CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Several factors contribute to the overall success of any organization such as capital,

equipment, manpower etc. Nevertheless, the most important factor among them is

the human factor. The human beings working in any organization are those who

put every other factor into operation. Hence, management needs to allocate ample

attention to their development so as to achieve its organizational goals and

objectives.

Manpower planning is therefore aimed at assuring that the right person is available

for the right job at the right time. This involves formulation of futuristic plans to

ensure that the necessary human effort is adequately harnessed to allow the

survival and growth of the organization. Thus, it becomes imperative to develop

and train the employee.

Manpower development is a process of both intellectual and emotional

achievement through the provision of the means by which people can grow on their

jobs. It presupposes series of activities which enterprises would embark on, to

improve its managerial/personnel competence. The emphasis places on manpower

and its development in the research work is out of the belief that more attention
1
needs to be focused on the areas that are relatively neglected in improving the

competence of the workforce. However, the success of any organization is

predicted on the ability and expertise of those who operate it both on the

managerial and lower levels of operation. Those abilities come as a result of the

knowledge the employee possess and the training they had received.

It is an established fact that human beings constitute the ultimate basis of a nation’s

wealth. This proposition applies to the organization as well. This implies that with

the daily increase and complexity in the organizational activities and for the

problems of ensuring optimum productivity which is becoming quite fast a

challenge as well as an imperative for the management of an organization, the

training and development of staff on which the huge responsibility of furthering

these people rest, must be to enjoy maximum performance from the staff.

Eket Local Government occupies the South Central portion of Akwa Ibom State

territorial expanses spanning Northwards between Latitudes 4°33’ and 4°45’ and

Eastwards between Longitudes 7°52’ and 5°02’. Eket is bounded on the North by

Nsit Ubium Local Government Area, on the East by Esit Eket Local Government

Area, on the West by Onna Local Government Area and on the South by Ibeno

Local Government Area/Bight of Bonny.

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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE POBLEM

Human resources are the most critical factor as it concerns organizational survival

and progress. It is that factor that utilizes the material and financial resources to

bring about the desired goals of an establishment. It has also been noted that

employees often complain about their wages and salary administration, poor

working condition, welfare, effective supervision, provision of adequate machinery

and materials at work place, provision of proper appliance and their maintenances,

etc. The above complaints are indications that things are not going smoothly with

such employees. On the other hand, management always asks why the employees

are no longer productive or low level of productivity in the organization since they

offer them good salaries, provide good working condition and give excellent fringe

benefits. The solution to the above managerial questions often point to the

managers that employees are either not properly motivated or not satisfied with

their job. Except opportunities are provided at work place to satisfy the workers

needs they will continue to have decreased production and performance will

always remain low. These relationships existing among motivation, manpower

development and job performance have made many researchers work intensively

on this area to find out dependable solutions to the problems.

However, most organizational plans focus on the physical and capital resources

without paying much attention to human investment that operationalizes the capital
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and equipment. They relegate to the background the necessity for a well-developed

and sustained training and development for staff in order to upgrade their

performances and some are unable to cope financially with the training and

development programmes. Few organizations that consider this very important

aspect of staff functions are mostly unserious and lack an all-round attention and

continuity. It is the opinion of the industry observers that the poor performance of

the organizations’ workers follows from their inability to keep abreast with

technological current as a result of the absence of appropriate and sufficient

manpower development. Therefore, it is against this backdrop that I (the

researcher) considered the impact of manpower development and organizational

productivity in the Local government system; using Eket Local government

Council as a case study.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of the study is to investigate organizational productivity as the

result of Manpower development in Eket Local Government Council. The

objectives of the study, therefore are as follows:

i To examine the relationship between staff training and organizational

productivity in Eket Local Government Area.

ii. To investigate the effect of staff welfare on organizational productivity.

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iii. To suggest useful measures on improving manpower development towards

organizational productivity.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 Is there and relationship between staff training an organizational

productivity in Eket Local Government Council?

 What are the major hindrances to effective staff welfare?

 What are the useful measures on improving Manpower development towards

organizational productivity?

1.5 HYPOTHESIS

The testing of hypothesis in the study is at 0.05 level of significance.

i. There is no direct relationship between staff training and organizational

productivity.

ii. There is no relationship between staff welfare and organizational

productivity.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study revolves around the significance of manpower development

and attaining the organizational goals in Eket Local Government Council. The

frame of reference and the response of the staff (both senior and junior) constitute

the variable to be used for the analysis and conclusion.

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1.7 DELIMITATIONOF THE STUDY

This study is limited to finding out the effect of manpower development on the

organizational productivity in the Local Government system.

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It is an established fact that the Local Government system in Nigeria is the third

tier her government. According to the United Nations, a local government is a

political sub-division of a nation or country which is constituted by law and has

substantial control of local affairs including the power to impose taxes or to extract

labour for prescribed purposes. The governing body of such entity is elected or

otherwise locally selected. From the above, it can be deduced that a local

government has a number of distinguished attributes. Some of these attributes are

stated below.

 It has a legal and constitutional power to carry out certain legislative,

administrative and semi-judiciary functions.

 It is a subordinate unit or level of government

 It has powers to make policies, prepare budgets.

 The local government has some measure of control over staff.

 It exercise authority over a given geo-graphical area and population; and

 It has a legal personality.

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The legal framework of local government as the third tier of government in Nigeria

neither was nor established until 1976 nationwide reform before local government

were regarded and treated as the babies of the regional and state government.

1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

The study is arranged in five chapters, Chapter one introduces the study, taking

into consideration all the components of preambles in management settings.

Chapters two contains the review of related literature on the variables that

constitute the central points of the study while chapter three deals with the

methodology employed on the research.

The presentation and analysis of data are documented in Chapter four while

chapter five summarizes and concludes the study.

1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS

The following terms are defined to avoid ambiguity and elicit proper

understanding.

