1523 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO.

4, OCTOBER 2003

Comparison of the ‘Sen’ Transformer with the

Unified Power Flow Controller
Kalyan K. Sen, Senior Member, IEEE and Mey Ling Sen, Member, IEEE
Fig. 1. The expressions for power flow at the receiving-end of
Abstract—The independent control of active and reactive the line are shown, considering the line is represented in its
power flow in a transmission line is necessary for the transfer of simplest form with a reactance, XL.
bulk power along a desired path in the most economical way. A Pr , Q r
‘Sen’ Transformer (ST) uses transformer and tap changers that VX
are traditionally used to build a Voltage-Regulating Transformer I VX
(VRT) and a Phase Angle Regulator (PAR). The ST regulates the XL
voltage at a point in the transmission line as a VRT does. Addi- Vs Vr
tionally, the ST provides an independent and bidirectional active Pr = sin δ Vs I Vr
XL δ
and reactive power (P and Q) flow control in the transmission line Vs Vr
Vs Vr Vr ο
as a Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)-based Unified Power Flow Qr = (cos δ - ) 90
Controller (UPFC) does. Although both the ST and the PAR use XL Vs
(a) (b)
a comparable number of components, the ST provides an area of
controllability in the P-Q plane similar to a UPFC, while the PAR Fig. 1. (a) Simple power transmission system and (b) phasor diagram.
provides a linear P-Q characteristic. The technology of trans-
former and tap changer is proven to be reliable and cost-effective
when compared with the emerging technology of VSC. The new An uncompensated active and reactive power flow in a
ST is adequate to provide independent control of active and reac- transmission line is typically not optimal. If the reactive power
tive power flow in most utility applications. flow in the line is reduced, the freed up capacity of the line can
be effectively utilized to carry an increased amount of active
Index Terms—Converters, FACTS, load flow control, phase power. As a consequence, the generator is no longer required
shifters, power electronics, power transformers, power transmis- to supply the reactive power. The efficiencies of the generator
sion, power transmission control, Unified Power Flow Controller and its coupling transformer also increase. Therefore, the in-
(UPFC). dependent control of active and reactive power flow in a
transmission line delivers the most revenue from an AC trans-
I. INTRODUCTION mission system.

T HE demand for electrical energy around the world is con-

tinuously increasing. The locations for electric generation
are based on energy availability and environmental ac-
Each of the power flow control parameters (voltage, angle,
and reactance) can be changed with the use of the following
existing solutions:
ceptability. The transmission lines are becoming overloaded • Shunt inductor/capacitor for voltage regulation
and experiencing reduced stability, increased voltage variation • Phase-shifting transformer for phase angle regulation
and “loop-flow” of power. The construction of new transmis- • Series inductor/capacitor for series reactance regula-
sion lines is becoming increasingly difficult because of various tion.
reasons [1], such as unfavorable regulatory, environmental, By changing any one of the parameters using a power flow
and public policies and the escalating cost. The power indus- controller, both the active and the reactive power flow in a
try is in constant search for the most economic way to transfer transmission line can be affected. Consider that the point of
bulk power along a desired path. The significant increase in compensation in the transmission line is at its sending-end.
the utilization of the existing transmission systems should be Assuming that there are no changes in the transmission line’s
limited by the thermal and not the stability limit. impedance and the voltage at the receiving-end, a power flow
Electric power flow through an AC transmission line is a controller can control the flow of active and reactive power (P
function of the line impedance (R, XL), the magnitudes of the and Q) to be a particular pair of values by modifying the
sending-end voltage, Vs, and the receiving-end voltage, Vr, transmission line’s sending-end voltage to be of one particular
and the phase angle, δ, between these voltages as shown in magnitude and at a particular angle. A series-connected com-
pensating voltage can modify the transmission line voltage.
For a desired amount of active and reactive power flow in the
A paper recommended and approved by the IEEE Transmission and Dis-
tribution Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for publication line, the compensating voltage has to be of one particular
in the IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. Manuscript received August magnitude and at a particular angle with respect to the line
20, 2002; revised December 10, 2002. voltage. The compensating voltage is also at any angle with
K. K. Sen is with the Westinghouse Electro-Mechanical Division Technol- the prevailing line current and, therefore, emulates in series
ogy Center, Mount Pleasant, PA 15666 USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
M. L. Sen is with SEN Engineering Solutions, Monroeville, PA 15146 with the transmission line a capacitor that increases the power
USA (e-mail: [email protected]). flow of the line or an inductor that decreases the power flow of
1524 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

the line and a positive resistor that absorbs active power from The objective in this paper is to compare the merits and de-
the line or a negative resistor that delivers active power to the merits of the traditional technology of transformer and tap
line. Therefore, the desired compensating voltage is actually changer with the emerging technology of VSC and reveal the
an impedance emulator. Through the use of either the Volt- need for the new ST as a cost-effective power flow controller.
age-Sourced Converter (VSC)-based Unified Power Flow Within the scope of this paper, an ST and a UPFC are studied
Controller (UPFC) [2], [13], [14] or the traditional technology with both power flow controllers connected to a simple two-
of transformer and tap changer-based ‘Sen’ Transformer (ST) bus network.
[6], [7], a variable series-impedance is emulated.
A ±160 MVA-rated UPFC was commissioned in 1998 [3]. II. BACKGROUND
This UPFC demonstrated for the first time that active and re- The effect of a series-connected variable magnitude and
active power flow in a transmission line could independently variable angle compensating voltage on the power flow in a
be regulated while maintaining a fixed line voltage at the point transmission line is shown in Fig. 2. A simple power transmis-
of compensation. The VSC-based technology has the capabil- sion system with a sending-end voltage, Vs, a receiving-end
ity of providing a fast dynamic response, but this capability is voltage, Vr, the voltage, VX, across line reactance, XL, and the
not required in most utility applications where the need is to compensating voltage, Vs’s, is shown in Fig. 2(a). For simplic-
regulate the line voltage and the power flow in the line(s) in a ity, it is considered that Vs = Vr = 1 p.u., the angle between
“slow” manner. Although the UPFC is the most versatile them to be δ = 30ο, and XL = 0.5 p.u. When the transmission
power flow controller that has ever been built, its high instal- line is uncompensated, the natural active and reactive power
lation and operating costs must be reduced before it can be (Prn and Qrn) flow at the receiving-end are 1 p.u. and 0.268
successful commercially in utility applications. The ST is a p.u. (capacitive), respectively. The voltage across the trans-
promising, low-cost power flow controller that provides volt- mission line is the difference between the sending- and re-
age regulation at a point in a transmission line. Additionally, ceiving-end voltages, and it is 0.5176 p.u. Fig. 2(b) shows the
the ST provides the same independent active and reactive phasor diagram related to a series-connected compensating
power flow control as the UPFC, albeit at a reduced dynamic voltage with a fixed magnitude of 0.2588 p.u. and its entire
rate. The ST uses reliable, cost-effective, and proven trans-
controllable range of 0ο ≤ β ≤ 360o. The compensating volt-
former and tap changer-based technology. Hence, the ST is
age, Vs’s, is added to the fixed sending-end voltage, Vs, to pro-
adequate and economically attractive to meet today’s utility’s
duce the effective sending-end voltage, Vs’ = Vs + Vs’s. The
need for independent control of active and reactive power flow
difference, Vs’ – Vr, provides the compensated voltage, VX,
in a transmission line.
V s's Voltage Reactance
Regulator Compensator
Pr , Q r Qr Line β Line (P
exch 0)
=
V s Vd V q V s' VX Vr
I (P r , Q r* ) P r
*
0
1 2
XL with '- R'

