Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Methods: Dr. George Havenith

Dr.
George Havenith,
Human Thermal Environments Laboratory
Dept. Human Sciences
Loughborough University
Leics. LE11 3TU
United Kingdom
Tel +44 1509 223031
Fax +44 1509 223940
[email protected]
HANDBOOK OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS

METHODS
General Editor: Professor Neville Stanton
Publisher: Taylor and Francis
CHAPTER 60
METHOD: THERMAL CONDITIONS MEASUREMENT
Dr. George Havenith,

Human Thermal Environments Laboratory
Dept. Human Sciences
Loughborough University
Leics. LE11 3TU
United Kingdom
Tel +44 1509 223031
Fax +44 1509 223940
[email protected]
This book chapter is posted for personal use only. For any other use the user must contact Taylor & Francis directly: [email protected]
1 Background and application
Thermal comfort and strain can be assessed by objective assessment of the heat exchange
processes, and by subjective methods.
1.1 Heat exchange processes

This requires measurement of the climatic parameters affecting the human heat balance (Fig.
1). For comfort, or low thermal strain this balance should be close to equilibrium (heat
production equals heat loss), resulting in a relatively stable body temperature.
Heat production is determined by metabolic activity. When at rest, this is the amount of energy
needed for the body’s basic functions. When working, the metabolic activity increases. When
active muscles burn nutrients for mechanical activity, some energy is liberated outside the body as
external work, but most energy is released internally as heat. The ratio between this external work
and the total energy consumed is called the efficiency with which the body performs the work.
Efficiency is close to zero for most tasks. In the cold, shivering can produce additional heat: muscle
activity with zero efficiency, increasing metabolic rate and heat production up to fourfold.
Several pathways are available for heat loss, expressed in W.m-2, from the body, between skin and
environment (Fig. 2). For each pathway the amount of transferred heat depends on the driving
force (e.g. temperature or vapour pressure gradient), the body surface area involved and the
resistance to that heat flow (e.g. clothing insulation).
Of the pathways shown in Fig. 2, unless working in water, in special gas mixtures (prolonged
deep-sea dives), handling cold products or in supine positions, conductivity is not a relevant factor.
Convection heat loss occurs when air cooler than the skin flows along the skin, and carries away
body heat.
When there is a difference between the body’s surface temperature and the temperature of the
surfaces in the environment, heat will be exchanged by radiation. Finally, heat can be lost by
evaporation of moisture (sweat) on the skin. Evaporative and convective heat losses also occur in
the lungs during respiration, as inspired air is usually cooler and dryer than the lung’s internal
surface. This can be up to 10% of the total heat production.
The body gains heat when air temperature, radiant temperature or vapour pressure around the body
is higher than the skin value, and this can result in heat stress.
1.1.1 Measurement of relevant factors in heat exchange
External parameters that need to be assessed to determine heat or cold stress levels or comfort
conditions include:
Temperature
As temperature increases body heat loss by convection, conduction and radiation decreases. Three
relevant temperatures need to be assessed:
 Air temperature (ta). This can be measured by a conventional alcohol filled thermometer or by
an electronic thermometer. Smaller sensors react faster to variations in the climate. Use a
shielded sensor (Fig. 3) when radiation is present (sun or other heat source) Typically a
(polished) shield is used in combination with a device to suck air (blowing could add heat from
the fan motor) over the sensor to ensure a true air temperature measurement (see Assman
psychrometer, Fig. 5). Sensor range/accuracy: to measure comfort: 10 - 40ºC/±0.5ºC; to
measure stress –40 - +120ºC/outside comfort range ±1ºC; desirable accuracy 0.2ºC.
 Mean Radiant temperature ( tr ). This is the mean temperature of all walls and objects in the
space (including sky outdoors). When mean radiant temperature exceeds skin temperature (e.g.
in steel mills, or in work in the sun) heat transfers from the environment to the skin. tr is most
commonly measured indirectly using a matt black globe (typically 15cm diameter) with a
temperature sensor in its centre (Fig. 4). Given the size of the globe, it needs a long period to
equilibrate (>20 min), and is therefore not sensitive to fast fluctuations in radiation. The globe
temperature can be used to calculate tr .
0.25
 1.1  108 va
0.6

If va  0.15 (air movement) : tr   t g  273   t g  ta  
4
 273
 g  D 0.4

with tr  mean radiant temperature (C )
t g  globe temperature (C )
ta  ambient temperature (C , shielded) (1)
va  air speed (ms-1 )
D =globe diameter (standard = 0.15 m) and
 g  emission coefficient (matt black paint = 0.95)
If other equipment is used (Fig. 4) refer to ISO7726 for calculation of tr .

