Module 6 Asian Ethical Traditions

Learning Outcomes

1.      Articulate the basis for ethical behavior for Buddhists;

2.      Analyze how the concept of the oneness of all things in the Brahma serves as a basis for moral behavior; and

3.      Examine how Confucianism founds ideal human behavior on the ideas of Ren and Li.

Introduction

 In most ethics courses, there is a heavy emphasis on the traditions of the West to train students to think about the
ethical way of existence. However, there is another tradition of thinking about the good that is worth considering for a
fuller understanding of how people orient their lives to the good. This tradition comes from the great civilizations of the
East, particularly from India and China.

            The students of this course may not realize it but many people in the Philippines are deeply influenced by or have
greatest commonalities in their ethical way of thinking with these traditions. For instance, people believe that if they do
bad things, they could be victims of misfortune because of Karma.  Others believe that one to live in a way that honors
their ancestors. Most people believe that the world is ordered by Heaven and that if one wishes to have a good life, one
must understand that order and live one’s life according to it. These are all beliefs that echo or are derived from Indian
and Chinese traditions. It would be profitable to study these traditions because they are closer to Asian moral
sensibilities and have shaped them.

            These Asian traditions share some general characteristics. Manuel B. Dy identifies six common themes which can
be drawn from the great Asian spiritual and intellectual traditions.

            Firstly, one can immediately notice that religious thought is intertwined with philosophical and ethical thinking.
There is no real separation of beliefs about the transcendent and the cosmos, including the traditional mythical beliefs.
Beliefs about Dharma and Karma, the Dao and the gods, frame the critical understanding of the great Asian
Philosophical traditions regarding the good and the good life. At heart, there is a quest to define what it means to live a
good human life and their reflections could not be disconnected from their greater beliefs about how the Gods or the
greater order of Heaven govern the universe and keep order, or their intuition that there is a transcendent order that
rules human flourishing but is not and cannot be defined by the intellect. Also, at the heart of this union of faith and
critical thinking about the good is a quest for emancipation. Dy says that at the heart of all Asian philosophical thought is
the quest for emancipation: “be it from moral degradation as in the case of Confucianism, from misery as it is in Taoism
and Buddhism, and from finitude as in the case of Hinduism.”

            Dy then notes that a second theme which binds these intellectual traditions is “love and compassion”. Since every
system seeks to realize human emancipation and fullness, a human fullness that is rooted in the transcendence of
suffering, finitude, disorder, strife, and maybe even death, it becomes important that people live with love and
compassion. Compassion and love, they understand, are paths to tranquillity, peace, and being whole. Connected with
this is the third theme which is connectedness of personal cultivation and social responsibility. Realizing one’s
goodness is sometimes tied to fulfilling one’s duty to one’s family, one’s clan and one’s government.

            Enlightenment is the fourth theme. Each of the great Asian traditions, more or less outlines a path to
enlightenment. This means an awakening to the true order of the universe which leads to an awakening to the order to
which human beings align their existence. Thus, these traditions give human beings a path to awareness of the true
order of all things, unclouded by human desire and folly, in order to become what they ought to be.

            A final  characteristic is that these great things offer paths of “harmony with oneself, with others, with nature,
with a Transcendent.” Because the fullness of human becoming is central to all these traditions, they all have teachings
related to the harmony of self with all beings, especially the transcendent. For these traditions, the existing
transcendent order is the very basis of all forms of existence. Human suffering and disquiet are rooted in the person’s
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inability or inadequate participation in the order of things. Thus, various Indian schools of thought speak of the need for
human beings to be enlightened in the ways of the one order of the universe and align one’s way of being to that order.

            Examples of some of these great traditions are discussed here to give readers sense of how their metaphysical,
religious and mythical conceptions of the universe can be the foundation of an ethics.

The Vedas and Upanishads

 Indian philosophy is not discussed extensively in this section. Buddhism is the focus of this discussion but only because it
is the aspect of Indian thought most relevant and most useful to the local students. However, the discussion begins with
some aspects of ancient Indian philosophy that gives the reader the foundational thought of this tradition.