-0.5 Pexch
Pexch Q exch Phase Angle
= Vd I = Vq I (a) Regulator with '+ R'
Line
I (P rn , Q rn )
-1 (d)
with '- R'
Voltage
Regulator P r @Vs's = 0.2588
Line VX 1
Pexch
Vs Vr P rn = P r @ Vs's = 0
0.5
β
V s's
with '+ R' δ
0 ο ο ο ο
Reactance 90 180 270 β360
V s' Compensator 2 -0.5
Line Q rn = Q r @Vs's = 0
(Vd = 0) Q r @ Vs's = 0.2588
Phase Angle -1
Regulator C L C
Line
0.5 Pexch Qexch

90ο 180ο 270ο 360ο

0
β
δ
-0.5 -R +R -R
(b) (c)
Fig. 2. Effect of a series-connected voltage source on power flow in a transmission line. (a) Power transmission system with a series-connected compensating
voltage, Vs’s, (b) phasor diagram, (c) variation of the receiving-end active and reactive power (Pr and Qr) flow and the exchanged active and reactive power as a
function of the angular rotation of the compensating voltage phasor, and (d) receiving-end Qr vs. Pr
1525 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

across XL. As the angle, β, is varied over its full 360o range, parameter with the use of these compensators changes both the
the end of phasor, Vs’s, moves along a circle with its center active and the reactive power flow in the transmission line
located at the end of phasor, Vs. The rotation of phasor, Vs’s, simultaneously as shown in Fig. 2(d).
with angle, β, modulates both the magnitude and the angle of
phasor, VX. The active and reactive power (Pr and Qr) flow at III. TRANSFORMER AND TAP CHANGER TECHNOLOGY
the receiving-end vary with angle, β, in a sinusoidal manner as The main use of the traditional transformer and tap changer-
shown in Fig. 2(c). based technology is as follows.
The compensating voltage, Vs’s, is at any angle with the pre-
vailing line current, I, and, therefore, exchanges, with the line, A. Voltage Regulation
both active power, Pexch (= VdI), and reactive power, Qexch (= A Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) connects a volt-
VqI), where Vd and Vq are the respective active or direct and age that is either in-phase or out-of-phase with the phase-to-
reactive or quadrature components of the compensating volt- neutral voltage of the transmission line and in series with the
age with load convention. These exchanged active and reac- transmission line as shown in Fig. 3(a). The result is that the
tive power (Pexch and Qexch) are also sinusoidal functions of voltage at any point in a transmission line is regulated. The
angle, β, as shown in Fig. 2(c). For a given magnitude of a bipolar compensating voltage in any phase is induced, through
compensating voltage, the exchanged capacitive power, Qexch, autotransformer action, in two windings placed on the same
is larger than its inductive counterpart due to the fact that the phase of the transformer core.
capacitive compensation produces a larger line current. The
compensating voltage, being at any angle with the prevailing
line current, emulates in series with the line a capacitor (C) or

V sC
an inductor (L) and a positive resistor (+R) or a negative re-

V s'C

V s'C
C
sistor (−R).

V s's
The active and reactive power flow in the line can be con- EXCITER UNIT

V sC
trolled within the range defined by the P-Q plot of Fig. 2(d) by (a) V sA

Vs
V sA V s'sA
choosing the magnitude, Vs’s, and the angle, β, of the compen- 'B

sating voltage, Vs’s, between 0 and 0.2588 p.u. and between 0ο V s'A

sB
V
Vs
and 360ο, respectively. If the magnitude, Vs’s, of the compen-
V s'A (b)

'B

Vs
VOLTAGE-

'sB
REGULATING
sating voltage is increased, the controllable range of the power
Vs

UNIT
B

flow in the P-Q plane is also increased. When the controllable

range extends to all four quadrants, a bidirectional and inde- Vs
Magnitude
pendent active and reactive power flow control is achieved. vs
Calculator Tap
For a desired amount of active and reactive power (Pr*, Qr*) Control Taps
Vs'* Unit
flow, within the allowable control range, the magnitude, Vs’s,
of the compensating voltage is related to the distance, √[(Pr* − Controller (c)
Prn)2 + (Qr* − Qrn)2], between (Prn, Qrn) and (Pr*, Qr*). The Fig. 3. (a) Voltage-Regulating Transformer, (b) phasor diagram, and (c)
angle, β, of the compensating voltage, Vs’s, is the angle be- controller.
tween the voltage regulator line (i.e., β = 0 line) and the line
that passes through (Prn, Qrn) and (Pr*, Qr*). In this configuration as shown in Fig. 3(a), a VRT is a sin-
In special cases [Fig. 2(b)], the following occur. gle-core transformer. The exciter unit consists of a three-
• A compensating voltage can be either in-phase or out- phase (A, B, and C), Y-connected primary winding and is con-
of-phase with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the trans- nected in shunt with the line. The three-phase primary wind-
mission line to implement a voltage regulator. ing is excited from the three-phase line voltage (VsA, VsB, and
• A compensating voltage can be in quadrature with the VsC). A three-phase bipolar compensating voltage (Vs’sA,
phase-to-neutral voltage of the transmission line to im- Vs’sB, and Vs’sC) that is either in-phase or out-of-phase with the
plement a phase angle regulator. corresponding phase-to-neutral voltage is generated from the
• A compensating voltage can be such that it provides se- induced secondary voltages. The voltage-regulating unit con-
ries reactance compensation because of being in sists of a total of six secondary windings (two windings in each
quadrature with the prevailing line current. If the cir- phase). With the use of taps, the magnitude of the compen-
cular controllable area is equally divided by the reac- sating voltage, Vs’s, is varied. The line is regulated at a volt-
tance compensator line (Vd = 0 or Pexch = 0), the upper age, Vs’, from the uncompensated voltage, Vs. The corre-
and lower halves represent Pexch due to “−R” and “+R,” sponding phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 3(b). The control-
respectively. ler, as shown in Fig. 3(c), is fed with two input signals – one is
Any compensator that provides compensation for one of the the exciting line voltage, vs, and the other is the reference volt-
transmission line parameters (voltage, angle or reactance) op- age, Vs’*. The tap control unit, in the controller, monitors the
erates on a set of linear operating points inside the P-Q circle magnitude of the exciting voltage, Vs, and the reference volt-
as defined above. Since these operating characteristic lines are
age, Vs’*, and turns on the appropriate tap, in the voltage-
neither horizontal nor vertical in the P-Q plane, changing one
regulating unit, in order to regulate the line voltage at Vs’*.
1526 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

