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Title of Paper: OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARATRANSIT IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES OF ASIA

Name of Paper Presenter and Affiliation:

Toshikazu SHIMAZAKI, D.Eng., Associate Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo
7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113 JAPAN
Phone: +81-3-3812-2111 ext.6116
Facsimile:+81-3-5800-6868

Name of Co-Author Affiliation:

Md. Mukitur RAHMAN, M.Eng., Engineer,
Asian Engineering Consultant,
9th Fl. Sathorn Thani Bldg., 90 North Sathorn Rd.
Bangkok 10500 THAILAND
Phone: +66-2-236-6090
Facsimile: +66-2-236-6086

Total Number of Words in Text: 4072

ABSTRACT
Paratransit modes play a significant role in the urban transport sectors of developing count
ries. In many cities, more than half of the total public transport demand are carried by th
em. Rapid increase in urban population, per capita income, along with inadequate existing t
ransport infrastructures have stimulated their usage as inexpensive and convenient public tr
ansport modes. This paper aims a comparative study of their operational characteristics in
order to provide a basic data for discussion of urban transport issues in developing countri
es. Some future directions are given to increase their efficiency and thus to improve urban
mobility.

1. INTRODUCTION
Paratransit or the informal public transport modes have been developed to fill the gaps
left among private cars, buses and fixed track systems. There are a number of definitions
of paratransit based on different criteria. The functional definition of paratransit states
"Paratransit is urban passenger transportation service usually in highway vehicles operated
on public streets and highways in mixed traffic; It is provided by private or public operat
ors and it is available to certain groups of users or to the general public, but adaptable i
n its routing and scheduling to individual user's desires in varying degrees"(1). The conce
pt of paratransit, however, differs in developed and developing countries. In developed cou
ntries, paratransit is often used for demand responsive systems such as shared-ride taxis, d
ial-a-ride and subscription buses. In developing countries, the lower standard of living, h
igh population density, availability of cheap labor force etc., have together provided a bew
ildering array of transport modes bridging the gap between public bus and private automobile
s.
Although various forms of paratransit modes exist in developing countries ranging from
simple non-motorized human or animal powered vehicles to motorized mini buses, the motorized
paratransit modes are dominant in all cities of developing countries. As for example, 70%
of the total public transport demand in Metro Manila (Philippines), 50% in Jakarta (Indonesi
a), 40% in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), and 21% in Bangkok (Thailand) are carried by motorized p
aratransit modes(2). They provide a flexible and frequent services to small settlements and
through narrow streets, where no other services are available at a relatively low fare. In
addition, the urban paratransit sector generates a considerable number of employment opport
unities, as much as 10%-20% of the total employment in some cities(2).
In different cities, various studies were done on paratransit system, but most of them
were limited to only specific systems. This paper summarizes the operational characteristic
s of different paratransit modes in the cities of developing countries in comparative form,
in order to provide a basic data for discussion of urban transport issues in developing and
developed countries. Section 2 begins with outlining the paratransit modes in urban transpo
rtation system. Their operational characteristics that include vehicle ownership, fare stru
cture, operating cost etc. are described in section 3. Section 4 describes their effect on
urban transportation system, while section 5 deals with their administrative characteristic
s. The paper concludes with a discussion on future direction of paratransit with their impo
rtance in the urban transport system for cities in developing countries.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF PARATRANSIT IN URBAN TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Although the characteristics of paratransit modes are different based on their function
in different cities, these modes are the usual means of movement among low income people an
d have some common characteristics such as cheap fares, low energy requirements, higher labo
r intensity, and small area of coverage. Generally, paratransit systems can be broadly clas
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sified into two types; non-motorized and motorized. The non-motorized paratransit includes
animal powered and human powered. The human powered is mainly hand drawn or pedal driven.
Both motorized and non-motorized systems have again been subclassified into 3 groups, ie. in
dividual type (seating capacity < 4), shared type (seating capacity 5-10) and collective typ
e (seating capacity > 11). Table 1 shows the classification system of paratransit modes in
developing countries. All non-motorized paratransits are of individual type with seating ca
pacity 2, except hand rickshaw (seating capacity 1)(1) in India, and tonga (seating capacity
2-4) in Pakistan. On the other hand, seating capacity of motorized paratransit ranges wide
ly from 2 to 18. Sometimes, however, passengers of 2-3 times of capacity ride on.
There are differences in the functional characteristics and service patterns of the par
atransit modes which have been classified into 3 separate groups. The "individual" type par
atransits provide door to door service. For the "shared" and "collective" types, the routes
are generally fixed but vehicles often and marginally deviate from the route on passengers
demand. The collective type paratransit sometimes cut routes to pick up opposite direction
passengers.
Recently, the non-motorized paratransit has been restricted in some cities' CBD area.
In Dhaka, rickshaw is banned to enter into some major streets. In Indonesia and Philippine,
its use is limited to some cities, although more than half of the public transport passenge
rs in some Indian cities and Dhaka are carried by this non-motorized paratransit mode.

3. OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARATRANSIT

3.1 Service Condition
Table 2 shows the operational/service characteristics of paratransit modes in different
countries. Daily travel distance of "individual" type paratransit ranges from 20 Km by Ind
onesian becak to 116 Km by auto rickshaw in India. Normally non-motorized vehicles make sho
rter trips than motorized ones, which is supported by the range of passengers journey length
1.9 Km by cycle rickshaws to 10 Km by bemo. These paratransit vehicles carry 23 to 273 pas
sengers/day. The number of trips varies from 13 to 40. As a summary, non-motorized vehicle
s travel daily less than 30 km, the passenger journey length is less than 5 Km and daily pas
senger handling is less than 25. On the other hand, motorized vehicles travel daily more th
an 70 Km, the passengers journey length is more than 3 Km and daily passengers handling is m
ore than 40. The average number of passengers per trip varies from 1.1 for hired motorcycle
in Bangkok to 19.5 for jeepney in Manila.
In Metro Manila, modal shares of passengers with trip distance are shown in Table 3. M
ost of the public transport passenger trips occur within the distance of 2.5 Km to 7.5 Km an
d the jeepney captures about 85% of the demand of this distance. The majority of bus passen
gers (31%) trip distance is 7.6-10 Km, against 2.6-5 Km by jeepney passengers (38%), indicat
ing that average trip distance made by bus is longer than jeepney. The bus and jeepney are
directly competitive in the trip length of 7.6-10 Km. The higher competitive power of the j
eepney in the shorter trip distances is certainly attributed to its high frequency which gav
e 3.5 times higher than the bus even on average (Table 4). The hourly passenger capacity (p
assenger capacity* hourly frequency) carried by jeepney and bus is almost the same for a sho
rt distance (< 5 Km). But above this range, hourly capacity of bus is almost twice larger t
han jeepney.
Considering the average journey speed of the paratransit vehicles in India, it is depic
ted from the Table 5 that, average journey speed including waiting time of cycle rickshaw is
almost the same as the bus and mini bus, although in vehicle speed differs among bus, mini
bus and cycle rickshaw. This is due to much shorter access and waiting time for cycle ricks
haw than for mini bus or bus. For shorter trip distance, the shorter access and waiting tim
e reduce the total journey time significantly. Thus paratransit looks convenient for short
distance as compared to bus.
Comparison of passengers handling capacities in terms of daily passengers carried and p
assengers kilometers of paratransit vehicles with conventional buses in Bangkok and India ar
e shown in Table 6. In India, the daily passengers carried by auto rickshaw are 2 times lar
ger than that of cycle rickshaw due to the speed differences. Although a vast difference is
observed in passengers handling capacities, the individual output of paratransit along with
their large numbers has made a significant role in urban public transport.
Finally, unlike conventional bus service, the paratransit modes have no obligation to p
rovide a service on those routes where demands are low. The operator provides service only
where and when it is profitable for him. Often to achieve more profitability, the "shared"
and "collective" types paratransit modes do not leave the terminal until the vehicles are fu
ll and this leads to higher passengers waiting time.

