BICOL UNIVERSITY

POLANGUI CAMPUS
TECHNOLOGY AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
DEPARTMENT

MATH 2
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND SOLID MENSURATION

MODULE 1

Plane Analytic Geometry:

The Cartesian Planes, Distance Formula, Point of Division Formulas,
Inclination and Slope, Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Prepared by:

Engr. Norejun D. Osial

Instructor I

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 Introduction
Analytic geometry provides a bridge between algebra and geometry that makes it possible for
geometric problems to be solved algebraically (or analytically).
The association between algebra and geometry is made by assigning numbers to points. To do
this, the cartesian plane (named after French mathematician Rene Descartes, who formalized
its use in mathematics) as shown in figure 1 is used.

The Cartesian Plane

(-,+) (+,+)

(2,3)

(-,-) (+,-)

Figure 1. The Cartesian Plane

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 Parts of the Cartesian Plane
The cartesian plane is defined by two perpendicular number lines: the x-axis, which is
horizontal, and the y-axis, which is vertical. The point of intersection of these two lines is called
the origin. Let’s take a look at point A in the cartesian plane as shown in figure 1. We can
uniquely describe this point using an ordered pair of numbers. Let’s first define this ordered
pair of numbers. If we draw a line parallel to the y-axis and passing through point A, then the
point of intersection of this line and the x-axis is the x coordinate or abscissa of point A.
Similarly, if we draw a line parallel to the x-axis and passing through point A, then the point
of intersection of this line and the y-axis is the y coordinate or ordinate of point A. From this
definition, we see that the x and y coordinate of point A is 2, and 3, respectively. Thus, point
A is represented by (2,3), as illustrated in figure 1. It is important to note that if the point under
consideration is on the y axis (e.g., point C), then the x-coordinate of this point is zero.
Likewise, if the point is on the x axis (e.g., point D), then the y-coordinate of this point is zero.
Hence, the coordinate of points C and D, are (0,-3), and (5,0), respectively. Now, recall that
the origin is located at the intersection of the two axes, then its coordinate must be (0,0).

In a coordinate plane, the following conventions normally apply:

1. The axes are taken to be perpendicular to each other.
2. The x axis is a horizontal line with the positive coordinates to the right of the origin,
and the y axis is a vertical line with the positive coordinates above the origin.
3. The same scale is used on both axes.
These conventions, of course, need not be followed when others are more convenient.

Quadrants of the Cartesian Plane

The axes separate the plane into four regions, called the quadrant. It is convenient to identify
them by the numbers shown in figure 1. These are numbered from I through IV, starting with
the upper right and going around counterclockwise. In Quadrant I, both the x- and y-
coordinates are positive (+,+); in Quadrant II, the x-coordinate is negative, but the y-coordinate
is positive (-,+); in Quadrant III both are negative (-,-); and in Quadrant IV x is positive but y
is negative (+,-). Note that points on the axes are not in any quadrant.

Distance Formula
Now that we have established the parts and use of the Cartesian Plane, let us now focus our
attention on finding the distance between two points. Suppose we are interested in the distance
between P = (x1,y1) and Q = (x2,y2) as shown in figure 2 below. A vertical line is drawn through
Q and a horizontal line through P intersecting at a point T = (x2,y1). Assuming P and Q are not
on the same horizontal or vertical line, PTQ forms a right triangle with the right angle at T.
Now we can use the Theorem of Pythagoras to determine the length of PQ.

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By Pythagorean Theorem,

̅̅̅̅
𝑷𝑸 = √(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐

(x2, y1)

Figure 2. Derivation of Distance Formula

Thus, we have proved the following theorem.

Theorem 1.1
The distance between two points P = (x1,y1) and Q = (x2,y2) is
̅̅̅̅ = √(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐
𝑷𝑸

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 Point-of-Division Formulas
The point-of-division formula tells us the coordinates of the point which divides a given line
segment into two parts such that their lengths are in the ratio m/n as shown in figure 3. This
formula is stated in the following theorem.

Theorem 1.2
If A = (x1, y1), B = (x2, y2), and P is a point such that r = m/n, then the coordinates of P
are
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒓(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ) and y= 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒓(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )

Where:
m = Length of line segment AP
n = Length of line segment PB

Figure 3. Basis of Point-of-Division Formula

One very important special case of the point-of-division formulas arises when r = ½, which
gives the midpoint of the segment AB. Using the point-of-division formulas, we have the
following theorem:

Theorem 1.3
If P is the midpoint of AB, then the coordinates of P are
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒙= and 𝒚=
𝟐 𝟐

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 Inclination and Slope
We now define the inclination and slope of a line. First, let us recall the convention from
trigonometry which states that angles measured in the counterclockwise direction are positive,
while those measured in the clockwise direction are negative. Thus, we have the following
definition.

Definition
The inclination of a line that intersects the x axis is the measure of the smallest nonnegative
angle which the line makes with the positive end of the x axis. The inclination of line parallel
to the x axis is 0.