Fig. 4 shows the schematic diagram of a thyristor-controlled geous to use a scheme that is based on a single-core, three-
tap changer [8]. A transformer winding is tapped at various phase transformer and tap changers in order to generate the
places. Each of the tapped points is connected to one side of a required compensating voltage, Vs’s, that modifies the effective
back-to-back thyristor (triac) switch. The other side of each sending-end voltage, Vs’. The new ST requires the use of only
thyristor switch is connected together at point A. Depending nine secondary windings as compared to eighteen windings
on which thyristor is on, the voltage between points A and B that are needed when the compensating voltage is segregated
can be varied between zero and the full-winding voltage with into its direct and quadrature components and controlled sepa-
desired steps in between. In the mechanical version of this rately using a VRT and a PAR, respectively.
arrangement, a Load Tap Changer (LTC) connects with one of

V sC

V sB
various taps to give a variable number of turns between the
connected tap and one end of the winding.

V s'A

C
V s's
V s'B
EXCITER

ε s'C
UNIT

V sC
ε V
'C V s'A
Vs
Gate Gate Gate Gate V sA ε V sA V s'sA
Firing Firing Firing Firing ε V
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit s'A

ε
ε V
V s'B
V sC

V s'B
Controller

sB
Vs
PHASE ANGLE-

Vs
REGULATING

'sB
B A UNIT

Vs
B

Vs
'C
Fig. 4. Thyristor-controlled tap changer.
V s'A
(a) (b)
B. Phase Angle Regulation Fig. 5. (a) Phase Angle Regulator and (b) phasor diagram.
A Phase Angle Regulator (PAR), also known as a phase-
shifting transformer, connects a voltage that is in quadrature
with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the transmission line in IV. ‘SEN’ TRANSFORMER
series with the transmission line as shown in Fig. 5(a). The Fig. 6 shows an ST, which is a single-core, three-phase
series-connected compensating voltage introduces a phase transformer with a Y-connected primary winding and nine
shift, ε, [Fig. 5(b)] whose magnitude (for small change) in ra- secondary windings. The ST provides two functions
dians varies with the magnitude of the compensating voltage in • Voltage regulation
per unit where the phase-to-neutral voltage of the transmission • Impedance regulation for independent control of bidi-
line is the base voltage. rectional active and reactive power flow.
In this configuration as shown in Fig. 5(a), a PAR is a sin- As shown in Fig. 6(a), the voltage, Vs, at any point in the
gle-core transformer. The exciter unit consists of a three- electrical system is applied to a shunt-connected single-core,
phase (A, B, and C), Y-connected primary winding and is con- three-phase transformer’s primary windings. A total of nine
nected in shunt with the line. The three-phase primary wind- secondary windings (a1, c2, and b3 on the core of A-phase, b1,
ing is excited from the three-phase line voltage (VsA, VsB, and a2, and c3 on the core of B-phase, and c1, b2, and a3 on the
VsC). A three-phase bipolar compensating voltage (Vs’sA, core of C-phase) constitute the voltage and impedance-
Vs’sB, and Vs’sC) that is in quadrature with the corresponding regulating unit. By choosing the number of turns of each of
phase-to-neutral voltage is generated from the phase-to-phase the three windings, and therefore the magnitudes of the com-
of the induced secondary voltages. The phase angle-regulating ponents of the three 120ο phase-shifted induced voltages, the
unit consists of a total of twelve secondary windings (four compensating voltage, Vs’s, in any phase is derived from the
windings in each phase). With the use of taps, the magnitude phasor sum of the voltages induced in a three-phase winding
of the compensating voltage, Vs’s, is varied. The three-phase set (a1, a2, and a3 for injection in A-phase, b1, b2, and b3 for
compensating voltage is electrically isolated and connected in injection in B-phase, and c1, c2, and c3 for injection in C-
series with the transmission line. The line is regulated at a phase). The compensating voltage is of line frequency and is
voltage, Vs’, from the uncompensated voltage, Vs. The corre- connected in series with the line through autotransformer ac-
sponding phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 5(b). tion.
The magnitude and the angle of the effective sending-end When an ST is used as a voltage regulator, [Fig. 6(b)], the
voltage, Vs’, can be regulated with the use of a VRT and a in-phase component of the compensating voltage for any phase
PAR, respectively. In order to implement both of these func- is induced in a winding that is placed on the corresponding
tions together, it requires the use of a single-core transformer phase of the transformer core. The out-of-phase component of
with a three-phase, Y-connected primary winding in the exciter the compensating voltage for that phase is derived from the
unit and a total of eighteen windings (six for voltage regulation phasor sum of the voltages induced in two equal-turn windings
and twelve for phase angle regulation) and nine LTCs (three that are placed on the remaining two phases of the transformer
for voltage regulation and six for phase angle regulation) in the core. For example, the in-phase component of the compen-
voltage and phase angle-regulating unit. It would be advanta-
1527 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

sating voltage for the A-phase is induced in a winding that is tapped at the same number of turns; each of a2, b2, and c2 is
placed on the core with the exciting primary winding of the A- tapped at the same number of turns; each of a3, b3, and c3 is
phase. The out-of-phase component of the compensating volt- tapped at the same number of turns. However, the number of
age for the A-phase is derived from the phasor sum of the volt- turns in the a1-b1-c1 set, a2-b2-c2 set, and a3-b3-c3 set can be
ages induced in two equal-turn windings that are placed on the different from each other.
core with the exciting primary windings of the B-phase and the The series-connected compensating voltage is derived from
C-phase, respectively. The effect is such that the transmission the line voltage through transformer action with the shunt-
line voltage at a point is regulated. connected primary windings. Therefore, the exchanged active
and reactive power with the line must flow through the primary
V sC windings to the line. A series-connected compensating voltage
that is X% of the line voltage provides a shunt current that is
the same X% of the line current. The shunt current through
the exciter unit has both active and reactive components. The
EXCITER
loading effects of these two currents on the power system net-
UNIT V sA work are independent of each other as shown in Fig. 2(c).
Therefore, if it is desirable to compensate the combined load-
ing effects of the active and the reactive current through the
exciter unit into the power system network, a separate shunt-
connected reactance compensator, such as a Static Var Com-
V sB
(a) pensator (SVC) may be considered.
V s'A There are instances when only any one of the three secon-
a3

