sustainability

Article
The Relations between Teaching Strategies, Students’
Engagement in Learning, and Teachers’ Self-Concept
Feifei Han

Office of Pro-Vice-Chancellor (Arts, Education and Law), Griffith Institute for Educational Research,
Griffith University, Brisbane 4122, Australia; [email protected]

Abstract: Good teaching strategies may not only engage students in learning but may also promote
teachers’ self-concept about teaching. The present study empirically investigated the contributions of
four popular teaching strategies, namely, feedback, scaffolding, active learning, and collaborating,
to students’ engagement in learning and teachers’ self-concept in teaching. The study adopted a
quantitative design, which surveyed 208 Australian primary school teachers by using a five-point
Likert-scale questionnaire. The structure of the questionnaire was first explored by an exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) and then through a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to provide an
account for validity. The results of correlations showed that all the four teaching strategies were
positively associated with both students’ engagement and teachers’ self-concept. The results of the
structural equation modelling found that the strength of these relations varied. While feedback,
scaffolding, and active learning strategies all positively contributed to teachers’ self-concept, col-
laborating neither significantly predicted students’ engagement nor teachers’ self-concept. Only
scaffolding had a positive path to students’ engagement, implying that scaffolding may be the best





 strategy among the four teaching strategies to engage primary students. The study suggested to
teachers that they need to consider the age of learners when implementing teaching strategies.
Citation: Han, F. The Relations
between Teaching Strategies, Students’
Keywords: teaching strategies; teachers’ self-concept; students’ engagement in learning; primary
Engagement in Learning, and
Teachers’ Self-Concept. Sustainability
school; feedback; scaffolding; active learning; collaborating
2021, 13, 5020.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095020

Academic Editor: Antonio Gutierrez 1. Introduction

de Blume In 2015, United Nations has proposed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
outlining 17 Sustainable Development Goals, which are amongst the top agenda for all the
Received: 28 February 2021 United Nations members, being developed or developing countries [1]. Quality education
Accepted: 17 April 2021 is one of the Sustainable Development Goals. Although diverse definitions have been
Published: 29 April 2021
proposed for the quality education, a central point in education is to find effective ways to
promote and fostering students’ learning. Effective and productive instructional methods
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
and strategies that teachers adopt have been noted as one of the major factors that can
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
make the difference in student learning [2]. Good teaching strategies may not only able to
published maps and institutional affili-
engage students in learning but may also reinforce teachers’ self-concept [3,4]. However,
ations.
it is unknown as to how different teaching strategies contribute to students’ engagement
in learning and teachers’ self-concept when they are considered together. This study
attempted to empirically test the differential predictions of four popular teaching strate-
gies: feedback, scaffolding, active learning, and collaborating–to teachers’ self-concept
Copyright: © 2021 by the author. and perceived students’ engagement in learning in Australian urban and rural primary
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
school settings. The findings will provide teachers with important information as to what
This article is an open access article
strategies to employ for better students’ engagement in learning and will enable teacher ed-
distributed under the terms and
ucators to focus on relevant teaching strategies in order to build the self-concept of potential
conditions of the Creative Commons
and practicing teachers. The study adopted a quantitative design using a survey approach
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
and examined the contributions from the four teaching strategies to teachers’ self-concept
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
and students’ engagement in learning through structural equation modelling (SEM).
4.0/).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095020 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 2 of 15

Following this short introduction is the theoretical background, in which the four
teaching strategies and the related studies are explained in detail. In addition, the constructs
of teachers’ self-concept and students’ engagement in learning are also discussed. At the
end of the theoretical background, the research questions and the hypotheses are raised
followed by a methodology section. In the methodology section, specific information with
regard to the participants, materials used in the study, data collection, and data analysis are
explained. The results section is arranged according to the order of the research questions.
Then, the results are discussed in relation to previous studies and the context of the present
study. The paper ends with a section on limitations and implications of the study.

2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Teaching Strategies
Although there is no general agreement on the outcomes of schooling, students’
learning “has been the most important outcome of schooling at any level” [3] (p. xix). As
a result, in educational research, a central point is to find effective ways to promote and
fostering students’ learning. In order to enhance students’ learning, we need to know the
major sources which may contribute to differences in students’ outcomes. Synthesising
over 800 meta-studies covering more than 80 million students, [5] identified 252 effects
impacting on students’ learning achievement; of these effects, teacher factor was ranked
on the top of the list. Teachers have been noted as “the major players in the education
process” [6] (p. 22). Educational research worldwide with primary school teachers has
empirically provided evidence that a variety of teacher factors could have noteworthy
impacts on students’ academic outcomes. They include teachers’ competence, qualification,
teaching experience, and professional development, all of which could affect students’
academic outcomes [7].
Among teacher factors, quality teaching (i.e., effective and productive instructional
methods and strategies that teachers adopt) is most central to students’ learning processes
and outcomes [2]. In a recent guidebook to improving students’ academic achievement, a
whole chapter is fully devoted to teaching strategies [3]. In a nutshell, teaching strategies
can be broadly categorised into methods related to teaching programs, such as mastery
learning, reciprocal teaching, and problem-based teaching. They may also be defined in
terms of specific instructional methods, such as questioning or meta-cognitive strategies
instruction. This latter category of specific methods was used in this study for the opera-
tionalisation of teaching strategies in our study. Among various teaching strategies, this
study concentrates on providing feedback, scaffolding, promoting active learning, and
encouraging collaborating, as they are closely related to the research context of this study
and are often observed in Australian primary classrooms. Hence, they were considered
to be appropriate for the purpose of investigation. Each of these specific strategies and
related previous studies are described below.

