LESSON 1

Arellano University

Jose Abad Santos Campus

GCAS 06 PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

LESSON 1

TOPIC: 1. Communication Processes

Lesson Learning Outcomes: At the end of the learning engagement you should

be able to:

identify and explain the forms and models of communication along with the causes of
communication failure.

compare and contrast verbal and nonverbal communication.

participate in activities to enhance communicative competence

appreciate the value of understanding the process of communication

What is Communication?

Communication can be defined as a process by which information, meanings and feelings

are shared by persons through a common system of verbal and nonverbal symbols, signs or
behavior.

As a process, communication is characterized as:

dynamic- it is constantly changing because it relies on human perception that can change
overtime; therefore, it is irreversible and unrepeatable.

continuous- it is an ongoing exchange of meaning, sharing behaviors between/among

individuals who operate within a frame of experience; it does not have a beginning, an end, a
fixed sequence of events.

adaptive- it adjusts to the changes that occur in its physical and psychological environment.

systemic- it involves components that are interrelated and interacting in cyclic order; and

transactional- every communication is a unique combination of people, messages and

events; it consist of unending sharing (transmission and reception) of messages
between/among people on some occasion.

Forms of Communication

Intrapersonal Communication is talking to oneself (self-talk) through internal vocalization

or reflective due to some internal or external stimulus. In other words, this type of
communication takes place within the person.

Interpersonal Communication- it is a form of communication wherein individuals are

engaged actively in the overt and covert transmission and reception of messages.


Dyadic Communication- is a two-person communication such as telephone conversation,
job interview and doctor-patient conversation.

Small Group Communication- ideally consists of three to six persons such as committee
meeting, buzz session and brainstorming activity.

Public Communication- is conveying information to a large audience. It is more sender-

focused than intrapersonal and interpersonal forms of communication.

Speaker-Audience Communication – is talking to a large number of people who gathered

for some occasion. The speaker centers the communication event on the audience. He
analyzes the audience to determine the content, language use and listeners expectations.
Effective communication occurs because the speaker can tailor message to the needs of the
listeners.

Mass Communication – is the “process whereby media organizations produce and transmit
messages to large publics and the process by which those messages are sought, used,
understood and influenced by audience” (Littlejohn and Foss, 2011)

Models of Communication

Transmission Model considers communication as a one-directional exchange in which the

message is purposely conveyed by a speaker to a listener (Ellis & McClintock 1990). This
model centers on the sender and information present in a communication environment.
Despite the inclusion of the receiver in this communication model, this function is regarded
merely as target or destination and not a part of a continuous exchange of meanings.
Therefore, communication is considered simply as source and destination of messages.

Message

Channel
Interaction Model describes communication as a process in which communicators
change roles as sender and receiver and produce meaning by exchanging messages
within their own environment and experiences (Schramm, 1997). Rather than
illustrating communication as a linear, unidirectional method, the interaction model
incorporates feedback that makes communication significantly collaborative, two-way
method. Feedback is conveyed as a response to received messages. From this
standpoint, communication can be described as producing exchanges of meanings
within physical and behavioral setting.

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical
context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size,
layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the
different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect
your communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting
around a large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was positioned
on the stage facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also
been walked around campus to interview with various people in temperatures below
zero degrees. Although I was a little chilly when I got to each separate interview, it
wasn’t too difficult to warm up and go on with the interview. During a job interview in
Puerto Rico, however, walking around outside wearing a suit in near 90 degree
temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t pleasant to try to communicate
through. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or other environmental
factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our
communication.

Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication

encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological
influences that can affect our communication. I recently found out some troubling news
a few hours before a big public presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate
because the psychological noise triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my
other thoughts. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion
of love, can also affect communication. During the initial stages of a romantic
relationship individuals may be so “love struck” that they don’t see incompatible
personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they might otherwise find off-
putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful
illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views
communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual
communication encounters.

Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of

the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process
that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages
like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver
as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating,
because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction
model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways,
including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and
the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication

is and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a
thing, like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view,
communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model
views communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by
a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on. From this
view, communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within
physical and psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as
integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand
them but also create and change them.

