S0300-A8-HBK-010

CHAPTER 8

RECOVERING BUOYANCY

8-1 INTRODUCTION

Removing floodwater, or dewatering, recovers buoyancy lost by flooding, as opposed to increasing buoyancy by removing cargo, stores, or other
weights that were in the ship before the casualty. Floodwater is removed by pumping, compressed air, or by induced buoyancy methods that
displace water with buoyancy objects. Leakage into spaces to be pumped must be reduced to less than available pumping capacity by patching
and/or securing open valves and fittings. Submerged compartments can be pumped through cofferdams that extend the boundaries of the space
above the waterline. The tops and sides of spaces to be dewatered with compressed air must be made airtight. Spaces dewatered with induced
buoyancy need not be made watertight, but other preparations may be necessary. Each dewatering method has advantages and disadvantages;
the general principles of each dewatering method are discussed in this chapter. Specific applications of buoyancy recovery methods are discussed
in Chapter 5 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020).

8-1.1 Selection of Spaces to be Dewatered. Factors in selecting spaces to be dewatered include:

• Amount of buoyancy that can be recovered.

• Location.

• Effect on stability and trim.

• Effect on strength.

• Work and time required.

• Contamination of floodwater.

• Possible deterioration of machinery and cargo following dewatering.

8-1.1.1 Stability. Dewatering sequences must be chosen to ensure adequate stability after refloating. For ships stranded so that they can freely
incline, it is important to maintain positive metacentric height (GM) and to avoid offcenter weight during dewatering. Removing all floodwater
restores the ship to its precasualty condition, provided other weight changes are not made. If the ship was stable before flooding, it will be stable
after dewatering. It may not have positive stability during dewatering or after partial dewatering.

8-1.1.2 Strength. As the casualty is dewatered, weight distribution and hull girder bending stresses will change. Dewatering a large space
while an adjacent space remains flooded can create large shear forces at the compartment boundary. The ability of the bulkhead to withstand
the hydrostatic pressure from one side only must also be determined. This is particularly important when dewatering sunken ships through
cofferdams or pumping plates, where the hydrostatic head may be greater than the height of the compartment.

8-2 PATCHING NOTES

Patch construction and installation are discussed at length in Chapter 4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020).
The following notes supplement the Salvage Manual discussion.

8-2.1 Patch Strength. Strength analysis for patches is based on relationships for strength of flat plates, beams, and stiffened plating under
distributed loads.

Patches for minor leaks at depths less than 50 feet do not require strength analysis because the stiffness and toughness necessary for normal
handling provides more than enough strength to withstand hydrostatic pressure. If the patch cannot be broken or torn by hand, it is strong enough.

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8-2.1.1 Unstiffened Patches. For strength

analysis, unstiffened plate, plywood, or FULL PENETRATION OR 1/4" RUBBER OR LEAD GASKET
DOUBLE-BUTT WELDS STUDS OR
crossed-planking patches are equivalent to
THROUGH BOLTS
flat plates under uniform pressure. Two
sets of boundary conditions apply:
PATCH

• Fixed edges – Edges are

attached to a ship structure in 6" MINIMUM
a manner that prevents
rotation in planes perpen- FILLET WELD PATCH PATCH
dicular to the plate. The
structure supporting the edges
is rigid enough that deflection
is negligible compared to 6" MINIMUM
patch deflection. Patches at-
tached to heavy plating or
Figure 8-1. Patch Connections - Fixed Edge.
near solid stiffeners, as
shown in Figure 8-1, have
fixed edges.

• Simply supported edges – Table 8-1. Rectangular Plate Coefficient.

Edges are attached to ship
structures in a manner that R/r k
permits rotation in planes
perpendicular to the plate, or 4 fixed 4 simply 1 fixed 2 short 2 long
to structures with deflection edges supported edges edge edges fixed edges fixed
of the same order of magni- 1.0 0.308 0.287 0.500 0.418 0.418
tude as patch deflection.
1.1 0.348 0.332
Patches attached by toggle
bolts, or J-, L-, or T-bolts, 1.2 0.384 0.376
with strongbacks, or with 1.3 0.410 0.416
narrow overlap have simply
supported edges. 1.4 0.436 0.450
1.5 0.454 0.487 0.670 0.490 0.626
It is possible for patches to have all fixed
1.6 0.468 0.517
edges, all simply supported edges, or some
simply supported and some fixed edges. 1.7 0.480 0.545
Paragraph 2-5 gives strength relationships 1.8 0.487 0.570
for flat plates under uniform loading for
various boundary conditions: 1.9 0.493 0.590
2.0 0.497 0.610 0.730 0.497 0.715
kpr 2 kpr 2
σ = ⇒ t = 3.0 0.500 0.713 0.750 0.500 0.750
t2 σallow
4.0 0.500 0.741 0.750 0.500 0.750
5.0 0.500 0.748 0.750 0.500 0.750
where:
∞ 0.500 0.750 0.750 0.500 0.750
σ = maximum stress in.
patch, psi R = length of long side of plate
t = patch thickness, in. r = length of short side of plate
p = uniform pressure, psi k = strength coefficient
r = length of short side, in.
k = empirical coefficient, Adapted from Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition,
from Table 8-1 Avallone & Baumeister, 1987 and Mechanical Engineering Review Manual, Seventh
σallow = maximum allowable Edition, Lindeburg, 1986
stress in patch
material, psi

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Patch thickness in inches may be determined for specified depths by noting that pressure in psi is equal to 0.445D, where D is seawater depth
in feet. Substituting 0.445D for p in the flat-plate stress equation and solving for t:

k(0.445)Dr 2(144in2/ft2) 64kDr 2

t = =
σallow σallow
where:

D = water depth, ft
r = patch width, ft
σallow = allowable stress in patch material, psi

Substituting the limiting values of k gives general-purpose relationships for the thickness of unstiffened patches for various end constraints:

32Dr 2
t = 4 fixed edges or 2 short edges fixed
σallow

48Dr 2
t = 3 or 4 simply supported edges, or 2 long edges fixed
σallow
Allowable stress is the material yield stress divided by a factor of safety. For short-term use, a factor of safety of 1.5 is adequate, giving the
following allowable stresses for the most common patching materials:

Structural lumber 1,500 psi

Aluminum (shipbuilding) 8,000 psi
Mild steel 24,000 psi
GRP panels
30% fiber 20,000 psi
65% fiber 33,000 psi

Yield stresses for specific material grades are tabulated in Appendix E. Patches for long-term service, including ocean tows, should be designed
with a factor of safety of 2 (allowable stresses approximately 70 percent of the above values), and/or reinforced with concrete after dewatering.

Patch material should be the next greatest standard size of lumber or plate available. Both wooden and steel patches may be doubled. Steel
plates are doubled by plug-welding at close, regular intervals so the two plates act as a unit. Wooden planks are nailed, screwed, or bolted
together.

8-2.1.2 Stiffened Patches. Stiffened patches can be treated as panels of stiffened plating or grillages under distributed lateral loading by the
methods presented in Paragraph 2-5. The simplest solution is to assume simply supported edges and calculate the plating thickness by
substituting trial stiffener spacing (l) for r in the plating thickness equation:

48Dl 2
t =
σallow

The patch strength curves in Chapter 4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) are based on this relationship.
The relationship assumes rigid-edge support, i.e., stiffener deflection is negligible compared to plate deflection. As a rule, stiffeners with
deflection less than L/124 (where L is span length) meet the criterion for rigid support. In general, stiffener deflection is not governing in
nonmarginal design, that is, where the safety factor is 3 or greater.

After an acceptable stiffener spacing and plating thickness are determined, stiffener cross section is determined; either beam strength or deflection
may govern.

From Table 2-3, for end-supported beams under uniform loading:

wL 2 plL 2
Mmax = = (fixed ends)
12 12

wL 2 plL 2
Mmax = = (simply supported)
8 8
where:

Mmax = maximum beam bending moment, in-lbs

w = uniform load per unit length, lb/in.
= pl
p = hydrostatic pressure, psi
l = stiffener spacing, in.
L = beam length, in.

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Required section modulus determined from the beam strength formula:

Mc M M
σ = = ⇒ Z =
I Z σallow
where:

M = beam bending moment, in-lbs

σ = bending stress, psi
I = moment of inertia, in4
c = distance from neutral axis to outer fibers, in.
Z = section modulus, in3
= I/c

Moment of inertia for required stiffness is calculated from beam deflection relationships by setting deflection equal to L/124 and solving for
I:
wL 4 PlL 4
ymax = = (fixed ends)
384EI 384EI

L 31plL 3
ymax = , ⇒ I =
124 96E

5wL 4 PlL 4
ymax = = 5 (simply supported)
384EI 384EI

L 155plL 3
ymax = , ⇒ I =
124 96E

where:

ymax = maximum beam bending moment, in-lbs

w = uniform load per unit length, lb/in.
= pl
p = hydrostatic pressure, psi
l = stiffener spacing, in.
L = beam length, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
I = moment of inertia, in4

Stiffener cross section is selected to meet the required section modulus or moment of inertia. If standard rolled steel shapes are being used,
a matching value of I or Z can be selected from the tables in Appendix E, or the AISC Steel Construction Handbook.

8-2.1.3 Planks. Planks in built-up patches will act independently unless extensively stiffened. Plank dimensions are determined from the beam
strength theory:

σI σbt 2 6M
M = = ⇒ t =
c 6 b σallow

where:

M = maximum beam bending moment, in-lbs

σ = bending stress, psi
I = moment of inertia, in4
= bt3/12
b = plank width, in.
t = plank thickness, in.
c = distance from neutral axis to outer fibers, in.
= 0.5t

Excessive deflection makes it difficult to seal the edges of the patch. Planks should be dimensioned to limit deflection to less than L/124, as
described in the previous paragraph.

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EXAMPLE 8-1

PATCH THICKNESS

a. What is the required thickness of a 2-foot square, unstiffened, where:

wooden patch installed at 33 feet with hook bolts? The patch D = 33 feet
is to be reinforced with concrete for ocean tow. r = 2 feet
σallow = 24,000 psi
48Dr 2
t =
σallow
32(33)(2)2
t = = 0.420 inches
24,000
where:
D = 33 feet The patch should be built of plating thicker than 0.420
r = 2 feet inch, e.g., 7⁄ 16-inch (0.4375) or 1⁄ 2-inch plate.
σallow = 1,500 psi
c. If the only size plate available is 1⁄ 4-inch, what stiffener
48(33)(2)2 spacing is required for the patch in part b?
t = = 2.06 inches
1,500
The problem is solved by trial and error; try a single
The patch thickness should exceed 2.05 inches. Select 3-inch central stiffener (l = 1) for first estimate.
(nominal) planking, with an actual thickness of 25⁄ 8 inches.
32(33)(1)2
t = = 0.210 inches
b. What is the required thickness of a 2-foot-square, unstiffened, 24,000
steel patch welded to solid hull structure at 33 feet? The
patch is to be reinforced with concrete for ocean tow. 0.210 < 0.25, so a single stiffener with 1⁄ 4-inch plate is
acceptable.
2
32Dr
t =
σallow

8-2.2 Built-up Patches. If both shell plating and framing are torn away, a framework of steel angles or channels can be constructed to bridge
the gap and tie into existing framing with welded or bolted connector plates. Plate panels are then attached in strakes to cover the hole and
connect with the surrounding plating. The plates can be joined by welds or by gasketed, bolted lap joints. It is not necessary to recreate the
hull contour precisely.

When a damaged vessel must make a long transit to a repair yard, or is to return to service for some time before receiving permanent repairs,
the time and effort required to install built-up plate or plank patches may be justified by their inherent strength and low drag.

8-2.3 Large Prefabricated Steel

Patches. Simple steel patches can be INTERMEDIATE FRAMES
APPROXIMATE HULL
prefabricated at the salvage site without CONTOURS
industrial facilities. A jig, like the one
shown in Figure 8-2, is built of steel
structural shapes to match the contours of a
window box or template. Narrow strips of
light plating can be hammered into shape
on the jig and welded together to form a
developed surface, or smaller pieces of
heavier plating laid over the jig and welded
together to form a hydroconic shape.

8-2.4 Concrete. Concrete is a mixture of EDGE CONTOURS

cement, aggregate (hard inert particles of TO MATCH
WINDOW TEMPLATE
varying size), and water. The cement-water
mixture forms a paste that binds the
aggregate into a cohesive mass in a Figure 8-2. Jig for Shaping Contoured Plate Patches.
chemical process called hydration that takes
place as the concrete sets. Hydration
generates heat that may be considerable in large concrete masses. Strength develops as the concrete cures. The rate of strength development
varies with concrete mix and environmental conditions. Setting and curing are retarded at temperatures below 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and
accelerated at temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Concrete surfaces should be kept moist for proper curing and development of full
strength.

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8-2.4.1 Cement. There are several kinds of cement, but portland cement is preferred for underwater applications. There are five basic types
and several special types of portland cement. Normal portland cement is the standard of comparison for portland cement. Concretes made with
normal portland cement develop full strength in about 28 days and continue to strengthen for many years thereafter. Strength and curing times
for other cements are described by comparing their 28-day strength to that of normal portland cement, or by specifying the curing time required
to develop strength equal to normal portland’s full strength. For all concretes, strength developed at less than 28 days is early strength.
Although any of the portland cements can be used in salvage, three types are particularly well suited for salvage work:

• Normal Portland Cement (Type I) – For general use where special properties are not required. Generally available worldwide in
developed areas.

• High-early-strength Portland Cement (Type III) – Develops full strength in about seven days. The most suitable cement for most
salvage work.

• Regulated-set Cements – Special portland cements formulated to set and produce usable concrete strengths in times as short as
one hour or less; well suited to salvage and repair work, but not always available.

Cement can be procured in bulk or in various packaging. Cement is most commonly packaged in 94-pound bags.

8-2.4.2 Aggregate. Concrete mixes include both fine and coarse aggregate. Fine aggregate consists of particles less than 1⁄ 4 inch across. Sand
is generally used for fine aggregate, although ground rock and coral (from quarries, stone mills, etc) are acceptable. Coarse aggregate may be
broken stone, gravel, slag, crushed coral, cinders, or similar hard, inert material.

For best concrete workability and strength, fine aggregate should be well-graded—that is, it should have relatively even proportions of a range
of particle sizes, from very fine up to 1⁄ 4 inch. Sand for concrete should be sharp, clean, and free from organic matter, salt, silt, alkali, clay,
and other impurities. If the individual particles are too smooth or rounded, the cement paste will not adhere to them strongly, producing a weak
concrete. Fine dust, silt, or clay will coat the coarse aggregate and prevent the cement paste from adhering. Organic impurities, including coal,
interfere with hydration and reduce concrete strength. Strength is also decreased by fine aggregate that exceeds the amount required to fill the
voids in the coarse aggregate. The volume of fine aggregate should not exceed 60 percent of that of the coarse aggregate. Bagged sand for
concrete mixing can be procured through various suppliers, or sand can be obtained from local sand and gravel pits. Unwashed beach sand is
a poor aggregate because it is usually poorly graded, always salt-contaminated, often contains organic material, and the particles may be smooth
and almost spherical.

For most work, coarse aggregate particles should have a maximum diameter of 1 to 11⁄ 2 inches. Smaller particles increase strength, workability,
and ability to flow. For large jobs, 3-inch or larger particles may be acceptable. Aggregate particle size should be limited to not more than one-
fifth the narrowest width between forms, one-third the thickness of slabs, or three-fourths the minimum clear spacing between reinforcing steel.
Crushed stone or gravel provide a better bonding surface for the cement paste, and are better aggregates than smooth, rounded pit run gravel.

Unit weight of the concrete is affected most by the weight and size of the coarse aggregate. Depending on the use and location of the concrete
in the casualty, the salvor may desire to adjust the density of the concrete. Heavy aggregates include metal mill punchings, ferrophosphate,
hematite, magnetite, barite, limenite, and other dense stones. Lightweight aggregates—those with densities less than 70 pounds per cubic foot
(pcf)—include pumice, coral, lava, slag, burned clay or shale, and cinders. For a
given aggregate, decreasing aggregate size decreases concrete unit weight. Table
8-2 gives typical densities for concrete using common aggregates. Table 8-2. Concrete Densities.

8-2.4.3 Water. Water for concrete should be free from oil, acid, alkali, organic
Aggregate Density
matter, and similar contaminants. Water fit for drinking is satisfactory for mixing
concrete, although considerably less pure water is also suitable. Water with less pcf
than 2,000 ppm dissolved solids will not significantly affect concrete properties. Sand-cinder 112
Seawater can be used in plain concrete, but will reduce 28-day strength by about
12 percent. Steel reinforcements, ferrous aggregates, and steel surfaces in contact Burned clay or shale 105
with the concrete will corrode rapidly if seawater is used in the mixture. The
expansion accompanying corrosion will introduce tensile stresses that crack and Gravel 148
weaken the concrete. Limestone 148
8-2.4.4 Admixtures. Admixtures are substances added to concrete to alter normal Sandstone 143
properties to suit a particular purpose. Admixtures are used to increase
workability, accelerate or retard setting, reduce shrinkage, or increase strength. Traprock 155
Treated cements have had admixtures added during production. The principal
admixtures are described below:

Air entraining agents entrain air in small, closely spaced, separated bubbles in the concrete. The quantity of air entrained is expressed as a
percentage of the volume of the concrete. Cements treated with air entraining agents are designated by the letter A following the type; for
example, type IA. Air entrainment is employed chiefly to improve resistance of the finished concrete to freezing and thawing, but workability
of the wet concrete is markedly improved. However, density and strength are also reduced; each percent of air entrainment reduces concrete
strength by three to four percent.

