BREEDING AND GENETICS – ATTAINING AND MAINTAINING THE PRODUCTION

OF HIGH QUALITY SEED IN ADEQUATE NUMBERS OF EUROPEAN SEA BASS

(Dicentrarchus labrax L) IS CRUCIAL FOR ENSURING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF

AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION

Gitau Alex N.

Course

Professor’s Name

University

City (State)

Date
 1. Choice of farming candidate. Target: 250 Mil. Fry -750 kg eggs.

The Dicentrarchus labrax, popularly known as the sea bass, is a saline water fish that belongs

to the family Dicentrarchus (Santos et al., 2010). The European sea bass is the fish of choice

for this particular exercise (Korkut et al., 2017). The fish will be reared in Turkey. The fish is

present in the Black Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea.

The best candidate is the European sea bass, and the identified county is Turkey.

Turkey is surrounded by four seas that give it a diverse and rich coastline, which supports

numerous economic activities (Rad, Aytemiz, & Sen, 2018). The county has about 26 million

ha of total available water surface. Rivers, in Turkey, measure approximately 177 714 km in

length (Pulatsü, 2003). These are crucial natural resources in the production of fish. In 2017,

marine capture fishery was responsible for up to ninety-one percent of the net capture and it

generated 322 173 tonnes from all the seas within and surrounding Turkey.

Advancement in technology together with a great governmental strategy, and scientific

knowledge has led to the rise in the national aquaculture output in the recent decades. The fast

growth of the aquacultural sector in Turkey has sealed its position as the largest producer in

the Mediterranean Sea. As of now, the country produces huge quantities of the sea bass, and

rainbow trout (Lazard et al., 2011). Turkey has also extended its production to the Black sea,

where it cultivates the European sea bass and trout (Kayhan & Olmez, 2014). It is important

to note that the aquaculture in Turkey is majorly pegged on the intensive systems cultivating

flesh-eating fish species.

The increasing Turkish population and decreasing natural stocks has made many

Turkish aquaculture producers to focus more on aquaculture, as well as finding solutions to

the problems facing the by sector (Fırat & Saka, 2006). In Turkey, numerous researches have

been carried on the cultivation of sea bream and sea bass fish and their results recorded. The

geographical location considered for the rearing of the sea bass in Turkey is of ideal terms and
will surely affect the development of Turkey's seafood aquaculture sector (Fırat & Saka,

2006). The Aegean, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean are suitable areas for cultivation of

marine species.

In Turkey, Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) larvae cultivation studies started in 1984

in a private enterprise. By the end of the 1980s, the production of the European sea bass was

expressed in thousand within aquaculture facilities. Today, annual larvae production is

expressed in millions (Fırat & Saka, 2006). The Sea Bass is popular for its high quality of

meat. Apart from its superior meat quality, the fish is of great importance to the people living

in the Mediterranean region (Alpbaz, 2005) and these are just some of the reasons why the

Turkey is suitable for the cultivation of this fish.

The basic design for a substantial brood stock and seed production depends on the

annual seed/fry production target of the production facility. To produce 250 million fry, the

eggs needed are about 700-750 kg, when one takes into consideration about 20 % loss, based

on the published data of FAO. Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) live in waters with a

temperature of about 5-28° C and lay eggs in waters that have a temperature ranging between

12-14 ° C. In the natural environment it has been reported that a female of 1 kg can lay

293,000-358,000 eggs (Kennedy and Fitzmaurice, 1972). The tanks that are needed where the

brood stock will be kept depends on the size and stock density. To produce 750 kg eggs the

number of tanks that will be needed is about 36 tanks of 30 tonnes, including 3 periods on an

annual base. The brood stock unit should have a filtration, heating, and cooling systems

available (Fırat, et al 2004).

For enabling a current brood stock production line it is important that sea bass brood

stock is already acclimatized as it takes a minimum of 6 months to go through this process

where the fish needs to get used to the environment, water conditions and feeding rhythms in
the hatchery. Without acclimatization, the result may have negative impacts on the

productivity such as growth, spawning and metabolism of the brood stock.