3.2 Vehicle Ownership

Almost all the paratransit industry is owned and operated by the private enterprises.
Private individuals and cooperatives own the vehicles used for paratransit. Some survey res
ults in different countries indicate that drivers rent the vehicles from small scale enterpr
ises and very few drivers own their vehicles. For example, only 9% of the jeepney drivers i
n Manila, 18% and 13% of becak drivers in Bandung and Jakarta, 1% of samlor drivers in Bangk
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ok, are estimated to own their vehicles. In India, the percent is relatively higher and is
20% and 34% for cycle rickshaw and auto rickshaws respectively (Table 7). The only exceptio
n is found for silor in Chiang Mai where about 75% drivers own their vehicles.
The majority of owners have only small fleets. For example, in Manila and Malang, 55%
and 79% jeepney and bemo owners have only one vehicle (Table 8). Conversely, only 19% of je
epney operators own more than 5 units. In Bandung, becak's owner fleet size is a little lar
ger, which shows 41% own 3-9 units.

3.3 Fare System

In general, fares of urban public transport modes vary widely. Bus is the cheapest and
taxi is the most expensive modes of public transport in all cities. The fares of paratrans
it modes are higher than conventional bus because it provides a convenient means of travel w
ith a high frequency of service. The fare systems are classified into 3 groups; fixed, mete
red and decided through negotiation. Mostly, the fares of "individual" types paratransit mo
des are decided through negotiation between passengers and drivers. In some countries like
India and Nepal, they have metered auto rickshaw. But in case of "shared" or "collective" t
ypes paratransit, fixed fares are received from passengers. The jeepney in Manila has the s
ame fare system as that of conventional bus. Table 9 shows the examples of fare system in d
ifferent cities.
In India, fare rates on cycle rickshaws and autorickshaws are prescribed for typical jo
urneys by the local authority. But in practice all rates are decided by bargaining, even th
ough auto rickshaws carry a meter. The fares per passenger kilometer of these two modes do
not differ much but the total fare paid per trip is higher on auto rickshaws (Table 10). Th
is is because of the longer journey distance covered by the auto rickshaws.
The results of a 1990 survey of samlor users in Bangkok shows that passenger believe th
e current fare bargaining system is not favorable to them. More than half of the samlor pas
sengers interviewed opted for a change in the current fare bargaining system and prefer a me
ter system of fare collection or fare fixed by government(3). Recent introduction of metere
d taxi may reflect this view.

3.4 Operating Cost and Profitability

The exact level of earning of paratransit drivers is difficult to determine and very fe
w studies estimate the operating cost, including fuel, rent and repair, and revenues. Opera
ting cost of paratransit in Bangkok is summarized in Table 11. The average operating revenu
e per day for samlor is the highest and hired motorcycle is the lowest. But their operating
income, excluding personnel expenses, is almost the same. The fuel consumption of these pa
ratransits is relatively low. For example, approximately 15 liters of fuel is required per
shift (12 hours) for samlor(3). The significantly low fuel consumption is due to the small
size and less weight of vehicles (450 Kg for samlor)(4). Furthermore, comparing the average
net pay, a driver earns the minimum labor wage of 90 Baht in a shift(3). On average, parat
ransit drivers in Bangkok are better paid than laborers.
The average daily fare revenue of the jeepney driver in Manila was 397 Pesos ($17.68).
Daily expenses were 302 Pesos ($13.45). Fuel/oil cost accounted for 53% of total daily exp
enses, while boundary fee (rent, repair, etc.) at 44% and others (parking fee, dispatchers'
fee, etc.) at 3% of total expenses(5). The financial profile of the jeepney in Metro Manila
is shown in Table 12.

4. EFFECTS OF PARATRANSIT
Each transport mode has its positive and negative effect. Employment generation is the
positive effect of paratransit and the effect on speed or capacity of road traffic includin
g accident is its negative impact.

4.1 Positive Effect

In the urban area, the transport sector including storage and/or communication provides
a great number of job opportunities which accounts for 2% to 20% of the total labor force a
t the national level. In India and Bangladesh the share of transport sector is remarkably h
igh, 12% in India and 12.9% in Bangladesh, due to the labor intensive cycle rickshaw. About
10% of the total labor force in Manila was involved in the jeepney services. This percent
was more in case of Chiang Mai (Bangkok), about 13-20%, in the minibus and samlor services(
2).
In Dhaka, Bangladesh, about 380,000 people are directly employed as rickshaw pullers, a
nd another 80,000 are employed in ancillary services related to rickshaws, together accounti
ng for nearly one fourth of all employment in metropolitan Dhaka. Motorized and non-motoriz
ed public transport services together provided direct employment to 28,000 people in Patna,
India, in the mid-1980s(6). Table 13 compares the employment generation by different modes
in Patna, India, which shows that, 100,000 rupees (US$4,167) investment in a conventional bu
s system was estimated to produce 3 new direct jobs. If it is invested in the auto rickshaw
system, 6 direct jobs were created. The same sum was estimated to create 75 jobs if invest
ed in cycle rickshaw. Thus, paratransit accounts for the large share in providing employmen
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t for unskilled low income workers.