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Accelerators decrease setting time and increase early strength, allowing the patch or other structure to be loaded sooner. Accelerators can
compensate for the retarding effects of low temperature or of another admixture. Calcium chloride (commonly available as road salt) is the
most commonly used accelerator, and can be used routinely in amounts of up to two percent of the weight of cement. In a two-percent
concentration, calcium chloride reduces setting time by one-half, and increases workability; early strength is dramatically increased. In freezing
weather, amounts of up to four percent of the weight of cement can be used. The calcium chloride is proportioned by dry weight, but is added
to the concrete mix in solution with warm water. Ordinary bicarbonate of soda (one cup per bag of cement) can also be used as an accelerator.

Retarders increase setting time. They are used in hot weather or where delays are likely between mixing and placing the concrete.

Water reducers, or plasticizers, increase workability without increasing water content, which would reduce strength. When used as recommended
by their manufacturers, water reducers increase concrete strength by about 15 percent.

Fly ash, from coal-fired power plants, increases workability and strength.

8-2.4.5 Concrete Delivery. The relative merits of placing concrete by hand, tremie, concrete gun, and grouting pump are discussed in the U.S.
Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020). The pressurized concrete grouting pump, shown in Figure 8-3, is typical of those
used by Navy Underwater Construction
Teams (UCT). Pumped concrete requires a
high proportion of fine aggregate, and has
slightly less strength than tremie concrete. HOPPER SCREEN
Coarse aggregate for pumped concrete
should be rounded rather than angular, and
less than 3⁄ 8 inch across.

Tremie pipes are usually steel, but hard rub-

ber hose or plastic pipe can be used. Alum-
inum alloy pipes should not be used because
they may react with and weaken the
concrete.

Concrete setting time increases as temp-

erature decreases. Concrete should be pro-
tected from freezing; the water will separate
from the cement paste as it crystallizes, Figure 8-3. Concrete Pump.
preventing proper setting and bonding.

8-2.4.6 Concrete Consistency. Concrete consistency is defined by descriptive terms and the parameter slump. Slump is determined by filling
a form shaped as a frustrum of a cone with the concrete. The form is upended and immediately removed. The slump is the subsidence of the
mass below its height in the cone. The form has a base of 8-inch diameter, a top of 4-inch diameter, and a height of 12 inches. For the standard
slump test, it is filled in three 4-inch layers; each layer is rodded by 25 strokes of a 5⁄ 8-inch, bullet-pointed rod.

Table 8-3 gives descriptive terms for

concrete consistencies adopted by the Table 8-3. Concrete Consistency.
American Concrete Institute. For
underwater placement, the mix should be as
stiff as possible to obtain maximum Slump
Consistency Remarks
strength and mitigate the weakening effects in.
of water dilution. The concrete must be
workable enough to flow into all parts and Crumbles and falls apart unless carefully handled; can be consolidated into solid
completely fill the form, and to be Dry 0-1 mass under vigorous ramming, heavy pressure, or vibration, but will contain
voids unless special care is used.
compatible with the selected delivery
method, however. Workability and
strength are to some extent conflicting 1 Pile tends to stand upright when dumped; holds together well, but crumbles if
Stiff ⁄ 2 - 2 1⁄ 2
chuted; can be tamped into solid mass with care and effort.
requirements—increasing water content
increases workability but decreases
Easily molded, but some care required to achieve complete consolidation; also
strength. Concrete placed by tremie or Medium 2 - 5 1⁄ 2
called plastic, mushy, or quaking.
pump should be of a medium to wet
consistency to avoid clogging the pump or
Wet 5-8 Pile flattens readily when dumped; can be poured into place.
pipe. Medium or wet mixes are used to
ease placement and ensure good bonding to
complex surfaces. Plasticizers can be used Sloppy 7 - 10 Grout or mortar tends to run out of pile, leaving coarser material behind.
to obtain workability without adding water.

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8-2.4.7 Concrete Proportioning. Optimum pro-

portions of cement, aggregate, and water in a Table 8-4. Concrete Compressive Strength.
concrete mixture depend on the desired strength and
workability of the concrete. Other factors include Average 28-day Compressive Strength, psi
Water-cement ratio
coarse aggregate size, and the general rule that con-
Gal per sack By weight Nonair-entrained Air-entrained
crete placed through water should contain at least 7
bags of cement per cubic yard of concrete, and 11⁄ 2 to 4 0.35 6,000 4,800
2 times as much coarse aggregate as fine aggregate 5 0.44 5,000 4,000
(pumped mixes do not follow this rule). 6 0.53 4,000 3,200
7 0.62 3,200 2,600
For a given aggregate and cement type, concrete
8 0.71 2,500 2,000
strength is controlled primarily by the water-cement
ratio. Decreasing water content increases concrete 9 0.80 2,000 1,600
density and strength so long as the concrete remains
workable enough to be placed. Increasing water
content increases workability, but decreases both
strength and the rate at which strength develops. Table 8-5. Variation of Concrete Compressive Strength with Age.
Table 8-4 gives 28-day compressive strength for
various water-cement ratios, as determined by the
Water-cement Compressive Strength, percent of 28-day strength
American Concrete Institute (ACI).
ratio
Gal per sack 3 days 7 days 28 days 3 months 1 year
Table 8-5 shows the effect of increasing water-
cement ratio on early strength. As a general rule, 5 40 75 100 125 145
water-cement ratio should be less than about 0.45 by 7 30 65 100 135 155
weight.
9 25 50 100 145 165
The effects of aggregate size are described in From American Concrete Institute, Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
Paragraph 8-2.4.2 above, but aggregate size is often Concrete, ACI 613-54
dictated by availability. Once the maximum ag-
gregate size has been determined, the water content
needed to produce the desired slump can be estimated
from Table 8-6. Once water content has been Table 8-6. Water Content.
determined, cement content is calculated from the
desired water-cement ratio. The volume of coarse 3 1 3
Slump in: ⁄8 ⁄2 ⁄4 1 1 1⁄ 2 2 3 6
aggregate per cubic yard of concrete is estimated
3
from Table 8-7. The volume of sand per cubic yard Water, lb/yd for indicated nominal aggregate size, in.
can be estimated by summing the weights determined Nonair-entrained concrete
for water, cement, and coarse aggregate, and
1-2 350 335 315 300 275 260 220 190
deducting the sum from 4,000 pounds, the
approximate dry weight of a cubic yard of concrete. 3-4 385 365 340 325 300 285 245 210
6-7 410 385 360 340 315 300 270 --
For ordinary aggregates (coarse aggregate less than
Air-entrained concrete
11⁄ 2-inch, well-graded sand) the concrete mixes listed
in Table 8-8 are adequate for salvage patching. 1-2 305 295 280 270 250 240 205 180
3-4 340 325 305 295 275 265 225 200
8-2.4.8 Concrete Strength. Table 8-4 gives the
6-7 365 345 325 310 290 280 260 --
basic compressive strength of concrete as a function
of the water-cement ratio. Tensile strength is about From American Concrete Institute, Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for
8 percent of the compressive strength, and shear Concrete, ACI 613-54
strength (direct shear) is about 20 percent.

Table 8-7. Aggregate Volume. Table 8-8. Concrete Mixes.

Nominal aggregate Volume of dry coarse aggregate Placement Method

size, in. per unit volume of concrete
3
⁄8 0.47 Item By Hand Concrete Pump Tremie or Gun
1
⁄2 0.56
3
Portland cement 2 parts 2 parts 4 parts
⁄4 0.63
1 0.68 Fine aggregate 3 parts 6 parts 7 parts
1 1⁄ 2 0.72
Coarse aggregate 3 - 5 parts 1 part 10 parts
2 0.75
3 0.79 Water 4 to 6 gal/bag of cement 5 gal/bag of cement 5 gal/bag of cement
6 0.84
Slump varies 6 in 6 in
From American Concrete Institute, Recommended Practice
for Selecting Proportions for Concrete, ACI 613-54 Compressive Strength varies, see Table 8-4 3,000 psi 4,000 psi

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8-2.4.9 Dimensioning Concrete Patches. Because of concrete’s low tensile strength, unreinforced patches should be dimensioned so that hydro-
static loads are borne in direct shear; in other words, thickness should be significant compared to length and width. Direct shear stresses are
calculated by:
S
τ =
A
where:

τ = shear stress, [force/area] S = shear force acting on the section in question, [force]
A = cross-sectional area, [length2]

The cross section of most concrete patches is roughly rectangular, so A = bt, where b is width and t thickness. Width is determined by the size
of the damage. Solving for t:
S
t =
b τallow

where:

τallow = allowable shear stress = 0.2σc, [force/area] σc = compressive strength, [force/area]

To ensure that flexural stresses are within acceptable limits, the beam strength formula can also be solved for t:
Mc bt 3 t
σmax = , Irectangle = , c = height of neutral axis =
I 12 2

6M
∴ t = σ
b allow

where:

σmax = maximum bending stress, [force/area] I = moment of inertia, [length4]

M = bending moment, [force-length] σallow = allowable tensile stress = 0.08σc, [force/area]

For patches placed on bottom plating, the weight of the concrete acts opposite the hydrostatic force, reducing the net load on the patch. An
iterative solution is required to find the optimum patch thickness; shear force and bending moment vary with patch thickness and weight, but
conservation of concrete is seldom critical.

Patches can be reinforced with steel reinforcing bar, wire mesh, structural shapes, or strips of plate. Reinforcing steel is placed near the inside
surface of the patch (the tension side of the beam), or near both inside and outside surfaces. The steel is assumed to carry 100 percent of the
tensile load. Reinforcing members should be covered by at least 11⁄ 2 to 2 inches of concrete and should run the length of the patch. Holes or
deep scorings should be cut along the length of plating and structural shapes used for reinforcing steel to ensure the concrete bonds to the
relatively smooth surface.

Section moment of inertia and height of the neutral axis calculations are based on the transformed area, as described in Paragraph 2-8.1. The mod-
ulus of elasticity of concrete varies from two to five million psi. For the concrete mixes used in salvage, modulus of elasticity can be taken conserva-
tively as three million psi, giving a concrete-to-steel elastic ratio of about 0.10. The nominal moment carrying capacity of a reinforced beam is:

Mn = Td = Cd

where:

Mn = nominal maximum allowable bending moment, b = patch width, [length]

[force-length] c = distance from neutral axis to compression side of patch,
T = maximum allowable tension, [force] [length]
= Asteelσy d = distance from reinforcing steel to center of assumed
σy = yield stress of the steel, [force/area] compression area
C = maximum allowable compression, [force] = s - 0.5(0.85c) = s - 0.475c
= 0.85(assumed compression area)σc s = distance from reinforcing steel to compression side of
= 0.85bcσc patch, [length]

8-2.5 Fiber Composites. Glass-reinforced plastic (commonly called fiberglass or GRP) patches are fabricated from preformed, flat panels or
are laid up on site from the base ingredients (glass fiber and resin). Other high-strength fibers, such as polyaramid (Kevlar®) and graphite, are
becoming more available, both as prefabricated panels and as fibers in forms suitable for field fabrication. Fiber-reinforced patches offer the
following advantages:
• High strength-to-weight ratio.
• Nearly neutrally buoyancy (metal or wooden stiffeners will make the patch either heavy or light).
• Patches can be matched to complex shapes in the absence of industrial facilities.

8-9
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-2.5.1 Composite Panels. Fiber-

composite panels offer an alternative to
wood and steel as patching material. GRP
panels can be drilled, filed, sawn, and
ground. They are difficult to punch or HOLE IN PLATING
shear without cracking and cannot be ham-
mered or permanently bent. Thin sheets PLATING CLEANED
can be bent and held to large radius, TO BARE METAL
smooth curves. Fiber-composite panels are 2" FOR EACH GRP
LAYER
used in essentially the same manner as
plywood panels.

Flat and corrugated solid composite panels

can be ordered in various sizes in
thicknesses up to one inch or more. Sand-
wich panels, consisting of a wood, urethane
foam, honeycomb, or fluted core, covered
by two composite layers are also available.
Sandwich panels are stiffer than flat panels
of comparable strength. Solid and FIRST LAYER OF
RESIN IMPREGNATED
sandwich panels can be obtained with WOVEN ROVING
bonded wood, steel, aluminum, or
preformed composite stiffeners. Stiffeners
can be attached on site by bolting or
bonding with epoxy resin.

Honeycomb panels with cores made of

paper or cardboard should be avoided. If
they are to be used, the edges and inside
surfaces of any holes must be well sealed
to prevent the core from softening and
collapsing when immersed.

8-2.5.2 GRP Lay-up. GRP patches can

SUBSEQUENT
be laid up to the desired size or shape on RESIN/ROVING
site. The resin-fiber lay-up process yields LAYERS
best results when performed in
environment-controlled shops, but can
achieve acceptable results in very primitive
surroundings. Some epoxy resins will bond
and cure underwater, but there is no
reliable method of ensuring proper resin
impregnation of immersed fibers. Some Figure 8-4. GRP Patch Lay-Up.
manufacturers produce small panels of
fabric pre-impregnated with a resin that can
cure underwater, primarily intended as pipe-patching medium. These two factors limit the use of large fiber-reinforced, composite patches to
situations where the fiber lay-up process can be performed dry:

• Direct lay-up of patches over openings above the waterline and in piping systems where liquid flow can be temporarily secured.

• Topside fabrication of patches or panels to cover submerged openings.

Other uses include sheathing of prefabricated wooden patches to add strength and ensure watertightness and edge-sealing of mechanically
fastened patches.

The raw components of GRP are fine glass fibers and an impregnating resin. The resins are normally supplied in two parts—a resin base and
a catalyst, or hardener. Some resins have been formulated that use water as a hardening agent. Fibers are produced in various forms for resin
lay-up, but heavyweight cloth or woven roving are best for salvage patches. Both polyester and epoxy resins are used. Epoxies are stronger
than polyester resins but more expensive and harder to use because they are more affected by temperature differences. Either resin type can
be applied over the other but only after the basic layer has set hard. Most resins require an ambient temperature of 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit
to cure properly.

Fabric (woven roving or cloth) lay-up is a relatively straightforward process. For prefabricated panels or shapes, a layer of woven roving is
laid down over a mold. Twenty-four ounce or heavier woven roving is best for most salvage patches. For flat panels, the "mold" is any flat,
reasonably smooth surface of sufficient size, covered with a sheet of plastic to prevent the patch from bonding to the surface. For complex
shapes, a lightweight jig of wooden lathes can be built. If industrial services are available, patches can be built to order.

8-10
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The layer of woven roving is impregnated

with the resin. The resin should be daubed SANDWICH PANELS
on rather than brushed to avoid disturbing aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
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the fabric. A plastic squeegee or paint
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roller is used to smooth the fabric, remove aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
trapped air, and work the resin into the PLYWOOD CORE FOAM CORE (WITH COATED EDGES)
fabric. The fabric should have a thoroughly
wet appearance. Just enough resin to
completely impregnate the fabric is used;
too much resin will reduce the strength of
the lay-up. After the resin has set for the
time specified by the manufacturer, an
additional layer of fabric is laid up in the HONEYCOMB CORE LAMINATED FLUTED CORE
same manner. The process is repeated until
the desired thickness is reached. GRP EMBEDDED STIFFENERS
panels laid up in this manner will have 30-
to 50-percent fiber.
FLAT BAR PIPE TIMBER TOP HAT
A patch laid up directly over an opening
must be properly bonded to the edges. The BONDED/BOLTED STIFFENERS
bonding area must be absolutely clean for
the resin to bond properly. All paint, oil,
TOP HAT "T" ANGLE FLAT BAR CHANNEL ETC.
rust, etc., must be removed down to bare
metal. The bonding area should be
FIBER-COMPOSITE LAID-UP OVER
roughened with coarse sandpaper and TIMBER STIFFENERS
washed with acetone. Resin is applied to
the bonding area before the woven roving
is laid over the opening. The first layer of
woven roving should overlap the edge of 2x4’s 4x4 2x6’s ETC.
the hole by two inches or more. GRP FILLET ANGLE
Subsequent layers should extend two inches
beyond the previous layer on all sides. SURFACE TO BE RESIN PUTTY
BONDED OR MAT LAY UP
Figure 8-4 illustrates this process.
GRP PANEL
Stiffeners can be added to fiber composite
patches to prevent excessive deflection
under water pressure or during handling.
Stiffeners may consist of wooden timbers,
Figure 8-5. Fiberglass Panels and Reinforcement.
steel or aluminum structural shapes, or
preformed fiber composite top hat sections,
as shown in Figure 8-5. The stiffeners can
be embedded in the panel as it is laid up,
bonded to the surface by resin adhesive and
or resin-fiber fillet angles, bolted to the GROMMETS
panel, or secured to the panel by resin-fiber
layers laid up over the stiffeners and panel.
Stiffener surfaces must be clean and
prewetted with resin to properly bond to the
panel. WIRE ROPE FOAM RUBBER OR
OR FIBER OAKUM QUILTED
LINES TO BETWEEN 2 OR
8-2.6 Salvage and Collision Mats. Mats TOPSIDE MORE LAYERS OF WELDED
FITTINGS HEAVY CANVAS PADEYE
placed outside the hull can be effective in
restricting flooding through small,
moderate, or fairly large holes until sturdier
patches can be installed. Collision mats are
BILGE
large pieces of heavy fabric that can be KEEL
held over a hole by means of working lines, GROMMETS
LARGE
as shown in Figure 8-6. The working lines CHAIN "C" CLAMP
should be led to capstans or turnbuckles, so THROUGH FAIRLEAD TO
the mat can be hogged tightly against the TOPSIDE OR UNDER HULL
TO OPPOSITE SIDE
hull. Water pressure will help to seal a
collision mat as the space is pumped down.
Collision mats can be constructed and Figure 8-6. Collision Mat.
installed quickly and will conform to the
contours of the hull.

8-11
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

A salvage mat is essentially a reinforced collision mat. A typical salvage mat is shown in Figure 8-7. The timbers add longitudinal strength
and stiffness to the mat, while allowing it to conform to transverse bends. The thick padding aids in sealing small deformations. Salvage mats
are used when it is impossible or un-
desirable for divers to work near the hull to
install built-up patches, and it is not
practical to construct or install a
prefabricated patch.