Table 1 – Turkish Aquaculture

production
      Ton - Tonnes

Balık türü 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Type of fish          

Alabalık (Gökkuşağı) - Trout

(Rainbow trout) 6 187,0 4 643,0 4 972,0 9 235,0 9 411,0
Alabalık (Salmo sp.) 685,0 1 073,0 980,0 375,0 281,0
Çipura - Sea bream 51 844,0 58 254,0 61 090,0 76 680,0 99 730,0
Levrek - Sea bass 75 164,0 80 847,0 99 971,0 116 915,0 137 419,0
Fangri - Common sea bream* 143,0 225,0 20,0 2,0 5,0
Antenli mercan - Blue spotted sea
bream** - - 122,0 74,0 74,0
Kırmızı bantlı mercan - Red banded
sea bream** - - 66,0 1,0 -
Minekop (Kötek) - Corb* 61,0 20,0 125,0 30,0 47,0
Grenyüz (Sarıağız) - Meagre* 2 801,0 2 463,0 697,0 1 486,0 3 375,0
Sinagrit - Dentex* 132,0 43,0 51,0 24,0 27,0
Sivri burun karagöz - Sharp snout
sea bream* 59,0 2,0 - - -
Trança - Blue spatled bream* 90,0 61,0 107,0 70,0 66,0
Orkinos - Bluefin tuna* 1 710,0 3 834,0 3 802,0 3 571,0 2 327,0
Midye - Mussel 3,0 329,0 489,0 907,0 4 168,0
Diğer – Other - - - - -
The number of individuals brood stock that is needed to produce 250 million fry of

750 kg eggs, is about 950 female sea bass of 4 kg in average and 2.850 kg male sea bass of

2.5 kg in average. Bromage and Roberts (1995) reported 10 female individuals of 0.8-3.0 kg

and 0.3-1.5 kg 10 male individuals.

Table 1, TSI (Turkish statistical institute), 2020. Turkish Aquaculture Production, Marine

Water

To maintain a sustainable genetic eggs’ quality, in the hatchery, we will integrate

partly wild stocks in the tank.

 In the wild, fish within the populations get to interact and the population are subjected

to natural evolution selection pressures. Once the fish are removed from the wild and isolated,

one introduces an irreversible change in the cohort’s gene pool (Colakoglu et al., 2018). These

changes are attributed to inbreeding and gradual loss of gene form. Hence, in place of the

brood stock that are old and not performing well and to avoid gene losses, the new ones can

be added from wild.

2. The facilities.

This section focuses on the European sea bass seeds, specifically the fry of 1 to 2 grams. To

realize this, then a special facility that will aid in the fish farming must be set up. The

proposed unit includes the following:

 A water intake system

 A pump

 Concrete channels for water delivery

 Growing tanks

 Concrete channels for discharging water

 Earth ponds

 A water outlet channel

 Hatchery

 An accommodation facility

The hatchery building will be the official production unit containing all the necessities

to help realize the 1 g fry. Among the requirements within the hatchery include spawning,

weaning, live food culture, and larval rearing (Reyes-Lopez et al., 2018). Also, the hatchery

will be fitted with a feed processing room and a laboratory.

 Water will be supplied into the hatchery by means of autonomous pumps that will be

mounted on the on-growing system. The internal maturation unit together with the external

brood stock unit will be fitted with a flow-through circuit. On the other hand, the weaning and

larval rearing units will be connected to the recycling systems that are autonomous and this

will help save on water heating (Christie, Marine, & Rod). Elimination of the accumulating

ammonia from the system is achieved by fitting the system with down-flow bio-filters. When

the external temperatures allow, the weaning units will be allowed to work on an open-circuit

basis.

To optimize the quality of water, the supply of water for the make-up water and live

food mass culture unit will be sieved on diatom powder filters and selective gravel under

pressure.