2.1.1. Feedback
Feedback refers to the information provided by an agent with reference to one’s
performance [8]. In the educational context, feedback from teachers offers important
information as to a student’s performance [9]. As have been postulated by some researchers,
effective feedback should not only inform students about correctness, but should also be
part of the teaching process [10]. Therefore, valuable feedback needs to provide information
on what has been understood and what aims to be understood [11].
There is an extensive research feedback as well as meta-analyses. In the general
domain, [12] conducted a meta-analysis using 131 studies, which covered more than
12,000 participants, and reported an average effect of 0.38. There are more meta-analysis
studies conducted in the classroom settings—[8,9,13,14] all conducted meta-syntheses to
examine the effects of feedback on students’ learning.
In an early study of 12 meta-analysis studies, which included 196 studies with
6972 effect sizes, [9] found an average effect size of 0.79, suggesting that feedback is a
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 3 of 15

powerful factor contributing to students’ academic performance. Hattie and Timperley

also observed different effects depending on the kind of information in the feedback. The
feedback which contains information about performance and instruction on a task gener-
ated the highest effect sizes, whereas feedback which focuses only on praise or punishment
yielded the lowest effect sizes [9].
Most recently, [8] conducted a meta-synthesis by incorporating the information
content of the feedback as a moderator. On the basis of 435 studies, which covered
61,000 participants and 994 effect sizes, Wisniewski et al. adopted a random-effects model
and only found an average effect size of 0.48 of feedback. The authors concluded that
feedback should be treated as a complex construct with various forms, which also tended
to produce differentiated effects on students learning. Furthermore, the study found that
depending on nuanced categories of the learning outcomes, feedback also had differ-
ent impacts, with a higher impact on cognitive and motor skills, and a lower impact on
motivational and behavioural outcomes. Nevertheless, among all other teaching strate-
gies, providing feedback is widely recognised as one of the most effective strategies in
teaching [3].

2.1.2. Scaffolding
The instructional strategies of scaffolding to learners have ranked 16th out of the
252 influences by most recent synthesis [5]. This strategy is frequently applied in teaching
students at all levels, from primary school to college [15]. Scaffolding provides support
to learners from competent assistance to help them bridge the gap between their current
abilities and their next learning phase [16]. Various forms of scaffolds have been applied in
teaching, ranging from more concrete ends of teaching tools (e.g., pictures, prompts, and
cue cards) to more abstract ends of teaching techniques (e.g., teacher modelling and using
think-aloud) [16]. Scaffolding strategies has been applied in teaching various subjects, such
as reading [17], mathematics [18], computational thinking [19], and physics [20].
One important feature of the application of scaffolding strategies is its temporary
nature. In other words, the frequency of using scaffolds is likely to decrease as the learners’
competence and abilities increase. Eventually, the learners will master the knowledge
and skills and become independent and self-regulated learners [15]. In order to maximise
its effects, scaffolding needs to be constrained to the specific students’ zone of proximal
development [21]. This means that if scaffolds are too higher above the students’ cur-
rent knowledge, abilities, and skills, the strategy may not necessarily generate beneficial
outcomes [16]. Therefore, the way in which to skilfully manipulate and incorporate scaf-
folding appropriately in teaching and learning processes has remained a challenge faced
by teachers. For primary school teachers, the mastery of scaffolding strategies is particu-
larly challenging as young children need more guidance from teachers to build new ideas
and concepts.

2.1.3. Active Learning

It is well known that the process of learning is active rather than passive, and it
is students rather than teachers who play the role of the main agents in the learning
process [22]. The underlying theory of active learning is from constructivism that learning
often takes place when individuals connect new ideas and experiences to their existing
knowledge and experiences to form new or enhanced understanding [23]. The power of
active learning helps to create links between ideas and generate new knowledge through
past knowledge and experience. In contrast, passive learning often leads to boredom and
disconnection between learners and learning [24].
There are various models of active learning, such as Student-centred Active Learning
Environment with Upside-down Pedagogies; Technology-enabled Active Learning; and
Spaces to Transform, Interact, Learning, Engage [23]. Empirical studies have repeatedly
shown that active learning promotes students’ positive attitudes, gets students engaged
in learning processes, develops critical thinking skills, leads to better retention of mate-
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 4 of 15

rials, yields better learning outcomes, and motivates students for further study [25,26].
Ref. [27] conducted a meta-analysis of 225 studies comparing active learning design versus
exposition learning designs in the disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics. They found that students in the exposure learning design were 1.5 times
more likely to fail than students in the active learning design. Furthermore, they found that
on average, students’ performance on both formative and normative assessments increased
by approximately half a standard deviation when some active learning strategies were
incorporated into the learning design. The strategy of promoting active learning has also
gained increasing attention in recent years in the primary school settings.

