Dosis Anastesi Pada Ikan

Fish Sedation, Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Euthanasia:
Considerations, Methods, and Types of Drugs
Donald L. Neiffer and M. Andrew Stamper
Abstract Introduction
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

W
Fish display robust neuroendocrine and physiologic stress hether or not fish feel pain is an ongoing debate.
responses to noxious stimuli. Many anesthetic, sedative, or Although both sides of the argument set the same
analgesic drugs used in other vertebrates reduce stress in requirements for pain perception, opinions differ
fish, decrease handling trauma, minimize movement and on where the criteria appear phylogenetically and whether or
physiologic changes in response to nociceptive stimuli, and not parallel systems have evolved in different classes and spe-
can be used for euthanasia. But extrapolating from limited cies (Chandroo et al. 2004; Huntingford et al. 2006; Rose 2002;
published anesthetic and sedative data to all fish species Sneddon 2003; Sneddon et al. 2003; Volpato 2009). Each pub-
is potentially harmful because of marked anatomic, physio- lication builds on or refutes earlier works, and a chronological
logic, and behavioral variations; instead, a stepwise ap- evaluation of the literature is recommended (Neiffer 2007).
proach to anesthetizing or sedating unfamiliar species Many anesthetic or analgesic drugs used in other verte-
or using unproven drugs for familiar species is advisable. brates have been used in fish. In this review we focus on the
Additionally, knowledge of how water quality influences an- practical considerations for these uses.
esthesia or sedation helps limit complications. The most
common method of drug administration is through immer-
sion, a technique analogous to gaseous inhalant anesthesia Chemical Restraint in Fish
in terrestrial animals, but the use of injectable anesthetic and
sedative agents (primarily intramuscularly, but also intrave- Indications for the Use of Chemical
nously) is increasing. Regardless of the route of administra-
Restraint in Fish
tion, routine preprocedural preparation is appropriate, to
The use of chemical restraint increases safety for both the
stage both the animals and the supplies for induction, main-
fish and the handler during minor procedures and allows
tenance, and recovery. Anesthetic and sedation monitoring
them to be performed out of the water with decreased stress
and resuscitation are similar to those for other vertebrates.
for the fish (Harms and Bakal 1995); during major or surgi-
Euthanasia is most commonly performed using an overdose
cal procedures it minimizes movement and physiologic
of an immersion drug but injectable agents are also effec-
changes in response to nociception (Harms and Bakal 1995;
tive. Analgesia is an area in need of significant research as
Myszkowski et al. 2003; Ross 2001). Chemical restraint also
only a few studies exist and they provide some contrast-
reduces excitement and hyperactivity-related trauma that
ing results. However, fish have µ and κ opiate receptors
can occur during routine handling and thus directly reduces
throughout the brain, making it reasonable to expect some
mortality and morbidity (Cooke et al. 2004; Harms 1999;
effect of at least opioid treatments in fish experiencing nox-
Kumlu and Yanar 1999; Myszkowski et al. 2003; Ross 2001).
ious stimuli.
The decrease in movement minimizes integument damage,
associated osmoregulatory disturbances, and increased sus-
Key Words: analgesia; anesthesia; chemical restraint; drugs;
ceptibility to pathogens (Kumlu and Yanar 1999; Ross 2001),
elasmobranch; euthanasia; fish; sedation; teleost and it reduces metabolism, resulting in decreased oxygen
demand and the production of less waste (i.e., CO2 and am-
monia) (Cooke et al. 2004; Crosby et al. 2006; Guo et al.
1995; Hoskonen and Pirhonen 2004; Ross and Ross 1984).
Donald L. Neiffer, VMD, DACZM, is Veterinary Operations Manager for

the Department of Animal Health, and M. Andrew Stamper, DVM, DACZM, Chemical Restraint, Stress, and
is a research biologist and clinical veterinarian for The Seas, both for Immunosuppression
Disney’s Animal Programs in Lake Buena Vista, Florida.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Donald L. Neiffer,
Veterinary Operations Manager, Disney’s Animal Programs, Department of Physical restraint of fish activates the hypothalamo-pituitary-
Animal Health, 1200 North Savannah Circle East, Lake Buena Vista, FL interrenal (HPI) axis, resulting in a cortisol release that
32830 or email [email protected]. causes secondary stress responses (Bressler and Ron 2004;
Volume 50, Number 4 2009 343

Myszkowski et al. 2003; Ross and Ross 1984; Small 2003, these and, to a lesser extent, elasmobranchs (sharks, rays,
2005). Chemical restraint minimizes handling stress, but it is and skates) and other fish. But given the anatomic, physi-
stressful (Bressler and Ron 2004) and is a strong potentiator of ologic, and behavioral variation among fish, extrapolation
catecholamine release (Rothwell et al. 2005). Although unbuf- of the limited published data to all species is potentially
fered immersion drugs induce a stress response (Ross and Ross harmful. Development of anesthetic regimens for unfamil-
1984), anesthesia-associated catecholamine release is likely iar species-drug combinations will benefit from an under-
due to hypoxemia rather than direct drug effects or acidemia standing both of fish natural history and of the taxonomic
(Ross and Ross 1984; Rothwell et al. 2005). Hypoxemia in fish relationship between the species of concern and more
is usually due to drug-induced hypoventilation (decreased buc- studied species.
cal movement). In anesthetized air-breathing fish, it can be ex-
acerbated by preventing access to the water’s surface (Rantin
Respiration

et al. 1993, 1998). Hypoventilation, and the resulting decreased
water flow in the buccal cavity, usually leads to reflex brady-
Species-Related Respiratory Methods
cardia and dorsal aortic hypotension, producing a progressive
hypoxemia (Ross 2001). Notwithstanding these negative ef-
All fish have gills, although reliance on these structures for
fects, chemical sedation or anesthesia produces a lower stress
respiration varies by species. Most force water over the gills
response than drug-free handling and transport, based on a
through rhythmic movements of the lower jaw and opercula,
comparison of circulating cortisol levels as well as secondary
but some use ram ventilation with minimal opercular move-
indicators such as blood glucose, hematocrit (HCT), hemoglo-
bin (Hgb), lactate, and osmolarity (Bressler and Ron 2004; ment. Among this latter group, some (e.g., tuna) are obligate
Crosby et al. 2006; Hseu et al. 1996; Small 2005). ram ventilators—species that meet their respiratory demand
Some researchers have argued that the stress-induced cor- by ensuring an adequate flow of water across the gills through
ticosteroid response is not harmful and is in fact essential for constant forward motion with minimal or no opercular move-
recovery from severe acute or prolonged stressors, and that a ment. For these species, failure to perfuse the gills during
transient, relatively small elevation of cortisol does not neces- anesthesia causes suffocation (Brill and Bushnell 2001;
sarily reduce immunocompetency but may instead bolster it Bushnell and Jones 1994).2
(Bressler and Ron 2004; Davis and Griffin 2004; Small 2003; In response to hypoxic environments or other selective
Thomas and Robertson 1991). Based on this argument, drugs pressures, many species have evolved anatomical, physiologic,
that suppress the HPI (e.g., metomidate, the only commonly and behavioral adaptations for breathing (Graham 1997). Such
adaptations include modifications of gill design for improved
used drug that consistently and significantly blocks HPI acti-
oxygen extraction as well as the evolution of accessory respi-
vation in a broad range of species) are contraindicated in fish
ratory organs, which for some species enable the use of atmos-
(Davis and Griffin 2004; Iversen et al. 2003; Olsen et al.
pheric air. In many species, increased aerial gas exchange
1995; Small 2003; Thomas and Robertson 1991). However,
surface exists in portions of the anterior alimentary canal (i.e.,
the contrary argument is that typical husbandry and handling
the buccal and pharyngeal cavities) either as a direct prolifera-
procedures do not result in high stress levels associated with
tion of the respiratory surface in the lumen or as a single pouch
chronic immunosuppression (Bressler and Ron 2004; Davis
or pair of pouches extending from it (Ishimatsu and Itazawa
and Griffin 2004; Small 2003; Thomas and Robertson 1991).
1993). Alternatively, branchial diverticulae exist, as in ana-
For anesthetics that do not block the HPI, the intensity and
bantoids (e.g., gouramis, bettas) (Graham 1997).
duration of the stress response depend on either the duration
Many species take in atmospheric air through aquatic
of exposure or the drug, dosage, and species (Bressler and
surface respiration (ASR), positioning their mouths to skim
Ron 2004; Gomes et al. 2001; Thomas and Robertson 1991).
the air/water interface, which is richer in oxygen. Some spe-
In addition to affecting the stress response in some fish
cies (e.g., pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus) respond to hyp-
species, certain anesthetic/sedative drugs result in immuno-
oxic conditions by developing temporary dermal swellings
suppression, either through direct interaction with immune com-
of the lower jaw to facilitate ASR (Rantin et al. 1993, 1998).
ponents or indirectly through the nervous system (Bressler
Others (e.g., snakeheads, anabantoids) employ alternate fill-
and Ron 2004). For example, benzocaine significantly de-
ing of an air-breathing chamber (labyrinth organ in anaban-
presses both humoral and cellular immune responses in gilthead
toids) with air and water during aerial ventilation (Ishimatsu
seabream (Bressler and Ron 2004). Metomidate, through its
and Itazawa 1993).
associated blockade of the HPI, is thought to prevent immu-
nosuppression (Davis and Griffin 2004).
1 For comparison, there are some 10,000 bird species and only about 50 rat
Considerations of Fish Taxonomy, and fewer than 40 mouse species.
2 In addition, some ram ventilating species rely on constant forward speed
Anatomy, and Physiology to produce lift from their pectoral fins for hydrostatic equilibrium (Brill and
Bushnell 2001). During recovery it is necessary to manually move these
Of the nearly 30,000 species of fish,1 teleosts constitute animals through water in a forward motion or hold them in sufficient flow
approximately 96%, so most anesthesia studies involve until adequate voluntary forward motion returns.
344 ILAR Journal

