CHAPTER ONE

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

SIWES was established by ITF (Industrial Training Fund) in the year 1973 to solve
the problem created by lack of adequate skills for employment of university
graduates by Nigerian industries. Employers noticed that graduates from various
Nigerian institutions Universities, Monotechnic and Polytechnics alike were
lacking in training or in the practical aspect of their courses thereby making it hard
for them to perform their duties after being employed. This was a problem until
1973 when SIWES was created, the program was officially approved by the
Federal government in 1974.The SIWES scheme is designed to exposes students
and prepares them for the work situation they are likely to encounter after
graduation.

1.2 DEFINATION OF SIWES AND BRIEF HISTORY

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skills training
programme designed to expose and prepare students of universities and other
tertiary institutions for the Industrial Work situation they are likely to meet after
graduation. The scheme is aimed at bridging the existing gap between theory and
practice of Sciences, Agriculture, Medical Sciences (including Nursing),
Engineering and Technology, Management, and Information and Communication
Technology and other professional educational programmes in the Nigerian tertiary
institutions. It is also a planned and structured programme based on stated and
specific career objectives which are geared towards developing the occupational
competencies of participants (Mafe, 2009). Consequently, the SIWES programme
is part of the approved Minimum Academic Standard in the various degree
programmes for all Nigerian Universities.
The history of SIWES starts off with the recognition of the shortcomings and
weakness in the formation of SET (Science, Education and Technology) graduates,
particularly with respect to acquisition of relevant production skills (RPSs), the
Industrial Training Fund (which was itself established in 1971 by decree 47)
1
initiated the Students’ Industrial Work experience Scheme (SIWES) in 1973. The
scheme was designed to expose students to the industrial environment and enable
them develop occupational competencies so that they can readily contribute their
quota to national economic and technological development after graduation.
Consequently, SIWES is a planned and structured programme based on stated and
specific career objectives which are geared toward developing the occupational
competencies of participants. It is therefore, not in doubt that SIWES is a veritable
means or tool for National Economic Development.
The main thrust of ITF programmes and services is to stimulate human
performance, improve productivity, and induce value-added production in industry
and commerce. Through its SIWES and Vocational and Apprentice Training
Programmes, the Fund also builds capacity for graduates and youth self-
employment, in the context of Small-Scale Industrialization, in the economy. The
Industrial Training Fund is a grade ‘A’ parasternal operating under the aegis of the
Federal Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment. It has been operating for 42
years as a specialist agency that promotes and encourages the acquisition of
industrial and commercial skills required for national economic development.

1.2.1 BODIES INVOLVED IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SIWES.

The bodies involved in the management of SIWES are:

 Federal government

 Industrial Training Fund

While other supervising agencies include:

 National University Commission (NUC)

 National Board for Technical Education (NBTE)

 National Council for Colleges of Education (NCCE).

2
The functions of these agencies are as follows;

 To ensure adequate funding of the scheme.

 To establish and accredit SIWES in the approved institutions.

 To formulate policies and guidelines for the participating bodies to follow.

 To supervise the students participating and sign their required documents.

 To ensure payment of allowance for the students etc.

1.2.2 ROLES OF THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND (ITF).

This agency is dedicated to performing the following roles:

 Formulate policies and guidelines on SIWES for distribution to all the SIWES
participating bodies;
 Provide logistic material needed to administer the scheme;
 Organize orientation programmes for students prior to attachment;
 Provide information on companies for attachment and assist in industrial
placement of students;
 Supervise students on Industrial attachment;
 Accept and process Master and Placement lists from institutions and
supervising agencies;
 Vet and process students’ logbooks and ITF Form 8.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

The Industrial Training Fund’s policy Document No. 1 of 1973 which established
SIWES outlined the aims and objectives of the scheme. The aims and objectives of
the scheme are as follows:

 It provides an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire

industrial skills and experience during their course of study.