MANPOWER: The human resource of a business concern. It includes unskilled,

skilled, supervisory and management of an organization.

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DEVELOPMENT: This is a process concerned with people’s capacity in a

defined environment over a given period to manage and involve in positive change,

and reduce or eliminate unwanted change.

MOTIVATION: it a social process in which some members try to influence

others, to work harder, and work more efficiency. It is a person’s state of mind

which energizes channels and sustains behavior to achieve the person’s needs.

Motivation is also the willingness to do something and its conditioned actions and

ability to satisfy some needs for the individual. It is also a driving force by which

human’s achieve their goals.

MOTIVE: The desire, wishes, and similar forces that channels human behavior

toward goals. According to Collins English Dictionary: Motive is the

psychological feature that arouses an organisms to action toward a desired goal, the

reasons for an action that which gives purpose and desired goal, the reason for an

action, that which gives purpose and direction to behavior. Motive is divided into

two: Rational and irrational motive.

RATIONAL MOTIVE: A motive that can be defended by reasoning or logical

argument.

IRRATIONAL MOTIVE: A motive that is inconsistent with reason or logic.

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INCENTIVES: A thing that motivates or encourages one to do something or a

payment or concession to stimulate greater output or investment. Payment made to

employee over and above their basic pay in order to encourage them to increase

production, the payment are made on result achieve.

EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: This is contribution employees make to

organizational goals, that is, how effective an employee carries out job

responsibilities.

PRODUCTIVITY: This is the efficiency to do that which is expected and as

expected or the relative efficiency of economic activity.

PERFORMANCE: Achievement and attainment of state goals. The act of

carrying out a duty or accomplishing something such as a task or action

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF EKET LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Eket Local Government is an offshoot of the Qua Iboe District of 1885

administered by vice consul White House. The Qua Iboe District embraced what is

today most part of Akwa Ibom State including Esit Eket, Onna, Ibeno, Nsit Ubium,

Etinan, Abak, Etim Ekpo, Oron, Mbo, Okobo, Urue Offong/Oruko, Udung

Uko,etc. Between 1893 and 1899, Eket became one of the consular posts with the

first District consul appointed in 1898. By 1905, the area was reduced to Oron,

Eket, Esit Eket and part of Nsit Ubium. Although the British signed a treaty with

Eket people on September 1884, British Administration actually started in 1885 by

the vice consul White House who later became consul in Calabar. Eket continued

to be a District Council until after the Second World War, when it was made a

Division with a wide area of authority, spanning up to Bakassi Peninsula. Eket has

existed as an Administrative Headquarters for more than one hundred (100) years,

when the then Head of State, Col. Yakubu Gowon created 12 States in 1967, Eket

became one of the ten (10) Divisions in the then South Eastern State. With the

1976 Local Government Reforms, Eket became one of the then 301 Local

Government Areas in Nigeria (Wikipedia, 2021).

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The physical relief of Eket Local Government Area is basically flat, though with

some marshy river-washed soils around the banks of Qua Iboe River. Eket Local

Government falls within the tropical zone wherein its dominant vegetation is the

green foliage of trees/shrubs and the oil palm tree belt. The Local Government has

two seasons: the wet season and the dry season. The area occupies the South

Central portion of Akwa Ibom State territorial expanses spanning Northwards

between Latitudes 4°33’ and 4°45’ and Eastwards between Longitudes 7°52’ and

5°02’. Eket is bounded on the North by Nsit Ubium Local Government Area, on

the East by Esit Eket Local Government Area, on the West by Onna Local

Government Area and on the South by Ibeno Local Government Area/Bight of

Bonny. Eket is popularly known as “Idong Mfianwe.” This name anchored on two

major reasons: first, there is also a town in Switzerland called “Eket” and also due

to the fact that it was heavily occupied by the ‘whites’ who came for the oil

business. This buttressed the fact that the first person to write on Eket was a Swiss

national. Second, Eket was the hub of political and economic activities just like

Calabar and Lagos. This led to the heavy presence of the white colonial

administrators and businessmen in Eket. There is still an elevated land inhabited by

the whites which is still referred to as “Abud Akokroh” or “Abod Afianwe” located

at Ikot Ibiok. Because of this long interaction with the white men, Eket people

always look neat and knowledgeable and thus attracted the name “Ndito

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Mfianwe.” Besides, Eket people are very enterprising, sociable, accommodating

and hospitable. They are a special breed of people imbued with love and bounded

by strong ties of common aspiration.

Eket is blessed with the rich and enviable cultural heritage. “Ekid,” the language

spoken by Eket and Esit Eket Local Government Areas conveys a unique culture

and identity to the people. Eket has a plethora of cultural display such as Ekong,

Eka-Ekong, Mbohg, Abon, Ekang, Ikpaa, Inam, Ibem, Ekpe, Ukahg-Aka,

Abobom, Ikarag, Ntug-Unaidi. There are also many cultural practices and

ceremonial prevalent in Eket and which have a defined pattern. These include

burial ceremony, coronation, marriage, status initiation, land-holding, extended

family system, harvesting of palm fruits, births and child-naming ceremony.

Although Eket is one of those communities that embraced Christianity early,

traditional religious practices are still prevalent such as the Supreme God (Abasi

Anyong), some people believe in and worship deities (Edogho – “Abasi Isong”.)

There is abundant deposit of crude oil and clay. Forest resources include timber,

palm produce while the area is also noted for sea food production. Farm crops

ranging from yam, cassava, coco-yam, plantain to maize and vegetables.

Traditionally, Eket people are fishermen, hunters, farmers, weavers and general

craftmanship. The people of Eket are believed to have migrated from Cameroun

during the Great Movement of the Bantu Stock of Africa. The migration brought

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the people to the location around the mouth of Cross River, which they claim as

their first settlement with Oron people along the estuary of Cross River. The

movement continued along the coast into the Qua Iboe River Territory, their

present location. Eket people had early contact with the outside world long before

the slave trade era. In 1850, European trading companies like UAC, PZ and GB

Olivant, French and German trading stores were established in Eket. And in 1887,

Rev. Samuel Alexander Bill landed at Upenekang (Ekang’s place, which was then

a fishing settlement in Eket) by sea and established Qua Iboe Church of Nigeria,

and converted Eket people to Christianity (Wikipedia, 2021).