Lungfish and polypterids (birchirs) possess true lungs (DO3) in water, induction rates are shorter compared to
(not gas or “swim” bladders), with pneumatic duct openings those of air-breathing species (Hseu et al. 1997). Respond-
in the alimentary canal (Graham 1997). Of these, the African ing to confinement or hypoxic anesthetic baths, the latter
(Propterus sp.) and South American (Lepidosiren sp.) lung- pull air from the water surface and reduce or temporarily
fish are obligate air breathers (Bassi et al. 2005; Graham stop opercular movement, and the decreased branchial con-
1997). tact with the water results in a slower rate of anesthetic
uptake (Hseu et al. 1997). For this reason injectable anes-
Responses to Hypoxia thetics are useful in species capable of aerial respiration
(Bruecker and Graham 1993). Second, although many fish
At the onset of a hypoxic event or upon entering a hypoxic that use an accessory respiratory organ retain gills for
environment, the fish’s physiological goal is to continue to aquatic gas exchange, effective gill tissue is so minimal in

provide energy and oxygen to the brain. Freshwater cyprinids some species (e.g., channids, lepidosirenid lungfish, and
(carps, goldfish) respond by increasing blood glucose; this clariids or walking catfish) that they will “drown” if denied
supports the production of glycolytic adenosine triphos- access to atmospheric air (Ishimatsu and Itazawa 1993; Peters
phate (ATP), which in turn increases cerebral blood flow et al. 2001). Thus, regardless of anesthetic route, these spe-
through its vasodilation effects. An increase in hematocrit cies must remain in very shallow water, or on a moist sub-
(which increases the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity; strate, until sufficiently recovered to reach the water/air
Routley et al. 2002; Söderström et al. 1999) and the inhibi- interface under their own power.
tory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA,
which contributes to neuroprotection; Mulvey and Renshaw
2009) also occurs. In contrast, the epaulette shark (Hemis- Integument
cyllium ocellatum) shows no increase in glucose, hemat-
ocrit, or GABA levels (Mulvey and Renshaw 2009; Routley Although most fish have scales, there is marked variation in
et al. 2002; Söderström et al. 1999); instead, vasodilation their distribution and structure, and this variety has implica-
occurs, as indicated by a drop in both blood pressure (up to tions for the hand injection of drugs, especially for species
50%, but it is not adenosine mediated) and heart rate. The with large or hard scales or protective denticles.
result is the maintenance of cerebral blood flow, but it is For many fish the skin is a respiratory organ, responsible
not increased as is the case with teleosts (Söderström et al. for up to 30% of oxygen uptake in some species (Bruecker
1999). Although blood glucose remains low in the dogfish and Graham 1993); most marine species in particular have
(Scyliorhinus canicula) during hypoxia in the laboratory well-vascularized skin capable of significant gas exchange
(Butler et al. 1979) it is not clear whether the response of (Ishimatsu and Itazawa 1993). Younger fish, regardless of
dogfish or other elasmobranchs to hypoxia is otherwise species, tend to have thinner and less scaled skin, which per-
similar to that of the epaulette shark. mits greater oxygen uptake (Myskowski et al. 2003). And
Few marine species have evolved adaptations for hy- fish species that start out as larvae lacking gills require skin
poxic environments other than surface piping or migrating respiration until differentiation of gill lamellae is complete
from the area. These species may therefore be less tolerant (Oikawa et al. 1994).
of hypoxic conditions during anesthesia than the freshwater Skin is also a route for immersion drug uptake (and pre-
species discussed above (Rothwell et al. 2005). Notable ex- sumably drug excretion) and in some species may actually
ceptions do exist, however, particularly among species that be more efficient than other respiratory organs—in the elec-
inhabit tidal zones. Among teleosts, the tarpon (Megalops tric eel (Electrophorus electricus), for example, quinaldine
atlanticus) is able to cruise in low-oxygen waters by gulping uptake across the skin was higher than through the gills
surface air, while the oyster toadfish (Opsanus tau) can toler- (Brown et al. 1972).
ate 20 hours of anoxia at 22°C in the laboratory (Ultsch et al.
1981). Where elasmobranchs are concerned, studies have
shown that the torpedo ray (Torpedo marmorata; Hughes Metabolism
1978), Pacific spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias; Sandblom
et al. 2009), and epaulette shark (Mulvey and Renshaw 2009; Most fish are ectothermic, and lower temperatures are usu-
Routley et al. 2002; Söderström et al. 1999) all tolerate hy- ally associated with prolonged induction and recovery times,
poxic conditions in the laboratory. The epaulette shark re- with the converse true at higher temperatures (Detar and
sponds to hypoxia (e.g., on shallow reef platforms during Mattingly 2004; Gelwicks and Zafft 1998; Gomes et al.
low tide) by entering a phase of metabolic and ventilatory 2001; Peters et al. 2001; Stehly and Gingerich 1999). During
depression (Mulvey and Renshaw 2009; Routley et al. 2002; immersion anesthesia this relationship is primarily related to
Söderström et al. 1999). an altered respiratory rate. And because the blood acid-base
Understanding the range of respiration in fish species
is important for two reasons. First, immersion drug up-
take and induction rate are linked to oxygen demand. For 3Abbreviationsused in this article: DO, dissolved oxygen; MS-222, tricaine
fish that depend primarily or entirely on dissolved oxygen methanesulfonate

status of fish is temperature dependent, increased tempera- size and activity of the fish, and number of fish being anes-
ture leads to acidemia and hypercapnia that stimulate hyper- thetized in the same container. Erring on the side of cau-
ventilation, which in turn decreases induction and recovery tion, it is advisable to at least check the pH of the anesthetic
times for drugs taken up or eliminated through the gills container after the addition of the drug to determine whether
(Aguiar et al. 2002; Stehly and Gingerich 1999). buffers are indicated.
Some fish (e.g., tuna and other members of the Scombri-
dae family; mako shark, Isurus oxyrinchus; porbeagle shark,
Nitrogenous Compounds
Lamna nasus) have evolved various degrees of endothermy
and have the capacity to conserve metabolic heat and elevate Nitrogenous compounds (e.g., ammonia and nitrite) can
tissue temperature above the ambient temperature (Blank damage or alter gill morphology and these changes can have
et al. 2004; Brill and Bushnell 2001; Bushnell and Jones several impacts. They may affect uptake and clearance of

1994; Cooper et al. 1994; Muñoz-Chápuli and Satchell inhalant anesthetics. They may compromise oxygen uptake
1999). In general, endothermic species exhibit an increased and thus affect metabolism of the anesthetic agents and lead
rate of anesthetic uptake and metabolism compared to simi- to acidemia. Last, marked elevation of nitrite may result in
larly sized ectothermic species. methemoglobinemia, which reduces the oxygen-carrying
Most fish have an anatomic separation between aerobic, capacity of blood.
slow-oxidative muscles and anaerobic, fast-twitch, glyco-
lytic muscles. In many species regional heterothermy exists,
with a distinct pattern of highly oxygenated slow-oxidative Drug Concentration/Dosage
muscle running along the midline of the body (Bernal and
Graham 2001; Totland et al. 1981; Williams et al. 2004). Regardless of water temperature, a higher drug concentra-
Given the increased capillarization, injection of anesthetic tion (for immersion agents) or dosage usually (but not al-
agents into this region may result in more rapid induction ways) decreases induction and increases recovery times
times compared to injections administered elsewhere. (Hseu et al. 1997, 1998). Furthermore, dosing requires care-
Many drugs undergo hepatic biotransformation. Com- ful attention as some immersion drugs (e.g., MS-222; more
pared to other fish, elasmobranchs have proportionally large on this drug below) continue to increase in the brain and
fatty livers (up to 23% body weight with as much as 80% muscle despite blood equilibration (Ross 2001). Thus an ini-
lipid content) (Holmgren and Nilsson 1999); the increased tially satisfactory drug dosage can produce progressively
hepatic cellular exposure and high lipid content may result deeper anesthesia and even respiratory arrest, even when the
in marked differences in drug pharmacodynamics between fish is recovering in anesthetic-free water (Ross 2001).
elasmobranchs and other fish.
Drug Administration Methods
Environmental and Other Factors
General Suggestions
Temperature
Before anesthetizing an unfamiliar species, we recommend
In addition to its effects on metabolism, temperature influ- performing a literature review using terms such as “physiol-
ences DO concentrations. At higher temperatures, DO in the ogy,” “anatomy,” “site fidelity,” “fecundity,” along with the
water decreases (Harms 2003), an effect that can exacerbate scientific name of the species to identify studies that required
anesthetic-induced hypoxia. chemical restraint. The use in adult fish of dosages and regi-
mens from the literature requires careful consideration as
many studies use young or small fish. The anesthetic regi-
pH men for an unfamiliar species should be tested through re-
covery using one or a small group of fish before applying it
The pH of immersion anesthetic solutions influences their to a larger number of fish (Harms and Bakal 1995; Ross
efficacy; specifically, a drop in the pH generally decreases 2001; Stetter 2001).
efficacy because the increased ionization interferes with
absorption (Ross and Ross 1984). Immersion anesthetics
that are acidic in solution require buffering agents to neu- Preanesthetic Preparation
tralize the pH and thus both promote efficacy (Ferreira et al.
1984) and prevent metabolic acidemia, a condition precipi- 1. When possible, baseline behavioral parameters (i.e.,
tated by anesthetic-induced hypoxemia and anaerobic ventilation, caudal fin stroke rate, and overall activity
metabolism. Saltwater, with its higher pH and greater natu- level) should be recorded.
ral buffering capacity compared to freshwater, may not re- 2. Withholding the animals’ food for 12 to 24 hours limits
quire the addition of buffering agents (Harms and Bakal regurgitation (which clogs gill rakers) and decreases
1995; Harms 1999; Oikawa et al. 1994; Ross 2001; Ross nitrogenous waste production (Harms and Bakal 1995;
and Ross 1984) depending on the dose of immersion agent, Stetter 2001).
346 ILAR Journal

3. Containers with adequate water for transportation, in- The use of an artificial ventilation system is necessary
duction, maintenance, recovery, and possible required for procedures that last more than 10 minutes, those that in-
water changes should be readily available (Harms 1999; volve debilitated fish or slow-recovering species, and all but
Stetter 2001). the shortest out-of-water procedures. All of these conditions
4. The physical (e.g., temperature) and chemical (e.g., pH, require holding the fish in shallow water or placing it on a
salinity) variables of water used should match those of fenestrated surface (in lateral recumbency or upright/upside
the fish’s source water. Dissolved oxygen should be down in a foam holder), with a bifurcated pipe or mouth-
maintained at >5 ppm (mg/l); the ideal is 6-10 ppm piece placed in the buccal cavity to deliver aerated anesthetic
(Harms 1999; Stetter 2001). solution across the gills (Figure 1).
5. Out-of-water procedures must include a plan for prevent- Nonrecirculating or recirculating systems are available.
ing drying of the skin, fins, and eyes. Arrangements may A nonrecirculating system, in its simplest form, uses an IV

