MECÁNICA DE FLUIDOS

CTCN-0037
 UNIDAD 8:
Evaluación de línea de gradiente hidráulico
Restricciones de Bernoulli
Introducción Pérdidas en tuberías

Mecánica de Fluidos
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL)
RESTRICCIONES DEL USO DE
LA ECUACIÓN DE BERNOULLI

• Efectos de
compresibilidad
• Efectos del flujo no
permanente
• Efectos rotacionales
 THE ENERGY EQUATION
The energy equation is derived from the First Law of Thermodynamics
(conservation of energy)

Time rate of Net time rate of Net time rate of

total energy increase energy addition by energy addition by
= +
of the system heat transfer into the work transfer into
system the system

e dV   Cin   Cout sys   Tin   Tout sys

D
Dt sys

D  
Dt sys e  d V  

C
 innet  Tnet 
in

 sys

where the total stored energy per unit mass (e) is:

 V2
e u   gz

internal energy 2 potential energy 5
kinetic energy
 THE ENERGY EQUATION…
• For steady flow, the first term of the general energy term is zero. Also, because the
normal vector can only be non-zero in or out of the control surface and mass is
conserved (continuity), the energy equation becomes:

t 
CV
e d V  0

 p V2   p V2   p V2 
CS   2
 u    gz 
  V  n
ˆ dA   
 u 


2
 gz 
 m
   
 u 


2
 gz  m
 flow   flow  
out in

 
2
pout pin Vout Vin2 
m uout  uin      gz out  gz in   C net  Tshaft
   2 2  in net in

 p 
• The term u is the fluid’s enthalpy designated by h


  Vout2
 Vin2 
m  hout  hin   g  z out  zin   C net  Tshaft
 2  in net in 6
ENERGY AND BERNOULLI’S EQUATIONS
• Consider the one-dimensional energy equation for steady flow
with no shaft energy.
 
2
pout pin Vout Vin2 
m uout  uin      gz out  gz in   C net
   2 2  in
• Dividing through by the mass flow rate:
pout 2
Vout pin Vin2   
  gz out    gz in   uout  uin  qnet 
 2  2  in 
• Neglecting friction:
2
pout Vout pin Vin2
  gz out    gz in
 2  2
• Pragmatically, there is always friction (and energy loss), however.
Thus, friction is represented by the term

  
 u out  uin  qnet   loss
7

 in 
 ENERGY AND BERNOULLI’S
EQUATIONS…
• The energy equation becomes:
2
pout Vout pin Vin2
  gz out    gz in  loss
 2  2

• Including shaft work yields:

2
pout Vout pin Vin2
  gz out    gz in  wshaft  loss
 2  2 net in

 
wshaft  W shaft m
where net in netin

• This form of the energy equation is known as the extended Bernoulli’s

equation. It is a useful equation when pumps or turbines are a part of a
pipe network system.
8
 EXAMPLE W15.1

 Problem Statement: A horizontal pipe carries cooling water for a thermal power plant from a
reservoir. The energy loss in the pipe is given as
0.02L D V
2

2
where L is the length of the pipe from the reservoir to (2), V is the mean velocity in the pipe, and D is
the diameter of the pipe. If the pipe diameter is 20 cm and the rate of flow is 0.06 m3/s, what is the
pressure in the pipe at L = 2000 m?

 Solution - Apply Bernoulli’s equation at (1) and (2) with no shaft work.
p2 V22 p1 V12
  gz 2    gz1  loss
 2  2
 V12  V22  0.02  L D V22
p2  p1     z1  z 2  
2 2
p1 = 0, V1 = 0, z1 = 100m, V2 = Q/A, z2 = 20m
9
EXAMPLE W15.1 …