Sensor tr range/accuracy: Comfort: 10 - 40ºC/±2.ºC ; Stress –40 - +150ºC/ between -40 and
+50ºC : ± 5ºC above +50ºC : linear increase from 5ºC to 13 at 150ºC ; desirable accuracy
comfort: 0.2ºC; stress:5ºC .
For measurement of plane radiant temperature, typically used in comfort assessment the
accuracy required in the range of 0 to 50ºC is ±0.5ºC.
 Surface temperature (ts). Surface temperature is measured with special sensors (Fig. 3) that
ensure a good contact with the surface while insulating the sensor from the environment, or
with a non-contact infrared sensor (Fig. 4). With a contact sensor, the conduction between
surface and sensor must be much higher than that from the sensor to the environment and
sometimes conductive paste helps. Surfaces with very low conductivity however (e.g. wood,
Styrofoam), may yield false values and here a non-contact infrared sensor is better. This is
dependent on the emissivity/reflectivity of the surface, required to calculate the actual ts. For
most matt surfaces this is rather constant but shiny surfaces can act as a mirror, and the sensor
may measure reflected radiation from other objects as well.
Sensor ts range/accuracy: Comfort: 0 - 50ºC/±1.ºC ; Stress –40 - +120ºC/ between -10 and
+50ºC : ± 1ºC, below –10ºC and above +50ºC : linear increase from 1ºC to 3.5ºC and 4.5ºC
respectively to range limit; desirable accuracy comfort: 0.5ºC; stress:0.5ºC
Air humidity
The amount of moisture present in the environmental air (the moisture concentration in g.kg-1,
g.m-3 or vapour pressure in Pascal [Pa]) determines whether moisture (sweat) in vapour form flows
from the skin to the environment or vice versa. Often air humidity is expressed as relative
humidity, i.e. the actual amount of moisture in the air compared to the maximum amount possible
at that temperature:
pa
RH  100 (%)
pas
with pa  ambient vapour pressure (2)
pas  saturated vapour pressure at ambient temperature
Relative humidity can be measured with hair hygrometers, but these have a very limited accuracy
and react slowly. Electronic sensors (Fig. 5; capacitance sensors with relative humidity sensitive
di-electricum; lithium chloride hygrometers) are available, but if exposed to extreme climates these
tend to show a slow drift (over several days) and need regular recalibration. Very accurate, but
costly, are dewpoint sensors that cool a smooth surface and detect the temperature at which
condensation occurs, i.e. the dewpoint. The moisture concentration of the environment is then
equal to the saturation vapour pressure at this dewpoint.
The psychrometer (Fig. 5) is both accurate and affordable. It combines an ambient temperature
sensor (dry bulb) and a temperature sensor with a wet cotton wick around it (wet bulb).
Evaporation from the wet wick cools the thermometer, and lowers the wet bulb temperature
relative to the dry bulb air temperature. The difference is used to calculate the relative humidity.
Whirling the sensor in the air (a whirling hygrometer) or by having a fan suck air over it as in an
Assman Psychrometer, helps the instrument attain stability. The Assman instrument also shields
the sensors from thermal radiation (Fig. 5).
When no forced air movement is applied to the wick and the sensor is freely exposed to the
environment, it is sensitive to air movement and radiation too and it is called a ‘natural wet bulb
thermometer’. This is part of a WBGT meter.
Relative humidity can be converted to vapour pressure as:
 4030.183 
RH RH  23.5613 
pa   pas  e ta  235 
 Pa  (3)
100 100
If the dewpoint needs to be converted into vapour pressure, this is simply done using the last
equation with RH=100% and the dewpoint temperature instead of ta.
For the calculation of vapour pressure from the whirling hygrometer or psychrometer, i.e. from ta
or dry bulb temperature (tdb) and aspirated wet bulb (twb), the following equation is used:
 4030.183 
 23.5613 
pa  pas (at wet bulb temperature )  667   ta  t wb   e  667   ta  t wb   Pa  (4)
 ta  235 
Other conversions can be found in ISO7726 (1998).
The moisture concentration or vapour pressure, not the relative humidity is the determining factor
for skin evaporation. Saturated air that has a relative humidity of 100% can contain different
amounts of moisture (equation 3), depending on its temperature. The higher the temperature, the
higher the moisture content at equal relative humidities. When the air temperature is lower than the
skin temperature, sweat will always be able to evaporate from the skin, even at 100% relative
humidity as the skin’s vapour pressure will be higher than that of the air.
Absolute humidity pa range/accuracy: Comfort: 500 – 3000 Pa/± 150 Pa; Stress 500 – 6000 Pa/ ±
150 Pa; accuracy to be guaranteed for a range of tr  ta  10 C for comfort, and  20 C for
stress.
Air speed
The magnitude of air movement (va) and its direction and turbulence affects both convective and
evaporative heat losses, and heat exchange increases with increasing wind speed. In a cool
environment the body cools faster in the presence of wind, whereas in an extremely hot, humid
environment, it will heat up faster. In a very hot, but dry environment, it will promote dry heat
transfer towards the body, but will also increase evaporative heat loss from the body.
Air speed can be measured using a vane or cup anemometer (Fig. 6) if the air movement is coming
from a fixed direction and fluctuates only slowly. A hot wire anemometer is used if the wind is not
unidirectional, or fluctuates fast, (Fig. 6). In some designs the heated wire is replaced by other
heated shapes (sphere; Fig. 6). Air velocity can also be measured with a Kata -thermometer which
has a very large, fluid reservoir (Fig. 6). It is first heated and then hung in the relevant location and
allowed to cool to air temperature. The cooling speed measured by the drop of the fluid level in the
stem over time is a measure for the air movement.
Sensor va : range/accuracy: Comfort: 0.05 – 1 ms-1 /± (0.05+0.05 va) ms-1; Stress 0.2 - 20 ms-1/ ±
(0.1+0.05 va) ms-1); response time (90% of final value reached in this time): comfort  0.5 s,
desirable  0.2 s (for measurement of turbulence intensity).
Measuring locations
Spatial considerations: The exact location of thermal measurements should represent the actual
worker’s locations in the space, i.e. their workstations. If this is not practical, conditions should be
measured over a grid of locations in the work place. The higher the thermal variations in space, the
denser this grid will need to be. A grid width with 5 meters intervals should be sufficient for most
situations. Apart from this horizontal distribution, it is also relevant to repeat measurements at
different heights for each location: typically the worker’s head, trunk and legs/feet height. For
standing work: 1.7m, 1.1m, and 0.1m. For sitting work: 1.1, 0.6 and 0.1m. In very homogeneous
environments a measurement at abdomen level (1.1 m for standing, 0.6 for sitting) is sufficient.
Temporal considerations: Measurement at one point in time can be misleading. It may be