2.2 Conceptual Framework

Any discussion of motivation is inevitably related to the study of needs and

manpower development in any organization is a motive and a necessity. Motives

and needs are interdependent. Motives actuate and direct actions to be taken in

satisfaction of identified needs. Motivation acts as an energizing force which

originates, sustains and direct activities towards diverse objectives. Through the

stimuli of motives, men are inspired to achieve in their professional and private

lives. Motivation has been variously linked with urges, instincts, purpose, goals,

desires, wants, needs, motives, drives, etc. It is looked at as involving the

psychological and the social aspects of human beings. According to Abadamosi

and Adebakin (1997), motivation basically means “an individual needs, desires and
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concept that cause him or her to act in a particular manner.” It involves how to

make the individual put in extra efforts, willingly in the work setting.

Interest in motivation is basically with respect to work. Therefore, operational

meaning and definitions reflecting this, is of interest. Julius (1975) stated that

motivation is the process of creating organizational conditions which will impel

employees to strive to attain company goals. Work motivation has been define as

“conditions which influences the arousal, direction and maintenance of our

behaviours relevant in work setting” (Hodgetts, 1977). Motivation is the influence

or drive that causes us to behave in a specific manner and has been described as

consisting of energy direction and sustainability (Koith, 2007). In an organizational

context, a leader’s ability to influence is based partly on his or her skill and partly

of the motivation level of the individual employee. Motivation theories explored

multiple approaches to meeting individuals’ needs. These were works; including

those of Vroom (1964), Maslow (1954), Reinforcement theory of Skinner (1971)

and the widely used Goals theory of Karly (1993). It has been shown that

predictors of motivation include job satisfaction, organizational and commitment,

which should be perceived equally (Schnake, 2007). In other words, motivation is

either positively or negatively affected by the experience an employee has within a

given work environment and with his or her leaders. It represents an unsatisfied

need which creates a state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to

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move in a goal directed pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium, by

satisfying the need (Vitus, 1963). Motivation is the stimulation of any emotion or

desire operating upon one’s will and prompting or driving it not action (Lillis,

1958). Aina (1982) stated that “motivation is the difference between what a police

can do and they actually do in a given situation”. According to him, motivation is

the made up of two aspects; the conscious effort to gratify and satisfy those needs

and an individual basic need. Motivation involves a particular type of reason with

basic needs and it is the needs that help to explain the action that is taken to satisfy

them. Organizations, we know exist to accomplish particular objective and to

satisfy their needs as much as possible while they strive to accomplish

organizational objectives.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

Years back, several scientists reached a consensus that for an organization to thrive

and have a competitive edge there is need for an effective workforce. This means

that specialists are needed to handle the resources of the organizations so as to

maximize results. Scientists such as Robert Owen and Eton Mayol became

enamoured on the subject of improving the lives of the employees in particular and

the firms’ productivity in general. This project aims at, aside from other things,

answering questions about whether training and learning within an organizational

framework could be productive or not. This assumption about what constitute

15
training within an organization and authenticate that if training is to be productive,

it must be systematically planned and executed.

Extensive studies and theories aimed at helping manager to get the best out of their

workforce, giving them a sense of belonging and job satisfaction, and acting as

satisfier and incentive to greater, and increased productivity have been propounded

by both classical economists, social scientists and behavioral researchers. Some of

those theories which are much related to the research at hand are discussed in the

following sub-headings.

2.3.1 ABRAHAM MASLOW’S THEORY

Maslow opined that man is a working animal who works towards the satisfaction

of his needs. His view was that human unfold in a hierarchical order starting from

the lower needs and that once a need is satisfied another one manifests itself. That

probably account for the popular name “The Hierarchy of needs” given to the

theory. Those needs develop from the very basic needs of life, through a series of

level to the more complicated higher level of motives. Maslow graded the needs of

man into the following hierarchy:

1. Physiological needs which are necessary to human survival, example food,

water, sleep rest etc.

2. Safety needs, example security, order, stability, non-hostility.

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3. Social or love needs example belongingness and friendly relationship with

fellow citizens, need of companionship and association with others, affection and

identification.

4. Ego or esteem or self-expression need, example self-respect, prestige, success,

etc.

5. Self-actualization or self-fulfillment needs.

These basic needs are related to one another and one that is satisfied actuates the

other higher one, thus making man a perpetually waiting animal. The theory

however treats all human being a like, forgetting the individuality of each man and

that what motivates one may not motivate another. The differences in background,

upbringing, education and aspiration of individuals all have impact on human

needs. This is evident in the fact that when every individual hustles for the basic

needs of survival and safety, there is a variation henceforth. Other problems the

theory did not look into include the problems of values in any definitive motivation

theory, the relationship between appetites, desires needs and what is good for the

organism, the etiology of the basic needs and their possible derivation in early

childhood, etc.

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This theory can be graphically represented below thus:

Self

Safety Needs

Social Needs

Actualization

Fig. 1: Diagrammatical Representation of Abraham Maslow’s Theory

Maslow’s theory has enjoyed great popularity on account of his classification of

human needs in a convenient way and also because it has direct implications for

managing human behavior in organization. Applications of the hierarchy of needs

to management and the work place are obvious. According to the implications of

the hierarchy, individuals must have their lower level needs not by, for example,

safe working condition, adequate pay to take care of one’s self and one’s family,

and job security before they will be motivated by increased job responsibilities,

status, and challenging work assignments. Maslow’s theory has received several

research support, extensive and criticisms. It is a popular theoretical framework in

motivational studies.