3
 It exposes Students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and
machinery that may not be available in their institutions.
 It makes the transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance
students’ contact for later job placements and a chance to evaluate companies
for which they might wish to work.
 It provides students with the opportunities to apply their educational knowledge
in real work and industrial situations, there by bridging the gap between theory
and practice.
 The programme teaches the students on how to interact effectively with other
workers and supervisors under various conditions in the organization.

1.4 ABOUT COMPANY

Lush wash is a rapidly growing cleaning agents manufacturing company and has
been active in the development, production, and marketing of specialty cleaning
agents for various applications in homes, offices, schools, and various
establishments.

We produce multipurpose liquid soap and also render services like house cleaning,
offices cleaning, after event cleaning and post-construction cleaning amongst
others.
Lush wash prides itself in its integrity and observance of high-quality standards
with a commitment to customer value. The company has served over 1500 clients
nationwide so far and still counting.

People want to wash plates and do the laundry, at the same time keep the house in
a perfect shape literally everyday and that's exactly the purpose for Lush wash. The
uniqueness is in the ability to solve cleaning problems.

Lush wash has antibacterial make up, effective for killing germs and also Glycerin
that's very good for the skin. Unlike other products, it is relatively affordable.

Lush wash started in 2019 and office is at Agu Awka, Awka.

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1.4.1 Aims and objectives of Lush Wash

 To achieve high levels of customer satisfaction

 To be the leading company in this business

 To sell quality products at a cheaper price

1.5Introduction to soap

It has been said that the use of soap is a gauge of the civilization of a nation, but
though this may perhaps be in a great measure correct at the present day, the use of
soap has not always been co-existent with civilization, for according to Pliny (Nat.
Hist., xxviii., 12, 51) soap was first introduced into Rome from Germany, having
been discovered by the Gauls, who used the product obtained by mixing goats'
tallow and beech ash for giving a bright hue to the hair. In West Central Africa,
moreover, the natives, especially the Fanti race, have been accustomed to wash
themselves with soap prepared by mixing crude palm oil and water with the ashes
of banana and plantain skins. The manufacture of soap seems to have flourished
during the eighth century in Italy and Spain, and was introduced into France some
five hundred years later, when factories were established at Marseilles for the
manufacture of olive-oil soap. Soap does not appear to have been made in England
until the fourteenth century, and the first record of soap manufacture in London is
in 1524. From this time till the beginning of the nineteenth century the
manufacture of soap developed very slowly, being essentially carried on by rule-
of-thumb methods, but the classic researches of Chevreul on the constitution of fats
at once placed the industry upon a scientific basis, and stimulated by Leblanc's
discovery of a process for the commercial manufacture of caustic soda from
common salt, the production of soap has advanced by leaps and bounds until it is
now one of the most important of British industries.

5
The word soap (Latin sapo, which is cognate with Latin sebum, tallow) appears to
have been originally applied to the product obtained by treating tallow with ashes.
In its strictly chemical sense it refers to combinations of fatty acids with metallic
bases, a definition which includes not only sodium stearate, oleate and palmitate,
which form the bulk of the soaps of commerce, but also the linoleates of lead,
manganese, etc., used as driers, and various pharmaceutical preparations, e.g.,
mercury oleate (Hydrargyrioleatum), zinc oleate and lead plaster, together with a
number of other metallic salts of fatty acids. Technically speaking, however, the
meaning of the term soap is considerably restricted, being generally limited to the
combinations of fatty acids and alkalis, obtained by treating various animal or
vegetable fatty matters, or the fatty acids derived there from, with soda or potash,
the former giving hard soaps, the latter soft soaps. The use of ammonia as an alkali
for soap-making purposes has often been attempted, but owing to the ease with
which the resultant soap is decomposed, it can scarcely be looked upon as a
product of much commercial value.

In a technical definition, soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap

molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain(composed of carbons and
hydrogens) with a carboxylic acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a
metal ion, usually a sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is
soluble in nonpolar substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end (the salt of
a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water.

In conclusion, the basic reaction in soap making is between a neutral fat and an
alkali is to produce a soap and glycerol, in which the glycerol can either be
removed or left.