The hatchery will operate by utilizing its own wild breeders stock that is maintained

within a tank. Breeders are trapped and caught during autumn, then they are subjected to

selection and then treated to give spawning (Christie, Marine, & Rod). Spawns arise from the

internal tanks, where fertilized eggs are automatically gathered and moved to the hatching

tanks. After hatching occurs, the larvae is fed on plankton that have been cultured just within

the facility. Phytoplankton and zooplankton are reared within a controlled environment and

they form the live food mass culture. The sterilization of water and filtration, together with

aeration and addition of necessary nutrients helps ensure that an optimal medium for growth

of the organism is realized.

The water is recycled during the early weaning and rearing stages of the larvae. To

maintain suitable environmental conditions within the system, then the water is sterilized

using U.V. rays, aerated using blowers, heated to a suitable temperature using a heat

exchanger, and lastly, purified using a polyurethane foam filter bed (Massa, Onofri &
Fezzardi, 2017). Thirty cylindrical tanks are necessary for the conical bottoms for larval

rearing and sixteen fiberglass raceways for weaning.

3. A review of the current application of genetic technologies for the sea bass.

Factors that degrade the sea bass genetic status

Unintentional selection – within hatcheries, seeds are produced for the purposes of restocking

and unplanned selection can change the fish genotype in a manner that weakens its ability to

survive in the wild if it is reintroduced (Yildirim et al., 2018).

For food fish, unintentional selection can alter the pool gene adversely by jettisoning

valuable alleles for illnesses and growth, hence, negatively affecting the merit of the future

selection programs.

Inbreeding depression refers to the minimized biological fitness within a given population

that results breeding of closely related individuals. Biological fitness of the population can be

defined as the organism’s capability of surviving and perpetuating its genes (Kincaid, 1983).

The inbreeding depression is usually attributed to population bottleneck. Generally, the higher

the genetic variation the higher the gene pool in that population, hence there are minimal

chances of inbreeding depression resulting.

Inbreeding depression is present in most organisms’ groups, but it is different across

the mating systems. When inbreeding happens to a closely related European sea bass fish, it

often causes the interbreeding depression that is disclosed as the lower growth rates, general

fitness loss, poor survival, fecundity loss, and a high incidence of deformities (Kincaid, 1976).

The impact of inbreeding depression is pegged on inbreeding severity.

Introgressive hybridization – introgression is noted as a vital source of genetic variation

within the natural population and it may cause an adaptation or even an adaptive radiation.

Introgression can happen across zones that are hybrid because of chance, zone movement or

even selection (Gasco et al., 2016).

Genetic drift – the genetic drift is also referred to as the allelic drift. Genetic drift refers to the

shift in the frequency of an existing allele within a population because of organisms’

haphazard sampling. The genetic material within an offspring are a concoction of those within

the parents, and chance is the determinant of whether a certain offspring will survive and

bring forth offspring (ALA-HONKOLA et al., 2009).

Management practices to help avoid these problems

 Make a reasonable and realistic brood stock management plan. At all times ensure that

full records on the brood stock movement are jotted down.

 Ensure that you are prudent when sourcing for the brood stock since inbreeding is

accumulative.

 Always practice good husbandry upon arrival to the hatchery to eliminate the

possibility of an illness flare up, minimize the mortality rate, and maximize the

survival to reduce the possibility of a genetic drift.

 Come up with a brood stock program, which segregates the seed for future brood stock

from that of mass seed production.

 Come up with a method that can help identify and segregate the individual fish, for

example, tagging of the fish or even segregating them.

 Do not use hybrid fish as part of the brood stock. You can only use hybrid fish if it is

part of the breeding program.

 Carry out fish spawning for the entire duration of breeding to eliminate the possibility

of early maturity unintentional selection.

