European Journal of Medicinal Plants

14(4): 1-16, 2016, Article no.EJMP.25670

ISSN: 2231-0894, NLM ID: 101583475

SCIENCEDOMAIN international
www.sciencedomain.org

An Overview of Ethiopian Traditional Medicinal

Plants Used for Cancer Treatment
Worku Abebe1*
1
Department of Oral Biology and Pharmacology, Dental College of Georgia, Augusta University,
Augusta, Georgia, USA.

Author’s contribution

The sole author designed, analyzed, interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/EJMP/2016/25670
Editor(s):
(1) Marcello Iriti, Professor of Plant Biology and Pathology, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Milan State
University, Italy.
Reviewers:
(1) Dan Cheng, National Institutes of Health, USA.
(2) Nasir Ahmed, TechB Herbal Solution, Bangladesh.
(3) Vaya Konstantikaki, Anticancer Hospital of Thessaloniki “Theageneio”, Greece.
Complete Peer review History: http://sciencedomain.org/review-history/14446

Received 15th March 2016

th
Accepted 18 April 2016
Review Article
Published 4th May 2016

ABSTRACT

Traditional medicine plays a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in
developing countries, including Ethiopia, and medicinal plants provide valuable contribution to this
practice. Emerging evidence indicates that cancer is becoming one of major health problems in
Ethiopia. Relying primarily on field surveys, there have been recent efforts to assess the use of
Ethiopian traditional medicinal plants for treatment of various diseases including cancer. The
present paper is an overview of the literature reporting the use of these plants for cancer treatment.
It was reported that 30 species of plants were used for treating human cancer, with most of them
belonging to different plant families. In addition to cancer, a large majority of the plants were also
used against various types of other diseases. For most of the plants reported (73%), there was
some kind of independent experimental/clinical evidence supporting their claimed anticancer
activity. A small number of medicinal plants (13%) were mentioned to be used only in Ethiopia for
cancer treatment, but no experimental/clinical confirmation was available. Despite certain
limitations of the studies reviewed, the present paper provides useful information on the overall
status of Ethiopian traditional medicinal plants as used for treatment of cancer. This information can
be used for designing and conducting future research on this important subject.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

 Abebe; EJMP, 14(4): 1-16, 2016; Article no.EJMP.25670

Keywords: Traditional medicine; Ethiopia; medicinal plants; cancer; anticancer effects.

1. INTRODUCTION different diseases in different parts of Ethiopia,

as recommended by traditional healers /
Traditional medicine is defined by the WHO as practitioners. Among the various types of plants
“…the sum total of all knowledge and practice, identified in these surveys were those claimed to
whether explicable or not, used in the diagnosis, be used for cancer treatment. However, while
prevention and elimination of physical, mental or multiple surveys along this line have been
social imbalances, and relying exclusively on conducted, the information collected thus far is
practical experience and observation handed largely scatted and unorganized.
down from generation to generation, whether
verbally or in writing” [1]. Experts agree that this In recent years, it has become more apparent
definition applies to the practice of traditional that cancer in Ethiopia is on the rise as a major
medicine in Ethiopia. In common with its health problem, as it is true in many other
implementation in many other regions of the developing countries [23,24]. It has been
developing world, Ethiopian traditional medicine reported that cancer accounts for about 4% of all
incorporates various “specialties”, including deaths in Ethiopia, and this number is likely to
spiritual healing, disease prevention measures, increase in due course of time unless
surgery/physiotherapy, midwifery, water therapy intervention measures are taken. In view of this
and herbal therapy. Up to 80% of the Ethiopian concern and in recognition of the importance of
population has been reported to rely on having systematically organized information on
traditional medicine as a major provider of health potential therapeutic agents of natural origin, the
care [2,3]. present paper provides an overview of the
purported use of Ethiopian traditional medicinal
Of the different forms of specialized areas, herbal plants for cancer treatment by reviewing the
therapy appears to play a prominent role in available literature in the field. While such a
Ethiopian traditional medicine. Ethiopia is report on Ethiopian medicinal plants is the first of
considered the home of some of the most its kind, it can provide a better understanding of
diverse plant species in Africa that serve as the issues under consideration, and facilitate
sources of many traditional medicinal plants. In future research direction in this area of
Ethiopia, medicinal plants contribute, to about knowledge.
80% of the traditional medicines used in the
country (the others being animal and mineral Relevant information on the use of Ethiopian
origins) [4,5]. Most of these plants are obtained traditional medicinal plants for cancer treatment
from local sources in the wild by knowledgeable was collected from peer-reviewed journal
traditional practitioners. articles, books, and other online resources from
1980 until the completion of this manuscript.
It has been reported that approximately 800 This has been the time during which most of the
species of the medicinal plants grown in Ethiopia important and reliable studies on traditional
are used for treating about 300 medical medicinal plants in Ethiopia were conducted.
conditions [6]. Among the widely known Besides using hard copy materials as information
medicinal plants, some are claimed to be sources, Pub Med/Medline and Google searches
prescribed by traditional healers for cancer were extensively made to access computer-
treatment [5,7]. There are varying levels of generated information using specific search
scientific evidence supporting part of this claim. terms such as “medicinal plants”, “traditional
medicine”, “Ethiopia”, “cancer”, “tumor”,
During the past three decades, there has been “anticancer effects”, and specific plant names, as
increased worldwide interest regarding the use of needed. Hard copy references were identified by
herbal medicines/supplements, and consistent searching library collections of Augusta
with this, the use of traditional herbal therapy in University and from personal collections of
Ethiopia has been on the rise. This increase in authoritative books. The information collected
the use of herbal therapy has produced a greater from different sources consisted of pertinent
desire among researchers to conduct studies on points on individual traditional medicinal
traditional Ethiopian medicinal plants [4-22]. The plants and was organized under different
majority of these studies included surveys of headings/subheadings in the text and
utilization of medicinal plants for the treatment summarized in table.