8-2.7 Handling Moderate-to-large

Patches. Patches are either built on site or
built at a better equipped facility and
transported to the salvage site. Wherever
the patch is built, it must be installed at the
salvage site, under existing conditions, with
the manpower and equipment available.
Salvage site conditions, particularly the
availability of material handling equipment,
may severely limit the weight and bulk that
can be handled. It may be necessary to
design large, complex patches in sections
that are within the limits that can be
handled and assembled on site. Major
problems and delays may be created if
patch handling and installation are not
1 1/2" DIAMETER ROPE 2 - 3" SPACING
considered from the outset.

Patches should always be handled by gear

3 x 12"
on board the casualty. Handling the patch STAPLES PLANKS
from a vessel alongside will result in
relative motion between the patch and the
vessel, making patch-fitting more difficult,
MAT - CANVAS FILLED
hazarding divers, or damaging the patch. WITH FOAM, OAKUM,
BATTING, ETC. -
Small- and moderate-sized steel or alumi- 8" THICK SPIKES
num patches can be made neutrally buoyant
to ease handling by divers. The easiest
way to adjust the patches’ buoyancy is by
Figure 8-7. Salvage Mat.
gluing on strips of closed-cell rubber foam.
The amount of foam necessary is
determined by trial and error.

Chainfalls or purchases rigged to padeyes or other points around the perimeter of the patch greatly simplify the problem of positioning the patch.
With three or more chainfalls, divers can precisely position the patch and bring it in parallel to the hull surface. This is the only practical
method to place large buoyant patches, or to match studs and bolt holes on large patches.

8-2.8 Structural Patches. If a patch is to restore structural as well as watertight integrity, it should be a butt-welded insert plate, or should
overlap sound plating by at last 30 times the plating thickness (30t). An overlapping plate patch should be fillet-welded from both sides (it is
usually permissible to wait until the space is dewatered to weld the inside fillet). External stiffeners should be positioned directly opposite
frames or longitudinals, and fillet-welded to the hull plating. As described in Paragraph 2-11, the ends of the stiffeners are cut off at a slope
of 6:1 or shallower to minimize stress concentration. Internal stiffeners should be arranged and tied into intact framing. Plating and stiffener
dimensions are based on hull girder loads, as well as hydrostatic pressure.

Properly made, bolted lap or strapped butt joints are very strong and rigid, but it is very difficult to attach large patches with structurally effective
bolted connections:

• The bolts must be nearly body-bound and torqued firmly and uniformly so they share loads evenly.

• The patch contours must be matched very closely to those of the surrounding shell plating.

• A thick gasket will allow the patch to work and shirk load, so watertightness must be attained by caulking (upsetting the lap edge
with a chisel or caulking iron), by sealing with an epoxy or polymer compound, or with a very thin gasket.

If underwater welding is not feasible, and hull girder loading will permit, it is better to close the space with a temporary, nonstructural box patch,
and fit a structural plate and stiffener repair from inside the dewatered space.

8-12
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3 PUMPS AND PUMPING

The primary use of pumps in salvage is to move large quantities of water without regard to the discharge pressure. Pumping is preferred over
other dewatering methods for the following reasons:

• Pumps are relatively easy to use.

• Pumps can be rigged rapidly.

• Large volumes of water can be moved with a high degree of efficiency using compact, portable equipment.

• Water levels and dewatering rates can be controlled with relative precision.

• Pumping requires less preparation and set-up time than other dewatering methods.

Pumps are also used for ballasting, deballasting, and removing or shifting liquid and slurried materials. The following paragraphs discuss
characteristics of various types of pumps and their application to salvage pumping.

8-3.1 Pump Theory and Terminology. Pump terminology is based on the concept of head. Head is a measure of the energy possessed by
the liquid because of its pressure (pressure head), velocity (velocity head), or elevation above a datum (static head). Head is most commonly
expressed in units of distance (height) or pressure. The sum of pressure, velocity, and static heads is constant throughout an ideal (frictionless)
system, as stated by Bernoulli’s modification of the general energy equation for incompressible flow:
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
z1 = z2
γ 2g γ 2g

where:

P
–– = pressure head, [length] = Hp
γ

V
–– = velocity head, [length] = Hv FRICTION HEAD
(APPROX. 20%
2g TOTAL HOSE LENGTH)
TOTAL
z = elevation above datum, or HEAD
static head, [length]
P = fluid pressure, [force/ length2] STATIC
DISCHARGE WATER LEVEL
V = fluid velocity, [length/time] HEAD
g = acceleration due to gravity, DISCHARGE STATIC
[length/time2] DISCHARGE
γ = weight density of the fluid, HEAD
[force/length3]
PUMP
In the English system, pressure is usually STATIC
measured in pounds per square inch (psi) SUCTION
and density in pounds per cubic foot. A LIFT
conversion factor of 144 in2/ft2 must be
used to obtain pressure head in feet: WATER LEVEL
144P
Hp =
γ
(POSITIVE)
SUCTION PUMP
where: SUCTION HEAD

H = head, feet of liquid

P = pressure, psi Figure 8-8. Pumping Heads.
γ = fluid density, lb/ft3

Densities of various liquids and variation of

water density with temperature and pressure are tabulated Appendix E.

Additional head terms are used to describe work done by the pump or energy available to the pump (because of the system configuration), and
pump operating characteristics and requirements. These terms are described in the following paragraphs and illustrated in Figure 8-8.

8-13
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.1.1 Atmospheric Head (Ha). Atmospheric

head is the atmospheric pressure expressed as feet Table 8-9. Vapor Pressures at 68 oF.
of the pumped liquid:
144 Pa Liquid Vapor Pressure, psi
Ha =
γ Water 0.34

Ethyl Alcohol 0.85

For seawater at normal atmospheric pressure:
Turpentine 0.0077
(144 in 2/ft 2)(14.7 lb/in 2)
Ha = = 33 ft
(64 lb/ft 3) Diesel Fuel (typical) 0.041

Heavy Oils 0.042

8-3.1.2 Vapor Pressure Head (Hvp). Vapor
pressure head is the fluid vapor pressure expressed Vegetable Oil 0.030
as feet of the pumped liquid:
144 Pvp
Hvp = Table 8-10. Friction Factors.
γ

Type of Hose or Pipe Darcy-Weisbach factor (f)

For seawater at 68 degrees Fahrenheit, Pvp = 0.34
psi, and: 10" Navy salvage hose 0.025
144 (0.34) 6" Navy salvage hose 0.026
Hvp = = 0.765 ft
64
3" Navy salvage hose 0.018
Vapor pressures for some common liquids at 68
10" smooth pipe 0.015
degrees Fahrenheit are given in Table 8-9. An
expanded list is included in Appendix E. 6" smooth pipe 0.017

8-3.1.3 Static Suction Head (Hs). Static suction 3" smooth pipe 0.013
head is the vertical distance between the liquid Rough pipe 0.06
surface and the pump inlet. If the pump is above
the liquid surface, suction head is negative. When
working against negative suction head, or suction
lift, a pump must create a vacuum so that the Table 8-11. Obstruction Factors.
pressure differential between the liquid surface and
the suction side of the pump is sufficient to lift the Fitting Obstruction factor (K)
liquid, overcome vapor pressure in the pump casing
and friction in the suction line, and accelerate the Globe valve, wide open 10
liquid. Maximum suction lift is equal to the
Angle valve, wide open 5
atmospheric head (Ha) less vapor pressure head
(Hvp), and friction head in the suction line (Hfs): Gate valve,
wide open 0.19
Max Suction Lift = Ha - Hvp - Hfs half open 5.6

Strainer 2
Actual suction lifts will be slightly less because of
work required to accelerate the liquid and losses Smooth bend 0.3
due to pump inefficiencies. The maximum
practical suction lift for seawater at atmospheric Short radius elbow 0.9
pressure is about 25 feet for most centrifugal
Long radius elbow 0.6
pumps; positive-displacement pumps can achieve
slightly higher lifts. For efficient pump Adapted from Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, Crane Co.
performance, suction lift should be minimized; Technical Paper 409, 20 May 1942
below 15 feet if possible. Most centrifugal pumps
must be primed to achieve any suction lift.

8-3.1.4 Static Discharge Head (Hd). Static discharge head is the vertical distance from the pump to the point of free discharge, and represents
the energy the pump must impart to the liquid to raise it to that height in an ideal system. If the discharge is submerged, static discharge head
is measured to the liquid surface.

8-14
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.1.5 Friction Head (Hf). Friction loss in a real system is equivalent to lifting the liquid an additional height in a frictionless system. Head
required to overcome friction in pipes, hoses, valves, fittings, etc., is sometimes given as pressure drop, or head loss, as a function of flow rate
and length for specific types of hose, pipe, or fittings. Friction head can also be calculated as a function of velocity head, as in the Darcy-
Weisbach formula:
fLV 2
Hf =
2Dg

where:

f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, dimensionless

L = length, ft
D = diameter, ft
V = flow velocity, ft/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec2
≈ 32.2 ft/sec2

For laminar flow (Re ≤ 2000), ƒ = 64/Re, where Re is the dimensionless Reynolds (ℜ) number:
DV ρDV
Re = =
ν µ

with kinematic viscosity (ν), fluid density (ρ), and absolute viscosity (µ), expressed in units consistent with the units of velocity and diameter.

Friction head is a function of fluid velocity,

flow area, and surface roughness; for a 0.070
given flow diameter, friction head increases
EX
with flow rate. Friction factors can be 0.060 TR
EM
taken from Figure 8-9; factors for some EL
YR
common hoses and pipes are given in Table OU
0.050 GH
8-10. The values given assume turbulent PIP
0.045 ES
flow at a velocity corresponding to the
capacity of the same sized Navy salvage 0.040 1 1
pump. Friction loss in valves, fittings, and 5
VE 20 RO
other obstructions is normally expressed as 3 LO UG
0.035 5 CIT HP
a function of velocity head: YF IPE
10 TP S
ER
V2 0.030 20 SE
FRICTION FACTOR (f)

Hf = K 3 C
2g 5
0.025 FA
3 10 SM IRL
O Y
20 PIP OTH 1
where K is an obstruction loss factor taken 5 EX ES
TR
from Table 8-11. 0.020 EM 3
10 SM EL 5
Y
OO 10
More extensive lists of friction factors or 0.018 TH
friction loss tables can be found in pipe- PIP 20
0.016 ES
fitter or civil engineering handbooks. 20
FT
Friction loss, or head, can also be 0.014 PE
RS
calculated by the Hazen-Williams or EC
Manning formulas. If unknown, friction 0.012
head can be taken as not more than 20
percent of the total length of suction and 0.010
discharge piping or hose for most salvage
applications. 0.009

0.008
8-3.1.6 Total Dynamic Head Required
(TDHR). Total dynamic head required is a 0.007
1/ 8
measure of the energy necessary to move 2 1 2 4 12 24
the liquid through the system to the desired INCHES
discharge. This measure is equal to dis-
charge head, plus friction head, less suction DIAMETER OF CIRCULAR, OR SIDE OF SQUARE, PIPE
head:
Figure 8-9. Friction Factors for Pipe Flow.
TDHR = Hd + Hf - Hs

As negative suction head (suction lift) increases, TDHR is increased. Power used to overcome suction lift is not available to impart energy to
the pumped liquid; discharge capacity and/or head are reduced.

8-15
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

If the pump is below the surface of the

liquid to be pumped, there is a positive
hydrostatic pressure on the inlet side of the
pump; no work is required to raise the
liquid to the pump. The positive suction POSITIVE
head represents increased pump capacity as SUCTION
reflected by the reduced TDHR. Figure 8- HEAD
10 shows the effect of positive suction head
on a typical centrifugal pump.
WITH 0

DISCHARGE HEAD
8-3.1.7 Total Dynamic Head Available SUCTION
HEAD
(TDHA). Total dynamic head available is
a measure of the total energy imparted to
the fluid by the pump, and is equal to the
sum of pressure and velocity head at the
pump outlet:

TDHA = Hp + Hv

8-3.1.8 Net Positive Suction Head

(NPSH). Net positive suction head is the
absolute suction pressure, less vapor
pressure at the pump inlet, under actual
pumping conditions. It is the sum of CAPACITY
atmospheric head and static suction head,
less vapor pressure head and friction head
in the suction lines: Figure 8-10. Effect of Positive Suction Head.

NPSHA = Ha + Hs - Hvp - Hfs

Net positive suction head required (NPSHR) is a measure of the minimum fluid energy necessary for satisfactory pump operation and is usually
specified by the pump manufacturer. NPSHR is a means of quantifying the work required to accelerate the liquid and other losses. Some pump
manufacturers prefer to define net inlet pressure required (NIPR); NPSH multiplied by fluid density gives net inlet pressure (NIP).

If NPSHA is less than NPSHR, the pump will lose suction; before losing suction, centrifugal pumps may cavitate, causing noise, vibration, and
possible pump damage. In the absence of manufacturer’s data, NPSHR can be estimated from Thoma’s cavitation parameter:
NPSHR = H σ
where:

σ = Thoma’s cavitation parameter, dimensionless

H = (first stage) discharge head, in the same units as NPSHR

Thoma’s parameter is estimated from:

4

3
Kσ NS N Q
σ = , NS =
106
3

H 4

where:

Kσ = 6.3 for a single-suction pump H = first stage discharge head, ft

= 4.0 for a double-suction pump Q = first stage volumetric discharge rate, gpm
NS = pump specific speed, rpm N = pump speed at which H and Q are measured, rpm

8-3.2 Pump Classification. Pumps are classified by their design and operating features:
• Movement that causes the pumping action.
• Submersible or nonsubmersible.
• Characteristics of the fluid pumped.
• Flow characteristics.
• Self-priming or nonself-priming.
• Constant or variable speed.
• Variable or constant capacity.

8-16
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 8-12. Pump Characteristics. Table 8-13. Advantages and Disadvantages of Pump Power Sources.

Displace- Centrifugal Drivers Advantages Disadvantages

Characteristic Jet
ment and Axial
Flow rate low high high Self-contained Pump and driver form compact unit. Higher weight-to-capacity ratio than
drivers No requirement to string power leads or hoses. nonself-contained pumps.
Pressure rise per stage high low low Toxic engine exhaust and intake air
Constant variable over flow rate pressure -- requirements must be dealt with when
operating range rise placed below decks.
Hot engine surfaces and spark sources are
Self-priming yes no yes
hazard in flammable atmospheres.
Outlet stream pulsing steady steady
Diesel engine Reliable. Higher weight-to-power ratio than other
Works with high- yes no yes
viscosity fluids
Variable speed. types of engines.
Self-contained
High flash point fuel.

Major pump types are: Gasoline engine Lighter than diesel pumps. Spark-producing.
Variable speed. Low flash point/explosive fuel.

•
Better cold weather starting than diesel engines.
Dynamic pumps, including
Gas turbine High power-to- weight ratio. Very high temperature exhaust.
centrifugal, axial-flow, and Not all gas turbines are suitable for use in
mixed-flow pumps. marine environment.

• Positive-displacement pumps,
Nonself-contained
drivers
Higher capacity-to-weight ratio than self-contained Power leads and hoses are trip hazard and
pumps. may interfere with closures.
including diaphragm, rotary, No exhaust; no intake air requirement. Power source not always available on
and reciprocating pumps. Power unit (compressor, HPU, generator, etc.) can casualty.
be centrally located on casualty or left on vessel

•
alongside.
Jet pumps and air lifts.
Hydraulic Higher capacity-to-weight ratio than electric pumps. Hazards of high-pressure hydraulic oil.
Table 8-12 gives general characteristics of Intrinsically safe. Hydraulic power not available on most
ships; fittings may not be compatible.
each type of pump. Power units bulky and heavy.

8-3.3 Prime Movers. Most pumps can be Electric Power available on casualty if plant is operational; Electrical shock hazard.
available on most assisting vessels. May not be intrinsically safe.
driven by any type of power source. The Lower capacity-to-weight ratio than
most common power sources are: hydraulic pumps.

• Diesel or gasoline engines. Pneumatic Intrinsically safe.

Power source available on most ships.
Hazards of high-pressure air.
Drive air exhausting into closed space can
cause overpressure.
• Electric motors. Steam Many are intrinsically safe. Exhaust steam may cause static discharge.
Can be operated on compressed air.
• Hydraulic or pneumatic Available power source on steam ships and many
tankers.
motors.

• Steam.

• Fluid flow (jet pumps and air

lifts).
POSITIVE-
• Gas turbines. DISPLACEMENT
PUMP
Table 8-13 gives advantages and
disadvantages of each type of prime mover
for salvage use.
CENTRIFUGAL
DISCHARGE HEAD

PUMP
8-3.4 Positive-displacement Pumps.
Positive-displacement pumps discharge a
specific volume for each stroke or
revolution; at a constant speed, capacity is
essentially the same for any pressure within
the capability of the driver and strength of
the pump. At some discharge heads
(pressure), the power required to maintain
pump speed will exceed the capacity of the
prime mover; as the pump slows and
eventually stalls, capacity falls off rapidly,
as shown in Figure 8-11. In practice, some
component of the pump or piping system CAPACITY
will fail before the prime mover is
overloaded. To avoid failure, a relief valve
may be installed in the discharge line. Figure 8-11. Discharge Head and Pump Capacity.