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2.3.2 ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

The ERG theory is an extension of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Alderfer

suggested that needs could be classified into three categories, rather than five.

These three types of needs are:

1. Existence

2. Relatedness

3. Growth

Existence needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological and safety need categories.

Relatedness needs involve interpersonal relationship and are comparable to aspects

of Maslow’s belongingness and esteem needs. Growth needs are those related to

the attainment of one’s potential and are associated with Maslow’s esteem and

self-actualization needs.

The ERG theory differs from the hierarchy of needs in that it does not suggest that

lower-level needs must be completely satisfied before upper-level needs becomes

motivational. ERG theory also suggest that if an individual is continually unable to

meet upper-level needs that the person will regress and lower-level needs become

the major determinants of their motivation. ERG theory’s implications for

managers are similar to those for needs hierarchy: managers should focus on

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meeting employees’ existent relatedness and growth needs, though without

necessarily applying the proviso; that is to say: job and safety concerns necessarily

take precedence over challenging and fulfilling job requirements.

2.3.3 MOTIVATOR-HYGIENE THEORY

Fredrick Herzberg developed the motivator-hygiene theory. This theory is closely

related to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs but relates move specifically to how

individuals are motivated in the workplace. Based on his research Herzberg argued

that meeting the lower-level needs (hygiene factors) of individuals would not

motivate them to exert effort, but would only prevent them from being dissatisfied.

Only if higher-level needs (motivators) were met would individuals be motivated.

The implication for managers of the motivator-hygiene theory is that meeting

employees lower-level needs by improving pay, benefits, safety, and other job-

contextual factors will prevent employees from becoming actively dissatisfied but

will not motivate them to exert additional effort toward better performance. To

motivate works or employees, according to the theory, managers must focus on

changing the intrinsic nature and content of jobs themselves by “enriching” them

to increase employees’ autonomy and their opportunities to take on additional

responsibility, gain recognition, and develop their skills and careers. An analysis of

these interviews led Herzber to conclude that certain factors led to job satisfaction,

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which he termed motivators and certain factors found in the two groups are

summarized as follows

HYGIENE FACTORS

 Leading to dissatisfaction:

 Policies and Administration

 Supervision

 Working conditions

 Money

 Job security

 Status

 Relationship with peers and subordinates

MOTIVATORS

 Leading to satisfaction

 Achievement

 Recognition

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  Responsibility

 Growth and development

2.3.4 ACHIEVEMENT THEORY OR THE McClelland’s LEARNED NEEDS

THEORY.

McClelland’s theory suggests that individuals learn needs from their culture. Three

of the primary needs in this theory are the need for affiliation (n Aff), the needs for

power (n Pow) and the need for achievement (n Ach). The need for affiliation is a

desire to establish social relationship with others. The need for power reflects a

desire to control one’s environment and influence others. The need for

achievement is a desire to take responsibility, set challenging goals and obtain

performance feedback. The main point of the learned needs theory is that when one

of these needs is strong in a person, it has the potentials to motivate behavior that

leads to its satisfaction. Thus, managers should attempt to develop an

understanding of whether and to what degree their employees have one or more of

these needs, and the extent to which their jobs can be structured to satisfy them.

McClelland (1953) related these concepts directly to business drive and

management. His research indicated that a strong need for achievement was related

to how well individuals were motivated to perform their work tasks.

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The need for achievement can be defined as a desire to excel or to succeed in

competitive situations. In his research, McClelland found that people with high

need for achievement have several characteristics of interest to managers:

 They like taking responsibility for solving problems

 They tend to set moderately difficult goals for themselves and to take

calculated risks to achieve their goals.

 They place great importance on feedback on how well they are doing.

Thus, those with high achievement needs tend to be highly motivated by

challenging and competitive work situations. Conversely, people with low

achievement needs tend to perform poorly in competitive or challenging work

situations.

2.3.5 VROOM’S OR EXPECTANCY THEORIES

Vroom (1964), in an influential work, focused his attention on individual behavior

in the work place. He observed the work behaviour of individuals with the object

of explaining the processes involved. He assumed that most of the observed

behavior would be motivated, i.e., it was the result of preferences among possible

outcomes and expectations concerning the consequences of actions. His principal

methodology was ‘objective observations’. The essential elements of Vroom’s

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ideals have come to be called “Expectancy theory.” The crux of this theory is that

motivated behavior is a product of two key variables:

 The valence of an outcome for the individual, and

 The expectancy that a particular act will be followed by a predictable

outcome.

Valence is the anticipated satisfaction from an outcome. This distinguishes it from

the value of the outcome, which is the actual satisfaction obtained. Expectancy is a

momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will be followed

by a particular outcome. The product of valence X Expectancy is force. Force is

used in the sense of pressure to perform an act. Thus the basic formula designed by

Vroom can be stated as follows:

FORCE (MOTIVATION) = VALENCE X EXPECTANCY

Vroom’s ideas have been pursued by numerous other theorists to the extent that in

his review of motivation theory, Guest (1984) concluded that Expectancy theory

continues to provide the dominant framework for understanding motivation at

work. Lawler and Porter (1967), in particular, have extended Vroom’s ideas by

developing a model which attempts to address two major issues:

 What factors determine the effort a person put into his job?

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  What factors affect the relationship between effort and performance?

The variables selected by Lawler and Porter were as follows:

 Effort

 The value of rewards

 The probability that rewards depends on effort

 Performance

 Abilities

 Role perceptions.

Underlying their basic model (see Figure 2) is the assumption that people act on

the basis of how they perceive situations. This subjective aspect of the model is

crucial.
Perception that effort will
lead to effective
performance
External
Perception that effective Abilities
Constraints
performance will lead to
rewards
Perception that attractive Performance Rewards
Effort
rewards are available
Role perception
Fig. 2: Simplified Model of Expectancy Theory (Based on Lawler & Porter, 1967).