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2. MEDICINAL PLANTS REVIEWED other uses. In Ethiopia, it is commonly known by

the local name yeset kest [5]. The plant is used
The traditional medicinal plants reviewed are as a remedy for many disease conditions in the
described below in two separate groups: those practice of Ethiopian traditional medicine. These
supported with scientific/clinical evidence for their conditions include infertility, hemorrhoids,
claimed anticancer activity and those without migraine, measles, hemorrhages, rectal
such evidence of support. The highlights of the prolapse, rheumatism, venereal diseases, uterine
review are summarized in Table 1. prolapse and breast tumor [5,7,28]. The roots of
the plant has been reported to be used for tumor
2.1 Medicinal Plants with Documented treatment.
Experimental / Clinical Evidence for
Anticancer Activity While several bioactive compounds have been
isolated from A. africanus, gallic acid has been
2.1.1 Aerva javanica
demonstrated to display antineoplastic properties
Aerva javanica is a species of prostrate shrub [7]. Moreover, asparaginase, an enzyme from
belonging to the Amaranthaceae family [25]. It is another species in the genus, (A. officinalis) has
widely distributed in much of tropical Africa, and been reported as a potent antileukaemic agent.
in the south and south-west of Asia. The plant Antitumor activity has also been documented for
has been transplanted in Australia where it asparagamine A from yet another species,
covers a wide range of the arid regions of the A. racemosus.
continent. Because it is deep rooted, the plant is
used as a soil binder in desert reclamation [25]. 2.1.3 Bersama abyssinica