8-17
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.5 Dynamic Pumps. Dynamic and jet pumps operate by imparting the kinetic energy of a rotating impeller (centrifugal, axial-flow, and
mixed-flow pumps) or fluid stream (jet pumps) to the pumped liquid; the energy imparted to a liquid is converted to velocity and pressure. To
some extent velocity of the moving fluid can be converted to pressure and vice versa. Velocity head is related to capacity:
Q2
Q = A 2 g Hv ⇒ Hv =
2gA 2

where:

Q = capacity, ft3/sec
A = area of pump discharge, ft2
Hv = velocity head, ft

The basic relationship between discharge head and capacity is shown in Figure 8-11. TDHA, the sum of velocity and pressure heads, indicates
the maximum height to which the pump can raise the liquid in a frictionless system. At this height, all of the energy imparted to the liquid by
the pump is converted to static or pressure head. For a given TDHA, there is an inverse relationship between velocity and pressure head.
TDHA = Hp + Hv ⇒ Hp + Hv = Hp + Hv
1 2

Hv2 = Hp1 Hp2 + Hv1

Since capacity is related to velocity head:

 Q 2
 
A
Hv =
2g

Capacity (Q2) at the new discharge head can be determined from Hv2. The new capacity is based on the energy imparted to the liquid at some
point, and may not represent all the prime mover’s available power. It may be possible to increase capacity at the new head by varying prime
mover speed or power setting.

Increased system pressure or height of

discharge above the pump (TDHR) is
obtained at the expense of capacity. HIG
Manufacturers normally rate pump capacity HS
PEE
for a specified head or provide tables or D
curves of capacity versus total dynamic
head. The reduction in available discharge OPT
IMU
MS
head due to suction lift is often accounted PEE
D
for by using separate head versus capacity
curves for different suction lifts. Varying LOW
DISCHARGE HEAD

the speed of a centrifugal pump changes the SPE

ED
amount of energy imparted to the fluid
stream, or TDHA. Both capacity and
discharge head are affected. The relative
effect on capacity and discharge head is
determined from the pump performance
curves. A typical centrifugal pump
performance curve is shown in Figure 8-12.
25’ 20’
In general, capacity is directly proportional LIFT 10’
LIFT
to pump speed, discharge head is 15’ LIFT
proportional to the square of pump speed, LIFT
and power required is proportional to the
cube of pump speed.
CAPACITY
An empirical approximation of the capacity
of a centrifugal pump operating at its Figure 8-12. Typical Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves.
maximum suction head is:

Q = 5D2

where:

Q = pump capacity, long tons/hour

D = suction diameter, in.

8-18
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Potentially damaging cavitation results when a centrifugal pump is operated at higher capacities or suction lifts than the pump’s rating.
Specifically, cavitation can be caused by any of the following conditions:

• Discharge heads far below the pump’s calibrated head at peak efficiency.

• Suction lift higher or suction head lower than the manufacturer’s recommendation.

• Speeds higher than the manufacturer’s recommendation.

• Vapor pressures higher than those for which the pump was designed.

Recirculating flow at the impeller inlet and pump outlet results when a pump is operated at a flow rate lower than its designed capacity range.
Recirculation causes vibration, noise, and potentially damaging heat buildup. A centrifugal pump operated at zero capacity, such as when the
discharge valve is closed, will overheat rapidly because all of the pump’s power must be absorbed by a limited volume of liquid in the pump
casing. This is potentially dangerous when pumping a flammable liquid.

Centrifugal dewatering pumps are

characteristically high-flow pumps with 21/2 -INCH HOSE COUPLINGS
maximum heads in the 100-foot (50 psi)
range. It is occasionally necessary to use
salvage pumps to provide high-pressure
water for jetting or firefighting. By
restricting the outlet flow of a centrifugal
pump, some of the velocity head is
converted to pressure head. Flow rate is
reduced and can be estimated as described
above; friction head is also increased.
Simple reducers or reducing manifolds, like
the one shown in Figure 8-13, have been
used successfully. A reduction of outlet
area by 20 to 35 percent should produce
discharge pressure sufficient for jetting or
firefighting (100 to 150 psi) without
causing recirculation. Care must be taken
to ensure that flow rate is not reduced
below the recirculation point, as can happen
easily if several hoses from a manifold are
shut down at the nozzle at one time.

8-3.5.1 Jet Pumps. Jet pumps use the low

pressure created by the passage of a
working fluid through a restricting nozzle
to draw the pumped fluid into a mixing
chamber, where it is entrained with the
working fluid and carried out of the TO DISCHARGE SIDE
eductor. Jet pumps using a liquid as a OF 6-INCH PUMP
working fluid are called eductors; those
using a gas (such as steam or compressed
air) are called ejectors. Eductors used in Figure 8-13. 6-Inch Pump, Four-Way Fire Hose Connection Manifold.
salvage are almost always water-driven.
Head and volume capacity depend on
nozzle and mixing chamber geometry, pressure and flow rate of the working fluid (supply flow), suction lift, and discharge head. For most
eductors designed for damage control or salvage dewatering, discharge flow (including the supply flow) is about 11⁄ 2 to 2 times the supply flow,
with a maximum working head of about 70 feet of water.

All eductors have minimum supply pressure and flow requirements below which they will not operate. If the supply pressure and flow are
inadequate, the supply water may dump through the eductor suction, flooding the space. Because they have no moving parts, eductors are
extremely rugged and reliable. They are particularly suited for pumping slurries and contaminated water. The annular ring-type ("Peri-jet")
eductor uses several nozzles arranged around the lower periphery of the mixing chamber rather, than a single nozzle directly below the mixing
chamber. This arrangement results in a straightline fluid path through the eductor that is clear of obstructions. A 4-inch Peri-jet eductor can
pass 2-inch contaminants, although large quantities of solid contaminants may clog long discharge hoses.

Large eductors are often installed as bilge and ballast pumps. Some tankers use eductors as cargo pumps. The working fluid is cargo, delivered
under pressure by other types of cargo pumps.

8-19
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.5.2 Air Lifts. An air lift operates by introducing compressed air into the lower end of a submerged or partially submerged pipe. The air-
liquid mixture inside the pipe is less dense than the liquid outside the pipe. The mixture rises and creates a low pressure at the bottom of the
pipe that draws liquid and loose solids up the pipe. Air lifts can handle all kinds of slurries, including those consisting of relatively large
particles, such as coal, gravel, ore, canned goods, or other odd-shaped objects. Air lifts are frequently used to clear mud and loose sediments
from diver working areas and to remove sediments from inside wrecks.

The efficiency of an air lift depends on air pressure and flow rate,
ratio of immersed to emerged pipe length, water depth, position of Table 8-14. Air Lift Constants, C.
the air inlet on the pipe, and the nature of the material being lifted.
Air lifts will normally lift loose material only in the immediate C
vicinity of the lower end. Disturbing heavy or hard-packed material Submergence Percent
Outside Air Line Inside Air Line
with water jets or other means will improve air lift efficiency. Clay,
75 366 330
paper pulp, and similar materials tend to choke air lifts. Although
air lifts are not particularly efficient as pumps, they are easy to build 65 348 306
in the field and can move slurries, semi-solid materials, and 55 318 262
contaminants that would clog or damage other pumps. 45 272 214
35 216 162
Air lifts differ from other pumps in that the energy (air pressure) Adapted from Mining Engineer’s Handbook, Peele and Church,
required to lift the liquid is governed by submergence, h, rather than Third Edition, 1948, John Wiley and Sons
by total head, H. For most efficient operation, air lifts should be
submerged for at least two-thirds of their length, although they can
operate with as little as 35-percent submerged. Air pressure at the air line outlet at the bottom of the lift only slightly greater than hydrostatic
pressure is sufficient for operation. An empirical formula, based on experience with air lifts in mining applications, estimates required air flow:
H
Qair =
C log (ATM)
where:

Qair = air flow, standard cubic feet per minute per gallon of liquid per minute lifted
H = total vertical lift, ft
C = empirical factor, based on ratio of submergence to lift, from Table 8-14
ATM = submergence, expressed as equivalent atmospheres
h + 33 h + 34 (h + 34)γg
= ——– for seawater, ——– for freshwater, ———— for other liquids
33 34 34γg
h = submergence (depth to foot of air lift), ft
γg = liquid specific gravity

Pipe size is determined from the initial estimates for air and liquid flow:

Q
d = 13.54
V

where:

d = air lift (discharge) pipe diameter, in.

Q = air-liquid mixture flow rate, ft3/min
V = velocity of the mixture in the pipe, ft/min

For pipes of uniform diameter and lifts of 40 to 200 feet, best discharge velocity of the air-liquid mixture ranges from 2,000 feet per minute
at 70-percent submergence to 700 feet per minute at 35-percent submergence. Maximum velocity at the bottom of the pipe ranges from 450
feet per minute at 70 percent submergence to 800 feet per minute at 35-percent submergence.

Air lifts cannot completely dewater a space because they cannot operate with more than about two-thirds of the pipe out of the water. When
depth allows 25-percent submergence, a compound lift can be employed. Water and solids are lifted half way in one lift and allowed to run
to the closed bottom of a large-diameter pipe at the same depth as the first lift. A second air lift can operate in the large pipe with 50-percent
submergence. In deep mine shafts, water has been raised as much as 1,385 feet by a series of air lifts in series using air at 60 to 80 psi. Air
lifts are useful for removing sediments, bulk cargo, and other materials from the bottoms of spaces before dewatering with other pumps. Use
of air lifts for underwater excavation is discussed in Chapter 5. Detailed air lift designs are included in Appendix D of the U. S. Navy Ship
Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020).

8-20
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.6 Salvage Pumps. Special-purpose pumps are used in salvage to meet particular requirements; salvage pumps are usually portable, general-
purpose dewatering pumps, adapted for marine use. A good salvage pump must have the following features:

• Rugged construction and protective framework or packaging to reduce the risk of accidental damage.

• High pumping-capacity-to-pump-weight ratio.

• Discharge head greater than 60 feet.

• Ability to pump a variety of contaminated liquids.

• Comparatively simple construction for rapid routine maintenance and repair.

Submersibility or a low NPSHR, and the ability to self-prime as well as to handle a wide range of fluid viscosities and specific gravities are
also desirable. Experience has shown the following pumps to have the widest application to salvage:

• Electric- or hydraulic-motor-driven submersible pumps (centrifugal or axial flow).

• Self-contained, heavy-duty, diesel- or gasoline-engine-driven centrifugal pumps.

• Pneumatic diaphragm and centrifugal pumps.

• Eductors and air lifts.

Table 8-15 compares the advantages and disadvantages of commonly used salvage pumps.

Table 8-15. Pump Characteristics.

Suitability to pump:
Discharge Self- Suction
Pump Type Entrained Viscous
Head Priming Lift Slurries Typical Installations
Solids Liquids
General marine use with steam propulsion plants.
Reciprocating High Yes High Fair Good Good Slurry pumps.
Oilfield mud pumps.
Rotary High Yes High Poor Poor Good Marine and industrial fuel, cargo, lube oil systems.
General-purpose.
Diaphragm High Yes High Fair Good Good
Metering.
General use for nonviscous liquids, F/F systems.
Medium No
Centrifugal Low Note 3 Note 3 Poor Water pumps for agricultural, construction, mine,
Note 1 Note 2
industrial, salvage use.
General use for nonviscous liquids, F/F systems.
Low
Mixed Flow No Very Low Note 3 Note 3 Note 4 Water pumps for agricultural, construction, mine,
Note 1
industrial, salvage use.
General use where high discharge head not
Very Low
Axial Flow No Very Low Note 3 Note 3 Note 4 required.
Note 1
Submersible pumps.
Distilling plant air ejectors.
Bilge dewatering/drainage.
Jet Pumps Low Yes Medium Good Good Fair
Portable dewatering.
F/F foam proportioning systems.

Notes:

1. Head can be increased by series multi-staging or operating pumps in series.

2. Some centrifugal pumps are self-priming at low (<12 ft) suction lift.
3. Pumps designed as trash or salvage pumps.
4. Impeller must be designed for specific viscosity range.

8-21
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Salvage pumps are specified by type and discharge

outlet diameter. Navy salvage ships and units and Table 8-16. Navy Salvage Pump Characteristics.
the ESSM system maintain the following salvage
and damage control pumps:
ENGINE-DRIVEN, CLOSE-COUPLED PUMPS

• Self-contained, diesel-engine-driven, Weight

LBS
Cube
ft3 L × W × H in.
Rated
GPM/Head Remarks
high-capacity, low-head centrifugal
3" Salvage 670 15 36 × 22 × 32 350/40 feet Diesel engine
pumps with open, trash-type impellers
Diesel engine; not in ESSM system,
in 10-inch, 6-inch, and 3-inch sizes. 3" Trash 180 360/40 feet
limited distribution to selected units
65 × 30 × 48
•
6" Salvage 2,360 54 1540/40 feet Diesel engine
Electric submersible pumps in 4-inch 10" Salvage 3,200 83 83 × 33 × 52 3040/40 feet Diesel engine
and 11⁄ 2-inch sizes. 21⁄ 2" Jetting 4,400 282 120 × 83 × 49 500/150 psi Diesel engine
21 × 20 × 24
•
P-250 MOD 1 158 6 250/125 psi Gasoline engine, see Note 1
Pneumatically driven 21⁄ 2-inch trash
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
pumps.
Weight Cube Rated

• LBS ft3 L × DIA in. GPM/Head Remarks

Hydraulic submersible pumps in 6- 21⁄ 2" Hydraulic 30 0.9 14 × 12 400/40 feet Part of hydraulic tool package
inch, 5-inch, and 11⁄ 2-inch sizes.
1,000/40 feet 25 gpm/2180 psi hydraulic flow
4" HYD Trash 85 3 19 × 19 700/40 feet 20 gpm/1400 psi hydraulic flow
• 4-inch water-driven eductors. 500/25 feet 15 gpm/785 psi hydraulic flow
Water, 50 gpm hydraulic flow
1,823/40 feet
• 21⁄ 2-inch self-contained, diesel-engine- 6" HYD POL 279 2.7 41 × 12 950/40 feet
required
Warm #6 fuel (7177 SSU)
driven, high-pressure centrifugal 203/40 feet
Cold #6 fuel (71770 SSU)
jetting pumps. Same performance as 6" POL pump,
6" HYD LWT 179
see also Note 2
• 21⁄ 2-inch self-contained, gasoline- 90 psi air pressure required at pump;
21⁄ 2" Pneumatic 80 1.2 18 × 12 limited number available in ESSM
e n g i n e - d r i v en , h ig h -p re s s u re system
centrifugal fire pumps (P-250). 11⁄ 2" Electric 10 0.2 13 × 6

The basic characteristics of Navy salvage and 21⁄ 2" Electric 1.1 30 × 9 180/50 feet See Notes 1, 3
damage control pumps are given in Table 8-16. Per- #1 Impeller, water (9 SSU)
#2 Impeller, Light oil (460 SSU)
formance curves or tables are given in the U. S. Navy 800/40 feet #3 Impeller, Med wt oil (1800 SSU)
Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020), 650/40 feet #4 Impeller, Heavy oil (2020 SSU)
the Salvor’s Handbook (S0300-A7-HBK-010), and 4" Electric 289 5.6 38 × 1 600/40 feet #4 Impeller, Heavy oil (4600 SSU)
275/40 feet Not all pumps have been modified to
the ESSM Catalog (NAVSEA 0994-LP-017-3010). 175/40 feet pump POL; power required: 3PH 60
Hz 440 VAC/38-amp or 220 VAC/76-
8-3.6.1 Alternative Pumps. Pumps designed for amp
agricultural, mining, heavy construction, marine, or 4" Eductor (Peri-jet) 12 2.7 30 × 1 451/40 feet See Note 1
general service may be used as salvage pumps.
Ideally, pumps should be designed for the material Notes:
being pumped, but this is not always possible in 1. Damage control equipment, not in ESSM system, but carried by fleet units and in Federal Supply System.
2. ARS-50 Class only.
salvage. Paragraph 8-3.11 discusses measures to be 3. 9" diameter with star strainer; 61⁄ 2" without.
taken when pumps must be used in service for
which they were not designed.
8-3.6.2 Installed Pumps. Several advantages are gained by using a casualty’s installed pumps:

• Work necessary to transport and rig portable pumps is reduced or avoided.

• Dewatering can be controlled by installed manifolds and piping.
• Pump rooms are located to minimize suction lift or maximize positive suction head; priming systems are installed where necessary.
• Installed bilge, ballast, and cargo pumps are sized to pump down the spaces served in a relatively short time.
• Cargo pumps are designed for the product carried.
The casualty’s fuel, lube oil, and fresh water transfer pumps are usually of small capacity and do not contribute greatly to a dewatering plan. The
prime considerations for using installed pumps are whether the necessary portions of the piping system are intact or repairable and the condition,
power requirements, and capacity of the pump(s). Installed pumps can sometimes be dismantled and relocated on the casualty for salvage use.
Pumps installed below the waterline often require very high net positive suction heads and are not suitable for use where suction lift is required.
Installed pumping systems are generally used in conjunction with portable salvage pumps. Major pumping operations are seldom greatly
expedited by using the casualty’s pumps, but installed manifold and piping systems are very useful for emptying small tanks and compartments.
For example, a major combatant flooded to the main deck throughout her length can be dewatered by pumping out the main and auxiliary
machinery spaces and other large, accessible compartments with portable salvage pumps. Fuel oil service and settling tanks, bulk lube oil, and
hydraulic oil tanks could be pumped out through pneumatic diaphragm pumps connected to the piping manifolds serving each group of tanks.
Small or inaccessible compartments throughout the length of the ship can be dewatered by connecting a salvage pump to the secondary drainage
manifold. This approach reduces the risk of oil spillage while dewatering and takes advantage of installed piping systems without requiring
repair of or access to the vessel’s pumps and power distribution system. In some ships, the main and secondary drainage systems are served
by high-capacity eductors that can be driven by water supplied by portable pumps or from the firemains of assisting vessels.

8-22
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.7 Pump Selection. Pump selection results from two major decisions:

• Whether to use the casualty’s installed pumps.

• The number and type of portable pumps to use.

The overriding factor influencing the selection of pumps is what types of pumps are available and in what quantity. Additional factors are listed
in the following paragraphs.