The farm will utilize the tag and segregation system as a way of eliminating the

possible genetic degradation. The farm will also commit to not getting hybrid as part of the

brood stock as that would cause genetic degradation of the fish. Spawning will also be carried

out during the entire period of spawning (Pazi, Tolga Gonul, & Kucuksezgin, 2019).
Preventing genetic drift

As noted earlier in the earlier paragraph, genetic drift and inbreeding depression are conjoined

devils, which usually happen in an enclosed hatchery population. Since they are connected, it

is crucial to know that managing one will automatically lead to the control of the other

(Gitterle et al., 2006). In situations where this fails to occur, a sixty second alteration in

administration goals will curb these problems from seriously impacting on progress.

It is hard to curb genetic drift. Genetic drift happens due to sampling error. The known

way of curbing sampling error is to bring on board an infinitely large population, something

which is next to impossible. In fish farming, the sampling error is attributed to the choice of

brood fish, which are permitted to spawn and bring forth young ones or acquire fish from the

wild (Gitterle et al., 2006).

Hence, an administrator who seeks to administer the population of the hatchery so as

to curb unwarranted inbreeding from messing up profits, must control and regulate the

population in order to hinder genetic drift from stealing the genetic variance of the population.

Overseeing a pond to contain genetic drift can be translated to mean that a farmer is

mandated to choose the amount of genetic drift that is allowed. Because the genetic drift

cannot be curtailed, the question needs to be adjusted.

The answer to this particular question lies in answering the following two questions.

First, what is the value of the rare alleles? Second, what assurance of sparing these alleles is

wanted? The explanation these choices must be made is on the grounds that the main way the

loss of alleles can be forestalled and the only way a 100% assurance can be given that alleles

were not lost by means of genetic drift is to have a vastly enormous population. The

population in the hatchery is quite small, hence, the only way one can manage to curtail

genetic drift from reigning supreme is by making a compromise between what is good and

that which can be realized. Geneticists expect that a gene has more than one allele and if the
recurrence of two alleles are more prominent than 0.01 and this implies the quality is

polymorphic. A polymorphic gene implies that at least two alleles can be found for that

particular gene in the population.

Hence, a farmer who wishes to conserve a huge fraction of the genetic variance and is

willing to take a little hazard would decide to spare alleles whose frequencies are 0.01.

Managers who perceive that uncommon alleles are not that significant for cultivating

purposes would decide to spare progressively regular alleles.

Increasing the spawning population

Another way of mitigating inbreeding effects on genetic drift is to spawn more fish than

required. Numerous hatchery directors have been prepared to be effective, and this implies

spawning the least number of fish that will empower them to meet creation objectives.

Managers need to be productive with the goal that they go through less cash raising their yield

(Gitterle et al., 2006). Besides, one way hatchery supervisors at open incubation centers are

assessed is cost per fingerling.

This issue is intense in the field of fish-rearing, since the fertility of certain types of

fish is so colossal, which makes it is frequently conceivable to spawn and produce the

quantity of fingerlings that are required for develop out. However, the capacity to spawn

generally hardly any fish must be controlled if genetic drift and inbreeding are to be regulated.

The most suitable method of managing a school of fish is determining the value of Ne

required to curb genetic drift and inbreeding depression types of problem under a given time

frame, which has been picked and afterward spawn the quantity of brood fish that will

empower the manager to deliver that Ne. The hatchery manager has a mandate of spawning

surplus fish than usual so that he keeps a minute and equal haphazard sample of eggs for

every spawn.
Spawn a progressively equivalent sex ratio

Another simple method of incrementing Ne and decreasing the genetic rate of drift and

inbreeding is to spawn a more equivalent sex proportion. Many fish-cultivators use distorted

and biased sex proportions when they spawn their fish. This is done in light of the fact that

one male can for the most part be utilized to prepare eggs from a few females. This empowers

farmers to use fewer males and this leads to lower cost of production. This is a great idea

when it comes to efficiency, but a poor one if you wish to control and regulate the

population’s genetic quality.

Genetic intervention

Genetic intervention is utilized in enhancing the production of animals and plants. This

approach has been utilized in aquaculture to help overcome numerous distinct challenges.