6
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1Historical Perspectives of soap

It would appear that soap has been used for personal hygiene and for washing
clothes since the beginning of time. All major religions adhere to strict guidelines
and instructions for maintaining cleanliness in holy sites. Cleanliness is also found
in prayer, signifying purity of body and soul. The origins of the word “soap” and
the first chemical saponification are obscure. According to one Roman legend,
soap was discovered accidentally near Mount Sapo, an ancient location for animal
sacrifice not far from Rome. Animal fat mixed with wood ashes (the ancient source
of alkali) and rainwater created an excellent soap mixture. Roman housewives
noticed that the strange yellow mixture of the Tiber’s waters made their clothes
cleaner and brighter than ordinary water. Soap making became an art during the
time of the Phoenicians (600 BCE) and underwent significant advancement in the
Mediterranean countries, where local olive oil was boiled with the alkali ashes. In
the Middle Ages, Marseilles became the first soap making center in Europe,
followed by Genoa, and eventually Venice. In Germany, soap was manufactured
but not widely used as a cleansing agent. For several centuries, the industry was
limited to small-scale production using mainly plant ashes containing carbonate;
the ashes were dispersed in water, then mixed with fat and boiled until the water
evaporated. The reaction of fatty acid with alkali carbonate of the plant ashes
formed the final product The real breakthrough in industrial soap production was
made by a French chemist and physician, Nicolas Leblanc, who invented the
process (Leblanc process, 1780) of obtaining soda (Na2CO3) from common salt
This process increased the availability of alkali at reasonable cost, transforming
soap making from a cottage industry into a huge commercial one. Soap, which had
been a luxury item affordable only by royalty and the very rich, became a
household item for the personal hygiene of mainstream citizens as well.

7
Throughout the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, physicians
realized the value of soap as a medicinal agent.

Soap was also recommended for preventing skin infections and reducing the
incidence of sepsis originating from minor skin injuries.7–9. The use of soap
reached its zenith at the beginning of the 20th century, and the maxim “cleanliness
is next to godliness” held sway.

2.2Definition of soap

Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consists of a

long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic
acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or
potassium. The hydrocarbon end is non polar and is soluble in non polar
substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end (the salt of a carboxylic acid) is
soluble in water.

The structure of a soap molecule is represented below:

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-
CH2- C-O− Na+
||
O

The above structure is a soap known as sodium stearate (C17H35COONa)

Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and cleaning. Soaps are
water soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids, by treating them chemically
with a strong alkali.

2.3Types of soaps

There are many types of soaps depending upon the usage. There are HARD and
SOFT and everything in between soaps. Hardness of soap is often achieved

8
through the addition of many hardening agents; so many natural soaps tend to be
softer.

The different types of soap are as follows

 Laundry soaps: Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid
particles and organic compounds from clothes.

 Cleaning soaps: Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease and
soils.
.
 ·Personal soaps; this kind is made in many forms and special formulations for
specific personal hygiene needs. One type of the personal soap is the anti-
bacterial soap that is made to prevent bacteria and viruses from spreading.
There are also body and hair soaps that have a mix of ingredients that cleanse
both the skin and hair.

 Novelty soaps: Novelty soaps are specially manufactured for the kids and
include the soaps in the shape of various items, such as rubber duckey. There
are made not only to clean dirt and grime but also for amusement and
enjoyment as well.

 Perfumed soaps: Perfumed soaps are produced by adding a few additional

ingredients and perfumed.

 Guest soaps: Guest soaps are miniature soaps that are made and shaped into
attractive shapes and they are basically designed for the use by guests either in
main bathrooms or in separate guest bathroom. Popular and commonly used
shapes are flowers, sea shells and rounds.

 Beauty soaps; Beauty soaps are produced to feature attractive fragrances, and
ingredients for a variety of skin types. They can feature glycerine or special oil
blends

9
 Medicated soaps: Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike
original soap, medicated soaps have the addition of antiseptics and
disinfectants.