8-3.7.1 Capacity. The greater the pumping capacity, the less time required for dewatering. Time to dewater is critical in some salvage
operations. Dewatering of a stranded ship must begin during a period when there is no danger that the lightened ship will be driven ashore or
broached, and must be completed before the maximum pull on retracting systems is reached. In harbor clearance, it may be necessary to
complete dewatering in a single tide cycle to avoid immersion of deck openings during pumping or to preclude development of negative stability.
Pumping capacity must be tailored to the job. There must be sufficient pumping capacity on the casualty to overcome leakage with a margin
for safety and redundancy.

Pump size and quantity should be such that if one or more pumps fail during the operation, the remaining capacity is sufficient to complete the
pumping operation in the required time. Backup pumps must be aboard the casualty, ready to be deployed to spaces being pumped. The amount
of extra pumping capacity required results from a subjective assessment of the likelihood of prime mover or pump casualties, pump clogging,
etc. A 100-percent backup capacity is not excessive.

Before the casualty is dewatered, a pumping test should be made to ensure the pumps can lower the water in the ship at the desired or predicted
rate (see Paragraph 8-3.10).

8-3.7.2 Size. Size and weight affect placement of the pump and time required to place it in operation. Where there is insufficient space for
large pumps, it may be necessary to use smaller pumps and accept a lower pumping rate, or use many small pumps to attain the same pumping
rate. In an effort to control flooding in progress, it is better to rig and start several small-capacity pumps that can be manhandled into place,
each of which reduces the flooding rate, than to spend time rigging a large-capacity pump which makes no reduction in flooding rate until
completely rigged. However, a small pump is more susceptible to clogging by rags, bags, line, or other materials that can be entwined about
the impeller than a large pump of the same design.

In general, submersible pumps are preferred for dewatering cramped, confined spaces, or spaces that are difficult to access; i.e, machinery rooms,
magazines, shaft alleys, storerooms, etc. If power sources (electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic) are already set up, it is faster and easier to rig
submersible pumps than engine-driven pumps of the same capacity.

8-3.7.3 Space Contents. Water in flooded spaces is usually contaminated with solids of various size. Cargo pumping involves moving liquids
and slurries with a wide range of properties. The characteristics of the solid contaminants in the liquid or slurry influences pump selection.

When pumping contaminated water, trash pumps, eductors, or air lifts capable of passing the solid contaminants should be used and strainers
should be fitted on the suctions of other type pumps. Standard Navy salvage pumps will tolerate some exposure to slurries and abrasives, but
are not suitable for prolonged pumping of such materials. Many slurries are abrasive and reduce pump service life, sometimes to the point that
impeller life is measured in hours. Purpose-built trash, sand, slurry, or gravel pumps will have somewhat longer service life when pumping
abrasive slurries.

High-viscosity liquids should be moved with pumps designed for the viscosity range of the liquid, if possible. Pumps designed for water or
low-viscosity liquids will operate at reduced capacity and higher wear rates, and may overload the prime mover when pumping high-viscosity
liquids.

Corrosive or reactive liquids should be moved using pumps constructed of materials resistant to the particular liquid. Some hydrocarbon and
petrochemical cargos require specialized pumps, hoses, and fittings that are not usually available in the Navy salvage inventory. The Supervisor
of Salvage should be contacted for assistance in acquiring specialized pumps and fittings.

8-3.7.4 Required Head. When spaces must be pumped against a very high head, capacity may have to be sacrificed to attain the head. Suction
and discharge heads change as dewatering progresses; the pumps selected must be able to operate against the heads at the beginning and end
of the operation.

8-3.7.5 Operating Requirements. The suitability of the power source for the operating environment influences pump selection. Close-coupled-
engine- and gas-turbine-driven pumps are larger and heavier than hydraulic, pneumatic, electric, or steam pumps of the same capacity. If used
below decks, ventilation must be adequate to provide sufficient air for the engine and personnel in the space; the exhaust must be led to the
open atmosphere. Spark-producing internal combustion engines and gas turbines are not to be used in the vicinity of open fuel or flammable
cargo tanks where flammable atmospheres are present or likely. Hydraulic or pneumatic submersible pumps or pneumatic diaphragm pumps
are suitable for use in a flammable atmosphere because the spark-producing prime mover can be located at a safe distance from the tank opening.
Availability of hydraulic power systems, electric power, LP air, steam, or high-pressure water on the casualty or vessels alongside predisposes
toward the use of nonself-contained pumps. Pump power requirements (voltage/current, hydraulic oil pressure/flow rate, etc.) must match those
available from installed or portable power sources. Adapters must be provided if power lead or hose end fittings are not compatible. Power
leads and hoses clutter working space and interfere with closing doors and hatches.

8-23
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.8 Slurries. Bulk cargoes in flooded holds and accumulated sediments in stranded or sunken ships are sometimes best removed by pumping
them out as a slurry. Trial and error application of centrifugal salvage pumps or eductors and careful arrangement of discharge lines to minimize
lift and bends is adequate for most salvage work. Situations may arise, however, where repeated trial and error solutions prove inadequate and
a careful, analytical consideration of the problem may show that relatively minor changes to a pump-pipeline system may prevent salvors from
abandoning a potentially economical and efficient method. Pipeline transport of solids is widely applied to a number of industrial transport
problems, particularly in the dredging and mining fields, giving rise to a fair body of literature. Bibliography of Solid-Liquid Transport in
Pipelines, by Mih, Chen, and Orsborn, and Herbich’s Coastal and Deep Ocean Dredging (see Bibliography for complete references) include
brief theoretical analyses of slurry flow for the interested reader.
The composition of a solid-liquid mixture is expressed as a concentration, or ratio by weight or volume, of the amount of solids to the total
quantity of the mixture. Specific gravity of the mixture is the concentration weighted average of specific gravities of the liquid and the solid.
Einstein (A. Einstein, Ann. der Physik, Volume 19, 1906 and Volume 35, 1911) found that the viscosity of a solid-liquid mixture (µm) can be
expressed as a function of the liquid
viscosity (µ) and the volume concentration 100
of the solids (CV):
µm = µ (1 2.5 CV)
v D
Solids in a flowing liquid are subject to
DRAG COEFFICIENT, CD

gravity, buoyancy, and fluid drag. Particles

are held in suspension by turbulent mixing 10
and lift forces. The ability of any flow INTERMEDIATE LAW
regime to carry solids is fundamentally
related to the settling velocity of the solid
STOKES
particles. Settling velocity in still water is LAW
determined by:
1
ρ 
Vs = CD 2gD  s 1
 ρf  NEWTON’S
LAW
where:
0.1
CD = drag coefficient, a function 1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
of Reynolds number, from REYNOLDS NUMBER, R = Dv
Figure 8-14 ν
g = acceleration due to gravity D = PARTICLE DIAMETER, FT
≈ 32.2 ft/sec2 v = FLOW VELOCITY, FT/SEC
D = particle diameter, ft ν = KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, FT2/SEC
ρs = solid (particle) density STOKES’ LAW: CD = 24 FOR R < 2
ρf = liquid density R
18.5
INTERMEDIATE LAW: CD = 0.6 FOR 2 < R < 500
When water is used as the entraining liquid, R
the ratio ρs/ρf is simply the specific gravity NEWTON’S LAW: CD = 0.44 FOR 500 < R < 200,000
of the solid. Drag coefficient can be
estimated by different empirical laws in
three different ranges of Reynolds number, Figure 8-14. Drag Coefficients for Spheres, after Prandtl.
as shown in Figure 8-14.
There are four regimes for solid-liquid flow in pipelines:

• Homogeneous suspension flow – Particle fall velocity is small compared to liquid flow velocity and turbulent eddy velocity, giving
a nearly uniform vertical distribution of solids. Lift forces on particles are insignificant relative to the effects of turbulent mixing.

• Heterogeneous suspension flow – Particle fall velocity is significant relative to liquid velocities; both lift force and turbulent mixing
are significant in keeping solids in suspension. All particles are in suspension, but vertical distribution is nonuniform. If the solids
are denser than the liquid, there is a greater concentration of solids at the bottom of the pipe than at the top. For buoyant solids,
the vertical distribution is reversed.

• Saltation flow with a moving bed – Moving bed flow may occur with or without suspension. Sediment transport at the bottom
of the pipe takes the form of advancing ripples or dunes. A suspension or clear liquid flows above the moving bed at a
substantially greater velocity.

• Flow with a stationary bed – Transport takes place only above the stationary bed which forms a new bottom boundary for
suspension flow.

8-24
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

HETEROGENEOUS HOMOGENEOUS FLOW WITH A

SALTATION SUSPENSION SUSPENSION STATIONARY
BED
0.14
HEAD LOSS IN TERMS OF CLEAR WATER

LIMIT SALTATION FLOW WITH A MOVING BED

0.12 DEPOSIT (WITH AND WITHOUT SUSPENSION)
VELOCITY
CV = 0.15

0.10

PARTICLE SIZE
CV = 0.10 HETEROGENEOUS
FLOW WITH ALL
0.08 SOLIDS IN SUSPENSION
CLEAR
WATER

CV = 0.05

0.06 FINE SAND

(0.44MM IN 0.15M PIPE) FLOW AS A HOMOGENEOUS
SUSPENSION

0.05
2.4 3 4 5 6
MEAN VELOCITY, METER/SEC. MEAN FLOW VELOCITY
TYPICAL HEAD LOSS VERSUS MEAN VELOCITY OF A FLOW REGIMES FOR A GIVEN FLUID,
TWO-PHASE PIPE FLOW ON LOG-LOG SCALES SEDIMENT AND PIPE SIZE
FROM R. DURAND, BASIC RELATIONSHIP OF THE TRANSPORTATION FROM H. W. SHEN AND THE COMMITTEE ON SEDIMENTATION,
OF SOLIDS IN PIPES, PROCEEDINGS, INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION HYDRAULICS DIVISION, SEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION MECHANICS,
FOR HYDRAULIC RESEARCH CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 1953 JORNAL OF THE HYDRAULICS DIVISION, ASCE, JULY 1970

Figure 8-15. Solid Transport Flow Regimes.

The boundary between suspension flow and saltation flow is well defined, both in terms of power requirements and material transport.
Experiments with sand-water mixtures have shown that for a constant solids concentration, a pronounced minimum head loss occurs at a well-
defined point in the low flow region, as shown in Figure 8-15. Figure 8-15 further illustrates that the lines between heterogeneous and
homogeneous suspension flow, and between stationary and moving bed flow are not well defined. All other aspects equal, minimum head loss
means minimum power requirements, so the mean velocity at minimum head loss is sometimes called the economica l velocit. Minimum y head
loss occurs at the velocity that marks the division between saltation and suspension flow, so the velocity is also called the limi t deposi t velocit. y
Slurry transport systems are designed to operate in the heterogeneous suspension flow regime because the lower head loss results in the most
economical operation, with minimal chance of discharge line clogging. Productio n rat—the e solids flow rate—is about one-third the total
volume flow rate. Homogeneous suspension flow is acceptable for salvage pumping—less efficient operation can usually be accommodated—and
is desirable when high-discharge lifts are required. Saltation flow should be avoided in field-built systems because of the difficulty in controlling
flow precisely enough to prevent discharge line clogging. Limit deposit velocity has been defined empirically:

ρ 
Vc = FL 2 g d  s 1
 ρf 

where:

Vc = limit deposit velocity, [length/time]

d = flow path (pipe, hose) diameter, [length]
ρs = density of the solids, [mass/length3]
ρf = density of the entraining liquid, [mass/length3]
FL = an experimentally derived dimensionless constant, a function of solids concentration and grain diameter. For particles larger than
2 mm (0.007 inch), FL is essentially unaffected by either grain size or solids concentration, and is approximately 1.34

8-25
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 8-17. Limit Deposit Velocity for Particles Greater

Table 8-18. Pumps Rigged in Parallel.
Than 1 mm in Diameter.

Limiting Deposit Velocity Pump Size Hose or Pipe Size Maximum Number of Pumps
Pipe Diameter
Sand Coal 11⁄ 2-inch 21⁄ 2-inch 2
d
γ ≈ 2.65 γ ≈ 1.5 3-inch 3
4-inch 6
m ft m/sec ft/sec m/sec ft/sec
6-inch 15
150 .49 2.95 9.68 1.65 5.41 21⁄ 2-inch 4-inch 2
250 .82 3.75 12.30 2.15 7.05 6-inch 5
10-inch 15
440 1.44 5.00 16.41 2.85 9.35 3-inch 4-inch 1
900 2.95 7.15 23.46 4.00 13.12 6-inch 3
10-inch 10
From Basic Relationship of the Transportation of Solids in Pipes, R. Durand, Proceedings, 4-inch 6-inch 2
International Association for Hydraulic Research, University of Minnesota, Sep 1953 10-inch 5
6-inch 10-inch 2

Limit deposit velocities for two representative solids are shown in Table 8-17. Discharge piping must be carefully arranged to keep fluid velocity
high enough to transport the solids. Flow velocities above the limit deposit velocity will produce heterogeneous or homogeneous suspension
flow. Velocities between the limit deposit velocity and the particle settling velocity are likely to result in saltation flow. Fluid velocity in the
discharge line is calculated by solving the velocity head relationship for velocity:

V = Hv 2g
BOOM USED FOR
Velocity head at any point in the discharge SHIP’S BOOM ELECTRIC SALVAGE
PUMP
piping can be determined from total
dynamic head available (TDHA) as
described in Paragraph 8-3.1.

Purpose-built slurry pumps, eductors, or air

lifts should be used to pump slurries 1
whenever possible. Most slurry pumps are
A
reciprocating or piston pumps, although
centrifugal pumps are also used. STARTING 2 b
Centrifugal salvage or trash pumps can be LEVEL
used for slurries if the viscosity of the B UPPER
’TWEEN
mixture is within the pumps’ rated range. DECK
Entrained solids in the gravel- to golf-ball- 2ND LEVEL
size range are handled well by trash pumps. a
C LOWER
Air lifts and eductors effectively move ’TWEEN
slurries and solid-liquid mixtures, including DECK
3RD LEVEL
odd-shaped objects six inches across and
larger. When long discharge lines are
required, dredge pump and discharge pipe
systems are the best alternative.
3
TANK TOP
Porous materials will absorb water,
DOUBLE BOTTOM SHAFT TUNNEL
changing the density of the suspended
particles in the slurry. Organic materials
such as grain will ferment or spoil when NOTES: 1. DIESEL PUMP RIGGED AT "A" MUST BE RE-RIGGED AT "B" AND "C"
AS WATER LEVEL FALLS - TIME CONSUMING AND LABORIOUS.
immersed, especially in warm climates.
The high-vapor-pressure alcohol and 2. DIESEL PUMP CAN BE RIGGED ON PLATFORM SUSPENDED BY SHIP’S
BOOM OR IMPROVISED SHEER LEGS. PUMP IS LOWERED AND ADDITIONAL
entrained gases (methane, hydrogen sulfide) DISCHARGE HOSE CONNECTED AS WATER LEVEL FALLS.
resulting from fermentation/spoilage can
3. SUBMERSIBLE PUMP LOWERED TO TANK TOP AND LEFT IN PLACE
significantly reduce pump capacity and UNTIL SPACE DEWATERED. DISCHARGE HOSE LASHED TO LIFTING
suction lift. These factors are very difficult WIRE AT "a" AND "b" TO SUPPORT HOSE WHEN FILLED WITH WATER.
to predict and usually must be dealt with by
trial and error. Figure 8-16. Pump Rigging.

8-26
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.9 Pumping Operations. Pump capacity, operation, and safety are affected by pump rigging and location, as discussed in the following
paragraphs.

8-3.9.1 Limiting Total Head. Limiting head increases pump capacity. Suction lift reduces capacity more than discharge head. Wherever
possible, pumps should be operated under positive suction head.

Suction lift can be reduced by placing pumps as near as possible to the liquid to be pumped. When pumping from deep holds, it may be
necessary to suspend the pump over the hold and lower it as the water level falls, as shown in Figure 8-16. Engine-driven machinery should
be kept level at all times during operation. When the casualty’s list or trim changes significantly during refloating, it may be necessary to place
pumps and other machinery on special levelling platforms.

Suction hoses should not be led over obstructions higher than the pump inlet; an air pocket can form at the high point and cause the pump to
lose suction. Accesses for suction lines can be cut into the sides of flooded compartments. Discharge hoses should be run over the lowest
possible deck and under life lines. Below-decks overboard discharges should be used if available; discharge openings can be cut if necessary.

When pumping deep spaces, it may be necessary to accept large discharge heads that reduce the capacity of dynamic pumps. Pump effectiveness
can be increased by leading the discharge of one pump to the suction of another pump at a higher level. This is called staging, pumping in
series, or pumping in tandem. The pumps should be of near-equal capacity to prevent damage. If the lower pump’s capacity is much greater
or lower than the upper pump, the upper pump may cavitate.

Pumping in parallel is used to reduce friction loss in discharge lines by combining the discharge of two or more pumps in a single discharge
line. A large-diameter hose or pipe has the same cross-sectional area as several smaller hoses, but less internal surface area, and therefore less
friction. Combining discharge lines also reduces the work required to rig discharge hoses or pipe. The single discharge line must have a cross-
sectional area larger than the combined areas of the pump discharges; if not, the pressure caused by the flow restriction will increase the head
the pumps work against, decreasing capacity. Table 8-18 lists the maximum number of pumps that can be rigged in parallel with standard Navy
hose and pipe sizes.