important to investigate the climate profile for daily and seasonal patterns. Leaving equipment to
log climate conditions for at least a day is the minimum. Using questionnaires to find out which are
the problem times can save a lot of effort.
1.1.2 Personal parameters
Some thermal comfort and stress assessment methods require information on clothing insulation
and metabolic heat production.
Clothing insulation
Clothing resists heat and moisture transfer between skin and environment. This can protect against
extreme heat and cold, but also hamper heat loss during physical effort. Clothing insulation
( m2  CW 1 or in clo; 1 clo = 0.155 m2  CW 1 ) is expressed either as total insulation (It, includes
surface air layer) or so-called ‘intrinsic insulation’ (Icl, clothing with enclosed air layers only).
Values for clothing insulation ( I T for clothing including surface air layer, or Icl for clothing only)
and vapour resistance (Re) can be measured (Havenith, 1999, Havenith et al., 2002), but usually
these are estimated from lists of insulations for numerous clothing ensembles. Extensive lists of
clothing insulations as well as different methods for its estimation can be found in ISO 9920
(1995). Some examples are presented in Table 1.
Hardly any listings of clothing vapour resistance are available, but once insulation is known,
vapour resistance can be estimated as:
It
Re 
0.0165  im
with Re  clothing vapour resistance (PaCW 1 )
I t  clothing heat resistance (m 2 CW 1 ) (5)
im  clothing permeability index (n.d.)
0.0165  Lewis constant (0.0165 C.Pa -1 )
The value for im can be estimated from Table 2.
Clothing insulation and vapour resistance are affected by many factors: movement of the wearer,
wind, wetting etc. For a more detailed description see Havenith et al. (1999, 2002), Holmér et al.
(1999) and Nilsson et al. (2000). Table values for clothing insulation for most normal and warm
weather clothing (1,9 clo > I T > 1,2 clo) can be corrected:
I T ,dynamic  correction factor  I T ,static
( 0.281( var 0.15)0.044( var 0.15)2 0.492 w0.176w2 )
correction factor  e
with I T ,static  clothing insulation obtained from tables
w  walking speed; maximally1.2 ms -1 (6)
if other movement, derive from metabolic rate as
w  0.0052  ( Metabolic rate [Wm -2 ] - 58); limited to w  0.7 ms -1
var  relative air speed; minimally 0.15; maximally 3 ms -1
For specialised, insulating cold weather clothing, which typically has low air permeability and
where high wind speeds occur more frequently, the equation for the correction factor to be used is:
correction factor = 0.54  e(-0.15va -0.22 w )