include coverage with clear plastic drapes and regular fluid bag with a drip set value (Figure 2). Aeration of the
rinsing of tissues with water from a bulb syringe or a anesthetic water with an air stone in the nonsealed IV bag
small portable atomizer (Harms 1999; Ross 2001). ensures near-saturation of oxygen and removal of dissolved
6. Personal protective gear must be available. Use of a CO2. Used water is collected but not recycled (Harms 1999;
respiratory mask may be appropriate when measuring Ross 2001; Stetter 2001). This system is suitable for small to
powdered anesthetics, and the use of gloves limits sys- medium-sized fish depending on the reservoir volume, drip
temic absorption and reduces the potential for zoonotic set tube diameter, and rate of fluid delivery.
disease transmission. Recirculating systems enable both the delivery of anes-
thetic water from a reservoir to the gills and the recycling of
the effluent (Figure 3), either manually or with a submersible
Immersion Anesthesia pump. A valve on the tube leading to the mouth controls the
flow rate. Minimum effective flow rate during fish anesthesia
Immersion anesthesia in fish is analogous to gaseous inhal- has not been determined; 1 to 3 liters/min/kg is recommended.
ant anesthesia in terrestrial animals (and is referred to as in- Low delivery rates fail to keep the gills wet and reduce gas
halant anesthesia in some of the literature). The fish ventilates exchange; high flow rates result in alimentary anesthetic de-
the anesthetic in solution, which enters the bloodstream livery and gastric dilation. An air stone provides oxygenation.
through the gills and/or accessory respiratory organs and/or Recirculating systems are appropriate for large fish, where
the skin and then passes rapidly to the central nervous sys- cost and wastewater concerns require conservation of anes-
tem (CNS). Both gill tissue and skin contain large amounts thetics and water (Harms 1999; Ross 2001; Stetter 2001).
of lipid, so the efficiency of uptake of immersion agents During immersion anesthesia, adjustment of the drug
across these surfaces is directly related to the drug’s lipid concentration in response to anesthetic depth is difficult. One
solubility (that of MS-222, for example, is relatively high). option is to prepare measured volumes of anesthetic-free wa-
Skin thickness and scalation also affect uptake, with thinner ter and concentrations of anesthetic solution in separate bags
skin and loosely scaled or scaleless surfaces favoring drug or reservoirs for use in either recirculating or nonrecirculat-
uptake compared to thicker skin or densely packed scaled ing systems. Alternatively, a bulb or other syringe enables
surfaces (Ferreira et al. 1984). rapid delivery of small amounts of anesthetic fluid directly to
When the fish is placed in drug-free water, it excretes the gills without disconnecting the fish from the system
drugs or their metabolites via the gills and presumably ac-
cessory respiratory organs; some elimination also occurs
through the kidneys and skin (Ross 2001; Walsh and Pease
2002). It is important to note that excreted water-soluble
drugs or metabolites may be reabsorbed through the body
surface and gills while being simultaneously metabolized
and eliminated (Oikawa et al. 1994).
Immersion drugs must be water soluble or use a water-
soluble solvent as a vehicle. It is preferable to use water from
the fish’s tank to make the anesthetic solution. For simple,
short procedures the drug concentration is either prepared in
an aerated container to which the fish are transferred or
added directly to the water containing the fish. The latter ap-
proach requires the addition of a buffer before drug adminis-
tration to minimize acute drops in pH (Harms 1999; Ross
2001). Ideally, spontaneous ventilation is maintained during Figure 1 Goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara) positioned on bub-
short procedures. When immersion is impractical or danger- ble wrap in a foam holder during tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222)
ous to handlers (e.g., for large fish), drugs in solution may be anesthesia. The bifurcated mouthpiece placed in the buccal cavity de-
applied directly to the gills. livers oxygenated anesthetic water to both sets of gill arches.

Figure 3 A grunt (Haemulon sp.) anesthetized with tricaine meth-
anesulfonate (MS-222). A simple recirculating system maintains
anesthesia by delivering anesthetic water from a reservoir to the
gills and recycles the effluent back to the fish through the use of a
submersible pump.
minimized by inserting the needle at an acute angle directed

anteriorly) and inconsistent induction times, because the
drugs must pass through the serosal surface.
The most common parenteral route is IM injection by
Figure 2 A simple nonrecirculating system using an IV bag and hand syringe, pole syringe, or a darting system (Harms 1999;
drip set. Gravity-dependent flow rate is controlled by the drip set Harvey et al. 1988; Williams et al. 1988). When possible, the
valve. Used water is collected (in the tank below) but not recycled. recommended site for IM administration is the dorsal saddle,
This system is suitable for small to medium-sized fish depending an area that surrounds the dorsal fin and extends laterally to
on the volume of the reservoir, the drip set tube diameter, and the just above the lateral line, from the operculum or posterior
rate of fluid delivery. gill slit caudal to a point approximately one-third the distance
between the dorsal fin and the caudal peduncle. IM injections
(Harms 1999). The flow is usually normograde to achieve op- often result in leakage as the needle is withdrawn and the sur-
timal gas and anesthetic exchange. Though retrograde flow is rounding muscles contract (Harms and Bakal 1995; Peters
sometimes necessary (e.g., in oral surgery or because of spe- et al. 2001); drug loss is preventable by holding the fish in hand,
cies anatomical variations), it nullifies the normal countercur- placing the needle directly on the dorsal midline between the
rent exchange mechanism and may damage the gills. epaxial muscles, and then laterally inserting it into a muscle
bundle (Harms and Bakal 1995). It is important to note that
(1) skeletomuscular movement helps blood and lymph circu-
Parenteral Anesthesia late (Gruber and Keyes 1981), so anesthetic induction time
may be delayed in sedentary species, and (2) injection vol-
In addition to immersion methods, anesthetics can be deliv-
umes are often large and may contribute to sterile abscess
ered orally, intravenously (IV), intracoelomically (ICo), and
formation in the musculature (Tyler and Hawkins 1981).
intramuscularly (IM). With the exception of metomidate (see
Regardless of route, parenteral anesthetics often do not
below), there have been few studies on oral anesthetics (e.g.,
provide adequate sedation or anesthesia and so require sup-
Hansen et al. 2003; Harms and Bakal 1995; Steers and
plemental immersion anesthesia. In addition, ventilatory
Sherrill 2001) and this route likely has limited use because
support is necessary with parenteral anesthetics, particularly
precise dosing is difficult and the rate and degree of absorp-
if recovery is prolonged (Harms 1999).
tion are uncertain (Harms 2003).
IV injection results in rapid induction and usually a short
duration of effect, but it has the disadvantage of requiring ei- Monitoring
ther manual restraint or prior administration of drugs by an-
other route to allow IV access (Fleming et al. 2003; Hansen Anesthetic Depth
et al. 2003).
ICo delivery, although effective, has two disadvantages: Investigators have used various schemes to assess anesthetic
an increased risk of visceral damage (although this can be depth in fish (Detar and Mattingly 2004; Myszkowski et al.
348 ILAR Journal

2003; Oikawa et al. 1994); criteria include activity, reactivity
to stimuli, equilibrium (righting reflex), jaw tone, muscle
tone, and respiratory and heart rates. Broad stages include
sedation, narcosis or loss of equilibrium, and anesthesia,
with each stage subdivided into light and deep planes (Harms
2003; Stetter 2001). But depending on the species, drug, and
dosage, some stage components are not available (Harms
1999; Stetter 2001). Conversely, some signs attributed to
drug effect are instead responses to stress. For example, Gulf
of Mexico sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus de soti) often turn
to a ventral/dorsal position when stressed (Fleming et al.

2003), so loss of the righting reflex is not appropriate to de-
termine anesthetic stage in this species.
With proper dosing, induction with immersion drugs
usually occurs within 5 to 10 minutes, but may take longer
via other routes. Induction is marked by decreases in caudal
fin strokes, swimming, respiratory rate, and reaction to stim- Figure 4 Ultrasonography is useful for monitoring heart rate in
uli; the drop in caudal fin stroke activity is usually the first fish. In specimens of sufficient size, the probe can be placed in the
opercular slit as in this rainbow parrotfish (Scarus quacamaia). In
sign, followed by loss of equilibrium and response to stimuli.
smaller specimens or small-scaled/scaleless species, the probe is
At surgical anesthesia there is total loss of muscle tone and a
placed directly over the heart.
further decrease in respiratory rate. A firm squeeze at the
base of the tail can be an effective way to determine response
(Harms 1999). Studies have not shown that pulse oximetry is
to stimuli: if the animal does not respond, general anesthesia
effective for measuring hemoglobin saturation in fish (Harms
has taken effect (Harms 2003; Stetter 2001).
1999; Ross 2001).
Some species go through a short excitement phase dur-
Although a fish may appear to be ventilating well, brady-
ing immersion induction and may traumatize themselves
cardia and an increased resistance to gill capillary flow (as
(Harms 1999; Stetter 2001). And fish exposed to high drug
erythrocytes accumulate in the capillary bed and become
concentrations may exhibit rapid and repeated flaring of the
swollen) may cause hypoxemia (Tyler and Hawkins 1981).
opercula, with a “coughing” reflex to flush the chemical ir-
Useful variables in detecting hypoxemia include gill color
ritant from the branchial cavity.
(pallor indicates hypoxemia, hypotension, hypovolemia, or
asystole) and fin margin color (pallor indicates hypoxemia,
hypotension, or peripheral vasoconstriction) (Harms 2003;
Cardiopulmonary Activity
Stetter 2001). In large fish, an effective way to monitor respi-
Respiratory and cardiac rates usually decrease with increased ratory efficiency is periodic blood gas sampling to determine
anesthetic dosage and duration. But in some species (e.g.,
tuna) opercular movement is minimal or even nonexistent
due to their mode of ventilation (ram ventilation). These fish
maintain adequate ventilation, at least in the short term,
through the passage of oxygenated water over their gills (re-
spiratory arrest in fish can precede cardiac arrest by an ex-
tended period of time; Harms 1999).
In species with thin pliable body walls and proportion-
ally large hearts, heart beats are directly observable (Harms
and Bakal 1995; Harms 1999). For most species, however,
monitoring of the heart rate requires the use of cardiac ultra-
sonography, Doppler flow probes, or electrocardiography
(ECG) (Harms and Bakal 1995; Harms 1999; Ross 2001).
Ultrasonography and Doppler probes are placed either into
the opercular slit (for medium to large fish) or directly over
the heart (for smaller specimens and small-scaled/scaleless
species; Figures 4 and 5). ECG entails lightly clamping elec-
Figure 5 Doppler flow is useful for monitoring heart rate in fish,
trodes to the surface of the fins (the pectoral and anal fins are
with probes placed in the opercular slit (for large and medium-sized
a good combination) (Ross 2001); alternatively, subcutane- fish) or directly over the heart (for smaller specimens and small-
ous placement of needle electrodes minimizes skin trauma, scaled/scaleless species). This figure demonstrates placement of
reduces the chance of grounding out the ECG signal by con- the probe in the opercular slit of an African cichlid (Protomelas
tact with a wet external surface, and improves signal quality insignis).