2.1.4. Collaborating
Collaborating learning involves mutual engagement and the non-separable nature
of the individual contributions to the task [28]. Collaborating strategies have a number
of advantages over teacher-centred strategies. First, it satisfies students’ demands of
individual attention, which can be hardly achieved by having one teacher attending to
a large number of students. Second, it may help teachers to manage classes effectively
because the responsibility of instruction required on teachers is shared by students to
some extent [29]. Through collaborating, students receive attention from others—this
may increase level of engagement and participation in the learning process. During peer
interaction, students serve as teachers of each other in order to clarify learning concepts,
practice core learning tasks, and reinforce what has been instructed by the teacher.
Collaborating strategies may also be able to enhance students’ academic outcomes
and cognitive gains. For instance, in a meta-analysis of more than 80 intervention studies
among elementary school students, [30] showed that peer-assisted methods outperformed
traditional methods, and the methods improved students’ academic performance in all
content areas, producing an average effect size of 0.33. In another meta-analysis on the
impact of small group collaboration on academic performance, [31] found evidence that
small group learning could increase students’ ability to transfer their learning to new
contexts. Moreover, collaborating strategies have been found to increase students’ affect,
such as motivation, self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-concept, and social interaction skills [32].
Despite the general positive effects brought about by collaborating, not every kind of
collaborating is effective [33]. Previous studies reported that in the processes of sharing
and exchanging information when collaborating, students are often involved in off-topic
discussions, particularly when collaborative groups are formed amongst friends [34–36].
For collaborating to work, research has suggested that students’ interaction needs to
be evaluated, student autonomy should be encouraged, and a guideline of structure of
interaction should be offered [37]. Hence, the effectiveness of collaborating in leading
to desirable learning outcomes may depend on the way collaborating is carried out in
the classroom.

2.2. Teachers’ Self-Concept

Self-concept is referred to as “a person’s perception of himself...formed through his
experience with his environment...and influenced especially by environmental reinforce-
ments and significant others” [38] (p. 411). The construct of self-concept is central to the
positive psychology movement [39]. In recognition of its importance, self-concept has been
examined in diverse domains, including education, child development, mental health,
exercise and sports sciences, and social sciences [40].
The construct of self-concept is considered as multidimensional and hierarchical
in structure and domain specific [39]. In educational contexts, self-concept has been
researched extensively among students. Research has consistently shown that students’
positive academic self-concept can enhance their academic behaviour and performance [41].
The relationship between academic self-concept and performance is also found to be
mutually reinforcing, known as a reciprocal effects model [42]. This means that gains in
self-concept tend to result in gains in achievement and vice versa.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 5 of 15

Compared to extensive research on students’ academic self-concept, much less has

been done in terms of teachers’ self-concept. Developing a positive teachers’ self-concept
(i.e., teachers’ valuing of their teaching and appreciation of teaching effectiveness) does
not only bring about positive psychological wellbeing for teachers, but it can also serve as
a mediating factor that produces desirable teaching outcomes, such as affecting students’
learning behaviours and achievement in schools [43]. Moreover, considering the reciprocal
effects between self-concept and behaviours in general, it is reasonable to expect that teach-
ers’ self-concept and their teaching behaviours are reciprocally influencing and reinforcing
each other.
Research has consistently found that teachers’ perceptions of what constitutes teaching
affect how they approach teaching [44]. Teachers who perceive teaching primarily as
knowledge transmitting tend to focus on the content of teaching. Therefore, they attempt
to construct lessons which are easier for students to understand, known as information
transfer/teacher-focused approaches. On the other hand, teachers who consider teaching
as facilitating students’ conceptual change in a content area are more likely to adopt an
approach which concentrates on students’ learning processes. As a result, these teachers
try to put their effort in how to activate students’ existing conceptions of subject matter,
and in promoting knowledge reconstruction among students, envisaged as conceptual
change/student-focused approaches [44].
In a primary school context, however, there is a paucity of research on the relationship
between teachers’ self-perception of teaching and the strategies they use in the classroom.
In view of the gap in the literature, the present study focused on specific teaching strategies
(i.e., feedback, scaffolding, active learning, and collaborating strategies) rather than gen-
eral teaching approaches (e.g., student- and teacher-centred approaches), and examined
predictions of each strategy to teachers’ self-concept.