In almost all places where it is found, A. javanica Brsama abyssinica is a species of medium-sized
has a number of uses in traditional medicine. In evergreen tree belonging to the plant family
Ethiopia, it is commonly known as tobia and has Melianthaceae [30,31]. It is distributed across
been reported to be used for cancer treatment as sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia, where it
a traditional medicinal plant [10]. The roots of the is commonly identified as azamirr [16]. In
plant prepared in the form of powder are used for Ethiopia, a liquid preparation from growing shoot
this purpose. Other than this, no use of any tips has been reported to be used as a remedy
medical relevance has been reported for against dysentery and roundworms, while
A. javanica in Ethiopia, although this may not be infusion prepared from the bark (from stem) is
the case in other countries. Reviewing the administered to treat some forms of tumor [7,16].
literature for scientific evidence in support of the
claimed anticancer activity revealed that crude To assess the antitumor/anticancer activity of B.
leaf extracts of A. javanica possess abyssinica, various types of compounds have
antiproliferarive effect on human breast cancer been isolated from the plant [7,31]. Among these
cell lines (MCF-7) [26,27]. Further, more purified compounds, hallebergenin 3-acetate and lignin
leaf extracts of another species in the genus have been shown to inhibit tumor and certain
(A. lanata) also demonstrated anticancer, as well forms of carcinoma, respectively, while six other
as apoptotic activities against different cancer compounds to display antineoplastc activity.
cell lines [26,27].
2.1.4 Brucea antidysenterica
2.1.2 Asparagus africanus
Brucea antidysenterica is a species of flowering
Asparagus africanus is a species of climbing shrub/tree in the family of Simaroubaceae
plant in the family Asparagaceae [28,29]. It is [7,28,32]. It grows widely in tropical Africa,
native to most parts of the Arabian Peninsula, usually at the edge of semi-humid forests at
and sub-Saharan and eastern Africa, including relatively high altitudes. In Ethiopia, B.
Ethiopia. A. africanus is a highly adapting antidysenterica is commonly known as waginos
species widely naturalized in most other regions or aballo. Preparations made from different parts
of the world. It is commonly found in forests, of the plant are used to treat various conditions in
rainforest margins, open woodlands, urban bush- traditional Ethiopian medicine: leprosy, wound,
lands, and in vegetations along waterways diarrhea, fever, eye disease, rabies and
[28,29]. tumor/cancer, among others [28]. For
cancer/tumor treatment, pastes made from
In many places where it is found, A. africanus is powered leaves and young twigs with water are
used as an ornamental plant, in addition to some reported to be employed topically [7].

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Table 1. Summary of review of Ethiopian traditional medicinal plants reported to be used for
cancer treatment

Botanical name, with Local name Part used Cancer type Reported scientific evidence for
family name in reported to be anticancer effect
parenthesis treated by
medicinal
plants
Aerva javanica Tobia Roots Cancer in Antiproliferative effect of crude leaf
(Amaranthaceae) general [10]. extract against human breast cancer
cell lines (MCF-7) [26,27].
Asparagus africanus Yeset kest Roots Uterine cancer, Antineoplastic and antileukaemic
(Asparagaceae) breast cancer avtivities of gallic acid and l-
[5,7,29]. asparaginase, respectively, isolated
from plant [7].
Brsama abyssinica Azamirr Bark Tumor in general Antitumor and anticarcinoma effect
(Melianthaceae) [7,17]. of hallebergenin 3-acetate and
lignin, respectively; antineoplastic
activity of six other compounds
[7,31].
Brucea Waginos/aballo Leaves Tumor/cancer in Antitumor, antileukemic and
antidysenterica general [29]. antineoplastic activity of bruceantin
(Simaroubaceae) and bruceantinol in cells and
animals [7,29]
Cucumis Yemdir Roots Skin cancer Antineoplastic activity of tetracyclic
prophetarum/ficifolius embuay [7,29]. triterpens [7].
(Cucurbitaceae)
Crinum abyssinicum Yegibb Leaves Tumor in general Antitumor/anticancer activity of
(Amaryllidaceae) shinkurt [7,11]. lycorine, crimine, narciclasine,
3-epihalmanthidine, crinamine,
lycobetaine precriwelline, crinamide,
crinafolidine, criasbetaine,
crinasiadine, crinasiatine and
crotepoxide [7].
Dorstenia barnimiana Worq bemeda Roots/tuber Tumor visible on Anticancer activity of styrenes [37].
(Moraceae) s body surface
[11].
Gindia involucrate Mejrit/ Roots Breast Anticancer activity of diterpenes,
(Thymelaeaceae) yezingero cancer/tumor [7]. gnidicin, gnididin and gniditrin;
gnidiglucin; gnidilatidin, and
mezerein in cancer cell lines [7].
Euphorbia tirucalli Kinchib Roots, latex Tumor/cancer in Antiadenocarcinoma and
(Euphorbiaceae) general [7,11]. antisarcoma activity of
aqueous/alcohol extracts stems;
tumor inhibition by esters of
tetracyclic diterpenol phorbol [7]
Gloriosa superba Etse Lebona Roots Breast cancer Anticancer activity of colchicine
(Liliaceae) [7,8]. isolated from roots [7].
Jatropha curcas Controversial Seeds Tumor in general Inhibition of P388 lymphocyte
(Euphorbiaceae) name [7]. leukemia by plant extracts;
antitumor activity of triterpenes,
∝-amyrin and taraxerol; and the
diterpenes, jatrphol, and
jatropholone A, B, phorbols [7].
Kalanchoe petitiana Indahula Leaves Breast cancer, Antitumor activity of gallic acid
(Crassulaceae) skin cancer isolated from leaves [7,43].
[7,29].
Lagenaria sicararia Qil/kil Leaves Cancerous sores Cytotoxic and anticancer effect of
(Cucurbitaceae) [21,29]. alcohol extract and triterpenoid
compounds isolated from stems and
fruits against SK-HIP 1 and MCF-7
cell lines [44,45].