8-3.9.2 Drainage. Bulk or bagged cargoes, dry stores, textiles, and other materials that can mat together will inhibit the passage of floodwater.
To pump out holds or spaces filled with such materials, it is necessary to open a suction well that surrounds the pump suction. The rate of water
flow into the well is a function of the size of the well, permeability of the space contents, and pore water pressure. If water flow into the well
equals or exceeds pump capacity, the pump can be run continuously. If water flows into the well more slowly than the pump draws it out, the
pump must be operated intermittently to allow time for the well to fill. If the bilge drainage suction of a cargo hold is clear or is separated from
the cargo by battens or screen, the hold can be dewatered through the bilge drainage manifold in the machinery space, by the installed bilge
pump, or by a portable pump connected to the manifold. This eliminates the effort of clearing and maintaining a suction access through the
accumulated contents of the space. The pump operates at a reduced suction lift or positive suction head. Holds abaft a machinery space can
be drained into the shaft tunnel through holes cut in the shaft alley side plating. The flooded spaces will drain into the shaft alley where portable
salvage pumps or the installed bilge drainage system can remove the relatively clear water.

8-3.9.3 Flammable Liquids. Hoses and pumps used with flammable liquids or in explosive atmospheres must be properly grounded and
intrinsically safe for use in explosive atmospheres. Hydraulic or pneumatic submersible pumps or pneumatic diaphragm pumps are the best
choice for pumping petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) or other flammable liquids. Oil cargoes are removed from ruptured tanks by keeping
the pump suction just below the liquid surface. As the oil is drawn off, water enters through the hull opening and water level in the tank rises.
By pumping until the pump draws water, all but a few inches of the oil can be removed. If electric submersible pumps are used, their motors
should remain submerged at all times to prevent spark ignition of flammable vapors. This may require the last two or three feet of liquid to
be removed by other means or left in place. The hazard in an open tank increases as the liquid level falls; as air is drawn into the space, the
rich concentration of flammable vapors is progressively diluted and may form an explosive mixture. A tanker inerting system should be
employed, or an inerting system improvised, even when intrinsically safe pumps are used. The U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 5 (S0300-
A6-MAN-050) describes tanker inerting systems and their use.

POL products create fumes that are generally heavier than air. These fumes lie close to the decks and can cause explosions if they reach hot
surfaces or other ignition sources. Engine-driven pumps must never be used on tankers or where large quantities of POL are handled. Only
pumps designated as intrinsically safe by the U.S. Coast Guard should pump POL. Engine-driven hydraulic power units, compressors, or
generators, powering submersible or diaphragm pumps, should be located in well-ventilated areas as far as possible from areas where explosive
fumes are produced or can collect. Engine-driven equipment should not be operated on or adjacent to the tank deck of tankers carrying volatile
fuels.

8-27
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.10 Pumping Calculations. Salvage pumping calculations are usually undertaken to answer one of three questions:

• What pumping capacity (and number of pumps) will be required to dewater a flooded space in a given time?

• How much time will be required to dewater a space with a specified pump capacity?

• At what rate will the water surface be lowered?

Performance data for the pumps used, volume of water to be pumped, system head requirements, and geometry of the flooded compartment must
be known to make the calculations.

Suction and discharge heads do not remain constant, but change as pumping proceeds. For a fixed position pump, suction lift increases as the
water level drops. If the pump is lowered to limit suction lift, discharge head will increase. Discharge head of a submersible pump remains
constant, but positive suction head decreases as the water level drops.

The means of accounting for friction and vapor pressure heads depends on the format of the pump performance data. Friction head for assumed
lengths of discharge and suction piping is sometimes accounted for in performance curves or tables. Vapor pressure head is not factored into
the performance curves of most pumps. Increasing fluid vapor pressure decreases a net positive suction head, so vapor pressure head can be
taken into account for by adding it to the actual suction lift to determine an effective suction lift (negative suction head). The entering arguments
to the performance curves or tables are thus:

Hs eff = Hs actual + Hvp

TDHR = Hs eff + Hd + Hf

where:

Hs eff = effective suction lift

Hs actual = actual suction lift, measured from liquid surface
Hvp = vapor pressure head
TDHR = total dynamic head required
Hd = static discharge head
Hf = friction head of hose or piping not accounted for in performance data

Required pumping capacity is the volume of water to be removed, divided by the time allowed for pumping. The salvage engineer must then
determine the number and types of pumps to use to make up the required capacity with sufficient reserve. Pumping capacity of the selected
pumps should be based on the average suction and discharge heads. Dewatering time with the selected pumps should be calculated as described
above to ensure adequate pumping capacity.

Dewatering time for a given pumping capacity is the volume of water to be removed, divided by the pumping capacity. Since pumping capacity
will vary as suction and discharge heads change through the pumping operation, an incremental solution is required. The time required to pump
out layers of convenient thickness (10 feet, for example) of the flooded space are calculated based on the pump capacities corresponding to the
average suction and discharge heads for each layer. The total dewatering time is the sum of the dewatering times for all the layers.

To determine the rate of fall of the water surface, the volume of one unit (inch, foot, centimeter, etc.) is first calculated or estimated. The
volume of the unit layer divided by the pumping capacity is the rate of fall of the water surface.

Detailed examples of pump calculations are given in Paragraph 5-2.7 of the U. S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020).

8-3.11 Pumps in Unusual Service. Pumps are designed to operate with a specific set or range of fluid properties. If fluid properties of the
pumped liquid vary significantly from those for which the pump was designed, pump performance and service life will be affected. There are
five fluid properties to be considered:

• Specific gravity.

• Viscosity.

• Vapor pressure.

• Abrasiveness.

• Corrosivity.

8-28
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.11.1 Pump Power Requirements. Pump power requirements vary directly with flow rate and discharge head or pressure:
Q(Pd - Ps)
HPw =
1714

where:

HPw = water power, i.e., the power actually imparted to the water, reflected as an increase in energy (pressure or height), horsepower
Q = discharge flow, gpm
Pd = discharge pressure, psi
Ps = suction pressure, psi
1714 = factor to convert gpm to ft3/sec, psi to lb/ft 2, and the resulting ft-lb/sec to horsepower

Brake horsepower required to drive the pump is found by dividing water horsepower by pump efficiency:
Q (Pd Ps)
BHP =
1,714 η

where:

η = pump efficiency, usually about 60%

Since pressure in psi is equal to Hρ/144, with head (H) in feet:

ρ
HT
Q
144
Q (HT) γ
HPW = =
1,714 246,840

where:

HT = total dynamic head, feet

γ = fluid weight density, lb/ft3

8-3.11.2 Specific Gravity. Most field pumps are designed for use with fresh water. For water weight density of approximately 62.4 lb/ft3,
the power equation reduces to:
Q HT
HPW =
3,956

where Q is given in gpm and HT in feet.

Specific gravity (γg) of any substance is the density of the substance divided by the density of fresh water (i.e., the specific gravity of water
is 1), so for liquids other than water:
Q H T γg
HPW =
3,956

For a given pump, maximum horsepower cannot change; a significant increase in specific gravity of the pumped liquid will reduce pump
discharge head and capacity:
(Q HT)1 γg1
(Q HT)2 =
γg2

Pump capacity for a liquid of known specific gravity can be estimated as the capacity (from capacity curves or tables) for an equivalent head
(Heq) of the liquid for which the pump was calibrated. Equivalent head is determined by multiplying total dynamic head required (TDHR) by
the ratio of specific gravities:
γg actual
Heq = TDHR
γg cal

Since most salvage pumps are calibrated for water (γg ≈ 1), equivalent water head (HW) is obtained by multiplying TDHR by the fluid specific
gravity:

HW = (TDHR)γg

Suction lift, net positive suction head (NPS H), and other head terms can be converted to equivalent heads in the same manner to evaluate pump
performance with the new liquid.

8-29
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.11.3 Viscosity. Fluid viscosity affects

pump performance in a complex manner. Table 8-19. Viscosities.
Figure 8-17 shows the effect of viscosity on
pump capacity and discharge head. The
chart is entered on the bottom horizontal Viscosity
scale with the pump’s rated capacity (water). Liquid
A vertical line is followed from the capacity SSU Centistokes
until it intersects the corresponding head on
Water @ 32°F 33.0 1.79
the diagonal head scales. A horizontal line
is then followed to the left until it intersects Water @ 70°F 30.9 0.98
the viscosity of the liquid being pumped. A
vertical line from this intersection intersects Water @ 212°F 29.3 0.29
the correction factor curves; correction
Ethyl Alcohol @ 68°F 31.7 1.52
factors are read from the scale on the left.
The example (dotted line) shows that a Freon 12 @ 70°F 0.27 21.1
pump rated for 55 gpm at a 100-foot
discharge head has a capacity of 45 gpm No. 1 Fuel Oil @ 70°F 34 - 40 2.39 - 4.28
(0.82 × 55) against a 103-foot discharge
No. 2 Fuel Oil @ 70°F 36 - 50 3.0 - 7.4
head (1.03 × 100) when pumping a liquid
with a viscosity of 400 SSU (Saybolt No. 3 Fuel Oil @ 70°F 33 - 40 2.69 - 5.84
Seconds, Universal).
No. 5 Fuel Oil @ 70°F 50 - 125 7.4 - 26.4
Approximate viscosity limits of basic types
No. 5 Fuel Oil @ 100°F 42 - 72 4.9 - 13.7
of pumps are:
No. 6 Fuel Oil @ 122°F 450 - 3,000 97 - 660
Centrifugal 3,000 SSU
Axial flow 8,000 SSU No. 6 Fuel Oil @ 160°F 175 - 780 37 - 172
Reciprocating 10,000 SSU
Jet Fuel @ -30°F 52.0 7.9
Rotary 2,000,000 SSU

As a rule, pump speed must be reduced 25 Lubricating Oils

to 35 percent for each tenfold increase in
viscosity above 1,000 SSU to avoid SAE-5W @ 0°F 6,000 max 1,295 max
overloading the pump prime mover. This
SAE-10W @ 0°F 6,000 - 12,000 1,295 - 2,590
results in a 10-percent reduction in
efficiency. The suction requirements of the SAE-20W @ 0°F 12,000 - 48,000 2,590 - 10,350
pump also vary with viscosity and are
referred to by viscous liquid pump manu- SAE-20 @ 210°F 45 - 58 5.7 - 9.6
facturers as net inlet pressure required
SAE-30 @ 210°F 58 - 70 9.6 - 12.9
(NIPR). Viscosity varies with temperature
and extreme pressure. The pressures SAE-40 @ 210°F 70 - 85 12.9 - 16.8
encountered in dewatering and weight
removal operations will have no significant SAE-50 @ 210°F 85 - 110 16.8 - 22.7
effect on fluid viscosity. Table 8-19 gives
viscosities for some common liquids. Appendix E contains a more extensive list that gives viscosities as a function of temperature. Viscosities
for crude oils and other petroleum products are given in Appendix F of the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 6 (S0300-A6-MAN-060).
Viscosity of a liquid can be determined on site by use of a viscosimeter. Several types of viscosimeters can be obtained commercially; a Saybolt
Universal viscosimeter, constructed as shown in Appendix D, will provide results accurate enough for salvage work. Viscosity in SSU is the
time in seconds required for a gravity flow of 60 ml of the liquid through the orifice. Conversion factors and formulae for various viscosity
units are included in Paragraph D-4.2.

8-30
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

10 5 10 4 10 3
1.10

1.00
HE
AD
.90 (C
H)
CORRECTION FACTORS

.80

.70 CA
PA
.60 C IT
Y
.50 EF (C
FI Q)
CI
.40 EN
C Y
.30 (C
E)
.20

.10

0 CENTISTOKES

1,32
1,76
2,20
132
176
220

330
440

660
880
4.3

7.4

400
10

15
20

32
43

66
88

0
0
0
300
200
150
100
80
60
40
30
20
15
10
8
6

400
300

10,0
200
150
00
HEAD IN FEET

8,00

100
80
0

60
40
30
6,00

20
0

15
10
8
1,50
2,00

3,00
4,00
300
400

600
800
1,00
40

50
60

80
100

150
200

6
VISCOSITY - SSU
0

0
0

0
0

10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CAPACITY - GALLONS PER MINUTE

FROM HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE STARDARDS, 14TH EDITION, 1983, REPRINTED IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW MANUAL, 7TH EDITION, 1986

Figure 8-17. Pump Performance Correction Factor Chart.

8-31
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-3.11.4 Vapor Pressure. Vapor

pressure limits suction head. If the Table 8-20. Permissible Materials for Pumps.
pressure in the pump casing or suction
line drops below the liquid vapor pressure, Liquid Permissible materials Liquid Permissible Materials
some of the liquid vaporizes. This causes
Fatty acids A,8,9,10,11 Glue B,C
centrifugal pumps to lose prime or
cavitate; positive-displacement pumps can Fruit acids A,8,9,10,11,14 Glycerol (glycerin) A,B,C
handle vapors and are self-priming, but Hydrochloric acid 11,12 Lard B,C
may suffer damage if allowed to run dry.
Nitric acid 5,6,7,8,9,10,12 Limewater (milk of lime) C
Volume occupied by vapor reduces the
pump’s output capacity. In the same Sulfuric acid (to 65%) 10,11,12 Magnesium chloride A,8,9,10,11,12
manner, entrained air can expand at low- Sulfuric acid (10%) A,10,11,12,14 Milk 8
suction pressures, reducing output. Since Tannic acid A,8,9,10,11,14 Molasses A,B
vapor pressure head is one of the
Alcohol A,B Naphtha B,C
components of NPSH, increased vapor
pressure limits maximum suction lift: Aqua ammonia C Fuel oil B,C

Ammonium chloride 9,10,11,12,14 Vegetable oil A,B,C,8,9,10,11,14

HS max = Ha - NPSHR - Hvp - HFS
Asphaltum C,5 Turpentine oil B,C

If suction lift cannot be reduced, it may be Beer A,8 Potassium carbonate C

possible to reduce or eliminate cavitation Benzene (benzol) B,C Potassium chloride A,8,9,10,11,14
by decreasing pump speed. Reducing
Calcium chloride brine C Soap liquor C
pump speed lessens pressure drop on the
face of the impeller. Lowering pump Sodium chloride brine A,C,8 Soda ash (sodium carbonate) C
speed also lowers capacity; a reduction in Seawater brine A,B,C Sugar A,8,9,10,11,13
capacity decreases NPSHR, allowing a
Cane juice A,B,13 Syrup A,8,9,10,11,13
higher suction lift:
Creosote B,C Tanning liquors (veg.) A,8,9,10,11,12
NPSHR 2  Q 2
=  2 
Diphenyl C,3 Tar C,3
NPSHR 1  Q1  Ethyl acetate C,9,10 Toluene (toluol) B,C

Ethylene chloride A,8,9,10,11,14 Varnish A,B,C,8,14

8-3.11.5 Abrasiveness and Corrosivity.
Fluid abrasiveness and corrosivity Fruit juices A,8,9,10,11,14 Vinegar A,8,9,10,11,12
influence the selection of materials from Gasoline B,C Wood pulp A,B,C
which the pump is constructed. Pump
NOTE: The letters and numbers indicate materials as follows:
wear rates relative to fluid velocity and
abrasiveness are not well established; A all bronze 4 - 10 stainless steels with compositions as given
B bronze-fitted below
slurry pump manufacturers’ data should be
C all iron 11 a series of nickel-base alloys
consulted. High wear rates should be 1 gray iron 12 high-silicon cast iron
anticipated when using improvised slurry 2 tin bronze 13 austenitic cast iron
pumps, especially with ore and mineral 3 carbon steel 14 Monel
slurries, where impeller life may be 1,000 Stainless Steel Numbers:
hours or less. In general, wear rate varies
Approximate composition, percent
as the square or cube of the velocity. If Type No
purpose-built pumps are not available, C, max Cr Ni Mo Cu, max Mn, max Si, max
Table 8-20 should be used as a guide for 4 0.20 5.00 - 0.50 - - -
selecting pump materials. If pumps
5 0.15 13.00 - - - - -
constructed of unacceptable materials must
be used, a high wear rate should be 6 0.30 20.00 2.00 - - - -
anticipated. Depending on the severity of 7 0.50 28.00 2.00 - - - -
wear, it may be necessary to stock an 8 0.08 18.0 - 21.0 8.0 - 11.0 - - 1.50 2.00
ample supply of backup pumps and spare
parts, particularly impellers and wearing 9 0.08 18.0 - 21.0 9.0 - 12.0 2.0 - 3.0 - 1.50 2.00

rings. 10 0.07 18.0 - 22.0 20.0 - 30.0 3.5 max 4.5 1.50 4.00

8-32
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

8-4 COMPRESSED AIR DEWATERING

Buoyancy can be recovered by forcing water out of flooded spaces with compressed air. Compressed air dewatering is used when pumping
is not practical or the construction of the casualty particularly suits it to use of compressed air:

• Dewatering large tanks, holds, or machinery spaces that have bottom damage.

• Dewatering double-bottom or deep tanks.

• Dewatering cargo tanks in tankers and bulk liquid tanks in other ships.

• Dewatering holds filled with cargo that prevents placing of pump suctions or lowering of pumps to reduce suction lift.

• Dewatering sunken ships submerged too deeply for practical use of cofferdams and pumps.

• Regaining sufficient buoyancy to refloat capsized vessels upside down or on their side.

• Recovering buoyancy in flooded submarine compartments and ballast tanks.

Tankers and submarines are particularly suited to dewatering by compressed air. Tanker decks have fewer perforations than other types of ships,
requiring less preparatory work; tank decks and bulkheads are capable of holding moderate air pressure. The same considerations apply to fuel
and water tanks in other ships, or to floating drydocks. Tanker inert gas system piping provides an installed air distribution system; tanks set
up for inerting are equipped with pressure gages.

Submarines have very few bulkhead penetrations, all of which can be made airtight. Submarine hulls, hatches, and fittings can generally hold
greater air pressure than those in surface ships. Some submarines classes are equipped with salvage air fittings. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage
Manual, Volume 4 (S0300-A6-MAN-040) discusses submarine salvage in greater detail.

Because the tops and sides—as well as the bottoms—of liquid tanks are watertight and airtight, buoyancy can be recovered from flooded double-
bottom or deep tanks without patching and little other preparation, so long as damage is confined to the bottom and lower side plating.
Buoyancy quickly recovered from flooded tanks may be sufficient to refloat stranded ships, or prevent damaged ships from sinking.