4.2 Negative Effect

The accident rate of paratransit modes which may be considered as its negative effect i
s often claimed to be excessive in developing countries. Very little information has been o
btained regarding the accident data of paratransit modes. In Ankara (Turkey) 54% of all urb
an accidents involve a typical paratransit called "dolmus"(7). Results of the passengers su
rvey (1990) in Bangkok reveals that almost a quarter of the total 727 respondents had experi
enced accidents while riding on the hired motor cycles. Moreover, the traffic accidents stu
dies conducted in Thailand by the Department of Highways (1990) indicates that ratio of numb
er of accidents by hired motor cycles ranked highest, 25.6% and 21.8% in 1987 and 1988, resp
ectively(8). Many of accidents involving the paratransit modes occur as a result of sudden
stops made carelessly and incautiously to pick up or set down passengers in the outside lane
of carriageway. Intense competition for passengers often gives rise to aggressive driving
behavior, which in turn often leads to high accident rates.
The traffic mix of slow and fast moving vehicles are also another reason for accidents.
In Dhaka (Bangladesh), it was reported that rickshaw contributed to only 2.3 % traffic acc
idents as against the motorized modes such as cars (45.5%), buses (21.5%), trucks (18.6%), a
uto rickshaws (5.9%) and motorcycles (5.5%)(9). But the actual figure of accidents involvin
g rickshaw was unreported because of illegal status of rickshaw themselves and lack of insur
ance claims.
The excessive working hours of paratransit drivers might be one reason for accidents.
Controls on drivers' working hours are nonexistent or poorly enforced. For example, the ave
rage driver's working hours for samlors, silors and hired motorcycles in Bangkok are 10.7, 1
3.3 and 13.7 hours per day(10). In some cases drivers have to work even more than 15 hours
a day in order to make a living and/or to keep his employment.
Other negative effects due to excessive numbers of small motorized paratransit vehicles
are reduction of the vehicle speed and decrease of the capacity of road which can cause app
reciable congestion, thereby hindering conventional bus services. Their indiscriminate stop
ping and starting may hamper the normal flow of the traffic. In Jakarta, opelet routes over
lapped with city bus routes results in an adverse effect on the free flow of traffic. In te
rms of road space utilization per passenger, it is estimated that a microbus is 4-5 times m
ore inefficient than a conventional bus and 2-3 times than a mini bus. The bajaj or bemo wa
s 10-13 times more inefficient than a bus(1). Another significant effect of paratransit was
obtained on speed/flow relationship for Jakarta. The result showed that for low quality du
al carriageway (width <10 meter), when the proportion of mikrolets increases from 10% to 25
%, the peak hour traffic speed reduces from 16.2 Kmph to 6.7 Kmph for peak hour traffic volu
me of 1500 pcu/hr/lane. The Istanbul speed/flow relationship with dolmus also obtained the
same results as Jakarta speed/flow relationship with opelet(11).

5. ADMINISTRATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF PARATRANSIT

In order to overcome the negative impact by paratransit, the authorities in certain cou
ntries have imposed certain controls and regulations over the paratransit industry. These c
ontrols and regulations are mainly for maintaining smooth traffic flow and recently for envi
ronmental protection. Typical regulations by local authorities include restrictive controls
on entry of new operators, restriction of paratransit operation in certain areas, control o
ver financial liability requirements and licensing of drivers. Recently in Nepal, the Gover
nment banned the import of diesel engine tempos for protecting the environment from polluted
gases emitted by the tempo.
Restrictions on the total number of paratransit vehicles are usually imposed to protect
conventional bus operators, or to keep overcrowding at terminals and on the roads to reason
able levels. For example, the Department of Land Transport (DLT) in Bangkok has set limits
for the number of registered units of samlor and silor which are 7,500 and 8,000 respectivel
y(10). In Karachi, auto rickshaws were subjected to restrictions on new registrations from
1986 onwards(6). In a number of cities in India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh, restrictions ha
ve been placed on the number of cycle rickshaw registrations that will be permitted, often f
reezing registrations at a fixed level for many years. As a consequence of the license rest
rictions, it is believed that a quite large number of illegal paratransits are in operation
in these cities.
In recent years, authorities of some developing countries have restricted the operation
of non-motorized paratransit in several areas of city. In Manila, the tricycles have been
banned from main roads, and now operate mostly on smaller roads as feeder service. In Bangk
ok, samlor and silor are not permitted to use expressways. The reason for these restriction
s is that these slow vehicles impede the flow of traffic and disrupt the smooth flow of more
efficient mode of transport.
In some cities without formal controls, paratransit operators' associations sometimes a
dopt a self-regulatory role to ensure that supply and demand are kept in balance. There are
no regulations in any of the developing cities regarding the stoppage, usage of lanes and f
are structures of paratransit modes.
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6. FUTURE OF PARATRANSIT
In the future, urban rail systems may relieve the transport and traffic congestion prob
lems of developing countries. But this needs a huge amount of capital investment which is a
lmost impossible for most of the developing countries. In such circumstances, paratransit m
odes will continue its dominant role in the urban transport system. So it is necessary to u
ndertake a number of actions which will result in more effective use of paratransit and impr
oved urban mobility. It will not be possible to withdraw non-motorized transport from certa
in cities in the near future, because of economical and political reasons due to its large e
mployment generation effect. For such cities, it is necessary to segregate non-motorized tr
affic from high speed motorized transport flows, and this segregation can be achieved by mak
ing physical barrier on the road surface or providing individual lanes for non-motorized tra
nsport such as becak lanes in Indonesia, or cycle rickshaw lanes in India and Bangladesh. I
t is better if these non-motorized modes could be restricted to feeder service only.
As long as motorized paratransit operates in mixed traffic, it cannot offer a higher le
vel of service than private car; it is subject to the same congestion, delays, safety hazard
s, and so on, as private cars. So priority treatment such as separate or special lanes for
motorized paratransit should be provided where this is feasible. Alternately, its service m
ay be confined to feeder roads only.
Recently, metering system taxi has been introduced in Bangkok. For "individual" type o
f paratransit, it is better to introduce the metering system. Reasonable and controlled far
es for the rest of the paratransit modes should be provided. Furthermore, stands or termina
ls for paratransit would be useful to reduce hailing and stopping from nearly all points alo
ng the streets which create not only delays to the queue vehicles but also is possible cause
of accidents. Finally, in order to ensure the passengers' safety, comfort and good appeara
nce of vehicles, it is better to prepare certain minimum specified design standards which in
clude shorter body for easier maneuvering in traffic and parking, engine types other than di
esel powered, seating standards, and so on.

7. CONCLUSIONS
The significant features of paratransit system in the cities of developing countries ar
e their flexibility and door to door service. Their popularity as public transport cannot b
e neglected as shown by that in Metro Manila; it carries two thirds of public transport pass
engers. Certain physical and technical differences have been found in terms of their passen
gers capacity, operating ranges, service pattern and regulatory frame works. As a private b
usiness, the paratransit vehicles are managed and operated by typical small scale independen
t enterprises, where mostly vehicles are rented on a daily basis. In some cities it generat
es considerable employment opportunity and also does not require significant public resource
s which are a major attraction in many cities of developing countries with shortage of fund
s.
Even in the future, the role of paratransit as a transport mode cannot be underestimate
d in the cities of developing countries, but unfortunately, there is no sufficient data in t
his field in many countries. So future joint survey and research will be important and each
country government may provide a wide range of public transport modes with special emphasis
on paratransit system in order to provide an appropriate transportation service.