2.3. Students’ Engagement in Learning

Although students’ academic outcomes are valued as primary indicators of good
schooling, there are more goals for schools and educators to strive for than assessment
results [3]. Importantly, quality teaching should also target long-term outcomes and deeper
levels of learning processes, including enjoyment and engagement in learning [6]. Like
many constructs in educational research, there is no single definition of engagement in
learning. Although past studies tend to concentrate only on one aspect of engagement [45],
engagement in learning is a multi-dimensional construct, encompassing behavioural,
emotional, and cognitive aspects [46].
Engagement matters for students’ learning because there are multiple benefits for
engaged learners, such as possessing a sense of belonging at schools, displaying higher
abilities in critical thinking, positive personal development and dispositions, and achieving
better academically [47]. Conducting a meta-analysis on 69 independent studies with
196,473 participants, [46] found positive correlations with moderate to strong effect size
between overall students’ engagement in learning and academic achievement. Through a
moderator analysis, the authors reported that the relationship between students’ engage-
ment in learning and academic achievement was influenced by the method of reporting
engagement, cultural value, and gender.
In order for students to be successfully engaged in learning rather than just spend-
ing time sitting in class, teachers need to provide clear learning intentions and to set
up clear criteria for successful learning. For example, adopting a self-determination
theory [48], [49] found that teachers’ autonomy support tended to enhance primary school
students’ engagement in schoolwork. In particular, two types of behaviours—“fostering
relevance” and “suppressing criticism”—are the most salient factors. The results of this
study indicate that students’ engagement in learning is closely linked to teachers’ teaching
behaviours. However, the way in which different and specific instructional strategies may
impact on students’ engagement has not received much attention, and this constitutes the
major aim of this study.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 6 of 15

2.4. The Present Study

The present study surveyed primary school teachers on four specific teaching strate-
gies they may adopt in teaching and examined how different types of teaching strategies
may affect their perceptions of teaching competence in general (i.e., self-concept in teaching)
and their students’ engagement (as perceived by the teachers). Specifically, two research
questions were asked:
• How do the four popular teaching strategies predict teachers’ self-concept?
• How do the four popular teaching strategies predict students’ engagement in learning?
From the literature, this study hypothesised that all the four teaching strategies (i.e.,
feedback, scaffolding, active learning, and collaborating) would be positively associated
with perceived students’ engagement in learning and teachers’ self-concept. However, the
contributions of these four strategies would be unlikely to be equally strong. Among the
four strategies, feedback and scaffolding would probably have stronger influences on teach-
ers’ self-concept as both involve teachers as an active agent in the classroom. For students’
engagement in learning, active learning and collaborating would have comparatively
stronger impacts as students would play a more central role than teachers.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Participants
The sample was composed of 208 primary school teachers from 26 urban schools and
26 rural schools in the state of New South Wales, Australia. This study used the following
procedure to select the schools: First, schools were categorised into urban and rural schools
in terms of location. Second, each school was randomly assigned a number in the two
categories of urban and rural schools. Then, schools with numbers between 1 and 26
in each category were picked up so that each category had an equal number of schools.
After selection of schools, the recruitment advertisement was mailed to each school to
invite voluntary participation of the study. Finally, 208 teachers returned written consent
forms for agreeing to participate. The return rate was approximately 22.00%. Among these
teachers, 45 (21.64%) were male and 163 (78.37%) were female. The teachers had a wide
range of years of teaching experience, ranging from less than 1 year to 41 years. Around 50
(24.04%) of them had less than 5 years’ teaching experience; 35 (16.83%) of them had taught
for 6–10 years, 42 (20.19%) for 11–20 years, 57 (27.40%) for 21–30 years, and 24 (11.54%)
for 31–41 years. The teachers’ qualifications also varied, including Graduate Diploma
in Education (33:15.87%), Bachelor of Education (72:34.62%), Bachelor of Teaching with
a Diploma in Education (34:16.35%), double degree (17:8.17%), and other qualifications
(52:25.00%). Even though the return rate was not high, the diversity with regard to the
teaching experience and teachers’ qualifications were sufficiently broad to be representative
of the characteristics of the primary school teachers in the context of the research.

3.2. Research Design and Materials

The study was cross-sectional research that adopted a quantitative research design
using a survey approach. The first section of the survey was designed to collect demo-
graphic information such as sex, years of teaching experience, and teaching qualifications.
The other 3 sections of the survey were scales about teaching strategies (15 items), teachers’
self-concept (5 items), and perceptions of students’ engagement in learning (4 items). These
items were on a five-point Likert-scale, with anchors 1 to 5 representing “false, mostly false,
sometimes false sometimes true, mostly true, true”. The reliability and the validity of the
scales are discussed in the data analysis section.

3.2.1. Teaching Strategies

Teaching strategy items ask teachers what teaching strategies they had used in their
teaching. They were 15 items consisting of 4 scales: feedback, scaffolding, active learning,
and collaborating. The feedback scale was about what teachers do to provide students
with useful information about their schoolwork. An example is: “I use assessment results
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 7 of 15

to provide feedback to students about what they need to do next to achieve an outcome.”
Scaffolding was a strategy of building upon what students have already to facilitate new
learning. An example is: “I build on what my students known about reading to teach
them new things”. Active learning strategies encourage students to actively participate
in class activities, for example: “I encourage students in my class to take part in class
discussions.” Collaborating is a scale that measured the use of activities involving peers
working together, for example: “Students in my class are encouraged to find a classmate to
help if they have difficulty in learning.”

3.2.2. Teachers’ Self-Concept

The self-concept scale was adapted from Self Description Questionnaire [50]. The five-
item scale measured how teachers perceive their general teaching competence. An example
is: “I am good at teaching most subjects that I teach.”