 p0.075 - 0.06  ln( p )  0.5
with :
var  relative air speed; from 0.4 m/s to 18 ms -1
w = walking speed (ms -1 ); from 0 to 1.2 ms -1
p = air permeability of outer fabric (lm 2 s -1 ) ; from 1 to 1000 lm 2 s -1
low: (e.g. coating or laminate) 1; medium 50; high (open weave) 1000 lm 2 s -1
(7)
Here it is assumed that head and hands are covered with hood / hat and gloves; i.e. the body is
totally covered.
For correction of vapour resistance the relations are slightly more complex. For most applications
however, a reduction in vapour resistance equal to 1.3 times that in heat resistance (equation 8 or 9)
is a good approximation. For more details see Havenith et al. (1999, 2002).
Metabolic rate
For most ergonomics applications the efficiency of external work (energy released outside the
body) performed is close to zero. Only on cycle ergometers, or continuous walking upwards on
stairs the efficiency climbs to significant values (maximum around 0.23). Hence almost all
metabolic energy is released as heat in the body. It can be measured using indirect calorimetry
(measuring oxygen uptake; ISO8996, 1990). Metabolic rates for a large number of activities can be
estimated using tables describing activities, professions, postures etc. An overview is given in table
3, with an example for a quite coarse classification in table 4; both taken from the extensive listings
in ISO 8996 (1990) and from Spitzer et al. (1982).
1.2 Subjective methods
For thermal environments subjective assessment methods have been developed suggesting scales
to be used in questionnaires (ISO 10551, 1995). The subjective assessment is split in several
categories for which the related questions are:
Category Question
Perceptual: How are you feeling (at this precise moment)?
Evaluation: Do you find this ……..?
Preference: Would you prefer to be …..?
Acceptability: Do you find this acceptable?
Tolerance: Is it tolerable?
The relevant scales to be used are shown in Table 5 to 8.

Note that many factors other than workplace climate (e.g. stress, problems with management,
general working conditions) affect dissatisfaction with the thermal environment. Wherever
possible objective data should complement subjective assessments.
2 Standard and Regulations

The most relevant standards for this area are develop in the committees: ISO TC159/WG1 and
CEN TC122/WG11:
Basic standards:
ISO 7726: 1998 (EN27726), Thermal environments - instruments and methods for measuring
physical quantities.
ISO 8996: 1990 (EN28996), Ergonomics - determination of metabolic heat production.
ISO 9920 (EN9920): 1995, Ergonomics of the thermal environment - estimation of the thermal
insulation and evaporative resistance of a clothing ensemble.
ISO 11399: 1995 (EN11399), Ergonomics of the thermal environment – principles and application
of international standards.
ISO 13731 (prEN13202) Ergonomics of the thermal environment – vocabulary and symbols.
ISO 12894: 1993 (EN12894), Ergonomics of the thermal environment - medical supervision of
individuals exposed to hot or cold environments.
Thermal comfort, stress and strain
ISO 7730: 1994 (EN7730), Moderate thermal environments - determination of the PMV and PPD
indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort.
ISO 7243: 1995 (EN7243) Hot environments - estimation of the heat stress on working man, based
on the WBGT-index (wet bulb globe temperature).
ISO 7933: 1989 (EN12515), Hot environments – analytical determination and interpretation of
thermal stress using calculation of required sweat rate.
ISO 9886: 1992 (EN9886), Evaluation of thermal strain by physiological measurements.
ISO 10551: 1995 (EN10551), Ergonomics of the thermal environment – assessment of the
influence of the thermal environment using subjective judgement scales.
ISO TR 11079 (Technical Report): 1993 (ENV11079), Evaluation of cold environments -
determination of required clothing insulation, IREQ.
Risk of burns and cold injury

ISO/ NP 13732 Part 1. Ergonomics of the thermal environment - methods for the assessment of
human responses to contact with surfaces. Part 1: Hot surfaces.
ISO CD 13732 Part 2. Ergonomics of the thermal environment - methods for the assessment of
human responses to contact with surfaces. Part 2: Moderate surfaces.
ISO/NP 13732 Part 3. Ergonomics of the thermal environment - methods for the assessment of
human responses to contact with surfaces. Part 3: Cold surfaces.
Special applications
ISO NP 14405: Ergonomics of the thermal environment - evaluation of the thermal environment in
vehicles.
ISO NP 14415: Ergonomics of the thermal environment - application of international standards to
the disabled, the aged and handicapped persons.
ISO NP 15743: Ergonomics of the thermal environment – working practices for cold indoor
environments.
3 Approximate training and application time

Training in the use of instruments for thermal assessment should take around 2-4 hours depending
on the user’s background and should include recognising problems with the measurement
instruments. A staged approach to thermal assessment can be used: first assessments are done by
lay persons. If any thermal problems are indicated, more highly trained people become involved,
and these again could call upon experts in critical cases (Malchaire, 2000).
10
The application time is mainly determined by the number of locations, the type, amount and
response times of the equipment (e.g. black globe: 20-30 min.) and by the expected variations in
the climate. The more variable the climate, the longer the logging should be continued to catch
average and worst case data. For seasonal effects, repeated measurements will be required.
4 Reliability and validity