V s'sA dary windings in each phase is required to carry the rated cur-
rent at rated voltage. Therefore, each of the nine secondary
b2

windings must be designed to carry the rated current at rated

c1

voltage. This requires the magnetic rating of the ST to be 2

p.u. Note that the efficiency of an ST is in the range of 99.7%
b1

a1 c2 b3
when mechanical LTCs are used and in the range of 99% when
thyristor-controlled LTCs are used.
2
a

The ST, with 360ο of voltage-injection capability, uses only

c3

VOLTAGE & IMPEDANCE-

three primary windings and at the most six secondary windings
IA
REGULATING UNIT at any given operating point. The remaining three secondary
windings stay inactive. Therefore, it is possible to achieve a
360ο operating range just by using six secondary windings
V c1

'sC
V s'C
Vs
V s'C

instead of nine secondary windings with hardware reconfigu-

β
C
V s's

V c2 ration in every 120ο of operation. In this case, the magnetic

V a3

rating of the ST is only 1.5 p.u., instead of 2 p.u. Note that by

V sC

Vc

V sA using six secondary windings, one of the six operating regions

V sC

V sA
3

V s'sA
V a1 (0ο to 120ο, 120ο to 240ο, 240ο to 360ο, -60ο to 60ο, 60ο to
V b2

β
Vs

180ο, and 180ο to 300ο) can be selected.

B

V s'A V s'B
Vs

Va

V s's
B
Vs

Vs
2

V s'sB A comment on the ST’s operation during line faults is as

'B

V b3 'A
A
Vs

follows. Generally, to limit a phase-to-neutral fault current,

'sB

Vb

additional inductive impedance in the path of the fault is

1

(b) (c) needed. If, for example, the additional emulated impedance is
Fig. 6. (a) ‘Sen’ Transformer, (b) phasor diagram for voltage regulation, and equal to the equivalent line impedance, the steady-state fault
(c) phasor diagram for impedance regulation. current is reduced to half of the natural fault current. The
steady-state voltage across the emulated impedance is half of
When an ST is used as an impedance regulator, [Fig. 6(c)], the phase-to-neutral voltage. In the worst case, the emulated
the series-connected compensating voltage, Vs’s, modifies the impedance must withstand twice the volt-second that is needed
effective sending-end voltage, Vs’, in order to selectively con- to support half of the steady-state phase-to-neutral voltage in
trol the active and the reactive power flow of the line. The order to avoid saturation. The relatively insignificant (typi-
compensating voltage is at any angle with the prevailing line cally 0.05 to 0.15 p.u.) voltage rating of the series core of an
current. The active or direct component of the compensating ST would saturate early in the fault cycle. The saturated
voltage provides the series resistance emulation, whereas the windings do not provide significant current-limiting effect in
reactive or quadrature component provides the series reactance the ST. Therefore, the ST rides through a fault.
emulation. Fig. 7 shows a basic ST model. The voltage and imped-
Both functions of voltage regulation and impedance regula- ance-regulating unit injects a voltage, Vs’s, whose active and
tion can be implemented in just one unit by proper program- reactive components with load convention are Vd and Vq, re-
ming of the tap control unit. Notably, each of a1, b1, and c1 is spectively, in series with the transmission line. This, in turn,
1528 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

changes the voltage, VX, across the transmission line and pensator is coupled with a transformer at its output. The
hence the current and the power flow through the transmission STATCOM injects an almost sinusoidal current, of variable
line change. The compensating voltage, Vs’s, is at any angle magnitude, at the point of connection. The SSSC injects an
with the prevailing line current, I. The component, Vd, of the almost sinusoidal voltage, of variable magnitude, in series with
compensating voltage that is either in-phase or out-of-phase the transmission line. When the STATCOM and the SSSC
with the line current emulates a positive or a negative resistor operate as stand-alone controllers with the DCLS open, they
in series with the transmission line. The remaining compo- exchange almost exclusively reactive power at their terminals.
nent, Vq, that is in quadrature with the line current emulates While operating both the VSCs together as a UPFC with the
either an inductor or a capacitor in series with the transmission DCLS closed, the exchanged power at the terminals of each
line. The compensating voltage, Vs’s, delivers and absorbs VSC can be reactive as well as active. The series-connected
both active and reactive power (Pexch and Qexch), which are voltage can be at any angle with respect to the line current.
defined as The exchanged active power at the terminals of one VSC with
Pexch = −Vs’s • I = Vd I = Vs Id (1) the line flows to the terminals of the other VSC through the
Qexch = −Vs’s × I = Vq I = Vs Iq (2) common DC link capacitor. The concept of a shared DC link
between a shunt-connected VSC and a series-connected VSC
was first introduced in the Active Power Line Conditioner
VOLTAGE & IMPEDANCE- (APLC) [11], [12] for distribution power level applications.
REGULATING UNIT
V s's
The same concept was implemented in the UPFC for transmis-
Pr , Q r
sion power level applications.
Vs Vd Vq V s' VX Vr
I BYPBRK

XL V dq
I
Vd I
Pexch Q exch Id = Vs XFSRS
2
Vs Vs SHNBRK ES V2 V s'
Iq Id V1
Vq I XFSHN
EXCITER UNIT Iq = j Vs I2
2
Vs
Fig. 7. Basic ‘Sen’ Transformer model. I1 i DC1 i DC2 SRSDS
E1 DCLS E2
Note that when the series-connected compensating unit
v DC
emulates a capacitor, the shunt-connected exciter unit emulates
an inductor and vice versa. Also, when the series-connected
MC1 VSC1 VSC2 MC2
compensating unit emulates a “+R”, the shunt-connected ex-
Control & Protection Unit
citer unit emulates a “−R” and vice versa.
UPFC
V. VOLTAGE-SOURCED CONVERTER TECHNOLOGY Fig. 8. Unified Power Flow Controller.
Fig. 8 shows a schematic diagram of a UPFC. The UPFC
consists of two Multi-Pulse Harmonic Neutralized (MPHN) During a fault in the transmission line, the saturated core of
VSCs, VSC1 and VSC2, two Magnetic Circuits, MC1 and the series-coupling transformer does not provide significant
MC2, shunt-coupling transformer, XFSHN, series-coupling current-limiting effect in the UPFC. The current through the
transformer, XFSRS, shunt breaker, SHNBRK, series discon- two VSCs will exceed the 1 p.u. rated limit. In this case, the
nect switch, SRSDS, electronic bypass switch, ES, DC Link semiconductor switches of a shunt-connected VSC are turned
Switch, DCLS, bypass breaker, BYPBRK, current and voltage off to ensure zero current flow through it. Also, the semicon-
sensors, and a control and protection unit. When the DCLS is ductor switches of a series-connected VSC are all turned on to
closed, the VSCs share the DC link capacitor. In an MPHN- ensure zero voltage injection. Therefore, to ride through the
VSC, a number of square voltages are generated at fundamen- line faults, the series-connected VSC must be designed to carry
tal frequency by operating the controllable semiconductor the fault current. This is an expensive proposition. The alter-
switches once per cycle of the fundamental frequency. These nate solution is to have a nominally rated VSC as a series
square voltages are combined using a magnetic circuit in order compensator and an additional electronic bypass switch that is
to produce a high quality sinusoidal voltage with an acceptable specifically designed to carry the fault current. Then the ques-
amount of harmonic content. tion arises whether the electronic bypass switch should be lo-
When the DCLS is open, the two VSCs can be used as in- cated on the high voltage line side or on the low voltage con-
dependent reactive compensators, such as a shunt-connected verter side. It is certainly less expensive to have the electronic
compensator called STATic synchronous COMpensator bypass switch that is located on the low voltage side. Then the
(STATCOM) and a series-connected compensator called question arises whether the VSC is adequately designed to
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). Each com- carry the fault current until it is transferred to the electronic
1529 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