8. REFERENCES
(1) Vuchic,R.Vukan. Urban Public Transportation, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New J
ersey, 1981.
(2) ESCAP/UNCHS. Study on the Role of Informal Paratransit in the Socio-Economic Development
of Urban Areas, Bangkok, Thailand, United Nations, 1987.
(3) Agad, Virginia B. Paratransit: Taxis and Tuk-Tuk in Bangkok, AIT Thesis, Bangkok, Thaila
nd, 1990.
(4) Pholasith Tuk-Tuk Industry. Thailand Tuk-Tuk Motorized Three-Wheeler, Pamphlet, 1992.
(5) SMDI(Systems and Management Dynamics, Inc.). The Financial Assessment of Jeepney Operati
ons in Metro Manila: Final Report, November, 1985.
(6) Replogle, Michael. Bicycles and Cycle rickshaws in Asian Cities: Issues and Strategies,
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, U.S.A., 1992.
(7) Fouracre, P.R. Intermediate Public Transport in Developing Countries, TRRL Laboratory Re
port 772, Crowthorne, England, 1986.
(8) Tanaboriboon, Y. Traffic and Public Transport in Bangkok, Paper presented at the Infrast
ructure Development and Management Laboratory Seminar, University of Tokyo, 1992.
(9) Islam, Asfarul. The Role of Rickshaws in the Future Transportation System in the Dhaka M
etropolitan Region, Bangladesh, AIT Thesis, Bangkok, Thailand, 1990.
(10) Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA). The Study on Medium to Long Term Improve
ment/Management Plan of Road and Transport in Bangkok, Medium to Long Term Road Improve-ment
Plan, Main Report, 1990.
(11) Mogridge, M. The Jakarta Traffic Management Study: 3. Impact of High Paratransit Flows,
Traffic Engineering and Control, September, 1983.
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PA_OPE.TXT 2000/ 8/22 22:08:15

(12) Maunder, D.A.C., Fouracre, P.R., Pathak, M.G and Rao, C.H. Characteristics of Public Tr
ansport Demand in Indian Cities, TRRL Laboratory Report 709, Crowthorne, England, 1981.
(13) Soegijoko, B.C and Horthy. Role of Non-motorized Transport Modes in Indonesian Cities,
Transportation Research Record, No 1294, 1991.
(14) Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA). The Metro Manila Transportation Planning
Study, Final Report, Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Philippines, 1984.
(15) Maunder, D.A.C., Fouracre, P.R., Pathak, M.G and Rao, C.H. Public Transport Supply in I
ndian Cities, TRRL Laboratory Report 1018, Crowthorne, England, 1981.
(16) Ocampo, Romeo B. Low Cost Transport in Asia: A Comprehensive Report on Five Cities, Ott
awa, Canada, International Development Research Center, 1982.

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 EXAMPLE OF CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

TABLE 2 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
TABLE 3 MODAL SHARE OF PASSENGERS WITH TRIP DISTANCE IN MANILA
TABLE 4 FREQUENCY OF BUS AND JEEPNEY IN MANILA
TABLE 5 SERVICE CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN PARATRANSIT
TABLE 6 PASSENGERS HANDLING CAPACITY OF PARATRANSIT MODES AND BUSES
TABLE 7 PERCENT OF VEHICLE OWNERSHIP IN DIFFERENT CITIES
TABLE 8 DISTRIBUTION OF OWNERS' FLEET SIZE (%)
TABLE 9 EXAMPLES OF FARE SYSTEM IN DIFFERENT CITIES
TABLE 10 FARE STRUCTURES OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN INDIA
TABLE 11 FINANCIAL CONDITIONS OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN BANGKOK (Baht)
TABLE 12 FINANCIAL PROFILE OF JEEPNEY DRIVER AND OPERATOR IN METRO MANILA
TABLE 13 COMPARISON OF EMPLOYMENT GENERATION BY DIFFERENT MODES IN INDIA

TABLE 1 EXAMPLE OF CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Non-motorized Motorized
------------- ---------------------------------------------------
Country Individual Individual Shared type Collective type
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bangladesh R(2) Auto R(2-3) Auto tempo(6-10) -
Misuk(2)
India Tonga(2) T scooter R(2) Trekker(9) Tempo(14)
CR(2) MCR(4)
Hand R(1)
Indonesia Dokar(2) Bajaj(2-3) Bemo(3 wheel)(7) Opelet(Large)(17)
Delman(2) Ojek(2) Bemo(4 wheel)(10)
Becak(2) Helicak(2) Opelet(7-9)
Malaysia Trishaw(2) - - Bus mini(16)
Nepal CR(2) Meter tempo(2) Tempo(6-7) -
Pakistan Tonga(2-4) MR(2) - -
Philippine Calesa(2) T(2) - Jeepney(14-18)
Pedal T(2)
Sri lanka - Auto(2-3) - -
Thailand R(2) Samlor(2-3) Silor(6-8) Pickup(14)
T(2) Hired MC(1)
Vietnam Xiclos(2) Selam(4-5) - -
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Notes: The values in the parenthesis indicate the capacity (person) of each paratransit mode
s
R = Rickshaw, M = Motor,T = Tricycle,C = Cycle,- = Not exist
Source: (2)