3.2.3. Students’ Engagement in Learning

Students’ engagement as perceived by the teachers is measured by asking teachers
about their perceptions of student involvement in learning. Derived from the literature, the
items included representations of both students’ behaviours and emotions, such as “work
hard” and “enjoy doing the work”. That is, the four-item scale asked about students’ level
of effort, good behaviours, and enjoyment in learning. An example is: “During lessons, my
students work hard to get their work done.”

3.3. Data Collection Procedure

We followed the procedures approved by the university’s ethics committee. The
printed questionnaires were mailed to 52 schools, half of which were located in urban
areas and the other half were in rural areas. It was explained clearly that the survey was
voluntary and anonymous, and only completed surveys with written informed consent
were included in the analysis.

3.4. Data Analysis

The data analysis was conducted in 3 stages. The first stage explored potential scales in
the questionnaire using principal axis factoring procedure with 50% of the cases randomly
generated from the sample [51]. An oblique rotation was adopted following the suggestion
that “Perhaps the best way to decide between orthogonal and oblique rotation is to request
oblique rotation [e.g., direct oblimin or promax from SPSS] with the desired number of
factors (see [52]) and look at the correlations among factors . . . ” [53] (p. 646). To retain
appropriate items, this study deleted the items with factor loadings less than 0.30 within a
factor, as well as cross loading items, which load at 0.32 or higher on 2 or more factors [53].
This study also calculated coefficient H reliability—a measure of maximal reliability, which
is a more appropriate measure of the scale’s reliability, as the factor loadings reflect that
each item contributes different amounts of information to the overall scale score [54–57].
The EFA and reliability analysis allowed for the different teaching strategies scales, teachers’
self-concept, and students’ engagement of learning to be represented by a set of observed
scale scores, and thus they were able to show evidence of construct validity through scoring
inferences to a certain extent [58].
Second, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with 50% of the cases
randomly generated in order to determine if the theoretical structure of the latent constructs
provided a good fit to the observed data, which provided further evidence to the construct
validity. The third stage performed an SEM using the whole sample, with paths from 4
teaching strategies as predictors (feedback, scaffolding, active learning, and collaborating)
for 2 outcome variables (teachers’ self-concept and students’ engagement in learning) in
Mplus 7.
We followed general procedures for conducting CFA and SEM [59,60]. As values of
chi-squared statistics are sensitive to sample size, the goodness-of-fit statistics were used as
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 8 of 15

primary indices for the CFA and model evaluation; however, the chi-squared test statistics
were also reported. We used the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI; [61]), the Comparative Fit Index
(CFI; [62]), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; [63]) as our primary
goodness-of-fit statistics. Values of TLI and CFI range from 0.00 to 1.00, with values greater
than 0.90 as an acceptable fit to the data [64]. In terms of the RMSEA, according to [63], a
value of 0.06 is indicative of a good fit between the hypothesised model and the observed
data, values between 0.80 and 0.10 suggest a mediocre fit, and values greater than 0.10
indicate a poor fit [63,64].
Researchers have proposed a number of criteria to be met for a model to be ac-
cepted [60,63]. First, each scale should achieve acceptable reliability, with Cronbach’s
coefficient alpha of about 0.70. Second, factor loadings for the items on the corresponding
scale should be greater than 0.30. Third, latent variables in the model should be distin-
guished from each other, meaning that correlations among them should not be too high
(r should be lower than 0.90). Last, the model fit should be reasonable (the TLI and CFI
should be above 0.90, and the RMSEA should be lower than 0.08).

4. Results
4.1. Results of EFA, CFA, and Correlation
The EFA using all the 25 items yielded the six factors, explaining 62.77% of total
variance. The factor loading of each item for its corresponding factor was above 0.50,
and no item had cross loadings over 0.32. The results of the Coefficient H reliability are
presented in Table 1: feedback: 0.83 (four items), scaffolding: 0.75 (four items), active
learning: 0.74 (four items), collaborating: 0.81 (three items), teachers’ self-concept: 0.83
(five items), and students’ engagement in learning: 0.81 (four items), suggesting that all the
scales were reliable.
Table 1. Factor loadings in the final SEM.

Feedback Scaffolding Active Learning Collaborating Self-Concept Engagement

Mean 4.15 4.35 4.74 4.12 4.48 4.74
SD 0.66 0.49 0.37 0.72 0.45 0.37
Factor loadings
Feedback1 0.49 *
Feedback2 0.77 *
Feedback3 0.81 *
Feedback4 0.80 *
Scaffolding1 0.65 *
Scaffolding2 0.54 *
Scaffolding3 0.73 *
Scaffolding4 0.63 *
Active1 0.62 *
Active2 0.66 *
Active3 0.76 *
Active4 0.78 *
Collaborating1 0.78 *
Collaborating2 0.70 *
Collaborating3 0.68 *
Self-concept1 0.73 *
Self-concept2 0.70 *
Self-concept 3 0.66 *
Self-concept 4 0.62 *
Self-concept 5 0.73 *
Engagement1 0.68 *
Engagement2 0.58 *
Engagement3 0.62 *
Engagement4 0.79 *
Factor correlations
Feedback ---
Scaffolding 0.58 * ---
Active learning 0.46 * 0.65 * ---
Collaborating 0.47 * 0.36 * 0.44 * ---
Self-concept 0.54 * 0.63 * 0.63 * 0.33 * ---
Engagement 0.41 * 0.53 * 0.45 * 0.20 * 0.75 * ---
Note: * p < 0.05.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 9 of 15