bypass switch. If the electronic bypass switch is located on the frequency. This arrangement requires the use of an MPHN-
high voltage side, the VSC ‘sees’ an additional inductance VSC. A VSC that is built with relatively faster semiconductor
from the leakage reactance of the series-coupling transformer devices, such as Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT)
in its forward path. If the electronic bypass switch is located that are operated with Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) tech-
on the low voltage converter side, the VSC should be pro- nique, eliminates the need for the magnetic circuits. However,
tected in some way in order to avoid a “dead” short at its ter- this arrangement requires the use of a filter at the output of
minals. The obvious solution is to put an additional inductor each VSC. The VSC, operated with PWM technique, may
on the low voltage converter side to avoid a “dead” short at the also need shielding from Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI).
VSC’s terminals. This additional inductor, however, reduces Each VSC that carries a nominal current and supplies a
the overall capacitive compensation range and increases the nominal voltage is said to have 1 p.u. rated semiconductor
overall inductive compensation range. devices. In practice, the allowable current through a GTO is
It is appropriate to comment on the magnetic circuits and rated at 0.5 p.u. of the controllable current of the device.
the coupling transformers. Each coupling transformer carries Since, there are a number of GTOs connected in series and
1 p.u. power under steady state condition. The intermediate each one of these devices experiences a voltage overshoot at
magnetic circuit, associated with each VSC, is rated at 0.5 p.u. turn-off from the stored energy in the snubber and stray in-
In practice, the magnetic circuit for each VSC is typically de- ductors, a conservative design dictates that each device be
signed to be rated at 15% more than 0.5 p.u. The shunt- allowed to operate at 0.25 p.u. of the rated voltage. This
coupling transformer is also typically rated at 25% more than 1 means that the installed VA rating of the semiconductor de-
p.u. A 1 p.u. rated series-coupling transformer permits the vices is eight times the nominal rating of the VSC. In addition,
compensating voltage to start at its peak value so that a de- there exist two electronic switches – one for clamping the DC
energized transformer can start operating from its zero flux link voltage and another for the electronic bypass.
condition and not be saturated. However, this restriction can The power loss in a VSC is defined as the total power con-
delay the response of the VSC up to a quarter cycle. If the sumed by various components of a VSC while carrying the
controller demands the compensating voltage to start at its rated current at rated voltage. An MPHN-VSC with GTO de-
zero crossing, the flux in the transformer may ideally build up vices switching at once per cycle has about 1.5% power loss
to 2 p.u. level. Therefore, the series-coupling transformer under rated condition. That means, for a UPFC that consists
needs to be designed to be at 2 p.u. level in order to avoid of two VSCs, the power loss is about 3%. The power loss in a
saturation. In this case, the magnetic circuit associated with single PWM-operated VSC is about 4%. Therefore, for a
the series VSC has to be rated at 1 p.u. instead of 0.5 p.u. A 2 UPFC that is made out of two PWM-operated VSCs, the
p.u. rated series-coupling transformer is used when the need is power loss is about 8%. This makes the operating cost of a
to ensure power quality to a sensitive load, such as a semicon- VSC-based UPFC to be the highest among the available power
ductor processing plant, with the use of a Dynamic Voltage flow solutions. A topology with a resonant-type-switching
Restorer (DVR) [9]. In a utility application, it is adequate to scheme can bring the overall losses for a single VSC down
inject the compensating voltage, calculated by the controller, from 4% to 3%. That is still 6% power loss for a UPFC. In a
over the following 10 to 20 cycles. This relaxes the require- resonant converter, the switching loss may be reduced consid-
ment of the rating of the series-coupling transformer. A series- erably. However, the conduction loss is still significant and
coupling transformer of 1.5 p.u. rating is considered to be ade- makes up the bulk of the 3% overall loss. Note that a resonant
quate in a utility application. Then the question arises, “Why converter has additional components in the circuit configura-
should one invest in a fast-acting VSC when the series- tion. Considering all these options, a topology with slower
coupling transformer is not designed to deliver that voltage at semiconductor devices that operate with a somewhat higher
the same speed of the electronic VSC?” than fundamental switching frequency may still be attractive.
Fig. 2(c) shows the exchanged active and reactive power It is, however, preferable to reduce the switching and conduc-
(Pexch and Qexch) by the series compensator. The series com- tion losses of the faster device without additional circuit com-
pensator must be designed for the apparent (Sexch) power, ponents. But that technology may be a decade or more away.
which accommodates the exchanged active and reactive power Note that a VSC that operates at fundamental switching fre-
with the transmission line. The rating of the shunt compensa- quency provides a positive-sequence fundamental voltage. In
tor must be at least equal to the active power rating of the se- the case of a line fault, the negative-sequence component of
ries compensator. The three UPFCs [3]-[5] that are designed the unbalanced line voltage causes the negative-sequence cur-
and/or commissioned so far have the same ratings for both the rent to flow freely into the converter, which is not desirable. A
shunt and the series compensators. That means, due to the VSC with PWM operation provides a desirable voltage, not
bidirectional active power exchanged by the series and the just a positive-sequence fundamental voltage, which is effec-
shunt compensator, the reactive power available for voltage tive in operations during unbalance and faults.
regulation (i.e., shunt reactive compensation) is limited by the A VSC always injects harmonic components (voltage and
remaining current-carrying capability of the shunt compensa- current) into the power system network. The magnitudes of
tor. the harmonic components are reduced with higher leakage
The VSCs of the three UPFCs [3]-[5] have been built with reactance of the coupling transformer. The leakage reactance
the use of relatively slow semiconductor devices, such as Gate- of the series-coupling transformer reduces the overall capaci-
Turn-Off (GTO) thyristors that are switched at fundamental tive compensation range and increases the overall inductive
1530 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