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Maytenus Kebkeb Bark Cancer in Anticancer/antitumor activity of

senegalensis general [16,29]. maytansinem in mice [33].
(Celastraceae)
Plambago zeylanicum Amerra Leaves Tumor/cancer in Anticancer/antitumor activity of
(Plumbaginacea) general [11,15]. chitranone,
isozeylanicone,zeylanicone,
elliptinone, droserone and
plumbagin (isolate from roots) in
prostate gland [48,49].
Prunus africana Tikur enchet Roots Cancer in Inhibition of prostate hyperplasia by
(Rosaceae) general [7,8]. the bark extract, pygeum;
antineoplastic activity of tenuifolin
and ferulic acid (isolated from roots
and leaves) [7,8,51].
Rumex abyssinicus Meqmeqo Roots Breast cancer Anticancer activity of root extract in
(Polygonaceae) [52]. tumor cell lines of prostate, brain
and breast, and in leukemia cell
cultures [52,53]
Solanum nigrum Embuayzerech Leaves, Cancerous sores Inhibition of growth of cervical
(Solanaceae) embuay stems, [14,17,19]. cancer in mice by plant leaf
roots preparation; antineoplastic activity
by solasodine [7].
Stephania abyssinica Yeayet hareg/ Roots External Antineoplastic activity by stephanine
(Menispermaceae) itse-eyesus tumor/cancer [7]. and stephavanine [7].

Vernonia spp. Grawa Leaves Tumor/cancer in Inhibition of Erlich ascites carcinoma

(Compositae) general [7]. cells by plant extracts; inhibition of
carcinoma cells of nasopharynx by
vernoid, vernodaline and
vernomygdin; antitumor and
cytotoxic activity by verinolepin in
Walker 256 carcinosarcoma in a rat
model [7].
Verbascum sinaiticum Yeferes zeng Roots Tumor in general Anticancer activity against breast
(Scrophulariaceae) [7,8]. and prostate cancer cells by
sinaitiein isolated from plant
[7,11,18].
Withania somnifera Gezawa Not External Anticancer activity of plant extract in
(Solanaceae) reported tumor/swelling animal and cell culture cancer
[7,17,29]. models; tumor inhibitory/antimitotic
activity of withaferin and
withanolides isolated from plant
[7,17,29].
Clematis hirsute per Yazo hareg Leaves, Tumor/cancer on Not reported
(Ranunculacae) stems, bark neck [8,18,21].
Calpurnia aurea Degeta Leaves Tumor/cancer on Not reported
(Fabaceae) neck [8,11,
15-18].
Dodonacea Ketketa Not Tumor/cancer on Not reported
angustifolia/viscosa reported neck [29].
(Sapindaceae)
Euphorbia abyssinica Kulkuwal Latex Skin cancer Not reported
(Euphorbiaceae) [8,11,12,19,29].
Gladiolus candidus Milas golgul Roots External tumor Not reported
(Iredaceae) [21].
Malva verticillata Lut Not Tumor/cancer on Not reported
(Malvaceae) reported neck [15,17].
Rubia/Rubus discolor Encheber Roots Cancer in Not reported
(Rubiaceae) general
[8,15,29].
Ranunculus multifidus Etse siol Roots External Not reported
(Ranunculaceae) tumor/cancer [8].