oxygenation, carbon dioxide, and pH. Venous samples are spontaneous ventilation resumes; alternatively, the fish is
easier to collect and provide useful information about physi- pulled forward through the water with its mouth open. Drag-
ological trends. Other blood variables used to assess meta- ging the animal backward is inadvisable as retrograde flow
bolic status include hematocrit, glucose, and lactate. provides inefficient oxygen and anesthetic exchange and
may cause gill damage.
Most fish fully recover from inhalant anesthetics within
Water Quality 5 minutes; recoveries extending more than 10 minutes indi-
cate an excessive anesthetic dosage or a compromised ani-
It is critical to monitor water quality in order to reduce anes-
mal (Ross 2001; Stetter 2001). In comparison, recovery from
thetic morbidity and mortality. Assuming aeration, DO, pH,
oral and parenteral agents is more variable. As the fish recov-
and temperature are appropriate, the greatest concern is am-
ers, respiration increases, muscle tone returns, fin move-
monia concentrations. These rise—and buffering capacity

ments resume, and the fish swims with progressively less
decreases—during prolonged procedures and when fish are
ataxia until it regains full equilibrium.
sequentially anesthetized in a recirculating anesthetic sys-
Some fish go through an excitement phase (sometimes
tem. Ammonia toxicity is greater in more alkaline water
quite severe) during recovery and should be prevented from
(e.g., marine systems). Ammonia is easy to measure with
escaping from the tank (Harms 1999) with the use of lids,
tankside kits; or the anesthetist may use other indicators of
nets, foam pads, or other barriers. Individual fish may even
deteriorating water quality such as surface foam formation
require manual restraint during this period to prevent dam-
due to increased protein from fish slime (Harms 1999). For
age to their eyes and body. In either case, the handler should
species that are facultatively ureotelic and ureogenic (e.g.,
take precautions to avoid injury from the fin rays and teeth of
Gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta), excreting most nitrogenous
certain bony fish and from the stingers (rays), teeth, and skin
waste as urea in response to stressors (e.g., anesthesia)
of some elasmobranchs.
(Gilmour et al. 1998), the measurement of ammonia concen-
trations as a guide to water quality is inaccurate and the han-
dler must rely on the other parameters. Resuscitation
Correction of declining water quality during anesthesia
requires a partial water change, by adding either water con- Marked hypoventilation (bradypnea) is usually not a cause
taining a known anesthetic concentration or, when reducing for alarm. If cardiac output is steady and oxygenated water is
anesthetic depth, a known volume of clean water. One of the flowing appropriately over the gills, tissue gas exchange is
authors (DLN) routinely changes out up to 50% of water in probably adequate, but decreasing the anesthetic concentra-
the anesthetic chamber at a time without negative effects. tion or moving the fish to anesthetic-free water may be ap-
When using a recirculating system or the same water for mul- propriate (Stetter 2001). In either case, the anesthetist should
tiple fish, the frequency of water changes needed will depend take advantage of the buccal flow/heart rate reflex, which
on the size of the fish (in proportion to water volume) and causes the heart rate to accelerate in response to an increase
waste production. For example, one author (DLN) changes in water flow through the buccal cavity. The resulting in-
out 100% of the anesthetic bath after 3 to 4 adult southern crease in gill blood flow hastens both elimination of the in-
stingrays (Dasyatis americana) have been anesthetized in a halant drugs and recovery. These effects occur naturally after
200 liter container (as long as visible waste material is not the gentle movement of the fish forward through the water
significant), but will anesthetize 6 to 12 grunts (15-30 cm) in until spontaneous ventilation returns (Ross 2001). This method
an 80 liter cooler before changing the water. It is particularly is also effective with bradycardia.
useful to look for the buildup of bubbles on the surface of the Unresponsive fish may require the administration of flu-
water, as these indicate increasing protein levels from waste ids, doxapram, and/or forced ventilation. One author (DLN)
production and the need for at least a partial water change. has observed a positive response to doxapram administration
(5 mg/kg IV or ICo) in several cases of respiratory arrest. How-
ever, doxapram can be a marked stimulant in elasmobranchs,
Recovery causing them to become extremely excited and dangerous
(Stoskopf 1986). Other traditional mammalian emergency
With immersion anesthesia, recovery occurs when the fish is drugs (e.g., epinephrine, corticosteroids) may be given in the
placed in anesthetic-free water (Ross 2001), and for inject- case of physiological collapse, although the effects are not
able α2-agonists reversal drugs are available (Harms 1999; well understood.
Horsberg et al. 1999; Snyder et al. 1998; Williams et al.
2004). Although recovery occurs by different mechanisms,
transfer to a new water container is advisable after any route Anesthetic Drugs
of anesthesia as some of these drugs and their metabolites
may be excreted into the water and reabsorbed through the Table 1 provides a summary of commonly used sedative,
gills and/or skin. The recovery water is aerated and the fish’s analgesic, and anesthetic agents used in fish. We describe
mouth oriented toward water flow. In an artificial ventilation the applications, impacts, and limitations of each in the
system, anesthetic-free water is passed over the gills until following sections.
350 ILAR Journal

Table 1 Summary of selected anesthetic agents used in fish, from anecdotal and published sources (see
discussion and citations in text). These doses are not suitable for all species or under all conditions.
When working with unfamiliar species or agents, start with low doses and low numbers of fish. See text
for notes on dosing and on researching appropriate agents and doses. The authors are not responsible
for the doses and protocols in this formulary.
Druga Route Fish taxa Dose Comments

Tricaine methane- IN General (nonelasmobranch) 75-200 mg/l Anesthesia induction
sulfonate (MS-222) 50-150 mg/l Anesthesia maintenance
IN Sturgeon 100-125 mg/l Mild sedation to light
anesthesia

IN Freshwater eels 75 mg/l Sedation
IN Characins (pacus, tetras) and 60-300 mg/l Dose-dependent anesthesia
cyprinids (carp, koi, goldfish,
roach, dace, minnows)
IN Livebearers (exc. mollies, 30 mg/l Light sedation
platys)
IN Sunfish/bass (centrarchids) 50 mg/l for induction; Sedation
25 mg/l for maintenance
IN Cichlids 150 mg/l for induction; Anesthesia
IN Anabantoids (exc. gouramis) 200-400 mg/l for induction; Deep anesthesia
60 mg/l Light sedation
IN Salmonids and catfish 50-100 mg/l Light to deep anesthesia
IN Most marine reef teleosts, 45-100 mg/l Dose-dependent sedation to
puffers, balloonfish, lionfish, anesthesia
frogfish, scorpionfish, moray
eels
IN Seahorses and pipefish 25-75 mg/l Variable sedation
IN Snappers, cod, grunts, 50-125 mg/l Dose-dependent sedation
groupers, jacks, tripletail, to deep anesthesia
sea bass, snook, porgies,
seabream, drums, tuna,
mackerel
IN Striped bass and relatives 20-25 mg/l Sedation
IN Toadfish 670 mg/l Induced fish wrapped in
anesthetic solution-soaked
paper towels for 30 min
surgical procedure
IN 50-250 mg/l Dose-dependent sedation
to deep anesthesia
IN Flounder/flatfish 75 mg/l Sedation
250 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Sharks 50-125 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Rays 80-100 mg/l Anesthesia
45-55 mg/l Moderate to deep sedation
Benzocaine IN General (nonelasmobranch) 25-200 mg/l Dose-dependent anesthesia
IN Lungfish 1 g/l for induction; 0.25 g/l Anesthesia
for maintenance
IN Freshwater eels 60-80 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Pacus and other characins 50-150 mg/l Light to deep anesthesia
IN Catfish 100 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Silver perch 20 mg/l Sedation
IN Salmonids, cod, porgies, 40-50 mg/l Anesthesia
seabream 20-35 mg/l Light to heavy sedation

Table 1 (Continued)
Drug Route Fish taxa Dose Comments

IN Striped bass and relatives 55-80 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Epaulette sharks 60-75 mg/l Anesthesia
Clove oil IN General (nonelasmobranch) 20-100 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Sturgeon 50-100 mg/l Anesthesia
Freshwater eels 100 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Cyprinids (carp, koi, goldfish, 25-100 mg/l Anesthesia
dace, sharks, roach) 4 mg/l Sedation
IN Sunfish/bass (centrarchids) 5-9 mg/l Deep sedation

15-20 mg/l Moderate anesthesia
IN Redcap triplefin 40 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Perch 6 mg/l Sedation
IN Silver perch 15-50 mg/l Light to deep anesthesia
IN Catfish 100-150 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Salmonids 20-60 mg/l Dose-dependent anesthesia
2-8 mg/l Dose-dependent sedation
IN Most reef teleosts, filefish, 40 mg/l Sedation to anesthesia
convict tang, drummers,
gobies, mullet, porgies,
seabream
IN Jacks 10 mg/l Sedation
IN Rabbitfish 100 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Sea bass, snook 6-9 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Striped bass and relatives 8 µl/l Light sedation
Eugenol IN General (nonelasmobranch) 100-120 mg/l Anesthesia induction
40 mg/l Anesthesia maintenance
IN Pacus and other characins 50-200 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Rays 50 mg/l Anesthesia
20-25 mg/l Sedation
Isoeugenol IN General (nonelasmobranch) 6-17 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Sunfish/bass (centrarchids), 15-66 mg/l Variable sedation
perch, silver perch, catfish to anesthesia
IN Salmonids 120 mg/l Surgical anesthesia
20-60 mg/l Dose-dependent sedation
IN Striped bass and relatives 3.6 mg/l Light sedation
IN Porgies and seabream 120 mg/l for induction; Surgical anesthesia
IN Rays 15 mg/l Deep sedation to light
anesthesia
Metomidate IN General (nonelasmobranch) 5-10 mg/l Anesthesia
2.5-5 mg/l Heavy sedation
0.06-0.2 mg/l Light sedation
IN Freshwater tropical fish 0.8-1 mg/l Light sedation
(livebearers, gouramis)
IN Salmonids 2-10 mg/l Light sedation
IM 42 mg/kg Anesthesia
IN Catfish 6 mg/L Anesthesia
IM Snappers 50 mg/kg Anesthesia
IM Jacks 80-100 mg/kg Sedation
IN Cod 5 mg/l Anesthesia
IM Sablefish 62 mg/kg Light sedation
IM Rockfish 100 mg/kg Anesthesia
IN Drums 7 mg/l Anesthesia
352 ILAR Journal

Table 1 (Continued)
Drug Route Fish taxa Dose Comments

IN Striped bass and relatives 1.5 mg/l Light sedation
IN Flounder/flatfish 9-30 mg/l Variable anesthesia
2-PE IN General (nonelasmobranch) 0.1-0.5 ml/l Anesthesia
IN Cyprinids (carp, koi, goldfish) 0.1-0.5 ml/l Dose-dependent sedation to
light anesthesia
IN Livebearers (exc. 600 mg/l Anesthesia
mollies, platys) 220 mg/l Light sedation
IN Milk fish 400 mg/l Anesthesia