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in

which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural
contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we
communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-
concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t
communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ
significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and
receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators.
Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as
sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders
and receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your
interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are
done sending your verbal message to start receiving and decoding the nonverbal
messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal message
and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the
model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our
communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on
the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.
 Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The
interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that
enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on
message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication
views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific
interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single
interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and
cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication.
As we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up
on norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts
include don’t lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet
people when they greet you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on.
Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children or students.
Rules may be stated over and over, and there may be punishment for not following
them.

Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and
trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice
people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new
employee you may over- or under dress for the company’s holiday party because you
don’t know the norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about
how to dress at the holiday party, you will notice your error without someone having
to point it out, and you will likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save
yourself any potential embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t
result in the formal punishment that might be a consequence of breaking a social rule,
the social awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach
us that these norms are powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules.
Norms even have the power to override social rules in some situations. To go back to
the examples of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule about
not lying if the lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close
friends when we’re having an exciting conversation, but we wouldn’t be as likely to
interrupt a professor while they are lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people
and cultures, relational and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model
in order to help us understand the multiple contexts that influence our communication.

Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship
we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus
someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more
highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an
established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules
more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and
attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you
invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also
make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up becoming
friends with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think
as much about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole
attention during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also vary based on
the type of relationship people have, relationship type is also included in relational
context. For example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a
supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and
vice versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate,
so does culture.

Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. It is important for us to understand that
whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence
our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been
historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence
their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely,
people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think
about the role their cultural identities play in their communication.

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Verbal communication can be defined as the exchange of ideas that occurs through
words. This can be both written and oral.

Verbal communication allows individuals to exchange ideas, opinions, values and

suggestions, and creates an atmosphere where an individual can connect with another.

Verbal communication may take place face-to-face or through some media such as the
telephone.

When a person engages in a conversation with a friend, this is verbal communication

because it allows them to use words to communicate with each other. Through letters,
various documents, memos, text messages, and bills, people communicate with others.
Both situations exemplify verbal communication in oral and written form, respectively.

Since words are man’s primary symbols, verbal communication creates a condition
where transferring information becomes very clear.

Nonverbal communication is wordless exchange of information, thoughts, feelings,

etc. between or among individuals.

People communicate a lot nonverbally through intonation and stress, gross bodily
movements such as gestures and facial expressions, material things such as hair style
and jewelry, and touching, kissing and hugging.

These nonverbal elements give deeper meaning and intention to words.

Nonverbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning over and
above verbal communication.

Nonverbal signals are more vulnerable to misunderstanding.

It includes the following types:

Paralanguage (Vocalics) refers to vocal qualities that go along with verbal message,
such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen, 1999).

Action Language (Kinesics) refers to gross bodily movements such as walking and
eating. It consists of (a) gesture, (b) facial expression, (c) eye contact and (d) posture.
Sign Language consists of body movements that are used as substitute for letters,
words, numbers, phrases and even sentences.

Object Language (Objectics) refers to the intentional and unintentional display of

material things such as the clothes you wear, hair style, the decoration of a room,
jewelry, implements, machines, the human body, etc.

Tactile Language (Haptics) is communication by touch such as a kiss, a tap on the back.
It is the most elementary mode of communication and the first an infant experiences.

Space/Distance (Proxemics) expresses certain types of messages. In America, there are

four primary distance zone: (a) intimate (b) personal (c) social and (d) public distance.

Time (Chronemics) refers to man’s use of time in sending certain types of messages.
Time as a form of nonverbal communication can be best explained by the concept of
punctuality, willingness to wait and interactions.

Silence is lack of audible sound, or presence of sounds of very low intensity. It can be
best explained by the statement “What is not said is as important or even more
important than what is said.” Sometimes silence can communicate better than any
words.

Causes of Misunderstandings in Communication

Problem in developing the message

Indecision about the message content

Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver

Emotional conflicts

Difficulty in expressing ideas

Problems in transmitting the message

Problems in receiving the message

Physical distraction
Lack of concentration

Problems in understanding the message

Different cultural background

Different interpretation of words

Different emotional reaction