We shall use the symbol θ to represent an inclination as shown in

Figure 4. The inclination of a line is always less than 180°, or π
radians, and every line has an inclination.
Thus, for any line,

0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180° or 0≤𝜃≤𝜋

Figure 4. Inclination of a line

While the inclination of a line may seem like a simple representation, we cannot, in general,
find a simple relationship between the inclination of a line and the coordinates of points on it
without resorting to tables of trigonometric functions. Thus, we consider another expression
related to the inclination – namely, the slope of a line.

Definition
The slope m of a line is the tangent of the inclination; thus,
𝒎 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽

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Note:
1. While it is possible for two different angles to have the same tangent, it is not possible
for lines having two different inclinations to have the same slope. The reason for this
is the restriction on the inclination, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°.
2. Vertical lines have inclination 90° but no slope.
3. A horizontal line has a slope and that slope is equal to zero.

Determination of Slope

Theorem 1.4
A line through P1 = (x1, y1) and P2 = (x2, y2), where 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , has slope
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐
𝒎= =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐

One description of the slope of a line is that it is the vertical rise of the line divided by the
horizontal run, or simply, rise over run. Figure 5 shows the geometrical representation of the
inclination(θ) and slope of a line.

(RISE)

(RUN)

Figure 5. Inclination and slope of a line

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 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Now that we know how to calculate the slope of a line, let’s now discuss one of its applications
on parallel and perpendicular lines.

Rules on Parallel Lines:

1. If two nonvertical lines are parallel, they must have the same inclination and, thus, the
same slope.
2. If two parallel lines are vertical, then neither one has slope.

Derivation of formula for Perpendicular Lines:

If two nonvertical lines l1 and l2 with the respective inclinations θ1 and θ2 are perpendicular
(see Figure 6), then (assuming l1 to be the line with the larger inclination)
𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 90°
and
𝜃1 = 𝜃2 + 90°
Thus,
1
tan 𝜃1 = tan(𝜃2 + 90°) = − cot 𝜃2 = −
tan 𝜃2
1
𝑚1 = −
𝑚2
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
To summarize, we have the following theorem:

Theorem 1.5
The lines l1 and l2 with slopes m1 and m2, respectively, are
(a) Parallel or coincident if and only if m1 = m2
(b) Perpendicular if and only if m1m2= -1

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 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Find the distance between A = (1,4) and B = (-3,2).

Solution:
̅̅̅̅ = √(−3 − 1)2 + (2 − 4)2
𝐴𝐵

= √16 + 4 = 𝟐√𝟓

2. Find the point one-third of the way from A = (2, 5) to B = (8, -1).

Solution:
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃 1
𝑟= =
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 3
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑟(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
1
= 2 + (8 − 2)
3
=4
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑟(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
1
= 5 + (−1 − 5)
3
=3
Thus, the desired point is P = (4, 3).

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 3. If the segment AB, where A = (-3, 1) and B = (2, 5), is extended beyond B to a point
P twice as far from A as B is, find P.
Solution:

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑃
𝑟= =2
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑟(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
= −3 + 2[2 − (−3)]
=7

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑟(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
= 1 + 2(5 − 1)
=9
Thus, P = (7, 9).

4. Find the midpoint of the segment AB, where A = (1, 5) and B = (-3, -1).
Solution:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑥=
2
1−3
=
2
= −1
𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦=
2
5−1
=
2
=2
Thus, P = (-1, 2).

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 5. Find the slope and inclination of the line containing A = (1, 5) and B = (7, -7).
Solution:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 −7 − 5 −12
𝑚= = = = −𝟐
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 7−1 6
Since
𝑚 = tan 𝜃 = −2
𝜃 = arctan(−2) = 𝟏𝟏𝟕°
θ
The line through A and B is shown in the
figure. A slope of -2 means that, as we
move a unit distance to the right on the line,
we move down (because of the minus) a
distance 2.

6. Find the slopes of l1 containing (1, 5) and (3, 8) and l2 containing (-4, 1) and (0, 7);
determine whether l1 and l2 are parallel, coincident, perpendicular, or none of these.
Solution:
8−5 3
𝑚1 = =
3−1 2
7−1 6 3
𝑚2 = = =
0+4 4 2
Since m1=m2, then the l1 and l2 are
either parallel or coincident. To clear
this out, we graph l1 and l2. From the
figure on the right, it is clear that they
are parallel rather than coincident.
Thus, l1 and l2 are parallel.

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References:

Analytic Geometry 6th Edition, Douglas R. Riddle

https://www.skillsyouneed.com/images/geo/cartesian-coordinates.png

https://www.varsitytutors.com/hotmath/hotmath_help/topics/cartesian-plane

https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Distance-Formula.png

https://brilliant.org/wiki/section-formula/

https://thefactfactor.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Inclination-of-a-line-01.png

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSIoYInei0eGsPlft62dtHL-
9Xh3ZDbVZzpcQ&usqp=CAU

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