TABLE 2 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
City/ Daily Travel Avg.Pax No Pax Trips Pax. Load
Country Modes Km/Day Km /Day /Day /Trip Factor
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bangkok Samlor - - 60 23.2 2.6 -
Silor - - 58.3 18.1 3.2 -
Hired Motorcycle - - 35.5 33.8 1.1 -
Bangladesh Rickshaw - 3.0-6.0 26-35 30-40 - -
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Auto rickshaw - 8.0 - - - -

India Auto rickshaw 116 4.2 46 26 1.8 0.7
Cycle rickshaw 30 1.9 23 13 1.8 0.8
Indonesia Becak 20 1.5-2.5 - - - -
Bajaj 70 3.0-5.0 - - - -
Bemo 70 4.5-10.0 - - - -
Philippines Jeepney 166.3 5.8 273 14 19.5 0.6
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: - = Data not available
Sources: (5), (9), (10), (12), (13)

TABLE 3 MODAL SHARE OF PASSENGERS WITH TRIP DISTANCE IN MANILA

----------------------------------------------------
Trip No of Passengers* (in '000) and Percent
Distance ----------------------------------------
(Km) Jeepney % Bus % Jeepney+Bus %
----------------------------------------------------
0.0- 1.5 902 11 0 0 902 9
1.6- 2.5 1357 17 20 1 1377 13
2.6- 5.0 2891 38 192 8 3083 30
5.1- 7.5 1882 27 656 27 2538 25
7.6-10.0 628 8 753 31 1381 13
10.1-15.0 165 2 511 21 676 7
> 15 59 1 297 12 356 3
---------------------------------------------------
* Exclude taxi and tricycle
Source: (14)

TABLE 4 FREQUENCY OF BUS AND JEEPNEY IN MANILA

------------------------------------------------
Average hourly frequency (one way) by
route length (Km)
-------------------------------------
Mode <5 5-10 10-20 20-30 >30 Avg.
------------------------------------------------
Jeepney 78 44 24 26 18 38
Bus 18 7 9 10 10 11
-----------------------------------------------
Source: (14)

TABLE 5 SERVICE CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN PARATRANSIT

------------------------------------------------------
Avg. Avg. Avg. Avg. In-
Waiting Journey Journey Vehicle
Time Time Speed Speed
Modes (Min) (Min) (Km/Hr) (Km/hr)
------------------------------------------------------
Cycle rickshaw(1) 3.7 15.8 8.9 12.6
Auto rickshaw(2) 3.0 13.1 17.4 27.0
Tonga - 16.9 9.9 -
Mini bus(3) 11.7 36.3 12.5 17.9
Bus 12.5 46.1 12.0 16.3
-----------------------------------------------------
Notes : - = Data not available
(1) = Average values of 3 cities; (2) = Average values of 2 cities; (3) = Average values o
f 3 cities in India
Source: (12)

TABLE 6 PASSENGERS HANDLING CAPACITY OF PARATRANSIT MODES AND BUSES

------------------------------------------------------
Passengers Passengers
Country/CityModes Carried Daily Kms Daily
------------------------------------------------------
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PA_OPE.TXT 2000/ 8/22 22:08:15

Bangkok Samlor 60 -
Silor 58.3 -
Hired Motor cycle 35.5 -
Bus(Reg.+Air.con) 1300 7800
Minibus 521 1719
India Cycle rickshaw 23 46
Auto rickshaw 46 193
Bus 1340 9400
Manila Jeepney 273 1584
-----------------------------------------------------
- = Data not available
Sources: (5), (10), (15)

TABLE 7 PERCENT OF VEHICLE OWNERSHIP IN DIFFERENT CITIES

----------------------------------------------------
Mode/ Owned by Rented by
(City) Driver Driver Others*
----------------------------------------------------
Auto rickshaw (India)# 34 51 15
Becak (Bandung) 18 82 0
Becak (Jakarta) 13 83 4
Cycle rickshaw (India)# 20 79 1
Jeepney (Manila) 9.4 71 19.6
Silor (Chiang Mai) 75 25 0
Samlor (Bangkok) 1 99 0
---------------------------------------------------
Notes: * = Drivers relatives,friends or employee-driven or cooperatives
# = The average values of 7 cities
Sources: (3), (5), (15), (16)

