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Voltage
Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or
electric tension is the difference in electric potential between Voltage
two points, which (in a static electric field) is defined as the work
needed per unit of charge to move a test charge between the two
points. In the International System of Units, the derived unit for
voltage (potential difference) is named volt.[1]:166 In SI units,
work per unit charge is expressed as joules per coulomb, where 1
volt = 1 joule (of work) per 1 coulomb (of charge). The old SI
definition for volt used power and current; starting in 1990, the
quantum Hall and Josephson effect were used, and recently
(2019) fundamental physical constants have been introduced for
the definition of all SI units and derived units.[1]:177f, 197f Voltage
or electric potential difference is denoted symbolically by ∆V, Batteries are sources of voltage in
simplified V,[2] or U,[3] for instance in the context of Ohm's or many electric circuits.
Kirchhoff's circuit laws.
Common V , ∆V , U , ∆U
symbols
Electric potential differences between points can be caused
physically by electric charge build up or imbalance (e.g. well SI unit volt
known "static" and electronic capacitor) also by electric current In SI base kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−1
through a magnetic field, and by time-varying magnetic fields units
(e.g. dynamo or generator), or some combination of these
three.[4][5] Additionally on a macroscopic scale potential Derivations Voltage = Energy /
from
charge
difference can be caused by electrochemical processes (cells and other
batteries) and pressure induced piezoelectric effect and heat quantities
induced emf across metal-metal junctions. These latter processes
M L2 T−3 I−1
at microscopic level have the physical origins previously Dimension
mentioned. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage (or
potential difference) between two points in a system; often a common reference potential such as the
ground of the system is used as one of the points. A voltage may represent either a source of energy
(electromotive force) or lost, used, or stored energy (potential drop).

Contents
Definition
Definition as potential of electric field
Definition via decomposition of electric field
Treatment in circuit theory
Volt
Hydraulic analogy
Applications
Addition of voltages
Measuring instruments
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Typical voltages
Galvani potential vs. electrochemical potential
History
See also
References
Footnotes
External links

Definition
There are multiple useful ways to define voltage, including the standard definition mentioned earlier.
There are also other useful definitions of work per charge (see this section).

Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, while
positively charged objects are pulled towards lower voltages. Therefore, the conventional current in a
wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage.

Historically, voltage has been referred to using terms like "tension" and "pressure". Even today, the
term "tension" is still used, for example within the phrase "high tension" (HT) which is commonly
used in thermionic valve (vacuum tube) based electronics.

Definition as potential of electric field

The voltage increase from point to some point is given by

In this case, the voltage increase from point A to point B is equal to the work done per unit charge,
against the electric field, to move the charge from A to B without causing any acceleration.
Mathematically, this is expressed as the line integral of the electric field along that path. Under this
definition, the voltage difference between two points is not uniquely defined when there are time-
varying magnetic fields since the electric force is not a conservative force in such cases.

If this definition of voltage is used, any circuit where there are time-varying magnetic fields,[note 1]
such as circuits containing inductors, will not have a well-defined voltage between nodes in the
circuit. However, if magnetic fields are suitably contained to each component, then the electric field is
conservative in the region exterior[note 2] to the components, and voltages are well-defined in that
region.[6] In this case, the voltage across an inductor, viewed externally, turns out to be

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despite the fact that, internally, the electric field in the coil is
zero[6] (assuming it is a perfect conductor).

Definition via decomposition of electric field

Using the above definition, the electric potential is not defined

whenever magnetic fields change with time. In physics, it is
sometimes useful to generalize the electric potential by only
considering the conservative part of the electric field. This is done
by the following decomposition used in electrodynamics:

The electric field around the rod

exerts a force on the charged pith
ball, in an electroscope
where is the magnetic vector potential. The above
decomposition is justified by Helmholtz's theorem.

In this case, the voltage increase from to is given by

where is the rotational electric field due to time-varying In a static field, the work is
independent of the path
magnetic fields. In this case, the voltage between points is always
uniquely defined.