IN Cichlids 600 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Porgies, seabream, mullet, 400 mg/l Sedation to anesthesia
snappers
Quinaldine IN Cyprinids 10-50 mg/l Anesthesia
Quinaldine IN General (nonelasmobranch) 50-100 mg/l Anesthesia induction
sulphate 15-60 mg/l Anesthesia maintenance
IN Freshwater tropicals (exc. 5-10 mg/l Light sedation
livebearers, gouramis)
IN Drums, porgies, seabream 20 mg/l Anesthesia
IN Moronidae (striped bass 8.3 mg/l Light sedation
and relatives)
Ketamine IM General (nonelasmobranch) 66-88 mg/kg Anesthesia
IM Sturgeon 77-88 mg/kg Anesthesia
IV Cichlids and salmonids 30 mg/kg Anesthesia following sedation

in 100-125 mg/l MS-222
IM Salmonids 50-150 mg/kg Anesthesia
IM Elasmobranchs 12-20 mg/kg Anesthesia
Medetomidine + IM General (nonelasmobranch) 0.05-0.10 mg/kg Anesthesia; atipamezole IM
ketamine 1-2 mg/kg for reversal at 0.2 mg/kg
IM Lungfish 0.053 mg/kg Mild sedation, but physical
5.26 mg/kg restraint necessary for
performing diagnostics
IM Sturgeon 0.06 mg/kg Light anesthesia for minor
6 mg/kg diagnostic procedures;
atipamezole IM for reversal
at 0.30 mg/kg
IM Snappers 1.1-1.7 mg/kg Mild to moderate sedation
27-42 mg/kg
IM Cobia 0.122-0.240 mg/kg Mild sedation; atipamezole
6-13.5 mg/kg IM for reversal at 5X
medetomidine dose
IM Tuna 0.4 mg/kg Anesthesia; atipamezole
4 mg/kg IM for reversal at 2 mg/kg
IM Mackerel 0.6-4.2 mg/kg Anesthesia; atipamezole IM
53-228 mg/kg for reversal at 5X
medetomidine dose
IM Sharks 0.09-0.10 mg/kg Anesthesia; atipamezole IM
4-5 mg/kg for reversal at 5X
medetomidine dose
Xylazine + ketamine IM Sharks 6 mg/kg Anesthesia
12-20 mg/kg
Propofol IV Sturgeon 6.5 mg/kg Light anesthesia
IV Small sharks 2.5 mg/kg Anesthesia
a IM, intramuscular; IN, inhalant; IV, intravenous; MS-222, tricaine methanesulfonate; 2-PE, 2-phenoxyethanol

Immersion (Waterborne or Inhalant) Drugs sensitivity to benzocaine vary with the species and dosage
(Gomes et al. 2001). One major concern is the drug’s fat
Tricaine Methanesulfonate (MS-222) solubility, which may result in prolonged recovery in older
and gravid fish (Iversen et al. 2003).
Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-2223) is a benzocaine de-
rivative that is absorbed across the gills (and the skin in some
Clove Oil, Eugenol, Isoeugenol, and Aqui-S
species), biotransformed in the liver and probably kidney,
and cleared primarily through the gills, with additional me-
Clove oil is a mixture of compounds: phenolic eugenol (which
tabolites eliminated in urine and bile (Harms 1999; Maren
accounts for 85-95% of the active ingredients), isoeugenol,
et al. 1968). Powder is directly mixed into the anesthetic
and methyleugenol. Commercially available clove oil has
chamber or administered as a stock solution of 10 g/l (10,000
approximately 84% eugenol, but it is possible to purchase

mg/l). Both powder and liquid are unstable in light and re-
100% eugenol. Aqui-S™ contains primarily isoeugenol
quire storage in a dark container. Oily residues or a change
(Iversen et al. 2003; Kildea et al. 2004) and is not available
in color of buffered stock solutions indicate the presence of
in the United States. Clove oil and eugenol are incompletely
a desulfonation product and decreased potency.
water soluble, particularly at cold temperatures. A 1:10 mix-
MS-222 is more effective and safe in its neutralized
ture of either in 95% ethanol yields a 100 mg/ml stock solu-
form, which is achieved by buffering the solution to the pH
tion (Harms 2003).
of the fish’s holding water. Sodium bicarbonate is primarily
Clove oil results in more rapid induction times and con-
used, but other buffers are also effective (e.g., imidazole, so-
sistent anesthesia compared to other anesthetics (Bressler
dium hydrogen phosphate, sodium hydroxide, and calcium
and Ron 2004; Detar and Mattingly 2004; Sladky et al.
carbonate). Exact amounts of sodium bicarbonate are mea-
2001), but longer recoveries (Detar and Mattingly 2004;
sured or the powdered buffer is incrementally mixed into the
Sladky et al. 2001). Other reported advantages include effi-
anesthesia chamber until the solid no longer dissolves, indi-
cacy at a range of temperatures, availability, low cost, and
cating saturation (Harms 1999; Oikawa et al. 1994; Roubach
handler safety (Bressler and Ron 2004; Detar and Mattingly
et al. 2001; Stetter 2001).
2004), and one study claimed increased safety for fish com-
MS-222 is not efficacious for all fish. For example, in
pared to other immersion drugs (Detar and Mattingly 2004).
Gulf of Mexico sturgeon it is minimally effective at provid-
However, another study reported a narrow safety margin
ing immobilization even at 400 mg/l (4 to 10 times the dos-
(compared with MS-222) in the red pacu (Piaractus brachy-
age for most species) (Fleming et al. 2003).
pomus; Sladky et al. 2001), and one author (DLN) has seen
MS-222 can be associated with hypoxemia resulting
increased sensitivity to eugenol and Aqui-S in preliminary
from drug-induced hypoventilation (Davis and Griffin 2004;
studies with southern stingrays. Possible explanations for
Harms and Bakal 1995; Oikawa et al. 1994), and the safety
ventilatory failure and medullary collapse observed in the
margin is narrower for young fish in warm, soft water (Harms
red pacu include neurotoxic or hepatotoxic effects similar to
1999; Roubach et al. 2001). MS-222 may also cause revers-
those in mammals (Sladky et al. 2001), or the fact that
ible retinal deficits in fish and humans (Bernstein et al. 1997;
eugenol, an oil, coats gill epithelia and may block gaseous
Sladky et al. 2001).
diffusion (Sladky et al. 2001). In addition, researchers have
described mild gill necrosis from repeated exposure to low
Benzocaine doses of eugenol (Afifi et al. 2001).
Although clinical studies have demonstrated analgesic
Benzocaine, the parent compound of MS-222, is similar in effects of eugenol in humans (Keene et al. 1998), there is no
pharmacology but less acidic and much less water soluble, proof of such effects in fish (Sladky et al. 2001). Red pacus
features that may account for its usefulness in species sen- anesthetized with eugenol were more likely to react to a hy-
sitive to MS-222 (e.g., striped bass, Morone saxatilis) (Hseu podermic needle puncture than fish anesthetized with MS-
et al. 1998). The compound requires advance preparation of 222, raising the question of the appropriateness of the clove
a stock solution in ethanol or acetone (100 g in 1 liter) or oil complex for invasive or otherwise noxious procedures.
propylene glycol, with storage of the solution in a dark
bottle at room temperature (Harms and Bakal 1995; Iversen Metomidate
et al. 2003).
Other advantages of benzocaine include low toxicity for Metomidate is a nonbarbiturate imidazole available for inves-
humans (at the concentrations used for fish) and its removal tigational use in the United States (Harms 1999) and sold in
from facility effluents using activated carbon filtration; but Canada under the trade name Marini™. It is readily water sol-
even without filtration, breakdown in water occurs in ap- uble and requires storage in tight light-protected containers.
proximately 4 hours, making environmental contamination Metomidate suppresses the cortisol response to anesthesia
less likely. Exposure also does not impair fish growth or re- by blocking adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimu-
productive capacity (Gomes et al. 2001; Hseu et al. 1998; lation of steroidogenesis, even after ICo injection of exoge-
Tyler and Hawkins 1981). As with all drugs, efficacy and nous ACTH. The suppression occurs by a direct effect on the
354 ILAR Journal

interrenal gland and the mitochondrial cytochrome P450-de- 1995; Kumlu and Yanar 1999; Ross and Ross 1984). Several
pendent enzymes that catalyze cortisol synthesis (Davis and studies demonstrate that fish exposed to quinaldine or QS
Griffin 2003; Iversen et al. 2003; Small 2005). Cortisol syn- retain a strong reflex response to being touched, even when
thesis blockade may cause the fish to transiently darken, pos- they have lost equilibrium and are “anesthetized.” This po-
sibly because of reduced cortisol production terminating the tential lack of analgesia makes both drugs inappropriate for
negative feedback loop on ACTH synthesis. As ACTH syn- surgical or similarly noxious procedures (Cullen 1996;
thesis is linked to melanocyte-stimulating hormone produc- Harms 1999; Kumlu and Yanar 1999).
tion, both compounds increase with the associated color To reduce toxicity and increase efficacy and analgesia,
change (Harms 1999; Harms and Bakal 1995). some researches have combined diazepam in a bath with QS,
Metomidate is useful for sedation and anesthesia for mi- so that fish enter a deeper anesthetic plane at lower QS dos-
nor procedures as well as limiting transport trauma, as dosages (Kumlu and Yanar 1999).

ages that suppress the cortisol stress response still allow
maintenance of equilibrium (Davis and Griffin 2004; Harms
Azaperone
1999). However, it is a hypnotic and does not induce general
anesthesia, as is evident in the maintenance of opercular res-
Azaperone reduces an animal’s response to environmental
piration for twice as long as with other inhalants at the effec-
stimuli without motor impairment or sedation. Preliminary
tive concentration (Mattson and Riple 1989) and in muscle
studies in piked dogfish (Squalus acanthias) have shown that
fasciculations (indicating incomplete relaxation) at low
the most efficacious application of azaperone is directly over
doses (Harms 1999). Furthermore, metomidate is probably a
the gills (IM injection produces no effect) (Latas 1987). The
poor analgesic and should not be used alone for major surgi-
advantages of using azaperone in fish include uninterrupted
cal or noxious procedures (Hansen et al. 2003; Harms 1999).
swimming patterns, normal gill ventilation, and normal car-
Gouramis (Osphronemidae) are very sensitive to metomi-
diovascular function. Azaperone may also be useful for ani-
date, and its use in cichlids (Cichlidae) in water of pH < 5 is
mals that are prone to panic, aggression, and self-induced
contraindicated (Harms 1999).
trauma (Latas 1987).
2-Phenoxyethanol
Isoflurane and Halothane
2-Phenoxyethanol (2-PE) is a moderately water-soluble clear
There are few published studies evaluating chlorofluorocar-
or straw-colored oily liquid widely used for sedation (particu-
bon-based anesthetics in fish (Dunn and Koester 1990; Stetter
larly in fish transportation) and anesthesia (Hseu et al. 1996,
2001). Their use requires care as anesthetic depth is difficult
1997; Ross 2001). Advantages are low cost and the fact that
to control and the drug’s insolubility in water results in local-
no pH change occurs with the addition of 2-PE to seawater
ized higher concentrations that may cause overdosage. In ad-
(Hseu et al. 1998). However, 2-PE produces hypoventilation
dition, volatilization and difficulty in scavenging waste gas
and provides poor analgesia (Oswald 1978). Also, sustained
are hazardous to personnel (Harms 1999; Ross 2001). Given
and regular exposure to 2-PE solution causes a neuropsycho-
the disadvantages associated with the use of isoflurane and
logical syndrome in some handlers (Hseu et al. 1998).
similar drugs, a number of researchers and clinicians recom-
mend them only as a last resort for anesthesia, for euthana-
Quinaldine and Quinaldine Sulphate sia, or not at all (e.g., Harms 1999; Ross 2001).
Quinaldine, a quinoline derivative, is a yellowish oily liquid