 Glycerine: Glycerine is a normally produced process of soap production. Soaps

which have glycerine in them tends to make ones skin feel moister.

 Liquid soaps: At lush wash the student was actively involved in the production
of this kind of soap and it will be thoroughly explained in the next chapter of
this work.

10
 CHAPTER 3

PROJECTS CARRIED OUT

3.1Brief background of liquid soap

Liquid soap is a nice alternative to bar and block soap. The trusty hand soap that
we squirt into our hands in public bathrooms or set out when company is coming is
very handy. However, things were always not so simple. Grabbing the bottle or
squirting the liquid into the sink is something that we do not think twice about.

Liquid soap is one of those things that we tend to take for granted. Although soap
has a very lengthy history, liquid soap did not come on to the soap scene until the
1800’s. In 1865 William Shepphard patented liquid soap. In 1898 B.J. Johnson
Soap Company introduced Palmolive. This new soap was made of palm and olive
oils and it grew popular in a short amount of time. B.J Johnson Company would
make a stunning profit off of Palmolive that they changed their name to Palmolive.

As the 1900’s began other companies began to develop their own liquid soap.
Products like Pin Sol and Tide appeared on the market, making cleaning clothing,
counters and bathrooms better. Liquid soap helped to transform the way that the
world cleaned.

Liquid soap for all purposes can be useful. As a detergent, liquid soap tends to
work much better than flake soap. There is less of a chance of residue being left on
clothing with liquid soap. Liquid soap also works better for those that have to wash
in a more

It is important to note that liquid soap is becoming a very popular product in the
country today. Many use it for domestic purposes at home to wash clothes and
kitchen utensil; restaurants and eateries are not left out too. One interesting thing
that makes the demand for liquid soap to be very high is the fact that it is easier

11
and cheaper to use than every other washing substance. Little wonder a lot of
people are now venturing into the business.

3.2 Raw materials required for the production of liquid soap

Raw materials needed for liquid soap production will affect its stability,
application characteristics, and most importantly its performance on the anything it
gets in contact with. Raw materials are listed below.

 Nitrosol
 Caustic soda
 Water
 Soda ash
 Sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS)
 Sulphonic Acid
 STTP
 Texapon
 Foam booster
 Formalin
 Color
 Glycerine
 Perfume
 Vitamin E

12
 liquid soap

3.3 Functions of raw materials used for liquid soap production

 Water: is the main solvent needed for the process to dissolve the various
ingredients and also during fermentation phase. It is very essential in the
production of liquid soap.

 Nitrosol: This serves as a thickener in the production of the liquid soap. It

comes as a whitish substance and has the texture of powdered milk. Nitrosol
will dissolve immediately in water, but Antisol takes longer time to dissolve in
water.

13
 Caustic Soda: It is whitish crystalline substance that looks much like a sample
of granulated sugar. It forms a strong base when dissolved in water and can be
corrosive if in contact with the skin. It is an essential ingredient in the soap
making process. This is the stain or dirt removing agent in the liquid soap.

 Soda ash (sodium carbonate): This is also a whitish substance but with much
coarse grains, it serves to regulate the concentration of the Caustic Soda which
ordinarily is corrosive to the skin. It helps to neutralize it.

 Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (SLS): The SLS looks like rice grains and its whitish
in colour too. It is a surfactant which helps to lower the surface tension of the
aqueous solution. It is the main active foaming agent.

14
 Texapon: The Texapon is a pasty and jellylike substance; it also functions as a
foaming agent and serves as foaming booster too. Many liquid soap producers
don’t use Texapon and SLS together in same production; reason because both
perform almost same function. They go with just one.

 Sulphonic Acid: This is a dark looking liquid substance. It serves to boost the
performance of the soap; it is also a foaming and cleaning agent.

15
 Sodium tripolyphosphate: STPP is a sodium salt of triphosphoric acid. It has
the appearance of white crystal powder and looks very much like a table salt. It
is a strong cleaning agent too and helps the SLS to work on its full potential.