25
The model indicates clearly how effort is determined by individuals’ perception of

their situations. It also shows that performance is qualified by individuals own

abilities and understanding of their role, as well as by the constraints in the

environment (e.g. company’s policies). In his opinion, the main variables affecting

job satisfaction were:

 Supervision

 The work group

 Job content

 Wages

 Promotional opportunities

 Hours of work.

In concluding his discussion on job satisfaction, Vroom comments that: people’s

reports of their satisfaction with their jobs are directly related to the extent to

which their jobs provide them with such rewarding out come as pay, variety in

stimulation, consideration from their supervisor, a high probability of promotion,

close interaction with co-workers, an opportunity to influence decisions and

control over their place of work.

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2.3.6 EQUITY THEORY

Equity theory suggests that individuals engage in social comparison by comparing

their efforts and rewards with those of relevant others. The perception of

individuals about the fairness of their reward relative to others influences their

level of motivation. Equity exists when individuals perceive that the ratio of efforts

to rewards is the same for them as it is for others to whom they compare

themselves. Inequity exists when individuals perceive that the ratio of efforts to

rewards is different (usually negatively so) for them than it is for others whom they

compare themselves. There are two types of inequity-under-reward and over

reward. Under-reward occurs when a person believes that he or she is either puts in

more efforts than another, yet receives the same reward, or puts in the same effort

as another. For a lesser reward. For instance, if an employee works longer hours

than her co-worker, yet they receive the same salary, the employee would perceive

inequity in the form of under-reward.

Conversely, with over-reward, a person will feel that his efforts to reward ratio is

higher than another person’s, such that he is getting the same reward even with less

effort. While research suggests that under-reward motivates individuals to resolve

the inequity, research also indicates that the same is not true for over-reward.

Individual who are over-rewarded often engage in cognitive dissonant, convincing

themselves that their efforts and rewards are equal to another’s.

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According to equity theory, individuals are motivated to reduce perceived in

equity. Individuals may attempt to reduce inequity in various ways. A person may

change his or her level of effort, an employee who feels under-rewarded is likely to

work less hard. A person may also try to change his or her rewards, such as by

asking for a raise. Another option is to change the behavior of the reference person,

perhaps by encouraging that person to put forth more effort. Finally, a person

experiencing inequity may change the reference person and compare him or herself

to a different person to assess equity. For managers, equity theory emphasizes the

importance of a reward system that is perceived as fair by employees.

2.3.7 MCGRGOR’S THEORIES X AND Y

McGregor (1960) evolved two sets of propositions and assumptions about the

nature and behaviors of people in organizations. These he termed “Theory X and

Theory Y”. The assumptions are as follows:

THEROY X ASSUMPTIONS

 The average man is inherently lazy.

 He lacks ambitions, dislikes responsibility and must be led.

 He is resistant and is indifferent to organizational needs.

 Coercion and close control are required to induce him to work.

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THEORY Y ASSUMPTIONS

 To the average man, work is as natural as rest or play.

 Motivation, potential for development, imagination and ingenuity are

present in all people given proper conditions.

 Coercion and close control are not required to force him to work.

 Given proper condition, people will accept and seek out responsibility

As McGregor notes, “behind every management action or decision are assumption

about human nature and human behavior.” Those managers who subscribe to

theory Y behave according to the postulate in theory Y. they believe that human

beings like to take responsibilities and that commitment to objective is a function

of the rewards associated with it. These rewards are the needs that motivate them

to act. The rewards create the tension in the individual that subside when realized.

How we act or react toward other people is influenced by our assumptions about

those people. If we believe that an employee has a special dislike for work and will

avoid it if he can, if we believe that he is at work because he needs money to

satisfy his physiological needs, we will attempt to motivate him with money and

threaten him with loss of employment (security need) if he does not put in a

measure of his effort. Thus, in adopting theory X, management must direct,

29
persuade, punish and control the activities of people and seek to coerce and modify

people’s behavior to fit needs of the organization.

2.3.8 GOAL-SETTING THEORY

The goal-setting theory posits that goals are the most important factors affecting

the motivation and behavior of employees. This motivation theory was developed

primarily by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham. Goal –setting theory emphasizes the

importance of specific and challenging goals in achieving motivated behavior.

Specific goals often involve qualitative target for improvement in a behavior of

interest. Research indicates that specific performance goals are much more

effective than those in which a person is told to “do your best”. Challenging goals

are difficult but not impossible to attain. Empirical research supports the

proposition that goals that are both specific and challenging are more motivational

than vague goals or goals that are relatively easy to achieve.

Several factors may moderate the relationship between specific and challenging

goals and high levels of motivation. The first of these factors is goal commitment,

which simply means that the more dedicated the individual is to achieving the goal,

the more they will be motivated to exert effort toward goal accomplishment. Some

research suggests that having employees participate in goal setting will increase

their level of goal commitment. A second factor relevant to goals-setting theory is

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self –efficacy, which is the individual’s belief that he or she can successfully

complete a particular task. If individuals have a high degree of self- efficacy, they

are likely to respond more positively to specific and challenging goals than if they

have a low degree of self-efficacy.

2.4 Manpower Planning

Many scholars are essentially enmeshed in the argument for and against the

concept of manpower planning and development in an organization. Some other

emphasizes the need for manpower planning and how to ensure, increase

efficiency and productivity through the use of manpower plans and development

programmes.

Thomas Kempwer (1971) views manpower planning as the name allotted to the

drawing up of different types that the company will required over a period of years.

He held the opinion that once a company has developed a long range strategy

(corporate planning), it becomes possible to estimate the number of people of all

types and categories that may be required over the following years.

Ubeku Abel (1975) refers to manpower planning as part of organizational

planning. He observed that manpower planning should not be seen in isolation but

in the total context of the growth of the organization. He posits that manpower

planning covers much than simply planning the future manpower requirements of

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an organization since it hinges on all aspects of the business. This approach goes

beyond mere consideration of supply but is not specific on what other aspects of

business manpower hinges on. It also comes with the impression that the only

concrete matter it deals with is future supply of manpower.