Thermometers (mercury/alcohol thermometer, thermometer in black globe) will require calibration
against a standard, but then are very stable and reliable. Humidity measurements based on wet bulb
temperature are sensitive to pollution of the wick (replace regularly; use distilled water) and
problems with the air ventilation rate. The sensor itself is a thermometer and thus reliable.
Electronic sensors (temperature, humidity, wind speed) need regular calibration of both sensor and
electronic circuits combined. Electronic temperature sensors are usually quite stable, but electronic
humidity measurements need regular checks and calibrations, especially when used in extremes.
Estimations of metabolic rate and of clothing insulation can show large errors (±10%). This should
be considered when evaluating the outcome of the analyses.
5 Tools needed
A basic toolset should allow for the determination of the 4 climatic parameters: ta, tr , pa (or RH)
and va. Hence it should consist of:
 an ambient temperature sensor: low cost: regular thermometer or electronic sensor,
preferably shielded for radiation.
 a radiant temperature sensor: low cost: a black globe, medium/high cost: radiometer.
 humidity sensor: medium cost: whirling hygrometer, Assman psychrometer, Electronic RH
sensor; high cost: dewpoint sensor.
 wind speed/air movement: medium cost: Kata-thermometer; hot wire anemometer and vane
anemometer (unidirectional); high cost: heated sphere (multidirectional).
6 Steps in method
Steps that need to be taken for the objective assessment are:
 identify and select appropriate equipment to measure ta, tr , pa (or RH) and va, considering
range, accuracy and response time of apparatus and sensors,
 calibrate equipment,
 survey expected climate fluctuations in time (seasons, weather) and space within
workspace by interviews with workers,
11
 locate relevant workstations as measurement locations or define locations using a grid of
the total workspace,
 define locations and measurement timing over day/seasons/weather conditions,
 measure and register climatic parameters at three heights (one height in highly uniform
environments) at all locations,
 survey the work load (metabolic rate) and clothing (insulation) worn at the various
workplaces,
 correct clothing insulation for movement and wind,
 take all data and use heat or cold stress, or comfort evaluation methods as described in
following chapters.
7 References
Havenith, G. (1999). Heat Balance When Wearing Protective Clothing, Annals of Occupational
Hygiene, 43(5) 289-296.
Havenith, G., Holmér, I., Den Hartog, E.A. & Parsons, K.C. (1999). Clothing Evaporative Heat
Resistance-Proposal for Improved Representation in Standards and Models, Annals of
Occupational Hygiene, 43(5), 339-346.
Havenith, G., Holmér, I., & Parsons, K. (2002). Personal factors in thermal comfort assessment:
clothing properties and metabolic heat production, Energy and Buildings 34 (6)581-591.
Holmér, I., Nilsson, H., Havenith, G. & Parsons, K.C. (1999). Clothing Convective Heat Exchange
- Proposal for improved Prediction in Standards and Models, Annals of Occupational
Hygiene, 43(5), 329-337.
ISO 10551 / EN10551 (1995). Ergonomics of the thermal environment – assessment of the
influence of the thermal environment using subjective judgement scales. International
Standardisation Organisation, Geneva
ISO 7726 / EN27726 (1998). Thermal environments - instruments and methods for measuring
physical quantities. International Standardisation Organisation, Geneva.
ISO 8996 / EN28996 (1990). Ergonomics - determination of metabolic heat production. .
International Standardisation Organisation, Geneva.
ISO 9920 / EN9920 (1995), Ergonomics of the thermal environment - estimation of the thermal
insulation and evaporative resistance of a clothing ensemble. . International Standardisation
Organisation, Geneva.