 Forming booster: This also comes in liquid form and has transparent looks. As
the name implies, it makes the liquid soap to foam very well.

 Formalin: The preservative agent. It should be used if the soap is to be stored

for a long time like six months.

 Color: This normally comes as a powder and should be diluted with water
before adding to the soap mixture. The color adds beauty to the finished
product.

16
 Glycerine: usually helps the skin to remain hydrated and soft after using the
soap.

 Perfume: this gives the soap a sweet fragrance.

 Vitamin E: offers a great deal of protection to the skin. E.g from damage,
wrinkles etc

3.4 Equipment used in the production of liquid soap

At Lush wash production process is done manually. Listed below is the equipment
used in the production of liquid soap:

 A big mixing bowl

 Containers

 Wooden spoon for stiring.

 A pair of scissors

 Spoon

 Measurement bowl or container

 Hand glove

 Nose mask

 Rubber gloves

3.5 Procedure involved in the production of liquid soap

One really needs a great deal of patience during stirring to make sure any chemical
added in any stage dissolves properly before adding the next one.

Measure out water; then follow the under listed steps:

 Ferment the Caustic Soda before production process by dissolving with water
and allowing for 24 hours or overnight.
17
 Dissolve the Soda Ash as above (with water and keep overnight for
fermentation to take place)

 Dissolve the Nitrosol with water in a bigger mixing bowl just before production
and let it stay for at least 24-48 hours before production. Note: this should be
properly dissolved and will look like ‘starchy solution’ at the end.

 Dissolve the SLS (Sodium Lauryl Sulphate) in water to produce a clear solution
before production; keep it aside. This should be done at least one hour before
production. If you want it to dissolve well, dissolve in water and leave over
night.

 Dissolve the STPP (Sodium Tripolyphosphate) water before production and

keep aside too.

 Mix the Texapon and Sulphonic Acid together. Mix very well and dissolve
further with water. Stirring should be done gently until mixture is well
dissolved and homogenous. Note that this particular step is exothermic process;
meaning that heat will be generated if done properly.

 Dissolve the powdered colour with small quantity of water and keep aside.

 Gently pour the dissolved mixture of Sulponic Acid and Texapon into the
mixing bowl containing dissolved Nitrosol(or Antisol}. Stir very well and
gently until mixture becomes homogenous.

 Add the dissolved Caustic Soda into the mixing bowl above and stir very well.

 Add the dissolved Soda Ash next and stir very well until even.

 Next, add the STPP and stir properly

 Add the Dissolved SLS and stir more.

 Add Foam Booster to make it foam very well.

18
 Add Formalin and keep stirring

 Vitamin E and Glycerine can be added at this point.

 The lather formed is allowed to disappear, then the dissolved color and
perfume, is added and stirred properly.

 More water is added, taking note of the thickness and stirred properly.

It is important to say, the manner one mixes the SLS, Texapon. STPP, Sulphonic
and Foaming Booster don’t really matter. The important thing is that the Caustic
Soda goes into the mixing bowl containing the Nitrosol/Antisol first, and then
followed by Soda Ash. Then these (SLS/Texapon. STPP, Sulphonic and Foaming
Booster), Vitamin E and Glycerine, and Finally Color and Perfume.

3.6 Formulation for production of fifty liters of liquid soap

Ingredients materials Volume Mass (Kg)

Water
Nitrosole 1
SLS 2
Soda Ash 1
Texapon 1
formalin 500ml
Sulphonic acid 5liters
color
perfume

19
3.7Qualities expected from a good liquid soap

 The soap is expected to foam very well.

 It must have a sweet fragrance.

 The colour must be appealing.

 Must be durable.

 Must not cause any form of irritation to the skin.

3.8Precautions and safety during production

 Wear rubber gloves

 Use nose mask

 Production is carried out in a well-ventilated environment with good

illumination.

 In case of chemical splash to the face or delicate part of the body, wash very
well with plenty water and see a physician as soon as you can.

 Never taste any chemical with the tongue.

 Wear apron or other protective clothing before you commence production.