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In connection to the anticancer effect of B. As a traditional medicinal plant, the leaves of C.

antidysenterica, two potential quassinoid abyssinicum have been reported to be used in
compounds (bruceantin and bruceantinol) were Ethiopia as a remedy for wound, chancroid and
isolated from the plant by the US National some forms of tumor [7,11]. Corroborating with
Cancer Institute (NCI) during its search for its anticancer effect, studies have revealed that
anticancer drugs from natural sources [33]. this species and other members of the
These compounds were found to possess strong Amaryllidaceae family contain the compounds
antileukemic, anti-tumor and/or antineoplastic lycorine, crimine, narciclasine, 3-
activity in cell and/or animal models. However, epihalmanthidine, crinamine, lycobetaine
further investigations in phase 2 clinical trials did precriwelline, crinamide, crinafolidine,
not display expected results to continue the trials. criasbetaine, crinasiadine, crinasiatine and
Nonetheless, since studies on the anticancer crotepoxide, all with antitumor/anticancer
activity of B. antidysenterica have not been properties [7].
performed as reported by Ethiopian traditional
healers, it is not clear whether or not similar 2.1.7 Dorstenia barnimiana
effects are produced by adoption of the
traditional protocol. Dorstenia barnimiana is a perennial monoecious
herb in the family of Moraceae [36]. It consists of
2.1.5 Cucumis prophetarum/ficifolius a tuber usually with a small swelling above,
accompanied by a relatively large aerial stem.
Cucumis prophetarum is a species of tendril- The plant grows well in warm and moist
bearing herb in the Cucurbitaceae family [28]. It environment. While there is not much literature
has variously colored fruits that attract children information on this particular species, it has been
and some animals. It is widely grown in Africa, reported to be more unique to East Africa,
Asia and Australia. It is commonly known by the including Ethiopia [36]. However, the genus
name yemdir embuay in Ethiopia, where it is Dorstenia is known to contain as many as 170
often seen in pastures [34]. species worldwide, most of which are used in
traditional medicine for treating various types of
Cucumis prophetarum (same genus as diseases in many regions in Africa, and Central
cucumber) is used in traditional Ethiopian and South America [36]. In Ethiopia, D.
medicine as a remedy for a number of conditions barnimiana is commonly known as worq bemeda
including coughing, rabies in dogs, stomach pain, and is considered to be an important traditional
to induce abortion, toothache, bad breath, medicinal plant [11]. Among the diseases
diarrhea, eye diseases, gonorrhea, TB, and skin reported to be treated using this plant are found
cancer [7,28]. While different parts of the plant rabies in dog, syphilis, dysentery, fever, leprosy,
are used for treating the different conditions, for coughing and external cancer/tumor visible on
skin cancer, pulverized roots made as the surface of body [11]. For cancer treatment,
pastes/ointments are reported to be applied preparations made from the tuber of the plant are
directly onto affected areas. Consistent with the usually applied directly/locally on suspected area
reported anticancer claim in Ethiopia, scientific of the body. Supporting this claim, in the tubers
studies have also demonstrated potent of D. barnimiana, researchers have shown the
antineoplastic activity for some compounds presence of several closely related anticancer
isolated from the fruits of the plant [7]. Moreover, compounds known as styrenes [37].
compounds obtained from the related species, C.
ficifolius (cucurbitacin D and E), have been found 2.1.8 Gindia involucrate
to be potent cytotoxic and antineoplastc agents.
Gindia involucrate is a perennial herb in the
2.1.6 Crinum abyssinicum family Thymelaeaceae [38]. It is an erect woody
plant with a slender stem and woody rhizomes.
Crinum abyssinicum is a species of bulbous plant It is widely found in tropical Africa in open and/or
that belongs to the family of the Amaryllidaceae wooded grassland, and stony hills. In Ethiopia,
[35]. This plant prefers a sunny condition on G. involucrate is known by the local name mejrit
fresh to moist soil to grow well. It is believed to or yezingero telba and it is used in traditional
be native to Ethiopia, although it also grows in medicine for treating malaria and breast
the adjacent places in the north and southeast. cancer/tumor [7]. Preparations made from the
Crinum abyssinicum is recognized in Ethiopia by roots are preferred to be used for cancer
the local name yegibb shinkurt [7]. treatment. In support of this contention, various