• SOLUTION

p2  0 

 0  Q A 2    z  z   0.02  L D Q A
2

1 2
2 2
2

1000  kg
m3
 0.06 ms3
 
0 . 20 m 2


  4   9,802 kg m 100  20 m
s 2 m 3
2
2


0.02 1000 kg
m3
  0.06 ms3
2000 0.20  
0 . 20 m 

2

  4 
2

 1.82  10 3  skg2 mm2  784.2  10 3  skg2 mm2  364 .8  10 3  skg2 mm2

 417.6  10 3  mN2 10

 417 .6kPa
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PIPE FLOW
In pipe flow, the most important dimensionless parameter is the Reynolds
number, Re. Reynolds number is used to distinguish whether the flow is
laminar, transitional, or turbulent. Recall that:

VD
Re 

The type of flow depends on the fluid characteristics (density, viscosity), flow
velocity, and pipe diameter).
For pipe flow, based on experimentation:
Laminar pipe flow: Re <2100
Transitional pipe flow: 2100 < Re < 4000
Turbulent pipe flow: Re > 4000

11
 HEAD LOSS
• In turbulent flow, the energy losses associated with viscous flow is termed head loss.
• Head losses are classified into two types – major and minor.

hL  hL major  hL minor
• Major head losses are the energy losses that occur within the pipe due to viscosity.
• Minor losses are the energy losses that stem from pipe components such as elbows,
tees, valves, reducers, expansions, etc.

12
 HEAD LOSS
• Looking at the key parameters that account for viscous losses:

p  F V , D, l ,  ,  ,  

• From dimensional analysis: p  VD l  

   , , 
2 V   D D
1 2

• Notice that the pressure loss is a function of Re, the pipe

length (relative to the diameter), and the roughness of the
pipe material (relative to the diameter).
• Major head loss is given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
2
LV
hL major  f 13

D 2g
 HEAD LOSS
• The parameter f is the friction factor.
  
f    Re, 
 D

• Recall from laminar flow that: 64

f 
Re

• For turbulent flow, however, there is no theoretical method to derive the

friction factor. Through experimentation, a graphical method (Moody
diagram or chart) has been developed to determine the friction factor.
• Use of the Moody diagram requires that the roughness, which is a
function of the pipe material, be specified and Re known. 14
PIPE ROUGHNESS

15
Moody´s diagram

16
 EXAMPLE
• Problem Statement
Find the friction factor for a 6” concrete pipe that carries water at a flow velocity between
1 and 5 ft/s.

• Solution
To find f from the Moody diagram, the relative roughness (/D) and Re must be
determined. From Table 8.1, the roughness for a concrete pipe is 0.001-0.01 ft. Choosing
the low estimate will give us a lower f and vice versa. Selection of a roughness factor is up
to the engineer. For this problem, let’s look at both extremes.

  0.001 ft   0.01 ft
    0.002     0.02
D
  0.001 0 . 5 ft D
  0.01 0 . 5 ft
The Reynolds number is calculated for the two flow conditions:

ReV 1 ft
 VD 
 
 
1 fts 0.5 ft 
 4.1  10 4 ReV 5 ft 
5 0.5 ft 
ft
s 17
 2.1 10 5
   1.21 10 5 ft  1.21  10 5 
2 2
2 2 ft
 s   s 
For the first condition /D = 0.002 and V = 1 ft/s, follow the curve representing /D =18
0.002 until it crosses the projection line for Re = 4.1 x 104. At the cross point, project over to
the y-axis and find f. For this case, f = 0.027.
For the second condition /D = 0.02 and V = 1 ft/s, follow the curve representing /D = 19
0.02
until it crosses the projection line for Re = 4.1 x 104. At the cross point, project over to the y-
axis and find f. For this case, f = 0.049.
For the third condition /D = 0.002 and V = 5 ft/s, follow the curve representing /D = 0.002 20

until it crosses the projection line for Re = 2.1 x 105. At the cross point, project over to the y-axis
and find f. For this case, f = 0.024.
For the fourth condition /D = 0.02 and V = 5 ft/s, follow the curve representing /D =210.02 until
it crosses the projection line for Re = 2.1 x 105. At the cross point, project over to the y-axis and
find f. For this case, f = 0.048.
 EXAMPLE
• Solution: Friction Factor, f
 V = 1 ft/s V = 5 ft/s
0.001 0.027 0.024
0.01 0.049 0.048

