2.chromosome
doubles
3.cell splits
4.2 identical daughter
cells
Cell Cycle
 Interphase - G1 Stage
•1st growth stage after cell division
•cells mature by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
•cell carries on its normal metabolic
activities
Interphase - S Stage
•synthesis stage
•DNA is copied or replicated
 Interphase – G2 Stage
•2nd growth stage
•occurs after DNA has been copied
•all cell structures needed for division are
made (e.g. centrioles)
•both organelles & proteins are
synthesized
Mitosis
 Mitosis
• division of the nucleus
• also called karyokinesis
• equational division
• only occurs in
eukaryotes
• has four stages
• doesn’t occur in some
cells such as brain cells
• Prophase
Mitosis
▫ chromosomes are visibly composed of sister chromatid
• Metaphase
▫ chromosomes align at the equatorial plate
• Anaphase
▫ sister chromatids separate and move to the opposite poles
• Telophase
▫ chromosomes regrouped at the poles, after cytokinesis, two
cells are formed
 Cytokinesis
•means division of the cytoplasm
•division of cell into two, identical halves called
daughter cells
•in plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to
divide cell
•in animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split
cell
 26

Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow Cell plate in
in animal cell plant cell
 27

Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated

 28
Asters at the
poles

Spindle Chromosomes
Fibers lined at the
equator
 Sister Anaphase
chromatids
being
separated
Do you see any stages of mitosis?
Meiosis
 Meiosis
•preceded by interphase which includes
chromosome replication
•two Meiotic divisions --- Meiosis I and Meiosis II
•called reductional division
•original cell is diploid (2n)
•four daughter cells produced that are haploid
(n)
 Meiosis
•daughter cells contain half the number of
chromosomes as the original cell
•produces gametes (eggs & sperm)
•occurs in the testes in males
(Spermatogenesis)
•occurs in the ovaries in females (Oogenesis)
 Meiosis
•start with 46 double stranded chromosomes
(2n)
•after 1st division (Meiosis I) - 23 double
stranded chromosomes (n)
•after 2nd division (Meiosis II) - 23 single
stranded chromosomes (n)
•produces haploid gametes
What is the
importance
of Meiosis?
 What is the importance
of Meiosis?
• it is the fundamental basis of sexual
reproduction
• two haploid (n) gametes are brought
together through fertilization to form a
diploid (2n) zygote
 Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes
• Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by half
• Fertilization then restores the 2n number

from mom from dad child

too
much!

meiosis reduces
genetic content
The right
number!
Human 2n=46=44 + XX or XY

Female Male
2n = 46 2n = 46
22 IIA + XX 22 IIA + XY
Gametic 22IA + X Gametic 22IA + X
Gametic 22IA + X
After Fertilization
22 IIA + XX
22 IIA + XY
 Meiosis I
• Prophase I ▫ Diplotene
▫ Leptonene  II separation starting at the
 thin thread stage centromere
▫ Zygotene  terminalization of chiasmata
 homologous pairing stage ▫ Diakinesis
 formation of bivalent (II)  II are evenly distributed
 chiasmata hold II together  best stage to establish the
▫ Pachytene chromosome
 crossing over stage
Meiosis I
• Prophase I
• Metaphase I
▫ alignment of II at the equatorial plate
• Anaphase I
▫ separation of bivalent (II) into univalent (I)
▫ reductional division
• Telophase I
▫ chromosomes regrouped at the opposite pole
▫ two haploid cells are formed
 41

Gene X

Homologs Sister
(same genes, Chromatids
different alleles) (same genes,
same alleles)

Homologs separate in Meiosis I (Anaphase)

and therefore different alleles separate.
Meiosis II
• Prophase II
▫ similar to mitotic prophase but half the chromosome
number
• Metaphase II
▫ alignment of chromosomes at the equatorial plate
• Anaphase II
▫ separation of sister chromatids
• Telophase II
▫ four haploid cells are formed
Meiosis: Two Part Cell Division
Sister
chromatids
separate
Homologs
separate

Meiosis Meiosis
I II

Diploid
Haploid
Haploid
 Meiosis I: Reduction Division

Nucleus Spindle
fibers
Nuclear
Early Prophase I envelope
(Chromosome Late Metaphase I
number doubled) Prophase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I (di)
 Prophase I

Early Prophase Late prophase

• Homologs pair • Chromosomes
• Crossing over condense
occurs. • Spindle forms.
• Nuclear envelope
fragments
 46

Tetrads Form in Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes Join to form a
(each with sister chromatids) TETRAD

Called Synapsis
 Crossing-Over
• homologous
chromosomes in a
tetrad cross over
each other
• pieces of
chromosomes or
genes are exchanged
• produces genetic
recombination in the
offspring
Homologous Chromosomes
During Crossing-Over
 Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of

different gamete types produced by independent
assortment
Metaphase I

Homologous pairs of
chromosomes align
along the equator of
the cell
Anaphase I
Homologs separate
and move to opposite
poles.

Sister chromatids remain

attached at their
centromeres.
Telophase I
Nuclear envelopes
reassemble.
Spindle slowly
disappears

Cytokinesis divides cell

into two.
 Meiosis II
Gene X Only one homolog of each
chromosome is present
in the cell
Sister chromatids carry
identical genetic
information

Meiosis II produces gametes with

one copy of each chromosome and
thus one copy of each gene
Meiosis II: Reducing
Chromosome Number

Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Prophase II
4 haploid cells
Telophase II
Prophase II
Nuclear envelope
fragments

Spindle forms
Metaphase II

Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.
Equator
Anaphase II
Pole

Sister chromatids
separate and
move to opposite
poles.
Telophase II
Nuclear envelope
assembles

Chromosomes
decondense

Spindle disappears

Cytokinesis divides cell

into two
 59

Results of Meiosis
• gametes (egg & sperm)
form
• four haploid cells with one
copy of each
chromosome
• one allele of each gene
• different combinations of
alleles for different genes
along the chromosome
GAMETOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis and
Oogenesis
 Spermatogenesis

• occurs in the testes

• two divisions produce 4
spermatids
• spermatids mature into
sperm
• men produce about
250,000,000 sperm per
day
 Oogenesis
• occurs in the ovaries
• two divisions produce 3 polar bodies that die and
1 egg
• polar bodies die because of unequal division of
cytoplasm
• immature egg called oocyte
• starting at puberty, one oocyte matures into an
ovum (egg) every 28 days
Oogenesis First polar body
may divide a
(haploid)
X
a Polar
bodies
X a die
a X
X
Mitosis Meiosis I Meiosis II
A X (if fertilization
Oogonium occurs) A
(diploid) Primary
X
oocyte
A X Ovum (egg) Mature
(diploid)
Secondary A egg
oocyte X
(haploid) Second
polar body
(haploid)
 Comparison of Divisions
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of divisions 1 2

Number of daughter
2 4
cells
Genetically
Yes No
identical?
Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent
Where Somatic cells Germ cells
When Throughout life At sexual maturity
Role Growth and repair Sexual reproduction