 The Vedas are some of the oldest philosophical writings in the world. These series of hymns to the most ancient gods
are a poetic articulation of the structure and meaning of the universe. Here, there is a family of gods for whom the
hymns are composed. The hymns themselves are considered direct revelations that speak of the most sacred knowledge
about the world, its creation, and the principles of reality. The most basic insight of these writings is that Rita is the
foundational principle of all things.

           Rita is the right order of the universe. Human beings experience this order through the presence of the gods to
whom they dedicate the performance of the hymns embodied in rituals. Each god is a manifestation of a force or
principle of the universe and the singing of their hymns leads to the realization of a good life aligned to the order of the
cosmos and the forces that keep it like Rita. Most people take the Vedas to be a handbook of prescribed rituals. The
focus is on the external rituals to realize good fortune, which leads to a rethinking of the revelations of the Vedas
collected in the Upanishads.

            The writers of the Upanishads  seek to understand the fullness of human becoming by realizing the deepest
insight about the true nature of the universe. They seek to articulate why and how human beings could come to fullness
through enlightenment about the transcendent, unchanging reality of being. The expression of the path to
enlightenment is through poetic deliberation on the nature of being and the human realization of self in this universe.

            Beyond rituals, the authors of the Upanishads share a path of spiritual enlightenment. The first idea is Samsara of
reincarnation. All human beings are born repeatedly in different forms of life. It is not just a process of repetition but
one of purification. In each incarnation, a person has a chance to live a more enlightened life. In teaching of Karma or
actions and their consequences, the actions of persons have just consequences. The way persons live their lives
redounds on what happens to them and more importantly it determines their reincarnation. Reincarnation is not mere
repetitive process, where one is arbitrarily reborn without reason. The process is one of enlightenment and liberation.

            One seeks to go beyond the Karmic cycle of rebirth and in a sense, entrapment in the life of the finite body. The
Upanishads teach that by living a life of meditation and purification, one achieves a state of spiritual enlightenment that
will allow us to live in genuine accord with the order of the good. If one lives well, Karma will lead one to a better life.
Thus, one must live well according to one’s Darma which is the duty that one has based on one’s status in life. There are
duties given one’s cast or status in the social order, and if one fulfils all one’s given duties, one can escape the Karmic
cycle which is the state of Moksha or liberation.

 To achieve Moksha, one must come to the insight that all things are one in the Brahman. All things that exist are from
the Brahman, and ultimately all things return to the Brahman. That simple realization leads to Moksha or the state of
enlightenment that liberates persons from the cycle of birth and rebirth to a state of stillness and a rootedness in the
eternal. The fullness of human existence is to find one’s oneness which is one’s eternity with the Brahman. To achieve
Moksha is to come to the deepest awareness of this truth and to realize it in one’s way of being. This insight can be
achieved if one purifies oneself of material needs and desires and meditates on the truths revealed through the Vedas
and Upanishads. One needs direct access to this truth through insight, thus the need for purification and meditation. All
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this exercise aims to experience “the absolute within oneself”. And with that, one finds the eternal and still center of
existence that is finite and comes to an end.

            Here we can see how the religious/metaphysical/mythical/mystical principles of Indian philosophy can be the
foundation for an ethics. If we ask the question “How does a good person live her life?”, then the answer is to live in a
way that leads to the insight that all things are Brahman, and Brahman  and Atman  are one. This means a good human
life is one of purification. One must act in a way that does not detract from insight and enlightenment. Also, one must be
careful of one’s actions so it does not incur negative Karma which keeps one imprisoned in the cycle of rebirth. Indian
philosophies and religion seek to articulate how to live in such a way that one fulfils these basic insights.

            Buddhism is one development of this worldview.

Let us try to practice mindfulness mediation. Follow the instructions below and try to integrate this practice in your
everyday life, even for at least five minutes. You might see some enlightening results. Enjoy! 

This is a guidebook to the many different styles of meditation, the various benefits of each practice, plus free guided
audio practices that help you learn how to meditate.