 . Don’t play with chemicals

3.9 Problems encountered, possible cause of problem and solution to problem

during production

Problems encountered Possible cause of problem Solution to problem

seedling The mixture wasn’t stirred Little volume of water is
properly added into the mixture and
it is stirred properly.
Loss of fragrance Leaving the mixture exposed Add fragrance and stir, do
to the atmosphere for a long not leave the mixture
20
 period of time exposed to the atmosphere
Inability to thicken Excessive water Add more thickener
Inability to foam Low quantity of sulphonic Forming booster is added
acid

21
 CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Liquid soap is a fluid mixture of component materials such as water, pigments,

foaming booster, thickeners and preservatives which forms a cleaning agent, after
sometime on application on materials. Liquid soap production is a semi-batch and
physical process which involves the mixing or well agitation of the component
materials in order to obtain a well dispersed uniform fluid mixture. The application
of liquid soap includes washing of clothes, bathing and some other functions.

4.1.1: Conclusion
The Students Industrial Experience Scheme has truly been a haunting one and of
great benefit to me in no finite measure. The major benefits enjoyed by students
who participate meticulously and diligently in their industrial training are the
immeasurable skills and competence they acquire. This is because the knowledge
and skills acquired through training are internalized and become relevant when
required to perform future jobs or functions in their various industries.

4.1.2: Recommendation
As earlier stated, SIWES is a generic program with its impact and effectiveness
cutting across all SIWES-approved disciplines including Chemical Engineering.
However, two points need to be made with respect to SIWES in Chemical
Engineering.

Firstly, Chemical Engineering has the peculiar problem of scarcity of quality

places of industrial attachment. Although nearly all materials in modern
civilization passes through one form of chemical processing or the other and,
therefore, placement should normally not be a problem for chemical engineering
students, the reality is that finding quality places of attachment for this category of
students is becoming very discouraging. This is, to a large extent, attributable to
the decline in industrial activity in the economy and the large numbers of chemical
22
engineering students in tertiary institutions competing for the limited available
places. With improvements in the level of industrial activity in the economy the
problems of finding quality places of attachment for students of chemical
engineering and/or petroleum and gas engineering might disintegrate.
The second point that needs to be made is that SIWES is not and cannot be a
substitute for structured professional training in Chemical Engineering as well as in
other engineering fields. At best, SIWES is a pre-qualification introduction into the
chemical engineering profession that enables the student to appreciate how the
profession is practiced in real life.

Apart from passing appropriate examinations in the principles that under chemical
engineering, the professional chemical engineer must also have received practical
training in the skills and duties of an engineer and must also have obtained
sufficient experience in carrying out the duties of a professional post (The
Institution of Chemical Engineers, 1974). For the professional development of
chemical engineering graduates from Nigerian tertiary institutions, a system of
practical training and garnering of experience similar to that outlined by the
Institution of Chemical Engineers, United Kingdom needs to be adopted. Such
training and experience should cover Process Plant Fabrication and Materials of
Construction, Process and Plant Development, Process and Plant Design, Process
Plant Operation, Quality Assessment of Process Materials, and General
Company/Management Training.

23
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2.0Housecroft, C.E. Constable EC (2006). Chemistry: An introduction to organic,

inorganic and physical chemistry. 3rd Edition. Pearson Education Limited,
England. pp. 684, 704.

3.0Eke, U.B., Dosumu, O.O, Oladipo, E, and Agunbiade, F.O. (2004), Analysis of
locally produced soap using shear butter oil (SBO) blended with P.K.O.
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4.0Jones L, Atkins P (2002). Biochemistry: molecules, matter, and change.4th

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6.0Encyclopedia of science and technology (2007). vol. 16. 10 th Edition. McGraw-

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7.0Dunn, Kevin M. (2010). Scientific Soapmaking: The Chemistry of Cold

Process. Clavicula press

8.0Garzena, Patrizia, and Marina Tadiello (2004). Soap Naturally: Ingredients,

methods and recipes for natural handmade soap. John Wiley & sons, Inc.

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