• Notice that there is considerable variation in f depending on the roughness. As

an engineer, it is important to state assumptions.
• For new pipes, it is accepted practice to select the lower roughness and the
higher roughness for older pipes that have been in operation for a number of
years.
• Notice that the change in velocity does not change f very much. When flow is
fully (or wholly) turbulent, the friction factor can be assumed to be independent
of the Reynolds number. Note the demarcation line on the Moody diagram. 22
• In the absence of a known roughness, a typical value for f is 0.03.
 HEAD LOSS: ALTERNATIVE TO MOODY

• One problem with the Moody diagram is that it is not very useful for
computer applications, and you may not have one a chart handy to read.
• A formula that can be used for non-laminar flows that approximates the
Moody diagram is the Colebrook formula:

1  D 2.51 
 2.0 log   
 
f  3.7 Re f 
• Obviously, the Colebrook formula is not explicit in terms of f. An iterative or
root-solving routine is need to solve for f.

23
 HEAD LOSS ESTIMATION IN PIPES
• Why do we care? To determine energy (pumping requirements)!
• To account for head loss, Bernoulli’s equation becomes
p1 V12 p2 V22
 z   z h
 2g 1  2g 2 L

• Major head loss resulting from viscous forces through pipe flow is given:
L V2
hL major  f
D 2g
• However, a pipe system contains more than just pipe. There are valves for flow
control, pressure reducers to reduce pressure, pumps to increase pressure, elbows
to change flow direction, tees to split flows, expanders and reducers to transition
pipe size changes, etc.
24
 HEAD MINOR LOSS
• The head loss caused by pipe fittings and appurtenances is referred as minor head loss
and is represented by the equation:

V2
hL minor  KL
2g

• The parameter KL is known as the loss coefficient. These coefficient are empirically
determined through experimentation:

p
KL  1
2  V 2

• These coefficients are tabularized for common fittings. In addition, manufacturers

generally provide this type of information to design engineers.

• Important note: Unless there are special circumstances, for any pipe network in which there
25
are relatively short pieces of pipe between fittings, the minor losses actually dominate the
overall head loss.
 Head
minor loss

26
 HEAD MINOR LOSS (ALTERNATIVE)

• An alternative common approach for computing minor losses is to

represent them as equivalent lengths of pipe

V l2
eq V
2
hL minor  K L  f
2g D 2g
KLD
leq 
f
27
 ¿Quiz? Si angún dígito es cero, lo reemplaza por cinco (5)

B*10 (en
centímetros)

C*10 (en centímetros)

A*10(en metros)

a) Dibuje su ejercicio
b) Encontrar la presión de
C*10cm
entrada al edificio
D*10 (en centímetros)
c) ¿Cuál es la velocidad de salida
3 metros del agua en el sótano del
edificio?
C*10 (en centímetros)
d) Si la llave del primer y
segundo piso se
abren ¿Qué cantidad de agua
sale del tanque en un minuto?
Ejercicio en grupo
(Parte A)
B*10 (en
centímetros)

C*10 (en centímetros)

A*10(metros)
Super ID
de Trabajo
Sume los IDs de su grupo encuentre un
Super ID de Trabajo C*10cm
D*10 (en centímetros)

3 metros

C*10 (en centímetros)

a) Dibujen su ejercicio
b) ¿Hasta que piso es capaz de llegar el agua en el edificio? Piensen que el
edificio tiene muchos pisos.
c) Si el tanque es cilíndrico de diámetro A*10metros, las tuberías son de media
pulgada de diámetro y las llaves de todos los pisos se abren ¿Es suficiente la
capacida de su tanque?