that must be dissolved in acetone or alcohol prior to mixing Oxygen
in water. Quinaldine sulfate (QS) is a strongly acidic, highly
water-soluble powder that must be buffered and administered Oxygen is a sedative for some elasmobranch species. Oxy-
as a stock solution (10 g/l). Due to high lipid solubility, qui- genated water is flushed across the gills by bubbling 100%
naldine tends to accumulate in the brain more than QS oxygen in the flow of water directed into the animal’s mouth.
(Harms 1999; Hseu et al. 1998; Ross 2001) and may result in But prolonged exposure to elevated oxygen depresses venti-
deeper anesthesia compared with QS, factors that may make lation and produces hypercapnia and potentially life-threat-
it less safe than QS. Like MS-222 and most inhalants, quinal- ening acidemia (Spotte 1992).
dine and QS depress the CNS sensory centers. Unlike MS-
222, neither drug is metabolized by fish and both are excreted
Injectable Anesthetics
entirely unchanged (Harms 1999; Hseu et al. 1998).
Advantages of the use of QS in fish are low cost, effec-
tiveness at very low concentrations, and short recovery time. Ketamine Hydrochloride
But despite the drug’s purported low toxicity and wide safety
margin, mortality occurs in some species and quinaldine can Ketamine, used alone or in combination with α2-agonists
be an integumental and ocular irritant (Harms and Bakal (Harms 1999), is effective for a number of species (Williams

et al. 1988) and for short procedures (Bruecker and Graham Propofol
1993; Oswald 1978). The most common injection route,
IM, requires high doses when used alone (Bruecker and Propofol use in spotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium pla-
Graham 1993; Fleming et al. 2003; Williams et al. 1988); giosum) resulted in surgical anesthesia with stable respira-
IV administration entails dosages of one-third to one-half tion and heart rates throughout the anesthetic period (Miller
those for IM delivery and reduces oxygen demand during et al. 2005). In Gulf of Mexico sturgeon propofol IV rapidly
handling in several species (Bruecker and Graham 1993; induced anesthesia but caused significant respiratory depres-
Oswald 1978). sion, which was addressed by passing oxygenated water
Ketamine alone has a species-specific effect in fish often across the gills (Fleming et al. 2003).
characterized by incomplete anesthesia, periods of apnea, and
prolonged recovery with excitement (Bruecker and Graham
Alfaxalone/Alfadolone

1993; Graham and Iwama 1990; Oswald 1978). Elasmo-
branchs are more sensitive than teleosts and occasionally
A combination steroid, alfaxalone/alfadolone (A/A) mainly
have seizure-like muscle spasms (Stoskopf 1993). To reduce
depresses CNS activity while leaving the integumentary sen-
dosage-related apnea and muscle spasms and to improve an-
sory system operational. This makes it very valuable for re-
esthesia, ketamine is often combined with the reversible α2-
search in sensory physiology (e.g., with mechanoreceptors;
adrenergic agonist medetomidine (see next section). This
Peters et al. 2001). Another advantage of A/A is its cardiac
combination provides safe and effective anesthesia in some
chronotropic and inotropic stimulatory effect with vasodila-
species but causes respiratory depression, bradycardia, and
tion of the gill capillaries, which seems to ensure adequate
incomplete immobilization in others (Fleming et al. 2003;
oxygenation of the blood compared to many other anesthet-
Snyder et al. 1998; Williams et al. 2004). For these reasons,
ics (Oswald 1978). As with other drugs, researchers have
ketamine or ketamine/medetomidine (K/M) is more appro-
documented species differences (Harvey et al. 1988). For ex-
priate as an aid to restraint or capture than as a substitute for
ample, in several catfish species A/A provided stable surgi-
inhalant anesthesia during major procedures.
cal anesthesia lasting several hours (Peters et al. 2001),
whereas in two trout species it was difficult to find an A/A
Medetomidine dose that simultaneously abolished locomotion and pre-
served ventilation (Oswald 1978).
Medetomidine is effective as an immersion drug in rainbow
trout to produce sedation (but not analgesia), after which
atipamezole is added to the recovery water at six times the Analgesia
medetomidine concentration (Horsberg et al. 1999). Ordi-
Limited information is available about the use of analgesics
narily, however, medetomidine is combined with ketamine
in fish; further study is needed, particularly given the in-
and administered IM, again with the use of atipamezole to
creased interest in the use of analgesics for fish in the labora-
reverse the effects in both teleosts and elasmobranchs
tory and clinical setting.
(Snyder et al. 1998; Williams et al. 2004). One of the authors
Drugs listed as an anesthetic for fish are often assumed to
(MAS, unpublished observations) has investigated the use
provide analgesia if they result in complete immobilization
of medetomidine with ketamine in several shark species and
of the fish. And because fish have µ and κ opiate receptors
found that there appears to be great variation between spe-
throughout the brain, it is reasonable to expect some effect
cies in their responses to similar dosages under the same
of opioid treatments in fish experiencing noxious stimuli
conditions.
(Harms et al. 2005). However, the distinction between anes-
thetic agent (with analgesic properties) and immobilizing
Xylazine drug is not always clear and depends on the properties of a
particular drug; it is never appropriate to assume analgesia
The use of xylazine with ketamine has provided safe and with all “anesthetics.” Certainly, it is possible to determine
effective anesthesia in sharks (Andrews and Jones 1990; which drugs provide better immobilization for a particular
Stoskopf 1986, 1993), although xylazine variably alleviates species by comparing the responses of individual fish to nox-
the muscle spasms that can occur with ketamine use alone ious stimuli (e.g., needle stick, tail squeeze, handling) when
(Stoskopf 1993). However, xylazine can produce apnea exposed to different “anesthetic” agents. This approach may
(Oswald 1978) and it induces convulsant activity that occurs be appropriate for an investigator who plans to use a particu-
during teleost induction and recovery, making it difficult to lar species regularly in laboratory research.
ensure artificial ventilation because the convulsions fre- In one study, the lips of juvenile rainbow trout were in-
quently dislodge the water supply. In addition, gross ECG jected with 0.1 ml acetic acid, which resulted in an increased
disturbances have been detected. For all these reasons, and opercular rate compared to controls and anomalous behav-
given the proven usefulness of medetomidine in teleost spe- iors such as rocking and lip rubbing against the substrate and
cies, xylazine is not a preferred α2-agonist for bony fish and tank sides (Sneddon 2003). Administration of high morphine
is not recommended in salmonids (Oswald 1978). dosages significantly reduced the opercular rate and the
356 ILAR Journal

anomalous behaviors, suggesting that morphine acts as an efficient oxygen transport to tissues, including the brain. The
analgesic or at least antinociceptive in this and presumably resulting cerebral hypoxia causes an overall inhibition of
other teleost fish (Sneddon 2003). In another study koi carp spontaneous activity of the CNS and the observed “anes-
(Cyprinus carpio) that underwent exploratory celiotomy re- thetic” effect (Gelwicks and Zafft 1998; Harms and Bakal
ceived butorphanol, ketoprofen, or saline; only the koi in- 1995). Although fish appear tolerant of the blood changes
jected with butorphanol exhibited no significant differences and cerebral hypoxia (Gelwicks and Zafft 1998), several
between pre- and postsurgery caudal fin beat frequency and studies point to CO2’s questionable analgesia and appropri-
vertical position in the water column, a result that suggests a ateness for invasive procedures (Prince et al. 1995; Ross
mild behavioral sparing effect compared with the ketoprofen- 2001). Many handlers feel that CO2 should be used only for
treated and saline control groups (Harms et al. 2005). euthanasia or as a last resort immobilization chemical when
As is the case with mammals, fish can become tolerant of noxious stimuli are involved (Harms 1999).

morphine, and naloxone reduces its effects (and presumably We encourage the reader to refer to the American Veteri-
that of butorphanol) (Rose 2002). In a study involving an nary Medical Association Guidelines on Euthanasia (AVMA
elasmobranch (chain dogfish, Scyliorhinus retifer), neither 2007; formerly the Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthana-
butorphanol nor ketoprofen provided appreciable analgesia sia) for further information about approved and nonapproved
in animals that received a noxious stimulus (needle stick in methods for euthanasia of fish.
epaxial muscle). It is not clear whether these results repre-
sent a fundamental difference between elasmobranch and
other fish physiology or an insufficient dose or frequency Concluding Thoughts
(Davis et al. 2006).
Aside from two studies in which ketoprofen was not ef- For the researcher, clinician, or technician who handles fish,
fective (Davis et al. 2006; Harms et al. 2005), there are no an increasing body of information about the chemical re-
published studies on the effectiveness of nonsteroidal anti- straint of fish is available in journal articles and secondary
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). texts as well as agricultural extension agency pamphlets, in-
structional course handouts, and similar types of publica-
tions. Factors that may be driving this growing knowledge
Euthanasia base include increases in three related areas: aquaculture ac-
tivities, which often require sedation or anesthesia of large
When necessary, overdosage of immobilization drugs is an numbers of fish for transport and handling; requirements or
acceptable means of euthanasia (AVMA 2007). The most interest in the use of fish in research over other vertebrate
frequent choice is the use of immersion drugs (and particu- classes; and trends in the public zoological and aquarium
larly MS-222) at five to ten times the anesthetic concentra- industry to provide improved and advanced veterinary care
tion for a particular species, although injectable agents are to their fish. In research and display activities, interest in
also effective (Ross and Ross 1984). For fish that are too both fish welfare and environmental impacts is a motivating
large for a bath, the immersion drug is poured directly over factor—collection from the wild is still a major means of
the gills (Harms and Bakal 1995). Maintaining the fish in the marine specimen acquisition, and increased fish longevity
anesthetic solution for 5 to 10 minutes after cessation of decreases the need for such collecting. Efforts to ensure fish
opercular movement (except in some ram ventilating spe- welfare are in aquaculture’s best interest as improved wel-
cies) usually, but not always, ensures that a fish has expired. fare tends to correlate with decreased stress and, in turn, bet-
Cardiac asystole typically lags behind brain death since fish ter product yield and quality.
myocardial cells use local glycogen stores for energy and do As discussed, there is a need for basic information about
not need blood glucose (Stetter 2001). The use of Doppler the effects of the multitude of drugs across the many orders
flow probes, ultrasonography, or electrocardiography is recom- and families of fish. It is likely impossible to perform studies
mended to confirm asystole and, to be certain, IV adminis- on a significant number of species, so the research emphasis
tration (in the heart or caudal vein) of an additional anesthetic should be on species from groups for which there is a dearth
drug or pentobarbitone should be performed (Ross 2001). of knowledge, to improve extrapolation exercises that will
Alternatively, cranial concussion, spinal transection, or ex- forever be a part of fish medicine given the huge number of
sanguination are effective methods in a deeply anesthetized fish species. In particular, information about analgesia and
fish (Harms 1999). drugs that may be appropriate is noticeably lacking (tech-
Although carbon dioxide is often reported as being use- niques and drugs used for fish euthanasia appear to be ade-
ful for immobilization, its use has many disadvantages, in- quate and appropriate).
cluding difficulty in controlling concentrations in water, the Beyond basic studies, investigations should be directed
need for maintaining high oxygen levels, and the occurrence at bringing the practice of fish anesthesia to the level of fa-
of markedly altered blood gases and acid-base balance miliarity and competence evident with other vertebrate
(Gelwicks and Zafft 1998; Harms 1999; Prince et al. 1995). classes. It is not uncommon for veterinarians, researchers,
Following immersion in water with a high CO2 concentra- and similar personnel to be particularly pleased with them-
tion, there is a rapid decrease in blood pH that results in less selves when they anesthetize a fish for the first time for a

short procedure and it recovers. While this indication of an Bressler K, Ron B. 2004. Effect of anesthetics on stress and the innate im-
increased interest in fish is a positive trend, the profession mune system of gilthead bream (Sparus aurata). Israeli J Aquacult
56:5-13.
should not be satisfied with this level of performance. If fish Brill RW, Bushnell PG. 2001. The cardiovascular system of tunas. In: Block
medicine (and especially surgery) is to advance, it is essen- BA, Stevens ED, eds. Tuna: Physiology, Ecology, and Evolution. New
tial to ensure that fish routinely survive medium- to long- York: Academic Press. p 79-119.
term procedures. While lengthy procedures and survival are Brown EAB, Franklin JE, Pratt E, Trams EG. 1972. Contributions to the
routine for a few species (e.g., carp), the literature is sparse pharmcology of quinaldine uptake and distribution in the shark and
comparative studies. Comp Biochem Physiol 42A:223-231.
concerning successful, prolonged surgical procedures in Bruecker P, Graham M. 1993. The effects of the anesthetic ketamine hydro-
other fish species. In our experience, many fish that require chloride on oxygen consumption rates and behaviour in the fish Heros
advanced or lengthy surgical techniques often make it (Cichlasoma) citrinellum (Günther 1864). Comp Biochem Physiol
through the surgery only to decompensate or develop a met- 104C:57-59.