TABLE 8 DISTRIBUTION OF OWNERS' FLEET SIZE (%)

--------------------------------------------
Mode (City) 1 2 3 4 5-9 10-29 30+
--------------------------------------------
Becak 0 0 ----41----- 50 9
(Bandung)
Bemo 79 13 4 2 2 ---Neg.--
(Malang)
Jeepney 55 15 7 4 -------19-----
(Manila)
-------------------------------------------
Source: (2)

TABLE 9 EXAMPLES OF FARE SYSTEM IN DIFFERENT CITIES

--------------------------------------------------
Fare Fares/Trip/
City Mode System Person
--------------------------------------------------
Bandung Becak B Rp 50-100(3-6)
Bangkok Silor B Baht 7(29)
Samlor B Baht 10(41)
Hired-
Motor cycle B Baht 6.5(27)
Pickup F Baht 2-7(8-29)
Chiang Mai Samlor B Baht 2-3(8-12)
Dhaka Auto rickshaw B -
Auto tempo F -
Misuk B -
Rickshaws B -
Delhi Auto rickshaw B -
Cycle rickshaw B -
Tonga B -
Jakarta Becak B Rp 76(4)
Bemo F
Bajaj B
Opelet F
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PA_OPE.TXT 2000/ 8/22 22:08:15

Karachi Motor rickshaw B -

Tonga B -
Nepal Cycle rickshaw B -
Tempos F -
Meter tempo B -
Manila Jeepney F Pesos 0.25(1.2)
1st 5 Km, 0.05
Pesos(0.22)
additional Km.
-------------------------------------------------
Notes: Exchange rate: US1$ = Baht 24.25 = Indonesian Rupiah 1865.38 = Indian Rupee 24 = Peso
s 22.45
( ) = The equivalents US Cent; B = Bargained,
F = Fixed; - = Data not available
Sources: (2), (10), (16)

TABLE 10 FARE STRUCTURES OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN INDIA

------------------------------------------------
Fare/ Avg. Avg. Avg. Fare/
Pax.Km Distance Pax./ Trip
Mode (Paise) (Km) Trip (Paise)
------------------------------------------------
Auto- 45 4.0 1.9 342
rickshaw (Cent 14.25)
Cycle- 46 1.95 1.7 153
rickshaw (Cent 6.50)
-----------------------------------------------
Source: (15)

TABLE 11 FINANCIAL CONDITIONS OF PARATRANSIT MODES IN BANGKOK (Baht)

------------------------------------------------
Hired-
Items Samlor Silor Motor cycle
------------------------------------------------
Avg. Operating
Revenue/Day 475.9 342.7 250.8
Ave. Operating
Expenses/Day 319.8 194.1 112.3
Fuel Expenses 85.3 96.6 52.3
Others(Rental,
Repair etc) 217.4 137.3 66.0
Operating Income
(Excluding 138.1 148.6 138.5
Personnel Expenses) ($5.69) ($6.13) ($5.7)
-----------------------------------------------
Source: (10)

TABLE 12 FINANCIAL PROFILE OF JEEPNEY DRIVER AND OPERATOR IN METRO MANILA

----------------------------------------------------
Items Driver Operator
----------------------------------------------------
Daily Avg. Revenue (Pesos) 397 133
Daily Avg. Expenses (Pesos) 302 46
Daily Net Income (Pesos) 95 ($4.23) 87 ($3.87)
---------------------------------------------------
Source: (5)

TABLE 13 COMPARISON OF EMPLOYMENT GENERATION BY DIFFERENT MODES IN INDIA

----------------------------------------------------------
Public Mini- Auto- Cycle-
Items bus bus rickshaw rickshaw
-----------------------------------------------------------
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PA_OPE.TXT 2000/ 8/22 22:08:15

No employees per 0.3 0.2 0.6 7.5

Rs 10,000 investment
No employees per 1.3-3.3 0.8-1.3 13-14 40-60
'000 pax. Kms
daily output
-----------------------------------------------------------
Source: (7)

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