Treatment in circuit theory

In circuit analysis and electrical engineering, the voltage across an inductor is not considered to be
zero or undefined, as the standard definition would suggest. This is because electrical engineers use a
lumped element model to represent and analyze circuits.

When using a lumped element model, it is assumed that there are no magnetic fields in the region
surrounding the circuit and that the effects of these are contained in 'lumped elements', which are
idealized and self-contained circuit elements used to model physical components.[7] If the assumption
of negligible leaked fields is too inaccurate, their effects can be modelled by parasitic components.

In the case of a physical inductor though, the ideal lumped representation is often accurate. This is
because the leaked fields of the inductor are generally negligible, especially if the inductor is a toroid.
If leaked fields are negligible, we find that

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is path-independent, and there is a well-defined voltage across the inductor's terminals.[6] This is the
reason that measurements with a voltmeter across an inductor are often reasonably independent of
the placement of the test leads.

Volt
The volt (symbol: V) is the derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and
electromotive force. The volt is named in honour of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–
1827), who invented the voltaic pile, possibly the first chemical battery.

Hydraulic analogy
A simple analogy for an electric circuit is water flowing in a closed circuit of pipework, driven by a
mechanical pump. This can be called a "water circuit". Potential difference between two points
corresponds to the pressure difference between two points. If the pump creates a pressure difference
between two points, then water flowing from one point to the other will be able to do work, such as
driving a turbine. Similarly, work can be done by an electric current driven by the potential difference
provided by a battery. For example, the voltage provided by a sufficiently-charged automobile battery
can "push" a large current through the windings of an automobile's starter motor. If the pump isn't
working, it produces no pressure difference, and the turbine will not rotate. Likewise, if the
automobile's battery is very weak or "dead" (or "flat"), then it will not turn the starter motor.

The hydraulic analogy is a useful way of understanding many electrical concepts. In such a system, the
work done to move water is equal to the "pressure drop" (compare p.d.) multiplied by the volume of
water moved. Similarly, in an electrical circuit, the work done to move electrons or other charge-
carriers is equal to "electrical pressure difference" multiplied by the quantity of electrical charges
moved. In relation to "flow", the larger the "pressure difference" between two points (potential
difference or water pressure difference), the greater the flow between them (electric current or water
flow). (See "electric power".)

Applications
Specifying a voltage measurement requires explicit or implicit
specification of the points across which the voltage is measured. When
using a voltmeter to measure potential difference, one electrical lead of
the voltmeter must be connected to the first point, one to the second
point.

A common use of the term "voltage" is in describing the voltage dropped

across an electrical device (such as a resistor). The voltage drop across
the device can be understood as the difference between measurements at
each terminal of the device with respect to a common reference point (or
ground). The voltage drop is the difference between the two readings.
Two points in an electric circuit that are connected by an ideal conductor
without resistance and not within a changing magnetic field have a
voltage of zero. Any two points with the same potential may be
connected by a conductor and no current will flow between them. Working on high voltage
power lines

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Addition of voltages

The voltage between A and C is the sum of the voltage between A and B and the voltage between B and
C. The various voltages in a circuit can be computed using Kirchhoff's circuit laws.

When talking about alternating current (AC) there is a difference between instantaneous voltage and
average voltage. Instantaneous voltages can be added for direct current (DC) and AC, but average
voltages can be meaningfully added only when they apply to signals that all have the same frequency
and phase.

Measuring instruments
Instruments for measuring voltages include the voltmeter, the
potentiometer, and the oscilloscope. Analog voltmeters, such as
moving-coil instruments, work by measuring the current through
a fixed resistor, which, according to Ohm's Law, is proportional to
the voltage across the resistor. The potentiometer works by
balancing the unknown voltage against a known voltage in a
bridge circuit. The cathode-ray oscilloscope works by amplifying
the voltage and using it to deflect an electron beam from a
straight path, so that the deflection of the beam is proportional to
the voltage.
Multimeter set to measure voltage

Typical voltages
A common voltage for flashlight batteries is 1.5 volts (DC).
A common voltage for automobile batteries
is 12 volts (DC).