2.5 Training and Development

Training, according to oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, is the process of

preparing somebody or being prepared for a job. In developing manpower, training

is an indispensable element and also a vehicle for development and planning.

Stemetz et al. (1969:68) affirms that training is a short term process that uses a

systematic and organized procedure by which non-managerial personnel could

acquire technical knowledge and skills for a definite period. Thus, training is

technical-oriented. It is designed to improve the technical and mechanical skills of

personnel. Trainings, therefore, are usually designed for both non-managerial and

managerial staff.

Development generally means the process of causing somebody or something to

grow or making something to become larger gradually. However, in relations to

manpower development, it can be seen as a process of increasing the quality or

value or skill of an employee (personnel). From the definition, it can be said that

training facilitates manpower development and consequently its performance.

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Manpower training and manpower development are two interrelated processes

whose importance cannot be over-emphasized in any decision of strategic human

resource management. They are related to the series of activities, which an

enterprise could embark upon to release the quality of its managerial capacity.

In the view of Chanokan, J.S. (1984:204), manpower development refers broadly

to the nature and the direction of change inducted in the employees as the result of

educating and training programmes. He says that development is managerial in

nature and career-focused. To distinguish training and development, Chanokan

postulated that, “unlike training, the workers which improves technical and

mechanical skills development techniques are designed for work behavior

modification. According to him, development is an educational process utilizing a

systematic organizational procedure by which a worker learns the conceptual and

theoretical knowledge for effective pursuance of their responsibilities.

As jobs are becoming more and more complex, it becomes imperative for

employers of labour to train their workers unlike when jobs were single and little

technical knowledge or know-how was require from the workers.

Manpower development has been described as the systematic process which an

organization has to go through to ensure that it has the effective managers it

requires to meet its present and future needs. According to De Philip et al. (1946),

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training is a process when under company auspices seeks a planned, coordinated

and conscious manner to develop in the employees those understanding, skills and

attitude; which will maximize individuals’ present and future efficiency and

effectiveness of the overall company’s or organization’s operations.

2.6 Training and Manpower Development Programmes

There are many types of training and manpower development programmes

available. The particular method chosen by an organization can be influenced by

cost and time available, number of persons to be trained, depth of knowledge

required, background of the trainees, etc.

Manpower development is a systematic process of training and growth by which

individuals gain and apply knowledge, skills, insights and attitudes to manage

work and personnel effectively. It involves the estimation of the demand for the

supply of management staff for the organization in future. It is the involvement of

efforts aimed at improving the quality as well as the number of management staff.

Studies have shown that many workers fail in organizational expectations because

the training needs were not identified and provided for. Development may help to

build confidence in the workers and therefore make them work more efficiently

and effectively.

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2.6.1 On-the-Job-Training

This is widely used in the development of workers in organisations. According to

Chim Obisis (1996: 224), “old and experienced workmen perform much better in

an organization when they undergo training and manpower development through

on-the-job-training programmes.”

The advantage of this method is that it creates good working relationship because

employees get to know each other better and the working environment. On the

other hand, this method is disadvantageous in the sense that it could result to

unorganized supervision when the qualified ones are undergoing training. On-the-

job-training could take the following forms:

Training by experienced workmen; or Apprenticeship, which is the oldest

method of training.

2.6.2 Professional Training

This is used to help trainees acquire more skills usually in technical or commercial

fields, where skills are acquired for performing a task. For instance, vestibule

training is a system of training when large number of people is to be trained on

special machines or equipment. That is a kind of professional training too.

Recently, some of these have been digitalized as the 20th and 21st century had

become a computer age.

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2.7 The Need for Manpower Planning and Development

In reviewing the need for manpower planning and development, some people

Feel that money is the bedrock of business while scholars emphasise on the need

for human resources planning and management as the main essence of

organizational survival and growth.

Peter Drucker (1980: 130) is of the opinion that since no one foresees further,

management cannot make actual and responsible decision unless sit selects

development of the workforce and test the men and women who will have to take

care of the supposed decisions.

Bawey (1977:23) emphasizes that the most important factor underlying manpower

planning is the understanding of human behavior and the resulting social process.

This goes to buttress how environmental influences affect the behaviours of

workers which in-turn affects productivity.

2.8 Meaning of Planning and Evolutionary Organizational Structure

Corroborating the views of Ubeku and Oliver Ibekwe (1984:18), we tend to believe

that a “forward looking” plan ensures that the necessary human efforts to make

possible survival and growth is available and entails manpower forecasting, which

36
means gathering of data in relation to labour evaluating the data and then making

predictions on the future; on the basis of the data.

Abel Ubeku (1975: 46) recognized two stages in manpower panning: stage I –

concerned with the dictated manpower inventory of all types and level (unskilled,

skilled, supervisory and managerial) employed throughout the period of manpower

plan and stage II – which deals with manpower supply of resources.

According to Richard Johnson (1987: 74), the purpose of training and retraining in

skill is to bring competency of individuals to the desired standard for present or

potential assignments. He went further to assert that training helps the participants

to improve performance in their activities, he gave reasons for the need for

training: (1) that people will be more productive on the present jobs and ready for

advancements; and (2) since the success of the enterprise requires that everyone

perform at his/her optimum level, then this call is part of determining and meeting

the specific need for each staff, which should be translated to training. This change

comes in part through the provision of opportunities for a person to improve

his/her knowledge, skills or attitudes. In doing this, the company or organization

increases productivity and the individual advances his or her career. Nevertheless,

enormous steps must first be taken to determine valid training needs. This is so

because time, money and efforts can be coasted through training that is not based

on valid and present or emerging needs.