Malchaire, J. (2000). Strategy for the management of the thermal working conditions. Proceedings
of the XIVth Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association and 44th
Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, July 29-August 4, San
12
Diego, California, USA. Published by the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Santa
Monica, CA, US.A. [CD-Rom]
Nilsson, H., Anttonen, H. & Holmér, I. (2000). New algorithms for prediction of wind effects on
cold protective clothing; Ergonomics of Protective Clothing, Proceedings of Nokobetef 6,
Stockholm, 17-20.
Spitzer, H., Hettinger, T., & Kaminsky G. (1982). Tables for the energy usage in physical work
(Tafeln für den Energieumsatz bei körperlicher Arbeit), Beuth Verlag, Berlin, ISBN 3-410-
36569-9 (in German).
13
Fig. 1, The heat balance: the sum of all heat losses and gains of the body; left: in heat stress heat loss is lower
than heat production, causing heat to be stored in the body (increase in body temperature); middle: in
comfort loss and gain are balanced; right: in cold stress more is lost than produced, leading to body cooling.
The size of the characters of the individual thermal heat exchange factors represents their importance in the
three situations.
Fig. 2, Schematic representation of the pathways for heat loss from the body. M=metabolic heat production
(reproduced with permission from Annals of Occupational Hygiene; Havenith, 1999).
Fig. 3, Example of shielded (radiation) ambient temperature sensor (right) and contact temperature sensor
(left). This shielded sensor cannot be used with very high radiation levels, as with the single shield and the
close proximity to the actual sensor and without ventilation of the space in the shield, the shield would heat
up and affect the sensor through radiation.
Fig. 4, Three types of radiation measurements: bottom left: black globe with mercury thermometer in centre;
bottom right: unidirectional sensor, using the temperature measurement of a reflective and an absorbing
surface to calculate radiation levels; top: infrared radiation meter. This is a spot-meter with a small
measuring angle, hence the visor to aim precisely at the correct spot.
Fig. 5, Humidity sensors; left: Assman psychrometer. The top cylinder contains a fan that draws air over the
two thermometers. These can be seen in the left and right columns. The sensor heads are at the bottom,
shielded against radiation by a double (ventilated) shield. One thermometer is covered with a muslin wick
that is moistened and will cool the sensor (aspirated wet bulb temperature) in relation to relative humidity.
The other sensor measures ambient (dry bulb) temperature (shielded for radiation). Middle: sling or whirling
psychrometer; this works on the same principle of the Assman psychrometer, though air is drawn over the
sensors by whirling it around in the air. There is no shielding against radiation, so in radiant environments
this should be considered. Right: an electronic humidity sensor that can be read with an electronic display
unit.
Fig. 6, Sensors for air movement/wind. Left: vane anemometer, to be used in unidirectional air
movement; Second left: Kata-thermometer, to be freely hanging in air after pre-heating. Cooling
speed is related to air speed; second from right: unidirectional hot wire anemometer: the actual
wire protrudes at the top. It is extremely thin and is not really visible in this view. The shaft is used
to protect the sensor when not in use; Right: spherical sensor, designed to be sensitive to
multidirectional wind and with a fast response time.
14
Table 1, sample values of clothing insulation values of various workwear (left) and daily wear (right) ensembles. I cl =intrinsic clothing
insulation (without adjacent surface air layer); IT =total insulation (clothing + surface air layer). Clo= unit of insulation defined relative
to the value of an American business suit (1 clo=0.155 m2ºC W-1)