The CFA testing six factors resulted in a proper solution with a reasonable fit:
χ2 (87) = 336.49, TLI = 0.90, CFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.06. In comparison, a competing CFA
model testing a single factor derived from the 25 items resulted in a proper solution but
did not fit as well as Model 1: χ2 (72) = 680.26, TLI = 0.64, CFI = 0.61, RMSEA = 0.12.
The final SEM used the whole data, which produced proper fit χ2 (87) = 380.75,
TLI = 0.91, CFI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.05. Table 1 presents the factor loadings for the items
on each scale on the basis of the final SEM, all being above 0.49. The correlations of the
six latent scales are displayed in Table 1. The scale correlations ranged from 0.20 to 0.75,
suggesting that the six scales were distinguishable from each other. The correlations among
the four teaching strategies were all positive (feedback and scaffolding: r = 0.58, p < 0.01;
feedback and active learning: r = 0.46, p < 0.01; feedback and collaborating: r = 0.47, p < 0.01;
scaffolding and active learning: r = 0.65, p < 0.01; scaffolding and collaborating: r = 0.36,
p < 0.01; active learning and collaborating: r = 0.44, p < 0.01). These indicate that teachers
who use one kind of teaching strategies tend to also apply other three kinds of teaching
strategies as well.
The teaching strategies were also positively correlated with the teachers’ self-concept
(feedback: r = 0.54, p < 0.01; scaffolding: r = 0.63, p < 0.01; active learning: r = 0.63, p < 0.01;
collaborating: r = 0.33, p < 0.01), implying that applying these teaching strategies are likely
to bring about positive self-perceptions of oneself as a teacher. Likewise, the four scales
of teaching strategies also had positive association with the students’ engagement scale
(feedback: r = 0.41, p < 0.01; scaffolding: r = 0.53, p < 0.01; active learning: r = 0.45, p < 0.01;
collaborating: r = 0.20, p < 0.01), suggesting that using feedback, scaffolding, active learning,
and collaborating strategies in teaching tend to be also positively associated with students’
engagement in learning. In summary, the reliability analysis results, the factor loadings,
the correlations among scales, and the fit statistics all supported the model to be reasonable
and interpretable.

4.2. Results of the SEM

On the basis of the latent scales established in the CFA, this study further conducted
an SEM to test the relative influences of the four teaching strategies predictors (feedback,
scaffolding, active learning, and collaborating) on the two outcome variables (teachers’
self-concept and students’ engagement). The goodness-of-fit of the model was identical to
the corresponding CFA model: χ2 (237, N = 208) = 375.66, p < 0.01, TLI = 0.91, CFI = 0.92,
RMSEA = 0.05). The paths are shown in Figure 1. From Figure 1, it is clear that the feedback
scale had a significantly positive path to teachers’ self-concept (β = 0.24, p < 0.05), but
a nonsignificant path to the students’ engagement (β = 0.16, p = 0.15). Scaffolding had
significantly positive paths to both teachers’ self-concept (β = 0.28, p < 0.05) and students’
engagement (β = 0.34, p < 0.05). Similar to the feedback scale, the path of the active learning
scale to teachers’ self-concept was significant and positive (β = 0.36, p < 0.01), whereas
the one to students’ engagement was not significant (β = 0.20, p = 0.12). For collaborating,
neither path was a statistically significant path to teachers’ self-concept (β = −0.04, p = 0.67)
or to students’ engagement (β = −0.09, p = 0.38).
 nificantly positive paths to both teachers’ self-concept (β = 0.28, p < 0.05) and students’
engagement (β = 0.34, p < 0.05). Similar to the feedback scale, the path of the active learning
scale to teachers’ self-concept was significant and positive (β = 0.36, p < 0.01), whereas the
one to students’ engagement was not significant (β = 0.20, p = 0.12). For collaborating,
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020
neither path was a statistically significant path to teachers’ self-concept (β = −0.04, p10
= 0.67)
of 15
or to students’ engagement (β = −0.09, p = 0.38).