compensation range. (15%) with a quality factor of 10. The uncompensated or

Fig. 9 shows a basic UPFC model, which consists of a natural active and reactive power (Prn and Qrn) flow at the re-
STATCOM and an SSSC with a joint DC link. The SSSC ceiving-end of the line are 132 MW and 41 Mvar capacitive,
injects a voltage, Vs’s, whose active and reactive components respectively.
with load convention are Vd and Vq, respectively, in series
with the transmission line. This, in turn, changes the voltage, VII. RESULTS
VX, across the transmission line and hence the current and the In order to demonstrate the functionality of the ST and the
power flow through the transmission line change. The com- UPFC, the network model of Fig. 10 is used with the power
pensating voltage, Vs’s, either delivers or absorbs active and flow controller substituted with an ST and a UPFC, respec-
reactive power (Pexch and Qexch). The exchanged active and tively. The model of the ST and the UPFC are described in
reactive power by the SSSC and by the ST with the line are the Figs. 7 and 9, respectively. A fixed value of 12 kV (0.15 p.u.)
same. voltage is series-connected with its entire controllable range of
SSSC 0ο ≤ β ≤ 360o.
V s's Fig. 11 shows the active, reactive, and apparent (Pexch, Qexch,
Pr , Q r and Sexch) power exchanged by the series-connected voltage
Vs Vd Vq V s' VX Vr source of the ST and the UPFC with the line. The maximum
I exchanged active, reactive, and apparent power are 21 MW,
XL
29 Mvar, and 30 MVA, respectively. In the case of an ST,
both the active and reactive power flow bidirectionally through
Vd I the exciting shunt unit. In the case of a UPFC, only the active
Pexch Id = Vs power flows bidirectionally through the STATCOM.
Vs2
Iq Id 30
Power (MW, Mvar, MVA)
STATCOM 20
Fig. 9. Basic Unified Power Flow Controller model.
10
Pexch
Only the exchanged active power, Pexch, with the line flows 0 Qexch
through the STATCOM. This active power flow through the 0 100 200 300 400 Sexch
-10
STATCOM results in an active current, Id, flow through it that
is either in-phase or out-of-phase with the line voltage. The -20
loading effect of this active current on the power system net-
-30
work may be compensated by the independent control of the
Rotational Angle (degree)
reactive current flow through the STATCOM. This reactive
component, Iq, that is in quadrature with the line voltage, (a)
emulates an inductive or a capacitive reactance at the point of 30
Power (MW, Mvar, MVA)

connection with the transmission line. 20

10
VI. THE NETWORK MODEL Pexch
0 Qexch
0 100 200 300 400 Sexch
Power -10
Flow
Xsource Controller XL -20
V source Vs V s' Vr
-30
Fig. 10. Two-bus network model.
Rotational Angle (degree)

A simple two-bus power system network model, as shown in (b)

Fig. 11. Variation of exchanged power between the line and the series unit of
the single line diagram of Fig. 10, is used for verifying the (a) the ST and (b) the UPFC.
operation of the two power flow controllers (ST and UPFC).
The network is driven by a phase-to-phase source voltage, Consistent with Fig. 2(c), it is shown in Figs. 11(a) and (b)
Vsource, of 138 kV (√3 p.u.) and a source reactance, Xsource, of that the reactive power exchanged by the series-connected
19.7 mH (6.25% on a 160 MVA base power) with a quality voltage source is capacitive over the majority of the control
factor of 7.4. The series-connected compensating voltage, range of 360ο, except between 205ο and 335ο when the ex-
Vs’s, modifies the sending-end voltage, Vs, to be the effective changed reactive power is inductive. Note that the shunt-
sending-end voltage, Vs’. The transmission line has a reac- connected exciter unit absorbs inductive power when the se-
tance, XL, of 59.2 mH (18.75%) with a quality factor of 7.4. ries-connected voltage and impedance-regulating unit absorbs
The receiving-end voltage is to be 138 kV and lagging the capacitive power and vice versa. Also note that the voltage
source voltage by 20ο. The series-insertion transformer of the and impedance-regulating unit absorbs from the line a maxi-
power flow controller has a leakage reactance of 47.4 mH mum of 12 Mvar of inductive power and 29 Mvar of capaci-
1531 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

tive power. Therefore, the shunt unit absorbs from the line a case of an ST and between 133.3 kV and 140.1 kV in
maximum of 29 Mvar of inductive power and a 12 Mvar of the case of a UPFC, while the uncompensated or natural
capacitive power. The shunt unit is inductive over the major- voltage is 136.7 kV.
ity of the control range of 360ο, except between 205ο and 335ο • Line active power flow changes from the natural flow
when it is capacitive. of 132 MW by +57 and –58 MW in the case of an ST
Note that while the angle of voltage injection varies, the and by ±58 MW in the case of a UPFC.
power flow as well as the current in the transmission line var- • Line reactive power flow changes from the natural flow
ies. So does the voltage across the source impedance. There- of −41 Mvar by +60 and −63 Mvar in the case of an ST
fore, the voltage phasor at the input of the power flow con- and by ±60 Mvar in the case of a UPFC.
troller (i.e., at the bus, Vs) varies its magnitude and phase from • Rating of the ST: 30 MVA.
the uncompensated or natural line voltage, Vsn. This variation • Rating of the UPFC: a series unit of 30 MVA and a
from the natural voltage is highly dependent on the short- shunt unit of 21 MVA.
circuit impedance of the transmission line. 200
Fig. 12 shows the variation of the phase-to-phase voltage at
150
the bus, Vs, from its natural value of 136.7 kV with the opera-

Power (MW & Mvar)

tion of an ST and a UPFC. If the point of compensation is 100
Pr
near a ‘stiff’ bus, the voltage variation at the point of compen- 50 Qr
sation (i.e., at the bus, Vs) is smaller and vice versa. In the 0 Prn
case of a UPFC, the bidirectional flow of active power be- -50
0 100 200 300 400 Qrn
tween the shunt and the series units emulates a “+R” or a “−R”
-100
and, in turn, causes a voltage ‘sag’ or ‘swell’ at the point of
-150
compensation. In the case of an ST, the additional reactive
power flow between the shunt and the series units emulates an Rotational Angle (degree)
inductor or a capacitor, thus causing an additional voltage (a)
‘sag’ or ‘swell’ at the point of compensation. Note that during
the control range of a series-connected voltage between 205ο 200
and 335ο, the voltage, Vs, is higher in the case of an ST than in 150
Power (MW & Mvar)

the case of a UPFC. In the rest of the region, the voltage, Vs, 100 Pr
is higher in the case of a UPFC than in the case of an ST.
50 Qr
142
0 Prn
140 0 100 200 300 400 Qrn
-50
Voltage (kV)