How do you learn to meditate? In mindfulness meditation, we’re learning how to pay attention to the breath as it goes in
and out, and notice when the mind wanders from this task. This practice of returning to the breath builds the muscles of
attention and  mindfulness.

When we pay attention to our breath, we are learning how to return to, and remain in, the present moment—to anchor
ourselves in the here and now on purpose, without judgement.

In mindfulness practice, we are learning how to return to, and remain in, the present moment—to anchor ourselves in
the here and now on purpose, without judgement.

The idea behind mindfulness seems simple—the practice takes patience. Indeed, renowned meditation teacher  Sharon
Salzberg  recounts that her first experience with meditation showed her how quickly the mind gets caught up in other
tasks. “I thought, okay, what will it be, like, 800 breaths before my mind starts to wander? And to my absolute
amazement, it was one breath, and I’d be gone,” says Salzberg.IGN

While meditation isn’t a cure-all, it can certainly provide some much-needed space in your life. Sometimes, that’s all we
need to make better choices for ourselves, our families, and our communities. And the most important tools you can
bring with you to your meditation practice are a little patience, some kindness for yourself, and a comfortable place to
sit.

A Basic Meditation for Beginners

The first thing to clarify: What we’re doing here is aiming for mindfulness, not some process that magically wipes your
mind clear of the countless and endless thoughts that erupt and ping constantly in our brains. We’re just practicing
bringing our attention to our breath, and then back to the breath when we notice our attention has wandered.

1. Get comfortable and prepare to sit still for a few minutes. After you stop reading this, you’re going to simply
focus on your own natural inhaling and exhaling of breath.

2. Focus on your breath. Where do you feel your breath most? In your belly? In your nose? Try to keep your
attention on your inhale and exhale.
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3. Follow your breath for two minutes. Take a deep inhale, expanding your belly, and then exhale slowly,
elongating the out-breath as your belly contracts.

Review the three steps and when you are ready, try doing the deep breathing exercise for two minutes. It helps that you
close your eyes and try to cancel out all the noises around you, just focusing on your breathing. 

Welcome back. What happened? How long was it before your mind wandered away from your breath? Did you notice
how busy your mind was even without consciously directing it to think about anything in particular? Did you notice
yourself getting caught up in thoughts before you came back to reading this? We often have little narratives running in
our minds that we didn’t choose to put there, like: “How will I finish my assigned modules today?” “I should have
cleaned my room yesterday.” “I still have chores to do after this” or (the classic) “I don’t have time to sit still, I’ve got
stuff to do.”

We “practice” mindfulness so we can learn how to recognize when our minds are doing their normal everyday
acrobatics, and maybe take a pause from that for just a little while so we can choose what we’d like to focus on.

If you experienced these sorts of distractions (and we all do), you’ve made an important discovery: simply put, that’s the
opposite of mindfulness. It’s when we live in our heads, on automatic pilot, letting our thoughts go here and there,
exploring, say, the future or the past, and essentially, not being present in the moment. But that’s where most of us live
most of the time—and pretty uncomfortably, if we’re being honest, right? But it doesn’t have to be that way.

We “practice” mindfulness so we can learn how to recognize when our minds are doing their normal everyday
acrobatics, and maybe take a pause from that for just a little while so we can choose what we’d like to focus on. In a
nutshell, meditation helps us have a much healthier relationship with ourselves (and, by extension, with others).

WHY LEARN TO MEDITATE?

When we meditate, we inject far-reaching and long-lasting benefits into our lives. And bonus: you don’t need any extra
gear or an expensive membership.

Here are five reasons to meditate:

1: Understand your pain

2: Lower your stress

3: Connect better

4: Improve focus

5: Reduce brain chatter

How to Meditate

Meditation is simpler (and harder) than most people think. Read these steps, make sure you’re somewhere where you
can relax into this process, set a timer, and give it a shot:
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1) Take a seat

Find a place to sit that feels calm and quiet to you.

2) Set a time limit

If you’re just beginning, it can help to choose a short time, such as five or 10 minutes.

3) Notice your body

You can sit in a chair with your feet on the floor, you can sit loosely cross-legged, you can kneel—all are fine. Just make
sure you are stable and in a position you can stay in for a while.