Note: *p < 0.05

Figure1.1.Results
Figure Resultsof
ofthe
theSEM.
SEM.
5. Discussion
5. Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to examine how the four popular teaching
The purpose of the present study was to examine how the four popular teaching
strategies contributed to students’ learning engagement and teachers’ self-concept. As
strategies
predicted, allcontributed to students’
the four teaching learning
strategies (i.e.,engagement and teachers’
feedback, scaffolding, self-concept.
active learning, and As
predicted, all were
collaborating) the fourfound teaching strategiesassociated
to be positively (i.e., feedback, scaffolding,
with the teachers’ active learning,
perceived and
students’
collaborating) were found to be positively associated with the teachers’
engagement in learning and teachers’ self-concept. Among the four strategies, scaffolding perceived stu-
dents’ engagement in learning and teachers’ self-concept. Among
was the only significant contributor to students’ learning engagement. In terms of the the four strategies, scaf-
folding wasofthe
predictions theonly significant
teaching contributor
strategies to students’
on teachers’ learning
self-concept, engagement.
three out of fourInteaching
terms of
the predictions
strategies in theof SEMthe model
teaching hadstrategies on teachers’
significant self-concept,
and positive paths to three out of
teachers’ four teach-
self-concept
ing strategies in the SEM model had significant and positive paths to
(Figure 1). However, the path from collaborating was near zero, although the correlation teachers’ self-concept
(Figure 1).
between However, the
collaborating andpath from self-concept
teachers’ collaboratingwas waspositive
near zero,
andalthough
moderate.the correlation
This implies
between collaborating and teachers’ self-concept was positive and moderate.
that even though teachers who use collaborating strategies would probably have a positive This implies
that even though teachers who use collaborating strategies would probably
self-concept as a teacher, or teachers who have a positive self-concept are likely to promote have a posi-
tive self-concept
collaborating, when as atheteacher, or teachers
four teaching who have
strategies were aconsidered
positive self-concept are likely to
together, collaborating
promote
did collaborating,
not appear when the
to be a significant four teaching
contributing strategies
factor. werethat
This means considered
althoughtogether,
the teachingcol-
laborating
strategy did not appear
of encouraging to be a significant
collaborating contributing
may enhance factor.
teachers’ This means
self-concept, that although
the enhancement
the
of teachingself-concept
teachers’ strategy of encouraging
would benefit collaborating
more from the may enhance
other threeteachers’
strategiesself-concept,
(i.e., feedback,the
enhancement of teachers’ self-concept would benefit more from the other
scaffolding, and active learning strategies). As suggested in the self-concept literature of three strategies
the relations between self-concept and performance [43], one may also envisage mutually
reinforcing relations such that higher teachers’ self-concept would also reinforce feedback,
scaffolding, and active learning strategies in the long term. However, this possibility will
need longitudinal data and modelling to testify.
The stronger predictions of these three strategies over collaborating strategy for
teachers’ self-concept may have been due to the more active role that teachers play in
these three strategies. In the teaching process, teachers assume a more central and guiding
role in when they provide feedback to students and when they use different scaffolds
to support students’ learning. However, different from our hypothesis, we found that
adopting active learning strategies was the strongest contributor to teachers’ self-concept,
even though in this teaching strategy, teachers seem to play a more peripheral role. A
possible interpretation of such strong and positive prediction from active learning to
teachers’ self-perceptions of their abilities in teaching might be influenced by students’
performance in learning. The meta-analysis showed that students in the active learning
design were 1.5 times more likely to pass the courses [27]. Though this study did not
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 11 of 15

directly test students’ learning performance, it is possible that as the teachers made efforts
to actively involve students in the learning process, which might promote their academic
performance, which in turn positively affects teachers’ perceptions of their own teaching
ability. However, as students’ academic performance was not examined in the current
study, such interpretation is only tentative and should be tested in future research.
Although collaborating and teachers’ self-concept are positively and moderately
correlated, collaborating did not emerge as a significant predictor of teachers’ self-concept
when the four teaching strategies examined in the same model. This relatively weaker
prediction from collaborating than the other three teaching strategies seems reasonable. It
would not be surprising that the more often a teacher implements collaborative activities
in classroom teaching, the less the teacher plays a leading and a central role in the teaching
process. As the promotion of collaborative learning in the classroom shifts away from a
teacher-centred teaching strategy, at least some teachers would relate this strategy less
to their teaching competence from a traditional knowledge transmission perspective [44].
It is possible that because collaborating strategy focuses on students’ involvement and
agency instead of teaching’s dominant role in the classroom, this learner-centred strategy
is less likely to strongly influence teachers’ self-perceptions of their teaching competence.
This might also suggest that at least some of the teachers in our sample still regarded
their competence in teaching to the ability of transmitting knowledge. However, this
speculation should be examined in the future through some qualitative methods, such
as in-depth interviews with teachers. Moreover, we also observed that the correlations
between collaborating and the other three teaching strategies (rs ranged from 0.36 to 0.47)
tend to be slightly lower than the correlations amongst the other three teaching strategies
(rs ranged from 0.44 to 0.58), possibly implying that collaborating strategy was perceived
differently by teachers. Out of the expectation are the differential predictions from active
learning and collaborating to teachers’ self-concept, as in both strategies, students play
central roles whereas teachers have peripheral roles. However, in reality, collaborating
strategy seems to be more complex than active learning as when no clear guideline of
interaction is provided, students may go off-topic in the collaboration process [34–37].
Hence, even when teachers implement collaborative strategies, such implementation may
not produce effective learning, which may affect teachers’ perceptions of relation using
collaborative strategies with teachers’ self-concept in teaching.
Whereas the teaching strategies have long been recognised as beneficial to effective
learning outcomes for students [3]), a contribution of our analysis is identification of their
potential benefits to teachers. Our results show that by using these strategies in classroom
teaching, teachers may feel self-fulfilled and appreciate their teaching, leading to a higher
self-concept of teaching competence. As self-concept is known to be a significant factor that
is likely to bring further benefit to performance in future [43], building a better self-concept
which will likely to strengthen teachers’ skills in applying strategies in teaching in the
long term.
With regard to the contributions of the four teaching strategies to students’ engage-
ment in learning, the results of this study show that although all the four teaching strategies
were positively and significantly associated with students’ engagement, when putting
them in a single model, only scaffolding emerged as a significant and positive contributor
to students’ engagement. Indeed, scaffolding is listed as one of the top factors which
has positive effects on students’ learning [5]. As this study’s participants were primary
school students who needed various scaffolds in particular, it was reasonable that teachers
perceived that this strategy was most effective to engage students in the learning process.
The near-zero paths from collaborating to students’ engagement is displeasing. The
negligible path seems to reflect either that collaborating has not been effectively imple-
mented by the teachers or that the primary students have not been able to work collabora-
tively in a constructive way to promote engagement in learning activities. If the former
that is related to the teacher is the reason, then through teachers’ professional development
of building the capacity of teachers to more effectively use collaborating in the classroom
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 12 of 15