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2.9 Motivation through Manpower Development

There are two kinds of motivation: positive and negative motivation. If people

work out of fear and reasons of punishment and reprimand, it is negative

motivation. On the other hand, if people work willingly and without fear and

reason of punishment, it is positive motivation. According to Gbadamosi and

Adekakin, the two basic types of motivation often identified are intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation.

They described intrinsic motivate as “the motivation that is within the individual. It

is internal motivation hence it is not manipulated. It describes the feeling of being

re-cognized, praised of for a job well-done and participation in whatever we can

do. In making assumptions about the nature of man, researchers have discovered

that man is a more complex individual than rationed economic, social or self-

actualizing man. Not only is he more complex within himself but he is also likely

to differ from his neighbors and co-workers in the partner of his own complexity.

Some of the assumptions underlying this complexity are:

• Man is capable of learning new motives through his organizational

experience.

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• Man can become productively involved with an organization on the basis of

many different kinds of motives. This ultimate satisfaction and effectiveness of the

organization depends only in part in the nature of his motivation.

• Man is not only complex, but highly variable, he has many motives which

are arranged in some sort of hierarchy and importance to him. This change from

time depending on his mood and the current situation.

• Man’s motives in different units in the same organization may be different.

A person who is alienated in the formal organization may find fulfillment of his

social and self-actualization needs in the informal organization.

Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is an external one. It is not within the

person. It is therefore that which can be manipulated. In industry, it relates to the

work environment, hence it can be influenced or changed. Extrinsic or external

motivation concerns such motivation like money, retirement benefits, health

insurance and compensation as well as other motivational incentives like trainings

and manpower development.

These are various incentives and techniques which organizations can use in

motivating their employees. These incentives or techniques may be divided into

two categories, viz financial incentives and the non-financial incentives

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FINANCIAL INCENTIVES: Some individuals are ready and willing to define

motivation as money. Most people are motivated by money. Financial incentives

may come in the form of:

• Wages and salaries

• Bonus

• Allowances

• Other financial benefits

NON-FINANCIAL INCENTIVES: The non-financial motivators give personal

satisfaction to the individual. It is a reward which gives inner joy to the individual

but cannot be measured and qualified terms of money. The following constitute

non-financial motivation:

• Promotions, Trainings and Manpower Development

• Objective setting and appraisal

• Job security

• Increased responsibilities

• Authority and Accountability

• Job enrichment

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• Understanding the subordinates goals

• Full appreciation for work done

• The loyalty of management to workers

• Sympathetic understanding of their personal problems

• Tactful discipline

• Good and favorable company policy

• Good and favorable working conditions

These are factors that motivate today’s workforce to higher performance as money

alone does not motivate all employees neither does it motivate under all conditions

and at all times. According to Obisi (1996), for motivational tools to succeed, it

must by dynamic, motivational techniques which are not flexible are dangerous

and counter-productive. Organizations must and should not forget that a satisfied

need is no longer a motivator of behavior. Environmental and organizational and

even individual changes should not be forgotten while organizing and

implementing motivational tools. He says further that when the workforce is

adequately motivated, the organization derives some benefits and advantages

which are reflected in:

• Enhanced individual and organizational growth

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• Enhanced quality

• Improved safety

• Enhanced group dynamism

• Enhanced good labour management relations

• Improved productivity and performance

For the individual, adequate motivation leads to job satisfaction is. Job satisfaction

is generally viewed as an emotional response and represents the degree to which a

person likes his or her job. Feeling of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction tend to

reflect more of the employee appraisal of job experiences in the present and past

more than expectation for the future. Job satisfaction is a specific subject of

attitudes held by people. It is the attitude one has towards his or her job. It is one‟s

effective response to the job. Job satisfaction is concerned with the feelings one

has towards the job and work motivation is concerned with the behavior that occur

on the job. Job satisfaction can be defined by two commonly accepted job believes

about the job viz.

• Employee perception of what the job is currently providing.

• What the employee wants the job to provide or believes the job should

provide.

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Logically therefore, if an employee believes that what the job is providing is equal

to what the job should provide, then there is job satisfaction and vice versa. There

are three components of job satisfaction, these are:

• Organizational policies and practices such as promotion, compensation etc.

• The people the employee work with: superior, peers and subordinates

2.10 PRODUCTIVITY

Productivity is an important term to individuals, groups, organizations and nations-

despite its importance, there is lack of universal definition of productivity.

Comparative analysis of productivity is sometimes difficult for example,

comparing productivity of a work using manual system of operation with another

using automated system of operation may be difficult.

However, Bedeian (1987) has defined productivity as the unit of output produced

divided by the number of units of resources applied. A productive organization will

produce more units of outputs with given units of input.

2.10.1 MEASURING PRODUCTIVITY

Productivity can be measured in two ways.

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1. Total productivity

2. Partial productivity

Total productivity: Is defined as a quality of output produced divided by the units

of input applied. This method appears to be more accurate but may eventually

become meaningless because of the variety of the inputs used by organizations.

Hence, one may measure productivity by means of partial productivity index.

Partial productivity: This measures the productivity of each component of input

example.

Employee productivity index is total number of goods and services produced

divided by the number of hours expended.

2.10.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTIVITY

The role of management in influencing productivity gains is clear. In general, the

productivity of an organization as well as a nation will be dependent on the level of

motivation, leadership, technological development and availability of labour.

However, many other interrelated factors also affect productivity. Their complexity

is clear when we look at the following considerations;

• Tax policies

• Inflation
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• A shift in worker altitudes and motivation

• Cost to industry of government regulation

• Increased use of alcohol and drugs

• Changes in family structure

• Growth of the less productive service sector

• Workforce: the makeup of the workforce is very important to productivity.

• Condition of facilities: and investment in new plants and equipment

• Energy cost: The costs of oil, gas and electricity have a significant effect on

productivity.