Work clothing I cl IT Daily wear clothing I cl IT
m2ºC W-1 m2ºC W-1
Work clothing I cl IT Daily wear clothing I cl IT
Clo 2
m ºC W -1 m2ºC W-1 Clo 2
m ºC W -1 m2ºC W-1
Underpants, boiler suit, socks, shoes Panties, T-shirt, shorts, light socks,
0.7 0.11 0.196 sandals 0.3 0.05 0.145
Underpants, shirt, trousers, socks, shoes Panties, petticoat, stockings, light dress
0.75 0.115 0.200 with sleeves, sandals 0.45 0.07 0.162
Underpants, shirt, boiler suit, socks, Underpants, shirt with short sleeves, light
Shoes 0.8 0.125 0.209 trousers, light socks, shoes 0.5 0.08 0.171
Underpants, shirt, trousers, jacket, socks, Panties, stockings, shirt with short
Shoes 0.85 0.135 0.218 sleeves, skirt, sandals 0.55 0.085 0.175
Underpants, shirt, trousers, smock, Underpants, shirt, light-weight trousers,
socks, shoes 0.9 0.14 0.222 socks, shoes 0.6 0.095 0.183
Underwear with short sleeves and legs, Panties, petticoat, stockings, dress,
shirt, trousers, jacket, socks, shoes 1 0.155 0.235 shoes 0.7 0.105 0.192
Underwear with short legs and sleeves, Underwear, shirt, trousers, socks, shoes
shirt, trousers, boiler suit, socks, shoes 1.1 0.17 0.248 0.7 0.11 0.196
Underwear with long legs and sleeves, Underwear, track suit (sweater and
thermo jacket, socks, shoes 1.2 0.185 0.262 trousers), long socks, runners 0.75 0.115 0.200
Underwear with short sleeves and legs, Panties, petticoat, shirt, skirt, thick knee-
shirt, trousers, jacket, thermo jacket, socks, shoes
socks, shoes 1.25 0.19 0.266 0.8 0.12 0.205
Underwear with short sleeves and legs, Panties, shirt, skirt, round neck sweater,
boiler suit, thermo jacket and trousers, thick knee-socks, shoes
socks, shoes 1.4 0.22 0.293 0.9 0.14 0.222
Underwear with short sleeves and legs, Underpants, singlet with short sleeves,
shirt, trousers, jacket, thermo jacket and shirt, trousers, V-neck sweater, socks,
trousers, socks, shoes 1.55 0.225 0.297 shoes 0.95 0.145 0.226
Underwear with short sleeves and legs, Panties, shirt, trousers, jacket, socks,
shirt, trousers, jacket, heavy quilted outer shoes
jacket and overalls, socks, shoes 1.85 0.285 0.352 1 0.155 0.235
Underwear with short sleeves and legs, Panties, stockings, shirt, skirt, vest, jacket
shirt, trousers, jacket, heavy quilted outer
jacket and overalls, socks, shoes, cap,
Gloves 2 0.31 0.375 1 0.155 0.235
Underwear with long sleeves and legs, Panties, stockings, blouse, long skirt,
thermo jacket and trousers, outer jacket, shoes
thermo jacket and trousers, socks, shoes 2.2 0.34 0.403 1.1 0.17 0.248
Underwear with long sleeves and legs, Underwear, singlet with short sleeves,
thermo jacket and trousers, parka with shirt, trousers, jacket, socks, shoes
heavy quilting, overalls with heavy
quilting, socks, shoes, cap, gloves 2.55 0.395 0.454 1.1 0.17 0.248
Underwear, singlet with short sleeves,
shirt trousers, vest, jacket, socks, shoes 1.15 0.18 0.257
Underwear with long sleeves and legs,
shirt, trousers, V-neck sweater, jacket,
socks, shoes 1.3 0.2 0.275
Underwear with short sleeves and legs,
shirt, trousers, vest, jacket, coat, socks,
shoes 1.5 0.23 0.302
15
Table 2, Example data for the estimation of the static clothing permeability index (im) using description of
the clothing type (Havenith et al., 1999). Difference between cold and heat values represent the effect of
condensation at the inner clothing surface. Intermediate values can be interpolated as im=(α im15 + (1-α) im30)
with α=(30-air temperature)/15.
Estimated im static
Clothing description
In the cold (<15°C) In the heat (>30°C)
Nude 0.5
Normal, permeable clothing, regardless of number of
0.38
layers
As 1, with tightly woven jacket 0.34
As 1, with coated jacket OR trousers 0.31
As 1, with two piece semipermeable overgarment 0.17 0.15
As 1, with one piece semipermeable overgarment 0.14 0.13
As 1, with two piece impermeable overgarment 0.12 0.07
As 1, with one piece impermeable overgarment 0.1 0.06
As 1, with one piece impermeable overgarment, covered
head except face, gloves, openings sealed (e.g. immersion 0.06 0.02
suit
Completely encapsulating suit, all openings sealed, no
0.05 0.0
skin exposed
16
Table 3: Six methods for estimating metabolic heat production (ISO 8996)
Level Method Accuracy Inspection of the work
place.
I A – Classification Rough information where Not necessary
according to kind of the risk of error is very
activity great
B – Classification Information on
according to occupation technical equipment,
work organization
II A – Use of tables of group High error risk: accuracy ± Time study necessary
assessment 15%
B- Use of estimation tables
for specific activities
C- Use of heart rate under Not necessary
defined conditions
III Measurement Risk of errors within the Time study necessary
limits of the accuracy of the
measurement and of the
time study: accuracy ± 15%
17
Table 4 - Classification of metabolic rate based on general work description
Class Value to be used Examples
for calculation of
mean metabolic
rate
(W/m2) W
0 65 115 Resting
Resting
Sitting at ease: light manual work (writing, typing,
drawing, sewing, book-keeping); hand and arm work
(small bench tools, inspection, assembly or sorting of
light materials); arm and
1 leg work (driving vehicle in normal conditions,
Low metabolic rate 100 180 operating foot switch or pedal).
Standing: drilling (small parts); milling machine (small