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anticancer compounds (evaluated using cancer when chewed and applied externally on location,
cell models) have been isolated from this and respectively [7,8]. Consistent with the anticancer
other species of the genus [7]. These effect, the alkaloid colchicine and related
compounds include the diterpenes, gnidicin, compounds have been isolated from the roots
gnididin and gniditrin; gnidiglucin; gnidilatidin, of the plant. Colchicine is a well-known
and mezerein [7]. antineoplastic compound which is commonly
used in veterinary medicine. It has been shown
2.1.9 Euphorbia tirucalli to work by arresting mitosis at metaphase [7].
Colchicine is also commonly used in medicine to
Euphorbia tirucalli, is a plant species in the family treat acute attacks of gout by the same
Euphorbiaceae, which is widely distributed in mechanism of action.
Africa, prominently in the northeastern part of the
continent that includes Ethiopia [39]. It is 2.1.11 Jatropha curcas
commonly identified as kinchib in Ethiopia [7].
The plant grows well in semi-arid tropical Jatropha curcas is a species of flowering plant in
climates. the Euphorbiaceae family [41]. It is cultivated in
tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Its
Like E. abyssinica, E. tirucalli produces milky ability to resist a high degree of aridity enables it
vesicant/poisonous latex that partially contributes to grow in deserts.
to its medicinal value (see also 2.2.4. below).
E. tirucalli finds multiple uses in traditional It has been documented that J. curcas is used in
medicine in many cultures. Accordingly, the traditional Ethiopian medicine for skin infection,
powder of the roots and/or latex has been used wound healing and to inhibit some forms of
in Ethiopia for treating different forms of tumor, among others [7]. A paste made from
tumors/cancers and some other conditions such seed powder of the plant mixed with honey is use
as amoebasis [7,11]. Experimentally, alcoholic in the treatment of tumor. Consistent with this,
and aqueous extracts of the stems of E. tirucalli extracts of the plant has been shown to inhibit
have been shown to be active against P388 lymphocytic leukaemia both in vitro and
adenocarcinoma and sarcoma. Also, esters of in vivo [7]. Several bioactive compounds have
the tetracyclic diterpenol phorbol found in the also been isolated from the J. curcas plant with
plant, act as tumor inhibitors [7]. However, even antitumor properties: the triterpenes, ∝-amyrin
though E. tirucalli has been promoted and and taraxerol; and the diterpenes, jatrphol,
traditionally used as an anticancer agent, under jatropholone A, B, phorbols, among others [7].
certain circumstances it also suppresses the
immune system and promotes tumor growth [7]. 2.1.12 Kalanchoe petitiana
Whether this holds true when the plant is used in
accordance with the practice of Ethiopian Kalanchoe petitiana is a species of a succulent
traditional medicine, remains to be further plant that belongs to the family Crassulaceae
investigated. [42]. For optimum growth, the plant prefers a
sunny to partly-shady condition on fresh to moist
2.1.10 Gloriosa superba soil, with a temperature above 1ºC.

Gloriosa superba is a species of perennial Kalanchoe petitiana is native to Ethiopia and

trailing/climbing herb belonging to the here it is commonly called indahula [28,42].
family Liliaceae [40]. Although it is believed to be Different parts of the plant are used for treating a
native to tropical Africa and Asia, the species is number of disease conditions in Ethiopian
found widely distributed worldwide. It is traditional medicine. These conditions include
commonly recognized as an ornamental as well epilepsy, trachoma, allergy, intestinal parasites,
as a poisonous plant in some parts of the world, gonorrhea, malignant wounds, breast tumor and
Gloriosa superba is also used as a traditional skin cancer [7,28]. The leaves of the plant have
medicinal plant for treating various types of been reported to be used for treating both forms
diseases [7]. In Ethiopia, this plant species is of cancer. Confirming the anticancer effect
called Etse Lebona [8]. Although G. superba is reported, gallic acid with potent antitumor activity
not widely used in the practice of Ethiopian has been isolated from the leaves K. petitiana
traditional medicine, there are documents [7,43]. Similarly, leaf extracts of another species
indicating the roots of the plant being used as a in the genus, K. tubiflora, have been shown to
remedy for stomachache and breast cancer inhibit cell proliferation by disrupting centrosome