138 ST
-100
UPFC
136 -150
Vsn
Rotational Angle (degree)
134
(b)
132 Fig. 13. Variation of receiving-end power flow with the operation of (a) an
0 100 200 300 400 ST and (b) a UPFC.
Rotational Angle (degree)

Fig. 12. Variation of bus voltage with the operation of an ST and a UPFC. 25

0
Fig. 13(a) shows that with the use of an ST, both the active 50 100 150 200
and the reactive power flow at the receiving-end of the line -25
Qr (Mvar)

ST
under consideration varies by +57 and –58 MW and by +60 -50 PAR
and −63 Mvar, respectively from the natural power flow (Prn = VRT
-75
132 MW and Qrn = −41 Mvar). Fig. 13(b) shows that with the UPFC
use of a UPFC, both the active and the reactive power flow at -100
the receiving-end of the same line varies by ±58 MW and by
-125
±60 Mvar, respectively from the natural power flow (Prn = 132
Pr (MW)
MW and Qrn = −41 Mvar). The controllable range of active
and reactive power flow with the operation of an ST, PAR, Fig. 14. Comparison of active and reactive power flow at the receiving-end
VRT, and a UPFC are presented in Fig. 14. While the PAR of the transmission line with the operation of ST, PAR, VRT, and UPFC.
and the VRT offer linear characteristics, the ST and the UPFC
offer circular control areas that are almost identical. Since the shunt and the series units of a UPFC are designed to
The summary of the study results is given below. be of the same rating, a 30 MVA-rated shunt unit is able to
• The variation of phase-to-phase voltage at the point of provide 21 Mvar of reactive power while delivering the maxi-
compensation is between 132.8 kV and 139.8 kV in the mum 21 MW of active power. If this capability of supplying
1532 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

shunt reactive power is really needed, particularly when the trollability in the P-Q plane just like a UPFC. Note that a
short-circuit impedance at the point of compensation is high, a VRT and a PAR offer only linear characteristics in the P-Q
separate shunt reactive compensator may be used along with plane and, therefore, do not regulate active and reactive power
an ST. independently. Since the speed of operation is not essential in
The test results from the world-first UPFC [3], [10] have most utility applications, the cost of an ST becomes attractive
been showcased as follows. Fig. 15 shows the test results of a when compared with that of a UPFC for the same amount of
UPFC that consists of a shunt-connected ±160 MVA, 138 kV- power flow enhancement. Moreover, a UPFC’s capability of
rated VSC (STATCOM) and a series-connected ±160 MVA, injecting its rated compensating voltage in series with a trans-
13.33 kV-rated VSC (SSSC). The STATCOM is operated in mission line in its possible 360o range is not used in a practical
“Voltage Control” mode to hold the bus voltage, Vs, at 1 p.u. application. If the rated compensating voltage, Vs’s, is added
While maintaining unity power factor load on the line and the to the sending-end voltage, Vs, at 0o or 180o, the effective
bus voltage at 1 p.u. level, the active power flow in the line is sending-end voltage, Vs’ = Vs + Vs’s, goes out of the allowable
varied. The STATCOM exchanges an appropriate amount of range that is typically between 95% and 105%. An ST, how-
reactive power with the line to maintain the bus voltage at 1 ever, in its simpler configuration with a reduced amount of
p.u. level. The response time of the UPFC is several seconds. hardware provides a limited angle (120o) operation, which is
1.05 adequate in most utility applications. In this case, the rating of
Inez Bus Voltage (pu) the magnetic circuit of the ST is only 1.5 p.u. Note that the
1
proper rating of the magnetic circuit of the VSC-based UPFC
0.95
is 4.5 p.u. (shunt coupling transformer: 1 p.u., shunt intermedi-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
ate transformer: 0.5 p.u., series coupling transformer: 2 p.u.,
and series intermediate transformer: 1 p.u.).
300
The basic differences between the traditional technology of
Line Acti ve Power (P) M W transformer and tap changer and the emerging technology of
200
Line Reactive Power (Q) M var VSC are given in Table I.
100
Q
0 TABLE I
-100 P COMPARISON AMONG ‘SEN’ TRANSFORMER (ST), PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR
(PAR), VOLTAGE-REGULATING TRANSFORMER (VRT), AND UNIFIED POWER
-200
FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC).
-300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ST PAR VRT UPFC
Voltage regulation X X X
150
Independent line active and reactive X X
100 STATCOM Reacti ve Power (M var)
50
power flow control
0 Low installation and operating costs X X X
-50 Reliability and high availability X X X
-100 Injection of line frequency voltage X X X
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Low leakage reactance in the cou- X X X
Tim e (s) pling transformer
Fig. 15. UPFC test results - maintaining unity power factor while changing Fast bypass switch not needed X X X
the line power. Adequate response for utility appli- X X X X
cations
The simulation results for the network considered above Coarse voltage injection limited by X X X
show that a 30 MVA-rated series unit increases the active number of taps
Capability of independent reactive X
power flow in the line by 57 MW in the case of an ST and by power generation and absorption
58 MW in the case of a UPFC. This increased capacity of the Losses <1% <1% <1% 3-8%
line may be used to redirect power from an overloaded line to Cost ($/kVA) * 15-20 15-20 10-15 75-100
an underloaded line that may be very useful during a peak de- *The cost numbers are the best estimates at the present time.
mand period. It is upto the transmission line owners to analyze
the cost of the appropriate power flow controller and its pay- The advantage of the VSC-based UPFC is its ability to gen-
back in a utility application. In most utility applications where erate or absorb reactive power. If needed, this capability of
the fast response is not required, the ST presents an economi- generation or absorption of reactive power can be utilized to
cally attractive solution for power flow enhancement when regulate the bus voltage with the use of the shunt-connected
compared with a UPFC that requires higher installation and VSC (STATCOM). In a ‘stiff’ network, a STATCOM that is
operating costs. rated at ±100 MVA changes the bus voltage, Vs, less than 1%.
In a UPFC configuration, the STATCOM has to let the active
VIII. COMPARISON AMONG ST, PAR, VRT, AND UPFC power of the series converter go through it first, thereby re-
ducing its own reactive power-carrying and voltage-regulating
The merit of the ST is that it allows independent regulation
capabilities. If the reactive power support is not essential, an
of active and reactive power flow in the line similar to a
ST offers the most cost-effective power flow solution. If ad-
UPFC. The UPFC offers faster response, but this capability is
ditional shunt reactive power compensation is needed, an ST
not utilized to its fullest extent. An ST offers an area of con-
1533 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