The impact of these factors as enumerated above, upon the future productivity

growth is varied. Some factors may be temporary and their effects already

absorbed by the economy. Other factors, such as drugs abuse and changes in

family structure, are social problems affecting all levels of national life. Some must

however be addressed by managers if productivity gains necessary to counter

inflation and improve the quality of life for all are to be realized. In this latter

category are such factors as new facility investment and research and development

programmes.

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2.10.3 PRODUCTIVITY MANAGEMENT

In an attempt to improve productivity, some organizations have set up systematic

and coordinated productivity improvement programmes. These methods can be

discussed under the following heading:

• Quality of work life (QWL): quality of work life means a set of objectives,

organizational condition and practices such as enrichment, democratic supervision,

employee involvement and safe working conditions.

• It may also be equated with employees‟ perception that they are safe,

relatively well satisfied and able to grow and develop as human beings.

• Product and process improvement: organization establishes research and

development units to conduct both basic and applied research on improving the

product and process. Such research will enhance worker productivity.

• Work and job improvement: the design of the job through job design and

redesign, motion analysis and time study are some programs put in place by well-

established organizations to improve productivity.

• Organizational change: systematic attempt to alter the structural relationship

and roles assigned to people for effective functioning of organization. The main

approaches to organizational change are structural (attempt to alter the structure),

46
technological (attempt to analyze and refine the interactions between workers and

machine to increase efficiency to the work place) people (attempt to change

behavior of employees directly by focusing on their skills, altitudes, perception and

expectation) and organizational development.

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CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Research Methodology

To appreciate its relevance, it is necessary to understand the subject matter:

research and the methods adopted in this study. Research entails the process of

carving a dependable solution to problems through planned and systematic

collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

Osuala, E.C. (1987:2) saw research methodology as the overall strategy used by

the researcher in collecting and analyzing data for the purpose of investigation of

problems. However, the method to be used by the researcher depends on the

purpose of the study and the nature of problem to be investigated. This research is

designed to be both descriptive and empirical in value.

3.2 Design of the study

A research design will typically include how data is to be collected, what

instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be used and the intended

means for analyzing data collected.

This study was basically a survey research and therefore required the use of survey

method of investigation. In this survey research, a questionnaire is designed to

gather information relevant to this project topic. It is based mainly on the effect of

48
training and manpower development in human resources management with

particular reference to Eket Local Government Council.

However, the study is designed to be both descriptive and empirical in value. The

descriptive value of it reinforces the behavioural pattern that include contribution

for the trained personnel to the organization. While the empirical analysis entails

the various analysis of the data collected for the purpose of testing and

consequently accepting or rejecting the stated hypothesis.

The hypotheses of the study are stated in both Null and Alternative styles. The Null

hypothesis assumes that there is no significant different between the observed

frequencies and the expected frequencies, while the alternative hypothesis assumed

that there is a significant difference. The acceptance of the Null hypothesis (H 0)

automatically means the rejection of the alternative hypothesis (H1) and vice versa.

In conclusion, the study does not basically transcend the provision of information

on the magnitude of training the personnel received but also focuses on the various

problems of training and development in the selected organization.

3.3 Area of the study

The area of the study is Eket Local Government Council which is one of the

branches of Local Government System I Akwa Ibom State. Nigeria.

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3.4 Population

The entire staff of Eket Local Government Council, Eket constitute the population

of the study. The population boundary is fixed and described by the characteristics

of individual members composing it as well as the nature of variable being studied

(Bandan 1990:74). Hence, my estimated population was 50 since they do not have

reliable and current data regarding the population of employees in the council.

3.5 Sample Size

Sampling or sample according Harper (1971) is a selection of items taken from the

population for examination. It is simply a smaller part of the population. Samples

are useful because they allow the researcher to examine the characteristics of the

population. Without having to study the whole population because, it is a known

fact that the whole population cannot be studied hence a sample will be drawn to

represent the population. Since the findings from the study of the sample will be

used to generalize for the population. The entire employee will be given equal

chance of being included in the sample. A sample of fifty (50) members of staff

was drawn from the population.

3.6 Sampling and Sampling Technique

The techniques and sampling employed in the data collection is mainly random

sampling. This is adopted with the view to reducing the degree of bias and
50
sidedness of the respondent’s opinion on the topic during the personal oral

interview and the distribution of the questionnaire. The sample size was 50.

Secondly, to ensure that the views of both the junior, middle and management

personnel are well and adequately represented; cluster sampling technique was

used to complement the random sampling.

3.7 Instrumentation

The researcher uses questionnaire and library research to obtain the needed

information for the study and also adopts observation and oral interviews.

3.8 Validity of the Instruments

To test for validity of the instrument, the instrument used which is the

questionnaire was given to my supervisor and other experts for re-assessment and

evaluation. Since my supervisor by reading my work had made corrections and this

corrections have been implemented, then, I have approved the validation of this

study.

3.9 Reliability of the Instruments

Due to the fact that the instrument was given for evaluation by experts it is

believed that the instrument is reliable. This would help the researcher to achieve

the desired results. Data from the primary sources are thus very reliable. It has

51
been tested over and over again and the same results were obtained which means

the information are as reliable as earlier stated.

3.10 Source of Data

The data collected for the purpose of analysis and consequently testing of the

formulated hypotheses is the primary data collected using oral personal interviews

and simple questionnaires administered to the employees of the organization.

3.11 Method of Data Analysis

The method of data analysis adopted is the study includes the sample percentage

and tabular presentation of the collected data, this is because various alternative

explanatory variables that are not easily quantified were used. To reduce the

problem of the quantification of the variables, attitudinal type of measurement

using Likert scale was used for the opinions supplied for the respondents

To further test and accept or reject the formulated hypothesis, the Chi-square

distribution was employed. In the test, if the calculated values of the Chi-square is

greater than that of the table values at a given level of significance (tabulated

values) then the Null hypothesis would be rejected and automatically accepting the

alternative hypothesis and vice versa, to ensure a high level of confidence, a test

significance of 0.05 is used.

52