Despite its advantages, compressed air dewatering has a number of disadvantages:

• The preliminary work to prepare most types of ships for blowing with compressed air is much greater than for pumping. Extensive
patching and/or diving work may be required to obtain a sufficient degree of airtightness. An accepted rule of thumb is that
compressed air will escape four to six times faster than water through a given opening. Considerable strengthening of decks and
hatches may be required before dewatering with compressed air. Compressed air exerts its upward force on the tops of
compartments, from the inside. A ship’s structure is, in general, designed to withstand sea pressure from below and outside the
hull.

• Compartments can be overpressurized if vents are not properly sized or become obstructed, or blowing operations are not carefully
monitored.

• Ships raised on compressed air leave the bottom suddenly and can be difficult to control during ascent as the compressed air
expands. Stability and control of sunken vessels during ascent is discussed in Chapter 6.

• Because of the inefficiencies of pumping compressible fluids, the dewatering capacity of a compressor is much less than that of
a pump of equal weight.

Compressed air dewatering methods have long been used, but have greatly improved in recent years. More efficient underwater welding
procedures allow salvors to obtain more complete airtightness in preparation for compressed air dewatering; modern compressors have greater
capacity, are more reliable, and are lighter than their predecessors.

8-4.1 Compressed Air Basics. Air compressors are rated in terms of their discharge pressure and flow rate, e.g., a 500 psi/900 cfm compressor.
Flow rate is given in terms of air at a standard condition. The following standard conditions are used in the U.S. Navy:

• Pressure – one atmosphere (14.7 psi).

• Temperature – 68 degrees Fahrenheit.

• Relative humidity – 36 percent.

• Density – 0.0750 lbm/ft3.

8-33
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

In English units, flow rates are expressed in standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM). The actual volume occupied by the air delivered by a
compressor depends on the pressure of the system or receiving vessel (volume tank, ships compartment, etc.). The volume of air (V) at standard
conditions required to fill a space at a given pressure is found by application of the Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws:
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2

Volumes of air at standard conditions are expressed in standard units, e.g., standard cubic feet (SCF). The quantity of standard air required to
fill an actual volume, under nonstandard conditions, measured in actual units (actual cubic feet, ACF) can be found by a modification of the
gas law:
  T 
Vs = 
P   a V
 T  a
 Patm   w

where:

Vs = standard air volume, [length3]

P = pressure in the space where air is required, absolute, [force/length2]
Patm = atmospheric pressure, absolute, [force/length2]
Va = actual (water) volume = space volume × permeability, [length3]
Tw = water temperature at depth, absolute = TFahrenheit + 460 = TCentigrade + 273
Ta = air temperature, absolute = TFahrenheit + 460 = TCentigrade + 273

Pressure can be expressed in feet of seawater (FSW):

1 FSW = 0.445 psi

33 FSW = 14.7 psi = 1 atmosphere

When pressures are expressed as feet of seawater (FSW), standard volume is given by:
T 
Va  a 
(D 33)
Vs =
33  Tw 

8-4.2 Compressors. Compressors and compressed air systems are classified by their pressure rating:

• Low pressure (LP) – 150 psig or less.

• Medium pressure (MP) – 150 to 1,000 psig.

• High pressure (HP) – 1,000 psig or higher.

Compressors, like pumps, are classified by their design and operating features. There are two principal compressor types:

• Positive-displacement (reciprocating and rotary) compressors.

• Dynamic (centrifugal and axial) compressors.

Positive-displacement compressors collect a fixed volume of air within a chamber and compress it by reducing the chamber volume. Dynamic
compressors operate by transferring momentum to the air via a high-speed rotor. Blowers operate on the same principles as compressors, but
at lower pressures. Thirty-five psig is the commonly used arbitrary dividing line between compressors and blowers.

Compressor displacement is the actual swept volume of the air chamber. Capacity is the quantity of air delivered by the compressor, in SCFM.
Efficiency (η) is the ratio of capacity to displacement swept per minute:
SCFM
η =
(Displ)(RPM)

where:

SCFM = compressor capacity, standard cubic feet per minute

Displ = compressor displacement, ft3
RPM = compressor speed, rotations per minute

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If compressor displacement is given without

capacity or efficiency, capacity can be
RECIPROCATING OIL-FLOODED
estimated by assuming 80-percent efficiency. COMPRESSOR SCREW
COMPRESSOR
Pressure in a compressed air system rises as
a compressor or other air source forces more
and more air into a confined space. SURGE

PRESSURE
Pressure is regulated by relief valves or by LIMIT
securing the compressor. When dewatering
a compartment by forcing water out through
openings in the bottom, the water acts as a
relief valve. When the pressure in the
compartment is high enough to force the
water level down to the hull opening,
additional air delivered by the compressor
CENTRIFUGAL
escapes through the opening, and the COMPRESSOR
pressure ceases rising. In a closed system,
such as a manifold or pipe with all outlet VOLUME FLOW
valves secured, pressure will continue to rise
until the compressor reaches its maximum Figure 8-18. Pressure Capacity Cures for Different Compressor Types.
rating. Positive-displacement compressors
can reach very high pressures. Unless a
relief valve is installed, damage to the
compressor, prime mover, or system is very
likely. Dynamic compressors will reach a Table 8-21. Navy Salvage (Diesel-Driven) Compressor Characteristics.
maximum pressure where the momentum
imparted to intake air is insufficient to over-
come the back pressure on the outlet; flow Compressor
Weight Cube L×W×H
Remarks
is zero at this pressure. All dynamic com- lbs ft3 in.
pressors have a minimum flow point, called
the surge limit, below which the operation 125 CFM LPAC 2,650 88 85×35×51 Rotary-vane type, 125 SCFM @ 100
of the machine is unstable. Operation at or psi compressor
below the surge limit must be avoided.
600 CFM LPAC 6,680 717 175×77×92 Two-stage, rotary-vane, 600 SCFM @
100-psi compressor
For a given compressor speed, positive-dis-
placement compressors are essentially
900 CFM MPAC 15,640 966 242× 67×103 Two 4-cylinder reciprocating
constant-volume, variable-pressure compressors on single shaft, 420
machines. Capacity is varied by changing SCFM @ 500 psi each unit
compressor speed. Centrifugal compressors
are essentially constant-pressure, variable-
capacity machines; axial compressors are
constant-capacity, variable-pressure Table 8-22. Navy Salvage Ship Air System Capacities.
machines over significant pressure ranges.
Figure 8-18 shows pressure/volume relation- Compressed Air Storage
Ship Type Air Compressors
ships for different types of compressors. SCFM

The time required to dewater a space ARS-50 10,460 @ 3,000 psig 2 × 200 SCFM @ 300 psi
depends on the delivery rate of compressed
air. If only low-capacity compressors are ARS-38 approx 10,000 @ 3,000 psig 2 × 200 SCFM @ 150 psi
available, delivery rate can be increased by
storing compressed air in volume tanks or ATS-1 147,000 @ 5,000 psig 2 × 100 SCFM @ 5,000 psi
HP storage flasks until it is needed.

8-4.3 Salvage Compressors and Air Sources. Compressed air for dewatering can be obtained from three principal sources:

• Portable air compressors and/or storage flasks.

• Salvage-ship-installed compressors and air systems.

• Casualty’s installed compressors and air systems.

Navy salvage ships carry 125 cfm/100 psi portable air compressors. The ESSM system stocks these compressors along with 900 cfm/500 psi and
600 cfm/100 psi portable compressors. Performance characteristics of these compressors are given in Table 8-21. Salvage ship air systems can
also be used to provide salvage air. ASR and ATS Class ships have large capacity air systems to support submarine salvage and other compressed
air dewatering operations; ARS Class ships have more limited air system capacities. Air system capacities for Navy salvage ships are summarized
in Table 8-22.

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Portable compressors suitable for salvage

use are also maintained by naval HOSE
construction forces, ship repair facilities,
public works centers, and various Army,
Marine Corps, and Air Force support units. COUPLING

Most ships will have one or more installed

compressed air systems. LP air systems are VALVE
GAGE
installed on virtually all ships to provide air
for ship’s services. MP air systems are
FLANGE
installed on warships to provide air for gun
recoil and gas ejection systems.
Submarines and some other types of ships GASKET
are equipped with HP air systems for
torpedo launching, etc. Diesel engine
starting systems typically use MP or HP air. SPOOL PIECE
High-capacity, low-pressure rotary, axial, or
centrifugal blowers may be installed in
ventilation or combustion air systems.
Diesel engine superchargers and boiler-
combustion-air-forced draft blowers Figure 8-19. Blowing Fitting.
typically operate in the 10 to 30 psi range,
with capacity depending on plant size.
Refrigeration compressors can also be
modified to provide compressed air for
salvage use. Inert gas generating systems AIR DISTRIBUTION BLOWING FITTING
supply gas at very low pressures, normally MANIFOLD AND VALVE
less than 10 psi; they can therefore be used AIR SUPPLY GAGE
for complete dewatering or cargo offloading (OFFSHIP)
only in water depths up to about 20 feet.
ORIGINAL LEVEL
They can also be used to provide a positive OF WATER
pressure over a liquid being pumped, as SEA LEVEL
described in Paragraph 8-5.
AIR PUMPED
8-4.4 Compressed Air Dewatering. The INTO FLOODED
basic requirements for compressed air TANK
dewatering are a blowing connection to
which an air hose is attached, a gage to FLOODWATER EXPELLED
THROUGH HULL DAMAGE
monitor compartment pressure, and a route
for the water to escape. The blowing
connection can consist of an air fitting
attached to a vent pipe or sounding tube, or
permanently installed in the deck above the
compartment to be dewatered. The (a) DEWATERING THROUGH HULL DAMAGE
diameter of the air fitting should equal or
exceed the air hose diameter. An air fitting
AIR SUPPLY WITH VALVE
can also be mounted on a plate sized to fit WATER ESCAPE STAND PIPE AND GAGE (ON SURFACE)
a manhole, scuttle, or butterworth fitting. INSERTED THROUGH TANK
LID OR MANHOLE COVER BLOWING FITTING
Figure 8-19 shows a typical salvage
blowing fitting. As an alternative, air hoses
can be led through hull openings below the AIR PRESSURE
waterline. A valve to control air pressure
can be installed on the air fitting or in the FLOODWATER
supply hose if a relief or dump valve is ALTERNATIVELY:
installed upstream in the system. The DIVERS CUT SUITABLE
FLOODWATER HOLE IN TURN OF BILGE
pressure gage should be installed on the air DISPLACED TO PERMIT WATER ESCAPE
fitting plate or other direct access to the
space. If the gage is installed in the air
supply line, air flow must be secured to get
an accurate reading of the pressure inside
the space (this means the gage must be
downstream of the supply valve). (b) DEWATERING A CLOSED COMPARTMENT

Figure 8-20. Compressed Air Dewatering.

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8-4.4.1 Recoverable Buoyancy. The

buoyancy that can be recovered from any AIR
LINE
compartment is directly proportional to the WEDGES
PIPE
volume of the compartment that can be FITTING
SHORE
blown down without air leaking from the
AIRHOSE FLANGE
compartment. If a compartment has
damage only at the bottom, nearly all the
buoyancy can be recovered. If damage WOODEN
PLUG
extends up the side of the compartment,
only the volume above the highest extent of AIR VENT STAND-
the damage represents recoverable PIPE (VENT PIPE
buoyancy. DECK REMOVED)
SPILLPIPE
8-4.4.2 Vents and Standpipes. In a
AIR SUPPLY
compartment with holed bottom plating, HOSE LEAD
water is forced out through the openings in VENT EPOXY
TO SEAL THROUGH
the bottom of the space as compressed air TANK SPILLPIPE
fills the compartment from the top down.
A space flooded without free
communication to the sea can be dewatered
COMPRESSOR
by use of a standpipe, or by cutting
openings in the hull as shown in Figure 8-
20. The volume of water expelled, and
thus the buoyancy regained, can be varied
by adjusting the length of the standpipe or
height of the hull openings.

Compressed air volume, and therefore

added buoyancy, can also be limited by
securing blowing before the water level
reaches the vent holes or standpipe. This
INFLATABLE
method is acceptable for strandings, afloat BUOY
casualties, and ships sunk to shallow
depths. By controlling the amount of
COMPRESSED AIR HOSES
buoyancy recovered in different spaces, HELD BY SMALL FLOATS OR TIED
trim, list, and draft can be controlled as OFF TO DAMAGED PLATE/INTERNALS
desired.
Figure 8-21. Emergency Compressed Air Fittings.
For deeply submerged ships or objects,
partly dewatering a space with compressed
air is very hazardous and should not be attempted; as the casualty rises, the air expands, adding buoyancy in a rapid and uncontrolled manner.
The resulting instability can cause the casualty to assume extreme trim or list; other components of the lifting system can be overloaded or fail.
Buoyancy should be recovered in small increments in deeply sunken ships to avoid instability.

8-4.4.3 Expedient Blowing Fittings. It is occasionally necessary to restore buoyancy to flooded spaces rapidly to prevent sinking or capsize.
Tanks and similar spaces that can be made airtight easily can be dewatered quickly with compressed air. Tanks are made airtight by removing
the gooseneck standpipes from the tank vents and hammering DC plugs into the vent pipes. A positive seal is ensured by coating the plugs with
an epoxy compound; air pressure will force the epoxy into small gaps between the plug and pipe. Compressed air can be introduced into the
space through the most appropriate of the expedient fittings shown in Figure 8-21. After the situation has stabilized, the fittings can be
systematically replaced by steel blowing plates with valves, gages, and hose couplings. In many cases, introducing compressed air through vent
pipes is the fastest way to regain buoyancy in damaged double-bottom tanks. Ships damaged by grounding or underwater weapons can be kept
from sinking in this manner.

8-4.4.4 Removing Liquids Other than Floodwater. Compressed air can be used to remove fuel or other liquids from submerged tanks by
leading a discharge hose from the standpipe to a receiving ship or barge. It is preferable to use pressurized inert gas rather than compressed
air to move a flammable liquid. Blowing with compressed air increases the partial pressure of oxygen in the space, possibly creating an
explosive atmosphere, even if the tank was previously inerted. Inert gas systems often use main engine flue gas that is inherently oxygen
deficient. These gases are themselves flammable when mixed with sufficient oxygen. Inert gas generating systems can create high enough
pressures to be used for shallow depths; for higher pressures, it may be possible to discharge an inert gas generator into a volume tank, which
in turn is led to the inlet of an air compressor. Carbon dioxide or nitrogen from high pressure flasks can be used, but large quantities are
required.

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8-4.4.5 Blowing and Differential

Pressures. The pressure required to COMPRESSOR
dewater a space is a function of water
depth at the opening or bottom of the
standpipe through which the water will be
forced:

Pb = 0.445D + PL
AIR
PRESSURE
where:

Pb = blowing pressure, psig

D = water depth, feet
0.445 = pressure increase per
foot of seawater
PL = pressure required to HYDROSTATIC
overcome air line losses PRESSURE
and standpipe friction,
OPPOSING HYDROSTATIC AND AIR PRESSURES
normally taken to be 2
psi

Since there is no appreciable vertical

pressure gradient in an air-filled space,
pressure throughout the dewatered space
will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure at
the bottom of the standpipe. Because of
the hydrostatic pressure gradient outside the
dewatered compartment, the bulkheads and
top of the compartment are subject to a
differential pressure that varies with depth,
as shown in Figure 8-22. Differential
pressure (Pd) is greatest at the top of the
compartment and can be calculated at any RESULTING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
point by:

Pd = Pb - 0.445D Figure 8-22. Differential Pressure.

where:

D = depth at the point in question, ft

In deep compartments, the differential pressure required to completely dewater a space may be greater than the bulkheads and top of the
compartment can withstand. If so, it will be necessary to reinforce the ship’s structure or limit the differential pressure by varying the length
of the standpipe or the height of the vents:
(Pd PL)
l =
0.445

where:

l = length of the standpipe or distance of vent from top of compartment

Pd = maximum acceptable differential pressure, psig
PL = pressure required to overcome air line losses and standpipe friction, normally taken to be 2 psi

8-4.4.6 Air Flow Requirements. The standard volume of air (Vs) required to completely dewater a space is based on the pressure at the
opening or bottom of the standpipe:
T 
(Va)  a 
(D 33)
Vs =
33  Tw 

where:

D = depth to the vent or bottom of the standpipe, feet

Va = water volume, actual cubic feet = space volume × permeability
Tw = water temperature at depth, absolute
Ta = air temperature, absolute

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Time to dewater is therefore Vs divided by the air delivery rate (Qs), assuming delivery piping and hoses are large enough not to restrict flow:
Vs
Time =
Qs

Unless significant temperature differences are involved, the temperature correction can be omitted for salvage calculations. Because temperature
rises when air is compressed, it may be necessary to top off spaces after the air cools to ambient temperature.