abolic crisis during recovery or shortly thereafter. Bushnell PG, Jones DR. 1994. Cardiovascular and respiratory physiology
of tuna: Adaptations for support of exceptionally high metabolic rates.
We have demonstrated that monitoring of metabolic status
Environ Biol Fishes 40:303-318.
and vital signs is possible, but we have not explained how to Butler PJ, Taylor EW, Davison W. 1979. The effect of long-term, moderate
monitor these trends over the long term or, more importantly, hypoxia on acid base balance, plasma catecholamines and possible an-
how to respond to signs of health problems. A movement aerobic end products in the unrestrained dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula.
away from immersion agents to injectable agents, which can J Comp Physiol Part B 132:297-303.
Chandroo KP, Duncan IJH, Moccia RD. 2004. Can fish suffer? Perspectives
be dosed more accurately based on individual weight, may
on sentience, pain, fear, and stress. Appl Anim Behav Sci 86:225-250.
help negate some of the variation that can occur with immer- Cooke SJ, Suski CD, Ostrand KG, Tufts BL, Wahl DH. 2004. Behavioral
sion agents, which are more affected by the water environ- and physiological assessment of low concentrations of clove oil anaes-
mental status as well as the anatomy, physiology, and behavior thetic for handling and transporting largemouth bass (Micropterus sal-
of the fish species involved. The use of injectable agents does moides). Aquacult 239:509-529.
Cooper R, Krum H, Tzinas G, Sylvia P, Belle S, Kaufman L. 1994. A pre-
not, however, obviate the need for monitoring water quality.
liminary study of clinical techniques utilized with bluefin tuna (Thunnus
Alternatively, it may be worth considering immersion agents thynnus Linnaeus): A comparison of some captive and wild caught
for induction (thus eliminating the need for handling awake blood parameters. Proc Intl Assoc Aquat Anim Med 25:26-36.
fish), followed by administration of an injectable agent and Crosby TC, Hill JE, Watson CA, Yanong RPE. 2006. Effects of tricaine
postinduction removal of the fish to drug-free water. methanesulfonate, Hypno, metomidate, quinaldine, and salt on plasma
cortisol levels following acute stress in threespot gourami Trichogaster
trichopterus. J Aqua Anim Hlth 18:58-63.
Acknowledgments Cullen LK. 1996. Muscle relaxants and neuromuscular block. In: Thurmon
JC, Tranquilli WJ, Benson GJ, eds. Lumb and Jones’ Veterinary Anes-
thesia, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. p 337-364.
Portions of this manuscript were published in Neiffer (2007) Davis KB, Griffin BR. 2004. Physiological responses of hybrid striped bass
and Stamper (2007). under sedation by several anesthetics. Aquacult 233:531-548.
Davis MR, Mylniczenko N, Storms T, Raymond F, Dunn JL. 2006. Evalua-
tion of intramuscular ketoprofen and butorphanol as analgesics in chain
References dogfish (Scyliorhinus retifer). Zoo Biol 25:491-500.
Detar JE, Mattingly HT. 2004. Response of southern redbelly dace to clove
Afifi SH, Al-Thobaiti S, Rasem BM. 2001. Multiple exposure of Asian sea oil and MS-222: Effects of anesthetic concentration and water tempera-
bass (Lates calcarifer, Centropomidae) to clove oil: A histological ture. Proc Ann Con Southeastern Assoc Fish Wildl Agen 58:219-227.
study. J Aqua Trop 16:131-138. Dunn RF, Koester DM. 1990. Anesthetics in elasmobranchs: A review with
Aguiar LH, Kalinin AL, Rantin FT. 2002. The effects of temperature on the emphasis on halothane-oxygen-nitrous oxide. J Aquaricult Aquat Sci
cardio-respiratory function of the neotropical fish Piaractus mesopo- 5:44-52.
tamicus. J Therm Biol 27:299-308. Ferreira JT, Schoonbee HJ, Smit GL. 1984. The uptake of the anesthetic
Andrews JC, Jones RT. 1990. A method for the transport of sharks for cap- benzocaine hydrochloride by the gills and the skin of three freshwater
tivity. J Aquaricult Aquat Sci 5:70-72. fish species. J Fish Biol 25:35-41.
AVMA [American Veterinary Medical Association]. 2007. Guidelines on Fleming GJ, Heard DJ, Floyd RF, Riggs A. 2003. Evaluation of propofol
Euthanasia (formerly the Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia). and medetomidine-ketamine for short-term immobilization of Gulf of
Available online (http://www.avma.org/issues/animal_welfare/euthana- Mexico sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus de soti). J Zoo Wildl Med
sia.pdf), accessed March 11, 2009. 34:153-158.
Bassi M, Klein W, Fernandes MN, Perry SF, Glass ML. 2005. Pulmonary Gelwicks KR, Zafft DJ. 1998. Efficacy of carbonic acid as an anesthetic for
oxygen diffusing capacity of the South American lungfish Lepidosiren rainbow trout. N Am J Fish Mgmt 18:432-438.
paradoxa: Physiological values by the Bohr method. Physiolog Bio- Gilmour KM, Perry SF, Wood CM, Henry RP, Laurent P, Pärt P, Walsh PJ.
chem Zool 78:560-569. 1998. Nitrogen excretion and the cardiorespiratory physiology of the
Bernal SD, Graham JB. 2001. Water-tunnel studies of heat balance in swim- gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta. Physiolog Zool 71:492-505.
ming mako sharks. J Exp Biol 204:4043-4054. Gomes LC, Chippari-Gomes AR, Lopes NP, Roubach R, Araujo-Lima
Bernstein PS, Digre KB, Creel DJ. 1997. Retinal toxicity associated with CARM. 2001. Efficacy of benzocaine as an anesthetic in juvenile tam-
occupational exposure to the fish anesthetic MS-222 (ethyl-m-ami- baqui Colossoma macropomum. J World Aquacult Soc 32:426-431.
nobenzoic acid methanesulfonate). Am J Ophthal 124:843-844. Graham JB. 1997. Air-Breathing Fishes: Evolution, Diversity, and Adapta-
Blank JM, Morrissette JM, Landeira-Fernandez AM, Blackwell SB, tion. San Diego: Academic Press.
Williams TD, Block BA. 2004. In situ cardiac performance of Pacific Graham MS, Iwama GK. 1990. The physiologic effects of the anesthetic
bluefin tuna hearts in response to acute temperature change. J Exp Biol ketamine hydrochloride on two Salmonid species. Aquacult 90:323-
207:881-890. 332.
358 ILAR Journal

Gruber SH, Keyes RS. 1981. Keeping sharks for research. In: Hawkins AD, Maren TH, Embry R, Broder LE. 1968. The excretion of drugs across the
ed. Aquarium Systems. London: Academic Press, Harcourt Brace gill of the dogfish, Squalus acanthias. Comp Biochem Physiol 26:853-
Jovanovich. p 373-402. 864.
Guo FC, Teo LH, Chen TW. 1995. Effects of anaesthetics on the water pa- Mattson NS, Riple TH. 1989. Metomidate, a better anesthetic for cod (Ga-
rameters in a simulated transport experiment of platyfish, Xiphophorus dus morhua) in comparison with benzocaine, MS-222, chlorobutanol,
maculates (Günther). Aquacult Res 26:265-271. and phenoxyethanol. Aquacult 83:89-94.
Hansen MK, Nymoen U, Horsberg TE. 2003. Pharmokinetic and pharma- Miller SM, Mitchell MA, Heatley JJ, Wolf T, Lapuz F, Smith JA. 2005.
codynamic properties of metomidate in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) Clinical and cardiorespiratory effects of propofol in the spotted bamboo
and halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). J Vet Pharmacol Therap 26: shark (Chiloscyllium plagiosum). J Zoo Wild Anim Med 36:673-676.
95-103. Mulvey JM, Renshaw GMC. 2009. GABA is not elevated during neuropro-
Harms CA. 1999. Anesthesia in fish. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo tective neuronal depression in the hypoxic epaulette shark (Hemiscyl-
and Wild Animal Medicine, Current Therapy 4. Philadelphia: WB Saun- lium ocellatum). Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 152:273-277.
ders. p 158-163. Muñoz-Chápuli R, Satchell GH. 1999. Circulatory system: Anatomy of the