4) Feel your breath

Follow the sensation of your breath as it goes in and as it goes out.

5) Notice when your mind has wandered

Inevitably, your attention will leave the breath and wander to other places. When you get around to noticing that your
mind has wandered—in a few seconds, a minute, five minutes—simply return your attention to the breath.

6) Be kind to your wandering mind

Don’t judge yourself or obsess over the content of the thoughts you find yourself lost in. Just come back.

7) Close with kindness 

When you’re ready, gently lift your gaze (if your eyes are closed, open them). Take a moment and notice any sounds in
the environment. Notice how your body feels right now. Notice your thoughts and emotions.

That’s it! That’s the practice. You go away, you come back, and you try to do it as kindly as possible.

Here are some meditation music you can try. Try following steps above and answer the questions below afterwards. 

Buddhism

Buddhism was born from the enlightenment of Gautama Buddha who lived between the 6th and 4th BCE. A sheltered
prince, Buddha sought the meaning of existence when he realized that human life is suffering. The Buddha’s lifelong
search led him to extreme asceticism (abstinence or simplicity of lifestyle). However, he discovered that enlightenment
and salvation could be achieved in the ordinary human life if people are enlightened about the nature of suffering.
People who seek to arrive at a higher level of enlightenment, where one can see “beyond birth and death”, need to
realize four truths called Chatvari-arya-satyani.

            The first truth is that life is suffering or dukkha. In the cycle of death, life, and rebirth, there is constant suffering.
The second truth is that action or karma  is the cause of this suffering, particularly “nonvirtuous action, and the negative
mental states that motivate such actions.” These are afflictions of the mind such as desire, hatred, and ignorance which
are rooted in the wrong valuation of self or atman. The extreme valuing of the self, the desire to preserve the I is the
cause of suffering. People only need t awaken to the truth that there is no self to preserve. And as long as people keep
believing that it is the human being’s task to cultivate the self, people will be trapped in egotism and selfishness.

            The third truth is that there is an end to suffering and the path beyond suffering is to transcend this illusion and
enter the state of nirvana. Nirvana is the dissolution of suffering which is the fruit of the surrender of the ego. In this
way, they surrender hatred and desire because hatred and desire are the fruits of the fact that there is no individual self.
The path to this awakening is articulated by Donald Lopez thus:
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                “One useful way to approach the topic is through the traditional triad of ethics, meditation, and wisdom. Ethics
refers to the conscious restrain of nonvirtuous deeds of body and speech, usually through observing some form of vows.
Meditation (Dhyana), in this context, refers to developing a sufficient level of concentration (through a variety of
techniques) to make mind a suitable tool for breaking through the illusion of self to the vision of nirvana. Wisdom is
insight, at a deep level of concentration, into the fact there is no self. Such wisdom is said not only to prevent the
accumulation of future karma but eventually to destroy all past karma so that upon death, one is not reborn but passes
into nirvana.”

            Clearly, the path to Nirvana offers a foundation for living a good life and acting according to the good. It requires a
disciplined form of life in order to realize human fullness. This is explained in the fourth truth - how human beings ought
to live a life free from suffering by following the Eightfold Path or Astangika-marga.

*image*

   Buddhism provides a way to understand what a good human being ought to do to come to the fullness of human life.
The Eightfold Path provides guideposts to acting in this world. If one seeks to act mindfully, these signposts are exactly a
way to discern if one’s actions are creative and non-destructive to others. In fact, they provide a framework for living in
a way that avoids the destructive or evil ways of human beings.

            With these examples of Indian thought, we can see that their ethical tradition is not only a quest to articulate
good action but a way to realize genuinely human existence leading to fullness of transcendence.

Chinese Philosophy and Confucian Ethics

This section explores the fundamental ideas of Confucian thought as a representative of Chinese ethical thought.
Confucian ethics is not the only or primary form of Chinese ethics. There are Daoist and Legalist Chinese schools of
thought that contribute equally to the development of the traditional Chinese people’s conception of the good.
However, in the interest of brevity, we will focus more on the most popular and foundational theory to which all
subsequent philosophies respond.