If the standpipe or hull openings are too small, water will flow out of the compartment at a slower rate than air flows in, creating a hydraulic
block that can cause pressure to build up. To avoid damage to the space or air system, it will be necessary to secure blowing periodically until
sufficient water has been forced out of the space to lower the pressure. If compartment pressure is not carefully monitored, the space can be
easily overpressurized, causing damage or injury. To avoid overpressurization, the water flow rate out of the compartment must equal the actual
air flow rate (Qa) into the compartment. To find Qa:
Qs
Qa =
ATA

where:

D + 33
ATA = absolute pressure in atmospheres = ______
33

By transposing the equation for flow through a hole or orifice, required outlet area can be found:
Q
Q = CdA 2gheq , ∴ A =
Cd 2gheq

where:

Q = water flow rate, ft3/sec = Qa

Cd = discharge coefficient, from Figure 8-23
A = area of outlet, ft2
g = acceleration due to gravity ≈ 32.2 ft/sec2
heq = blowing pressure, expressed as an equivalent head of seawater, feet = Pb/0.445

The air pressure in the compartment will

equal the hydrostatic pressure at the depth Cd = 0.6 C = 0.97 Cd = 0.82 Cd ~ 1.0
of the water level in the compartment; as
blowing progresses, the water level falls, air
pressure increases, and flow rates (water d
and actual air) decrease. The standpipe or
opening should be sized to accommodate 2 TO 3d
the maximum flow rate—the flow
corresponding to the depth at the top of the SHARP EDGE ROUND EDGE SHORT TUBE CONICAL
compartment. DIVERGING
TUBE
The variation in flow rate and pressure
through the dewatering may give the Cd = 0.72 Cd = 0.85 Cd = 0.97 Cd = 0.54
impression that higher driving pressure
shortens dewatering time. While raising
the driving pressure increases initial water
flow rate, total dewatering time depends on
2 TO 3d 1/2d
the volume flow of the compressed air
system; the compartment will not be
RE-ENTRANT CONICAL SHORT TUBE RE-ENTRANT
dewatered until the air system has delivered TUBE CONVERGING WITH ROUNDED TUBE
sufficient actual cubic feet of air to fill the TUBE ENTRANCE
required volume. Flow rates of centrifugal
compressors are related to delivery pressure
and the higher flow rate accompanying the Figure 8-23. Discharge Coefficients.
increased pressure will in fact shorten
dewatering time.

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8-4.4.7 Compressed Air Distribution. Compressed air delivery systems must be carefully arranged to prevent confusion and blowing of spaces
at the wrong time or in the wrong order. Delivery via one or more control manifolds is an excellent method of organizing the air distribution
system. Installed piping systems of sufficient size and pressure rating can be modified for use as air distribution systems. Auxiliary steam
systems, with the boiler modified to serve as a volume tank, and tanker inert gas systems are particularly suitable for this use.
Some submarine classes are built with salvage air fittings and standpipes (high and low salvage air fittings) installed on internal compartments
and hard ballast tanks. The U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2 (S0300-A6-MAN-020) describes and illustrates typical submarine salvage
air systems. Compressed air can be admitted to the external ballast tanks through the installed main ballast blow air system or by inserting air
hoses through the tank bottom vents.
Hoses rigged to underwater connections should be individually tagged with plastic or metal identification tags matching a tag placed on the
connection. By running each hose individually and having divers compare the air hose and connection tags, the air supply to each connection
is positively identified.
8-4.5 Operational Notes. Compressed air pressure acts equally throughout a space. Compressed air has the disturbing characteristic of
migrating to the high side of the casualty. Air migrating through small holes or breaches may transfer to compartments where it is not wanted,
increasing buoyancy at unwanted points and losing buoyancy at the desired point. Ships with only a slight list can quickly develop serious lists
as air migrates through longitudinal bulkheads.
When vent holes are cut into the side or bottom of a ship, preformed patches should be ready for installation when the ship is raised. Patching
allows recovery of additional buoyancy and makes the casualty more secure for towing. If patches are not placed, the compressed air system
must remain rigged and ready to maintain the bubble on which the ship is floating. Air will be continuously lost through leakage and will spill
through the side/bottom holes as the ship moves in a seaway.
The appearance of numerous bubbles that approximate the outline of the vessel indicates the ship is about to rise.
A sunken ship raised on compressed air tends to leave the bottom quickly and accelerate as it rises. The rising ship is a danger to surface craft.
All salvage ships and craft should be pulled back as far as practical before blowing to prevent collision with the rising ship. Compressed air
expands as the ship rises and can cause major structural damage or loss by catastrophic shell or bulkhead failure. When a sunken ship is raised
from a significant depth, hull openings, standpipes, or relief valves must be large enough to vent the expanding air.

8-5 COMBINED USE OF AIR AND PUMPING

The most common use of combined pumping and blowing is to keep the pressure differential across bulkheads or shell plating within acceptable
limits. Excessive pressure differentials can result from either of two conditions:

• When a compartment is dewatered by pumping, the inner sides of the bulkheads, shell, and decks are subjected to atmospheric
pressure. The outer sides are subjected to an opposing hydrostatic pressure that varies with depth. If the water depth is great
enough, hydrostatic pressure will be excessive.

• To completely dewater a compartment with compressed air, air pressure in the compartment must be greater than the hydrostatic
pressure at the bottom of the space. When blowing deep compartments, such as tanks or holds, the high blowing pressure can
cause an excessive outward pressure near the top of the compartment.
Combined pumping and blowing is advantageous in those situations where the work and time required to seal the compartment is less than that
to shore or strengthen the casualty’s structure against excessive pressures.
Combined pumping and blowing is a difficult technique because all the problems of both methods are present:

• Compartments must be sealed for blowing with special attention paid to boundary penetrations for pump suctions, discharges,
power lines, hydraulic hoses, etc.

• Pressure on each compartment must be monitored carefully to ensure that the maximum blowing pressure is not exceeded.

• Air flow rate must be matched to water outflow rate (total pumping capacity) to avoid overpressurization.

• Holes must be double-patched.

Air flow must be controlled to ensure that internal pressure does not rise so high that the compartment cannot contain it or fall so low that
hydrostatic pressure collapses the structure. Air flow rate is controlled by throttling air inlet lines or varying compressor speed. Correct
matching of air and water flow will be verified by relatively constant compartment pressure. If it is not possible to vary air flow, compartment
pressure can be maintained between upper and lower limits by intermittently admitting compressed air.
Under some conditions it may be desirable to use air pressure to increase net positive suction head (NPSH) to improve pump performance. When
pumping flammable liquids, pressurizing the tank with an inert gas both improves pump performance and reduces the danger of ignition. Many
tanker cargo pumps are designed for optimum operation with a 5 to 10 psi inert gas pressure.
When some compartments are best dewatered by pumping and others by compressed air, each may be handled independently by the most suitable
method. Care must be taken to ensure that pressure differential across bulkheads separating compartments to be blown from those to be pumped
does not exceed the design pressure of the bulkhead.

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8-5.1 Excessive External Pressure. Internal air pressure decreases the pressure differential across compartment boundaries and reduces the
load on structural members. The increased air pressure above the liquid surface also holds constant the positive suction head, improving pump
performance.

The sense or direction of the net pressure is very important; decks and side shell can normally withstand higher pressures from outside than from
inside; bulkheads are sometimes designed to carry higher pressures from one side than the other. When blowing, there is a net internal pressure,
since blowing pressure is always greater than hydrostatic pressure; when pumping, there is a net external pressure because the pressure outside
the hull or compartment is never less than atmospheric. Depending on the relative magnitude of blowing pressure and hydrostatic pressure at
the top and bottom of the compartment, either of the two conditions shown in Figure 8-24 can exist.

Blowing pressure is selected to satisfy the following conditions:

Case I Case II

Top of the compartment: Pb - Ph ≤ Pint Ph - Pb ≤ Pext

Bottom of the compartment: Ph - Pb ≤ Pext Ph - Pb ≤ Pext

where:
(1) OPPOSING PRESSURES: AIR PRESSURE (INTERNAL)
Pb = blowing pressure
Ph = hydrostatic pressure
Pint = maximum allowable
internal pressure
Pext = maximum allowable
external pressure

From the above it follows that:

Ph2 Pext ≤ Pb ≤ Ph1 + Pint

Pbmax = Ph1 + Pint
Pbmin = Ph2 Pext HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

where:
(2) RESULTING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURES:

Ph1 = hydrostatic pressure at the

top (or high end) of the
compartment
Ph2 = hydrostatic pressure at the
bottom (or low end) of the
compartment

8-5.2 Excessive Internal Pressure.

Blowing pressure must be limited if the
pressure required to dewater a space would
cause excessive net internal pressure. The
CASE 1 CASE 2
reduced pressure can force only part of the
liquid from the space; pumping is required REVERSING PRESSURE REDUCED HYDROSTATIC
GRADIENT GRADIENT
to remove the remaining liquid. If the
compartment is intact and can withstand
full hydrostatic pressure, water can be Figure 8-24. Limiting Differential Pressure with Compressed Air.
blown out through a standpipe down to the
minimum level attainable. The
compartment can then be vented to atmospheric pressure, opened, and pumped out. A more efficient method is to fit the compartment with
both standpipe and pumps. Initial flow rate is relatively high as liquid is simultaneously forced out the standpipe and drawn out by the pumps.
After flow through the standpipe ceases, the pumps continue to operate under the increased NPSHA. When the liquid level reaches the bottom
of the standpipe, the compartment vents to atmospheric pressure. For this reason, an open standpipe cannot be used if the compartment
bulkheads cannot withstand full hydrostatic pressure.

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8-6 INDUCED BUOYANCY

Although pumping and compressed air dewatering induce buoyancy, the term induced buoyancy is specifically applied to methods where water
is removed from a space and replaced with a buoyant medium other than air. Two general methods are used:

• Buoyant Objects – Buoyant objects are introduced into a flooded space. By displacing water and reducing the space’s
permeability, a portion of the lost buoyancy is regained. Both purpose-built and improvised systems have been used.

• Cast-in-place Foam – A buoyant foam is used to displace water and fill all or part of the space with a homogeneous, continuous
mass. The system is also called Foam-in-Salvage.

The principal advantage of using induced buoyancy methods instead of compressed air or pumping is that it is not necessary to make the spaces
to be dewatered completely air or watertight. However, these methods recover less buoyancy than compressed air, and cast-in-place foam and
purpose-designed buoyant object systems are generally more expensive to use than compressed air.

8-6.1 Expedient Buoyancy Recovery. Virtually any buoyant object that is available in sufficient quantity can regain buoyancy by being
injected, inserted, or placed in the spaces to be dewatered. Some examples include:

• Lifejackets, empty oil drums,

small spheres, or other
buoyant objects placed by
divers or special-purpose
equipment.

• Lift bags or collapsible

pontoons placed inside
flooded spaces, then inflated.

• Rigid pontoons placed in

cargo holds so they lodge Figure 8-25. Pontoons Placed Inside Holds.
under overhanging deck edges,
as shown in Figure 8-25.

• Wood chips, cork floats, etc., pumped into spaces as a slurry.

A buoyant cargo that has not lost its buoyancy through leakage, rupture, or waterlogging may carry a significant portion of the casualty’s weight.
The buoyancy of the cargo reduces the lift required and should not be neglected in the salvage calculations.

8-6.2 Cast-in-place Foam. In this technique, liquid chemicals are mixed on the surface or in a submerged mixing gun and pumped or blown
into interior spaces of the casualty. There, the mixture undergoes a chemical transformation into polyurethane foam. The foam consists of a
matrix of tiny gas-filled cells. The gas, usually a fluorocarbon, is blown into the liquid urethane as it is injected into the space and causes the
expansion necessary to displace water; the cell walls, after hardening and curing, are strong enough to resist further expansion of the gas as water
pressure changes as the vessel refloats. The foam hardens very quickly—within a minute or so of being injected—and forms a rigid, buoyant
mass. The foam collects in the top of the compartment, displacing the water. Figure 8-26 shows a schematic diagram of the cast-in-place foam
system and methods of injecting the foam. Foam density, strength, and curing time depend on a number of factors, including water depth and
temperature, and should be determined by on-site experimentation. Theoretically, cast-in-place foam could be used at very great depths, but
foam density increases with water depth, so less buoyancy is recovered. It is unlikely that cast-in-place foam would be practical or economical
for water depths greater than 200 feet. At present, there is no Navy cast-in-place foam system, although the Supervisor of Salvage (NAVSEA
00C) is developing a system for use to depths of 90 feet of seawater. Arrangements for the use of cast-in-place foam are made through the
Supervisor of Salvage.

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Cast-in-place foam has the following

advantages: METHOD ONE METHOD TWO
DIVER MUST KEEP FOAM NOZZLE FOAM SPILL
• The required equipment and
EMBEDDED IN FRESH FOAM DURING
ENTIRE OPERATION.
GUN PIPE
chemicals are transportable DECK
by air and small craft. URETHANE FOAM SEAL

• The expanding foam blocks FOAM

and seals small holes, cracks, FOAM
and splits. GUN SPILL
DIVER FLOODED PIPE
FOAM SPACE
• LINE DISPLACED
Buoyancy is recovered with- WATER
out creating free surface.

• The rigid foam possesses

DIVER GAINS ACCESS THROUGH
shear strength and adheres to DAMAGE TO HULL AND FOAMS
internal structural members. COMPARTMENT FROM THE TOP
DOWNWARDS, FINAL FOAMING
The buoyant force is DONE FROM OUTSIDE.
distributed through the
casualty; less deck stiffening
is required than when using PRESSURIZED
PRESSURIZED ISOCYANATE LIQUID PRESSURE IS REDUCED
LIQUID PUMP BLENDER
compressed air or other water ISOCYANATE
AND AT GUN, FLOUROCARBON TURNS
FLUOROCARBON TO GAS TO CREATE VOIDS
displacement methods.
PRESSURIZED
LIQUID PUMP
• The hardened foam has some FLOUROCARBON FINAL PRODUCT

compressive strength and

contributes to the overall hull FLOUROCARBON TURNS METHYLENE FOAM
TO GAS WHEN CHLORIDE GUN MIXING
girder compressive strength. PRESSURE IS REDUCED SOLVENT
The foam also inhibits FOR FLUSHING
GUN AND MIXER URETHANE FOAM
buckling in shell and PRESSURIZED ON COMPLETION
LIQUID PUMP OF WORK
bulkhead plating. The con- FLOUROCARBON
ISOCYANATE AND POLYOL
tribution of foam to overall MIX TOGETHER AND REACT
PRESSURIZED TO FORM THE CELL WALLS,
strength varies with foam PRESSURIZED POLYOL FLUOROCARBON EXPANDS
LIQUID PUMP BLENDER AND
quality and thoroughness of POLYOL FLUOROCARBON
IN CELLS
application, and is difficult to
quantify. Foam installed in
the hull may justify use of a Figure 8-26. Typical Cast-in-Place Foam System.
reduced factor of safety for
compressive hull loading.

• The center of gravity of the system, once cast in place, is fixed and predictable. The same is true for the center of buoyancy so
long as the entire foam block is submerged.

• The volume and shape of the foam mass are not subject to change as the vessel rises.

• Foam can be selectively distributed throughout large, undivided spaces, optimizing effects on trim and stability.

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Use of cast-in-place foam has several disadvantages:

• The chemicals used to create the foam are toxic, flammable, and vapor-producing. Blending foam components gives off highly
toxic vapors, and the foam may create irritating and toxic vapors while curing after the space is dewatered. When the foam is
cut or crushed for removal, fluorocarbon gas (freon) is liberated from the foam cells that may displace oxygen in confined spaces,
and is considered an environmental pollutant (damaging to upper atmosphere ozone layer).

• Urethane foam is very flammable.

• Foam is relatively expensive; consumables (urethane component chemicals and freon) to produce a long ton of buoyancy at 60
feet of seawater cost about 250 dollars (1990).

• Specially trained personnel and sensitive pumping and proportioning controls are required to reliably produce foam of consistent
quality.

• The chemical reaction that creates the urethane will produce enough heat to self-ignite if laid down in air in thick layers that cannot
dissipate the heat rapidly. The heat can ignite other flammables and induce undesirable chemical reactions.

• The hardened foam is very

difficult to remove, especially
from cluttered spaces such as
machinery rooms. PARTIALLY
PUMPED

• Foam components must be FOAMING IN PROGRESS HOLD FLOODED

batched exactly to suit water

and air temperatures, HOLD
PATCHED
FREE SURFACE
EFFECT IS
especially in very cold WORSENED BY
WEIGHT OF FOAM
conditions.

• A foam mass in the top of a

(a) VESSEL SUNK (b) VESSEL AFLOAT (c) VESSEL AFLOAT PUMPED
OUT PARTIALLY
compartment, as high weight,
may cause instability when
Figure 8-27. Cast-in-Place Foam Stability Problems.
the vessel is refloated, as
shown in Figure 8-27.

The apparent simplicity of foam-in-salvage is deceiving. It is difficult to produce good quality foam consistently in the field. Foaming is a
major operation involving serious safety and fire hazards. Foam should be used only when it is clearly the best alternative.

8-6.3 Other Water Displacement Methods. Small buoyant objects can be placed inside a sunken casualty, recovering buoyancy by displacing
water and reducing permeability. Two principal systems have been developed:

• The Karl Kroyer A/S (Denmark) system uses polystyrene granules which are expanded by steam into spheres of 3⁄ 8- to 1⁄ 2-inch in
diameter. The expanded spheres must be stored for drying and air diffusion (about 24 hours) before being pumped into the
casualty as a slurry.

• The U.S.-originated pressurized sphere injection (PSI) system uses 53⁄ 4-inch spheres molded from a petrochemical material. The
spheres are pressurized to withstand the hydrostatic pressure at depth and equipped with relief valves to allow the internal pressure
to equalize with ambient pressure during ascent.

In both systems, the spheres are injected at the bottom of the space to be dewatered. The spheres rise to the top of the space and form a large
block, which gradually displaces water and adds buoyancy to the casualty. The volume of floating spheres remains constant as the ship refloats.
In other respects, the free floating buoyancy medium behaves much like a similar volume of compressed air. The floating mass has virtually
no inherent shear strength; decks and hatches must be strengthened to prevent the upward buoyancy forces from causing structural damage and
to hold the spheres in place. Because the mass of spheres is free to move and change shape, the center of buoyancy can move as the ship
refloats. The movement of the center of buoyancy and upward forces on decks and hatches are less than when using compressed air because
the spheres are constrained to some extent by internal structural members and each other. At present, there is not enough field data to allow
accurate predictions of the reduction in upward forces or movement of the center of buoyancy when compared with an air bubble of equal
buoyancy. These or similar systems may or may not be available. If they appear attractive for a specific application, the Supervisor of Salvage
may be able to arrange for their use.

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