Unfortunately, in recent days, the work of geneticists have been put under scrutiny, hence

making it hard for them to choose on the strategies to choose. Genetics in the field of

aquaculture is showing great potential in improving production in a way, which meets

aquaculture development goals.

Improvement of genetics is an ongoing process that promises great opportunity for

reliable aquaculture development. The overexploitation of the world stocks is making genetic

improvement quite relevant. According to Kincaid (1983a), the selection of body weight and

resistance against illnesses in salmonids has been a great success.

4. What reproductive, husbandry or environmental manipulations may be used to increase the

sustainability and efficiency of the hatchery operation for the species of choice?

In fish-farming, gradual degradation of the brood stock is expected to happen as they are

progressively cut off from the wild’s replacement opportunities. Hence, to maintain viability

and sustainability, the brood stock requires to be genetically managed. But aquaculture is a

robust field with hundreds of species, hence, a unified genetic technique is impossible
(Gitterle et al., 2006). Unfortunately, the use of sophisticated technology in stock

improvement, is quite an expensive endeavor that individual farmers are unable to undertake.

This means that the government has to chip in and help the fish farmers.

Genetics plays a critical role in sustaining aquaculture development and raising

production and also making it efficient. Genetics have the following application in the field of

fish farming;

a) Manage farmed stock by applying genetic principles to ensure the traits desired are

retained.

b) Improve the desired attributes and their frequency, for example, resistance to diseases,

and body form of the fish that are desired.

c) Control and regulate the genetic integrity of the brood stock for purposes of

restoration.

d) Also mitigate their impact on wild populations,

e) And to also help establish an origin of stocks to help confirm propriety origin of the

genetic resources.

Though domestication is regarded as one of the greatest things in realizing food

sustenance, it will in time become detrimental if it keeps being practiced on juvenile fish

production for restocking purposes of natural water bodies (Gitterle et al., 2006). Actually,

intra species genetic diversity is key for ensuring that a wide genetic set is availed in support

of natural selection, and this will lead to genetic fitness.

It is important to take cognizance of the fact that, attempts to enhance farmed fish

stocks through the application of genetic principles for targeted species with established

farming technologies is relatively recent. But several programs have been undertaken to help

improve the strains of fish.

4. Implications of the different choices.

Growth: Based on an yearly genetic gain in harvest weight of 3 percent and given that 83

percent of the production comes from selective breeding, the field can rise by more than 2

percent in a single year due to genetic gain (Gjedrem, 2012). Genetic gain survival related

traits has a positive impact on production, and will eventually lead to faster growth of this

sector.

Growth is a fundamental characteristic, especially because the European sea bass

requires a period of 18 to 24 months to achieve the commercial size (Naish et al., 2007).

Hence, growth improvement is highly embraced by hatchery managers and farmers.

Resistance to diseases: this field demands major category of phenotypes to be worked on in

for it to be realized. The sea bass is faced by serious diseases like the viral nervous necrosis

but it does not have a vaccine, and hence coming up with a breed that is resistant to diseases

would be a huge milestone (Vandeputte et al., 2017).

Profitability: extrapolating the current trends in Turkish aquaculture then we can safely

conclude that, with genetic manipulation and improvements, aquaculture will get more and

more profitable (Gjedrem, 2012). This is because the selective breeding schemes will be

expanded to address disease resistance, fish farming will be moved to exposed locations, and

better feed will help the fish grow faster and bigger.

Biological and physical containment: genetic principles should also be utilized in drastically

decreasing the fitness of cultured fish, should they escape to the environment. From literature,

it is quite evident that transgenic fish are high-risk when released to the environment

(Vandeputte et al., 2017). Hence, one of the job would be crippling the fish that may escape.

Sterilization can be done to the fish.

It is crucial to take cognizance of the fact that, there is small value in embarking on a

genetic selection program to ensure sustainability of production if a sound genetic brood stock

management is not in place.

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