            Confucius is a system of thought attributed to the teacher Kongqui known in the West as Confucius. He was an
aspiring civil servant who lived his life as a teacher of governance, ethics and ritual, and was able to gather a following
around him. His main preoccupation was the possibility of building a harmonious, ordered society. He took inspiration
for building a just kingdom from the ancient sage rulers, King Wen and King Wu and their virtuous regent, Duke Zhou. He
believed that if people were able to internalize or take as their own the ways of these virtuous people, then the state
would be ordered because it would reflect the order of Heaven. This is what he taught people: the way to bear the order
of heaven is one’s conduct.

            At some point, his followers compiled a book of conversations known in the West as the Analects, the main
source of Confucian teaching. They are series of conversations, anecdotes, and responses of the teacher to his students’
queries that are not arranged in any particular order. Later disciples worked on his thought and systematized and
deepened it. If one desires to understand the foundations of this thought, there are three other books that stand as a
source for this: the Book of Mencius, the Doctrine of the Mean, and The Great Learning.

            There is one basic aspiration for any Confucian – to be a person who has the virtue of ren, to be a person who has
internalized the way of Heaven. Heaven here does not indicate the abode of God. It is the source or order and balance,
the way of life and nature, the way of justice and proper relationships. It is the order that must govern one’s way of
being for people to find their peace. A person of ren knows how to act properly or with propriety in all situations giving
all situations and things their due, but it is also about being human and the relationships between persons.

            Ren is made up of two characters, ren being human being, and erh, meaning two, indicating thus that ren is the
virtue that governs interpersonal relationships. Ren is translated as ‘benevolence’, ‘kindness’, ‘human-heartedness’,
‘humanity’ and when Confucius was asked for its meaning, he said “Ren is to love human beings”. In order to realize the
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ethical nobility or human exemplarity which makes one a person who bears the virtue of ren, it is necessary to live
according to the way of Heaven. And the path for the master was that of ritual or Li.

            Confucius held the ancient ways sacred because for him, these bore the wisdom of ancestors who still understood
the ways of heaven. These ancestors governed the state and acted in their personal life in ways attuned to the order of
Heaven or the Dao. The way to attunement is to focus on traditional ways because “filial piety, a respect for and
dedication to the performance of traditional ritual forms for conduct, and the ability to judge what is the right thing to
do in the given situation were codified in rituals and customs.

            The heart of the Chinese ethical system is to seek perfect attunement to the Dao in order to realize genuine
humanity. Confucians spell out a system of rituals and customs so that there is a frame that can guide people to that
profound attunement. Daoists offer a more complex path of mysticism that is worth studying in depth because of its
poetry and wisdom.  But to understand their insight requires a lifetime of meditation.

Conclusion

This section only seeks to give the student a sense of what the main trends of Asian ethical thought are. Buddhism and
Confucianism are only two of the major traditions from this continent and its long history of philosophizing. These two
are the most relevant to the student given their influence among the Filipino people.

            They are also worth exploring in this chapter because they give a general insight into the ethos of the great Asian
traditions. When Asian thinkers philosophize about doing the good, they do not think about rules or guidelines for
deciding what is good action or what makes a norm universal. They are not so keen about articulating rules and norms
for autonomous persons to decide what is an acceptable act for a rational, free and autonomous person. Their main
concern is how to live a good life and be a good person by gaining an insight into the transcendent and eternal order of
the universe, and from that insight how to attune one’s life to that order. Whether it is the Dao or
the Brahma and Atman, one needs a deep intuition of the good and from that intuition live in attunement.

            Asian ethical systems are less about becoming an autonomous, rational legislator of one’s own laws. Rather, they
are a quest to articulate human connectedness and oneness to the deepest order of reality. Thus, much of their codes of
behavior are concerned more with the process of coming to attunement with the source of order and harmony. And the
good person, therefore, is a person in communion with his/her fellow humans, with fellow beings, and with the ground
reality itself. Once the communion is attained, one begins to act as good person, a person whose self-realization is
immediately harmonious and non-destructive.