Harms CA. 2003. Fish. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo and Wild Ani- peripheral circulatory system. In: Hamlett WC, ed. Sharks, Skates, and
mal Medicine, 5th ed. St. Louis: Saunders. p 2-20. Rays: The Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
Harms CA, Bakal RS. 1995. Techniques in fish anesthesia. J Sm Exot Anim University Press. p 198-218.
Med 3:19-25. Myszkowski L, Kamiński R, Wolnicki J. 2003. Response of juvenile tench
Harms CA, Lewbart GA, Swanson CR, Kishimori JM, Boylan SM. 2005. Tinca tinca (L.) to the anaesthetic 2-phenoxyethanol. J Appl Ichthyol
Behavioral and clinical pathology changes in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) 19:142-145.
subjected to anesthesia and surgery with and without intra-operative an- Neiffer DL. 2007. Boney fish (lungfish, sturgeon, and teleosts). In: West G,
algesics. Comp Med 55:221-226. Heard D, Caulkett N, eds. Zoo Animal and Wildlife Immobilization and
Harvey B, Denny C, Kaiser S, Young J. 1988. Remote intramuscular injec- Anesthesia. Ames IA: Blackwell Publishing. p 159-196.
tion of immobilizing drugs into fish using a laser-aimed underwater dart Oikawa S, Takeda T, Itazawa Y. 1994. Scale effects of MS-222 on a marine
gun. Vet Rec 122:174-177. teleost, porgy Pagrus major. Aquacult 121:369-379.
Holmgren S, Nilsson S. 1999. Digestive system. In: Hamlett WC, ed. Olsen YA, Einarsdottir IE, Nilssen KJ. 1995. Metomidate anaesthesia in
Sharks, Skates, and Rays: The Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes. Balti- Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, prevents plasma cortisol increase during
more: Johns Hopkins University Press. p 144-173. stress. Aquacult 134:155-168.
Horsberg TE, Burka JF, Tasker RAR. 1999. Actions and pharmacokinetic Oswald RL. 1978. Injection anesthesia for experimental studies in fish.
properties of the α2-adrenergic agents, medetomidine and atipamezole, Comp Biochem Physiol 60:19-26.
in rainbow trout (Oncorhyunchus mykiss). J Vet Anaesth 26:18-22. Peters RC, Van Den Hoek B, Bretschneider F, Struik ML. 2001. Saffan®: A
Hoskonen P, Pirhonen J. 2004. The effect of clove oil sedation on oxygen review and some examples of its use in fishes (Pisces: Teleostei). Nether
consumption of six temperate-zone fish species. Aquacult Res 35: J Zool 51:421-437.
1002-1005. Prince AMJ, Low SE, Lissimore TJ. 1995. Sodium bicarbonate and ace-
Hseu J-R, Yeh S-L, Chu Y-T, Ting Y-Y. 1996. Effects of anesthesia with tic acid: An effective anesthetic for field use. N Am J Fish Mgmt
2-phenoxyethanol on the hematological parameters of four species of 15:170-172.
marine teleosts. J Fish Soc Taiwan 23:43-48. Rantin FT, Glass ML, Kalinin AL, Verzola RMM, Fernandes MN. 1993.
Hseu J-R, Yeh S-L, Chu Y-T, Ting Y-Y. 1997. Different anesthetic effects Cardio-respiratory responses in two ecologically distinct erythrinids
of 2-phenoxyethanol on four species of teleost. J Fish Soc Taiwan (Hoplias malabaricus and Hoplias lacerdae) exposed to graded envi-
24:185-191. ronmental hypoxia. Env Biol Fish 36:93-97.
Hseu J-R, Yeh S-L, Chu Y-T, Ting Y-Y. 1998. Comparison of efficacy of five Rantin FT, Guerra CDR, Kalinin AL, Glass ML. 1998. The influence of
anesthetics in goldlined seabream, Sparus sarba. Acta Zool Taiwan aquatic surface respiration (ASR) on cardio-respiratory function of the
9:11-18. serrasalmid fish Piaractus mesopotamicus. Comp Biochem Physiol
Huntingford FA, Adams C, Braithwaite VA, Kadri S, Pottinger TG, Sandøe 119:991-997.
P, Turnbull JF. 2006. Current issues in fish welfare. J Fish Biol 68:332- Rose JD. 2002. The neurobehavioral nature of fishes and the question of
372. awareness and pain. Rev Fisher Sci 10:1-38.
Hughes GM. 1978. On the respiration of Torpedo marmorata. J Exp Biol Ross LG. 2001. Restraint, anaesthesia, and euthanasia. In: Wildgoose WH,
73:85-105. ed. BSAVA Manual of Ornamental Fish, 2nd ed. Gloucester: BSAVA. p
Ishimatsu A, Itazawa Y. 1993. Anatomy and physiology of the cardiorespi- 75-83.
ratory system in air-breathing fish, Channa argus. In: Singh BR, ed. Ross LG, Ross B. 1984. Anaesthetic and SedativeTechniques for Fish. Glas-
Advances in Fish Research. Delhi: Narendra Publishing House. p gow: Nautical Press.
55-70. Rothwell SE, Black SE, Jerrett AR, Forster ME. 2005. Cardiovascular
Iversen M, Finstad B, McKinley RS, Eliassen RA. 2003. The efficacy of changes and catecholamine release following anaesthesia in Chinook
metomidate, clove oil, Aqui-S™ and Benzoak® as anaesthetics in At- salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and snapper (Pagrus auratus).
lantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts, and their potential stress-reducing Comp Biochem Physiol 140:289-298.
capacity. Aquacult 221:549-566. Roubach R, Gomes LC, Val AL. 2001. Safest level of tricaine methanesul-
Keene JL, Noakes DLG, Moccia RD, Soto CG. 1998. The efficacy of clove fonate (MS-222) to induce anesthesia in juveniles of matrinxã, Brycon
oil as an anaesthetic for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Wal- cephalus. Acta Amazonica 31:159-163.
baum). Aquacult Res 29:89-101. Routley MH, Nilsson GE, Renshaw GMC. 2002. Exposure to hypoxia
Kildea MA, Allan GL, Kearney RE. 2004. Accumulation and clearance of primes the respiratory and metabolic responses of the epaulette shark
the anaesthetics clove oil and Aqui-S™ from the edible tissue of silver to progressive hypoxia. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 131:313-321.
perch (Bidyanus bidyanus). Aquacult 232:265-277. Sandblom E, Cox GK, Perry SF, Farrell AP. 2009. The role of venous ca-
Kumlu M, Yanar M. 1999. Effects of the anesthetic quinaldine sulphate and pacitance, circulating catecholamines and heart rate in the hemody-
muscle relaxant diazepam on sea bream juveniles (Sparus aurata). Is- namic response to increased temperature and hypoxia in the dogfish.
raeli J Aquacult 51:143-147. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 296:R1547-R1556.
Latas PJ. 1987. The use of azaperone in the spiny dogfish (Squalus acan- Sladky KK, Swanson CR, Stoskopf MK, Loomis MR, Lewbart GA. 2001.
thias). In: International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine Comparative efficacy of tricaine methanesulfonate and clove oil for use
Annual Proceedings. May 10-14, Monterey California. O’Fallon IL: as anesthetics in red pacu (Piaractus brachypomus). Am J Vet Res 62:
Veterinary Software Publishing. p 157-165. 337-342.

Small BC. 2003. Anesthetic efficacy of metomidate and comparison of plasma Stoskopf MK. 1986. Preliminary notes on the immobilization and anesthe-
cortisol responses to tricaine methanesulfonate, quinaldine and clove oil sia of captive sharks. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Akademie-Verlag
anesthetized channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Aquacult 218:177-185. Berlin 28:145-151.
Small BC. 2005. Routine measures of stress are reduced in mature channel Stoskopf MK. 1993. Shark pharmacology and toxicology. In: Stoskopf MK,
catfish during and after Aqui-S anesthesia and recovery. N Am J Aqua- ed. Fish Medicine. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. p 809-816.
cult 67:72-78. Thomas P, Robertson L. 1991. Plasma cortisol and glucose stress responses
Sneddon LU, Braithwaite VA, Gentle MJ. 2003. Do fishes have nociceptors: of red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) to handling and shallow water stress-
Evidence for the evolution of the vertebrate sensory system. Proc Royal ors and anesthesia with MS-222, quinaldine sulfate, and metomidate.
Soc Lond B 270:1115-1121. Aquacult 96:69-86.
Sneddon LU. 2003. The evidence for pain in fish: The use of morphine as Totland GK, Kryvi H, Bone Q, Flood PR. 1981. Vascularization of the
an analgesic. Appl Anim Beh Sci 83:153-162. lateral muscle of some elamobranchiomorph fishes. J Fish Biol
Snyder SB, Richard MJ, Berzins IK, Stamper MA. 1998. Immobilization of 18:223-234.
sandtiger sharks (Odontaspis taurus). Proc Internat Assoc Aquat Anim Tyler P, Hawkins AD. 1981. Vivisections, anaesthetics and minor surgery.
Med 29:120-121. May 2-6, San Diego. In: Hawkins AD, ed. Aquarium Systems. London: Academic Press Inc.,

Söderström V, Renshaw GMC, Nilsson GE. 1999. Brain blood flow and Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p 248-278.
blood pressure during hypoxia in the epaulette shark Hemiscyllium Ultsch GR, Jackson DC, Moalli R. 1981. Metabolic oxygen conformity in
ocellatum, a hyopoxia-tolerant elasmobranch. J Exp Biol 202:829-835. lower vertebrates: The toadfish revisited. J Comp Physiol 142:439-
Spotte S. 1992. Captive Seawater Fishes. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 443.
Stamper MA. 2007. Elasmobranchs (sharks, rays, and skates). In: West G, Walsh CT, Pease BC. 2002. The use of clove oil as an anaesthetic for the
Heard D, Caulkett N, eds. Zoo Animal and Wildlife Immobilization and longfinned eel, Anquilla reinhardtii (Steindachner). Aquacult Res
Anesthesia. Ames IA: Blackwell Publishing. p 197-203. 33:627-635.
Steers JE, Sherrill J. 2001. Use of oral tiletamine-zolazepam for sedation Williams TD, Christiansen J, Nygren S. 1988. Intramuscular anesthesia of
and translocation of captive yellowtail jacks (Seriola lalandi). Proc Intl teleosts and elasmobranchs using ketamine hydrochloride. Proc Ann
Assoc Aqua Anim Med. p 168-170. Conf Am Assoc Zool Parks Aquaria. p 132-135.
Stehly GR, Gingerich WH. 1999. Evaluation of AQUI-S™ (efficacy and Williams TD, Rollins M, Block BA. 2004. Intramuscular anesthesia of bo-
minimum toxic concentration) as a fish anaesthetic/sedative for public nito and Pacific mackerel with ketamine and medetomidine and reversal
aquaculture in the United States. Aquacult Res 30:365-372. of anesthesia with atipamezole. JAVMA 225:417-421.
Stetter MD. 2001. Fish and amphibian anesthesia. In: Heard DJ, ed. Veteri- Yanar M, Kumlu M. 2001. The anaesthetic effects of quinaldine sulphate
nary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. Philadelphia: and/or diazepam on sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) juveniles. Turk J
WB Saunders. p 69-82. Vet Anim Sci 25:185-189.
360 ILAR Journal

Dosis Anastesi Pada Ikan

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dosis Anastesi Pada Ikan

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dosis Anastesi Pada Ikan

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fish Sedation, Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Euthanasia:

Considerations, Methods, and Types of Drugs

Donald L. Neiffer and M. Andrew Stamper

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Donald L. Neiffer, VMD, DACZM, is Veterinary Operations Manager for

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 343

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

344 ILAR Journal

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 345

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

346 ILAR Journal

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 347

minimized by inserting the needle at an acute angle directed

348 ILAR Journal

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 349

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

350 ILAR Journal

Druga Route Fish taxa Dose Comments

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 351

Drug Route Fish taxa Dose Comments

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

352 ILAR Journal

Drug Route Fish taxa Dose Comments

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

IV Cichlids and salmonids 30 mg/kg Anesthesia following sedation

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 353

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

354 ILAR Journal

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Quinaldine, a quinoline derivative, is a yellowish oily liquid

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 355

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

356 ILAR Journal

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 357

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

358 ILAR Journal

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

Volume 50, Number 4 2009 359

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/50/4/343/868661 by guest on 01 February 2020

360 ILAR Journal

You might also like