can be used in conjunction with a shunt reactive compensator. [5] J. B. Choo, et al, “Development of FACTS operation technology to the
KEPCO power network − installation & operation,” in Proc. IEEE
Power Engineering Society Transmission & Distribution Conference,
IX. CONCLUSION Yokohama, Japan, Paper no. 231, Oct. 2002.
An ST that is based on the traditional technology of trans- [6] K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Introducing the family of ‘Sen’ Transform-
ers: A set of power flow controlling transformers,” IEEE Trans. Power
former and tap changers and a UPFC that is based on the Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 149−157, Jan. 2003.
emerging technology of VSC provide the same independent [7] K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Versatile power flow transformers for com-
and bidirectional control of active and reactive power flow in pensating power flow in a transmission line,” U.S. Patents 6 335 613, 6
an AC transmission line. The UPFC has the capability of pro- 384 581, 6 396 248, and 6 420 856, 2002.
[8] EPRI, “Evaluate solid-state LTC options for medium power transform-
viding fast dynamic response, but this capability is not re-
ers: Project 41C3084/6658-6424,” Electric Power Research Inst., Palo
quired in most utility applications where the need is to regulate Alto, CA, EPRI Tech. Rep. 1 000 916, Dec. 2000.
the line voltage and the power flow in a “slow” manner. The [9] L. Gyugyi, et al, “Apparatus and method for dynamic voltage restora-
speed of the tap changer operation in an ST provides adequate tion of utility distribution networks,” U.S. Patent 5 329 222, 1994.
response time. [10] K. K. Sen and A. J. Keri, “Comparison of field results and digital simu-
lation results of Voltage-Sourced Converter-based FACTS controllers,”
Three UPFCs that have been designed for transmission line IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 300−306, Jan. 2003.
applications require the use of magnetic circuits and coupling [11] E. J. Stacey and M. B. Brennen, “Active power conditioner system,”
transformers with a total rating that is at least twice the rating U.S. Patent 4 651 265, 1987.
of the proposed ST. The expenses for the taps and the con- [12] M. B. Brennen and B. Banerjee, “Low cost, high performance Active
Power Line Conditioners,” in Third Int. Conf. on Power Quality:
troller in the ST are only a fraction of the expenses of the End−Use Applications and Perspectives, EPRI, Amsterdam, Oct. 1994.
power electronics and accessories in the UPFC. Moreover, the [13] L. Gyugyi, “A unified power flow control concept for flexible AC
efficiency of an ST is above 99% and that of a UPFC is in the transmission systems,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. C, vol. 139, no. 4, July
range of 92% to 97%. Therefore, the lifetime operating cost of 1992.
[14] K. K. Sen and E. J. Stacey, “UPFC − Unified Power Flow Controller:
a UPFC is significantly higher than that of an ST. The
Theory, modeling, and applications,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol.
UPFC’s capability of injecting its rated compensating voltage 13, no. 4, pp. 1453−1460, Oct. 1998.
in series with a transmission line in its possible 360o range is
not used in a practical application. The ST, in its simpler con- Kalyan K. Sen (S’83−M’87−SM’01) was
figuration, provides a limited angle (120o) operation. Using born in Bankura, WB, India. He received the
B.E.E. degree (with first class honors), the
this simpler configuration of the ST, it is possible to achieve a M.S.E.E. degree, and the Ph.D. degree from
360ο operating range with hardware reconfiguration in every Jadavpur University, Calcutta, WB, India,
120ο. At the present time, two major drawbacks of all VSC- Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, and
based FACTS controllers are their high installation and oper- Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester,
MA, all in Electrical Engineering, in 1982,
ating costs. In comparison to a UPFC, a 5:1 reduction in 1983, and 1987, respectively.
equipment cost and a 10:1 improvement in operational cost of He is currently a Fellow Engineer at the
an ST are expected. The new ST demonstrates to be the most Westinghouse Electro-Mechanical Division
cost-effective power flow controller to meet today’s utility’s Technology Center, Mount Pleasant, PA
where he is engaged in power electronics application research. He spent three
need for the independent control of active and reactive power years as an Assistant Professor at Prairie View/Texas A&M University before
flow in a transmission line. joining as a Senior Engineer at Westinghouse Electric Corporation’s Science
An ST uses the same main components (windings and taps) & Technology Center in Pittsburgh, PA, where he was a member of the
that are used in a VRT and a PAR. The expected reliability of FACTS development team for nine years. He pursues his interest in afford-
able power flow controller at SEN Engineering Solutions, which he co-
an ST is, therefore, well established. Each of the VRT and the founded. His interests are in power converters, electrical machines, control,
PAR provides compensation for only one of the transmission and power system simulations and studies. He is an editor of the IEEE
line parameters and, thus, does not regulate the active and the Transactions on Power Delivery and an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer from the
reactive power flow in the line independently. An ST provides Power Engineering Society.
Dr. Sen is Chairman of the Pittsburgh Chapter of Power Engineering Soci-
the functionality of a VRT and a PAR in a single unit and, in ety and Industry Applications Society.
turn, provides voltage regulation and independent active and
reactive power flow regulation in the price range of a PAR. In Mey Ling Sen (M’01) was born in Aruba,
terms of power flow control terminology, each of the VRT and Dutch Caribbean. She received the B.S.E.E.
(with high distinction) and the M.E.E. degree
the PAR is limited to a set of linear operating points inside the
from Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
circular P-Q characteristic of the ST. Worcester, MA, and Rice University, Houston,
TX, all in Electrical Engineering, in 1988 and
REFERENCES 1990, respectively.
She is currently a Consultant Engineer at the
[1] P. Irwin, “Transmission at a crossroads,” Electrical T&D World, vol. Westinghouse Electro-Mechanical Division
216, no. 1, pp. 13−23, first quarter 2002. Technology Center, Mount Pleasant, PA. She is
[2] N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, “Understanding FACTS – concept and also a researcher at SEN Engineering Solutions,
technology of flexible AC transmission systems,” New York: IEEE which she co-founded. Her interests are in
Press, 2000. electronics, electrical machines, and power
[3] B. A. Renz, et al, “AEP Unified Power Flow Controller performance,” engineering.
IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1374−1381, Oct. 1999. She is Secretary of the Pittsburgh Chapter of Power Engineering Society
[4] B. Fardanesh, et al, “Convertible Static Compensator application to the and Industry Applications Society.
New York transmission system,” Paris (CIGRE), 1998, Paper 14-103.