would be necessary. If the latter that is related to the students’ developmental characteris-
tics, then curriculum designers and researchers would have a significant role for designing
the most developmentally appropriate collaborative tasks for primary students at different
developmental stages. Moreover, some training and instruction on how to collaborate
effectively should also be implemented. Prior research shows that pretask modelling is
able to encourage opportunities for collaboration [65]. For instance, teachers could provide
advice and models that reveals what successful collaboration looks like; the stages of team
building; as well as specific skills for communication, conflict management, trust building,
and active listening [66].
Different from the hypothesis is the finding of the non-significant path from feedback
to students’ engagement. Although feedback was found to be positively correlated with
students’ engagement, the path from feedback to students’ engagement was not statistically
significant. This could be that feedback may not be effective for promoting learning
engagement. [8] reported that feedback tended not to be effective on the motivational and
behavioural outcomes in learning.

6. Limitations and Future Directions

Despite the significant findings, the present study suffers from some limitations
which need to be addressed in future studies. First, considering the young age of primary
school students, this study used teachers’ ratings to reflect students’ engagement from
the teachers’ perspective. This might not be a true representation of students’ learning
engagement. Hence, future studies may use a combination of teachers’, parents’, and
students’ ratings to measure students’ engagement in learning. Second, this study was
purely quantitative, which limits the possibility of an in-depth exploration of interaction
among teaching strategies, teachers’ self-concepts, and students’ engagement. Future
studies should therefore employ some qualitative research techniques, such as open-ended
questions and interviews, in order to supplement findings from the current study. Third,
this research was cross-sectional, preventing the testing of any reciprocal hypotheses and
causality among these relations. Future studies may endeavour to collect multiple waves
of data in a longitudinal modelling design in order to test reciprocal relations between
teaching strategies, teachers’ self-concepts, and students’ engagement.

7. Practical Implications and Conclusions

The findings of this study have significant practical implications for teaching practices.
Different from the commonly held concepts that active learning and collaborating strategies
would get students engaged in the learning processes, this study’s findings do not support
this view. In a model such as the one outlined in this study, wherein a number of teaching
strategies were examined simultaneously, this study found that the two strategies did
not make significant contributions to students’ engaged learning as much as scaffolding.
The practical implication is that for students in primary school, if students’ engagement
is the main focus, then scaffolding (i.e., building upon what students already know and
helping students to understand better through self-regulated learning) should be the
prominent strategy to use. This is logical as primary students need systematic guidance to
learning compared to more mature learners. Therefore, when teachers try to adopt teaching
strategies appropriate to their classroom, they need to consider the age of learners.
The way in which to successfully incorporate active learning and collaborating strate-
gies into primary teaching would require further investigation. Teacher educators and
curriculum designers would have significant contributions to these aspects of teaching.
For example, researchers have advocated that in order for collaborating to be effective in
learning, teachers need to frequently monitor students’ interaction and provide structured
and informative guidelines before students’ interaction [67]. Specific teacher education
programs on how to organise these kinds of activities and how to make them work for
primary students should be designed to empower teachers in these techniques.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 5020 13 of 15

To conclude, this empirical study has provided important evidence for the relations
of teaching strategies, teachers’ self-concept, and students’ engagement in learning in the
primary school teaching context in urban and rural Australia. The findings in these least
researched relations demonstrate that not all well-known teaching strategies are equally
effective in engaging primary school students. Likewise, not all kinds of teaching strategies
are conducive to enhancing teachers’ self-concept in teaching. In the face of numerous
suggestions and choices about good teaching practices, it is the teaching context and
characteristics of the students that matter in bringing the best effects of a specific strategy
to both students and teachers in order to achieve the ultimate goal of providing quality
education, which is effective and sustainable.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Western Sydney (12826).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to ethical issue.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declared no conflict of interest.

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