Common voltages supplied by power companies to consumers are 110 to 120 volts (AC) and 220 to
240  volts (AC). The voltage in electric power transmission lines used to distribute electricity from
power stations can be several hundred times greater than consumer voltages, typically 110 to 1200 kV
(AC).

The voltage used in overhead lines to power railway locomotives is between 12 kV and 50 kV (AC) or
between 0.75 kV and 3 kV (DC).

Galvani potential vs. electrochemical potential

Inside a conductive material, the energy of an electron is affected not only by the average electric
potential, but also by the specific thermal and atomic environment that it is in.
When a voltmeter is
connected between two different types of metal, it measures not the electrostatic potential difference,
but instead something else that is affected by thermodynamics.[8]
The quantity measured by a
voltmeter is the negative of the difference of the electrochemical potential of electrons (Fermi level)
divided by the electron charge and commonly referred to as the voltage difference, while the pure
unadjusted electrostatic potential (not measurable with a voltmeter) is sometimes called Galvani
potential.
The terms "voltage" and "electric potential" are ambiguous in that, in practice, they can
refer to either of these in different contexts.

History
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The term electromotive force was first used by Volta in a letter to Giovanni Aldini in 1798, and first
appeared in a published paper in 1801 in Annales de chimie et de physique.[9]:408 Volta meant by this
a force that was not an electrostatic force, specifically, an electrochemical force.[9]:405 The term was
taken up by Michael Faraday in connection with electromagnetic induction in the 1820s. However, a
clear definition of voltage and method of measuring it had not been developed at this time.[10]:554
Volta distinguished electromotive force (emf) from tension (potential difference): the observed
potential difference at the terminals of an electrochemical cell when it was open circuit must exactly
balance the emf of the cell so that no current flowed.[9]:405

See also
Electric shock
Mains electricity by country (list of countries with mains voltage and frequency)
Open-circuit voltage
Phantom voltage

References
1. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2019-05-20), SI Brochure: The International
System of Units (SI) (https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si-brochure/SI-Brochure-9.pdf) (PDF)
(9th ed.), ISBN 978-92-822-2272-0
2. IEV: electric potential (http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=121-11-25)
3. IEV: voltage (http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=121-11-27)
4. Demetrius T. Paris and F. Kenneth Hurd, Basic Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York
1969, ISBN 0-07-048470-8, pp. 512, 546
5. P. Hammond, Electromagnetism for Engineers, p. 135, Pergamon Press 1969 OCLC 854336 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/854336).
6. R. Feynman; et al. "The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II Ch. 22: AC Circuits" (http://www.fey
nmanlectures.caltech.edu/II_22.html). Caltech. Retrieved 4 December 2018.
7. A. Agarwal & J. Lang (2007). "Course materials for 6.002 Circuits and Electronics" (https://ocw.mi
t.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-002-circuits-and-electronics-spring-2
007/video-lectures/6002_l1.pdf) (PDF). MIT OpenCourseWare. Retrieved 4 December 2018.
8. Bagotskii, Vladimir Sergeevich (2006). Fundamentals of electrochemistry (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=09QI-assq1cC&pg=PA22). p. 22. ISBN 978-0-471-70058-6.
9. Robert N. Varney, Leon H. Fisher, "Electromotive force: Volta's forgotten concept" (https://aapt.scit
ation.org/doi/abs/10.1119/1.12115), American Journal of Physics, vol. 48, iss. 5, pp. 405–408,
May 1980.
10. C. J. Brockman, "The origin of voltaic electricity: The contact vs. chemical theory before the
concept of E. M. F. was developed" (https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed005p549?journalCod
e=jceda8), Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 549–555, May 1928

Footnotes
1. If there are time-varying electric fields or accelerating charges, then there will be time-varying
magnetic fields. This means in AC circuits, there are always some non-confined magnetic fields.
However, except at higher frequencies, these are neglected.

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2. This relies on the fact that each component has a finite volume. If a component had an infinite
extent, the region exterior to the components would not be simply connected, and thus integrals
through it would still depend on the path taken.

External links
Electrical voltage V, current I, resistivity R, impedance Z, wattage P (http://www.sengpielaudio.co
m/calculator-ohm.htm)

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