parts); coil winding; small armature winding; machining
with low power tools; casual walking (speed up to 3,5
km/h).
Sustained hand and arm work (hammering in nails,
filing); arm and leg work (off-road operation of lorries,
tractors or construction equipment); arm and trunk work
2 (work with pneumatic
Moderate 165 295 hammer, tractor assembly, plastering, intermittent
metabolic rate handling of moderately heavy material, weeding,
hoeing, picking fruits or vegetables, pushing or pulling
light-weight carts or wheelbarrows, walking at a speed
of 3,5 km/h to 5,5 km/h, forging).
Intense arm and trunk work; carrying heavy material;
shovelling; sledgehammer work; sawing; planing or
3 chiselling hard wood; hand mowing; digging; walking at
High metabolic rate 230 415
a speed of 5,5 km/h to 7 km/h.
Pushing or pulling heavily loaded hand carts or
wheelbarrows; chipping castings; concrete block laying.
4 Very intense activity at fast to maximum pace; working

Very high with an axe; intense shovelling or digging; climbing
290 520
metabolic rate stairs, ramp or ladder; walking quickly with small steps:
running; walking at a speed greater than 7 km/h.
18
Table 5 - Examples of the wording of subjective judgement scales on thermal conditions: Scale of perceptual
judgements on personal thermal state (after the question "How are you feeling now?")
Poles Degrees English French Spanish
extrêmement
(+4) very hot calor excesivo
chaud
+3 hot très chaud mucho calor
HOT +2 warm chaud calor
légèrement
+1 slightly warm algo de calor
chaud
0 neutral ni chaud ni froid ni calor ni frio
INDIFFERENCE
-1 slightly cool légèrement froid algo de frio
-2 cool Froid frio
COLD -3 cold Très froid mucho frio
extrêmement
(-4) very cold frio excesivo
froid
I'm feeling/I'm
Common introductory term(s) J’ai…. Tengo.....
…
NOTE: The central tendency of the perceptual judgements obtained by applying one of the
above-mentioned scales yields an observed mean vote which can be compared with the
Predicted Mean Vote PMV index) determined according to ISO 7730.
19
Table 6, Scale of evaluative judgements on personal thermal state (after the question "Do you find this
…..?)
Pole Degree Wording of degrees

0 comfortable
1 slightly uncomfortable
DISCOMFORT 2 uncomfortable
3 very uncomfortable
4 extremely uncomfortable
Common introductory terms I find it ….
NOTE By summing up the judgements which express discomfort, one obtains an
observed percentage of dissatisfied people, which can be compared with the Predicted
Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD index) determined according to ISO 7730.
Table 7 - Thermal preference scale; (after the instruction "Please state how you would prefer to be now")
Poles Degrees Wording of Equivalent for
degrees for 3-degree scale
7-degree scale
+3 much warmer
WARMER +2 warmer Warmer
+1 a little warmer
0 neither warmer nor cooler
-1 slightly cooler
COOLER -2 cooler Cooler
-3 much cooler
Common introductory terms I would prefer to be
20
Table 8 - Personal acceptability statement form
Categories a) Explicit wording of the b) Wording of degrees after initial statement 1)
degrees or 2)
After the question: "How After the common instructions: "Taking into
do you judge this account only your personal preference …..
environment (local climate)
on a personal level?" Initial statement l): Initial statement 2):
“would you accept this “would you reject this
environment environment
(local climate) (local climate)
rather than reject it?" rather than accept it?"
"On a personal level, this
environment is for me .....
0 ..... acceptable rather than Yes No

unacceptable"
.... unacceptable rather than

1 acceptable" No Yes
Instead of using a two-category statement form, personal acceptability may be expressed on a continuous scale, such as
the following:
clearly just acceptable just unacceptable clearly unacceptable
acceptable
The preliminary instructions would be as follows [after the question "How do you judge this environment (local climate) on a
personal level?" or after instruction "Taking *into account only your personal preference"]-. "Please mark the appropriate
place on the scale to express your acceptance of the environment (local climate). Do not mark the middle of the scale, but
express either acceptance or unacceptance".
21
on
ucti
Con
d on
vecti
Con tion n Conduction
Rad
ia
a t io Convection
porork
Con
a Me t du
v
E rnal w Radiation abo Con ction
lic r
exte
t Evaporation H ea ate Rad vectio
H ea Metabolic rate external work Pro t Eva iati n
a te s s d uc t o
ext oration n
p
b olic r L o Heat Heat ion erna
t a l wo
Me t Production Loss rk
Hea ion H ea
uct Los t
P rod s
Heat Stress Comfort Cold Stress
Drawing: George Havenith ©
Fig 1
Avenues of Heat Exchange

Sun
or other
respiration radiation
source
Direct radiation
Sweat evaporation
M
clothing
convection
Reflected
radiation
External
infra-red conduction work
radiation Fig
Drawing: George Havenith © 2
Fig 3
Fig 4
Fig 5
Fig 6

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Dr.

HANDBOOK OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS

General Editor: Professor Neville Stanton

Publisher: Taylor and Francis

METHOD: THERMAL CONDITIONS MEASUREMENT

Dr. George Havenith,

1.1 Heat exchange processes

If other equipment is used (Fig. 4) refer to ISO7726 for calculation of tr .

Relative humidity can be converted to vapour pressure as:

Other conversions can be found in ISO7726 (1998).

Temporal considerations: Measurement at one point in time can be misleading. It may be

The value for im can be estimated from Table 2.

correction factor = 0.54  e(-0.15va -0.22 w )

The relevant scales to be used are shown in Table 5 to 8.

2 Standard and Regulations

Thermal comfort, stress and strain

Risk of burns and cold injury

3 Approximate training and application time

4 Reliability and validity

to the value of an American business suit (1 clo=0.155 m2ºC W-1)

Standing: drilling (small parts); milling machine (small

4 Very intense activity at fast to maximum pace; working

Pole Degree Wording of degrees

0 ..... acceptable rather than Yes No

.... unacceptable rather than

Heat Stress Comfort Cold Stress

Drawing: George Havenith ©

Avenues of Heat Exchange

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