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integrity and chromosome alignment in mitotic from M. senegalensis by the US NCI as a

cells [7,43]. potential anticancer compound [33]. This
compound was indeed found to be a potent
2.1.13 Lagenaria sicararia inhibitor of various forms of tumor in mice but,
like the quassinoids from B. antidysenterica, it
Lagenaria sicararia is a climbing plant that did not show sufficient activity in phase 2 clinical
belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family [44]. It is trials [33]. However, it appears relevant to assess
believed to be indigenous to Africa and the first the anticancer property of M. senegalensis
plant to be domesticated by humans [44]. It is preparation(s) as used by traditional healers.
now widely distributed almost throughout the
world. However, it is mostly cultivated in the 2.1.15 Plambago zeylanicum
tropics and subtropics in a wide range of soil
types and at variable altitudes below 2,500 m. Plambago zeylanicum is a species of evergreen
The plant has been used for many purposes, shrub with long tuberous roots and straight stems
primarily to provide food, medicine and utility [29,47]. It belongs to the Plumbaginacea family.
objects [44]. In Ethiopia, L. sicararia is widely It is distributed as a weed throughout tropical and
found around human settlement areas and it is subtropical regions of the world, striving in well-
commonly called qil/kil [21,28]. It is reported to drained soil. In Ethiopia, it is believed to grow
be used as a traditional medicinal plant for widely and in most places it is known by the local
treating otitis media, mental illness and name Amerra [28]. It is used in Ethiopian
cancerous sores [21,28]. To treat cancer, the traditional medicine for the treatment of different
leaves are crushed and squeezed onto the types of diseases, including tonsillitis, abdominal
affected body part. Complying with this, there is colic, eye disease, TB, toothache and
scientific evidence that alcohol extracts and cancer/tumor [11,15]. As a remedy for
some triterpinoid compounds isolated from the cancer/tumor, the juicy product of squeezed
stems and fruits of L. sicararia exhibit significant fresh leaves is taken orally by patients suspected
cytotoxicity and anticancer activities against SK- of having the disease. In support, the scientific
HIP1 cell line and human breast carcinoma cell literature also reveals that certain compounds
line (MCF-7) [44,45]. isolated from the plant (chitranone,
isozeylanicone, zeylanicone, elliptinone,
2.1.14 Maytenus senegalensis droserone and plumbagin) have some anticancer
effects [48,49]. More notable in this regard is the
Maytenus senegalensis is a shrub species strong anticancer activity of plumbagin which
belonging to the Celastraceae family [46]. It is was isolated from the root of P. zeylanicum
widely distributed, but most notably in the [48,49]. Plumbagin is a quinoid that has been
savannah regions of tropical Africa, east Africa, shown, among other effects, to inhibit tumor by
Middle East, Arabian Peninsula and India. The controlling hormone-refractory invasive prostate
species occupies a wide range of habitats, cancer. Reported molecular targets inhibited by
including woodland, undergrowth areas, wooded this compound include PKC, STAT-3, AKT and
grassland, river banks and swamp margins. In PI-3K. Besides inhibiting cancer cell growth,
Ethiopia, M. senegalensis goes under the plumbagin induces apoptosis in these cells
common name Kebkeb [16,29]. [48,49].

Although M. senegalensis has been reported to 2.1.16 Prunus africana

be used in many other traditional medical
cultures for the treatment of various non- Prunus africana is an evergreen tree within the
cancerous ailments, such as respiratory Rosaceae family [50]. It is native to some regions
diseases, inflammation, microbial infections and of sub-Saharan Africa and Indian Ocean islands.
topically for healing wounds, in Ethiopia, The plant requires a moist climate to flourish and
interestingly, it is only reported to be used as an it grows well in many parts of Ethiopia, where it is
anticancer remedy [16,28]. Preparations mostly commonly known by the local tikur enchet.
made from the bark of the plant are used for this Traditionally, P. africana is used to treat a
purpose. number of diseases, the major ones being
respiratory disorders, bad breathe, diarrhea,
While a number of bioactive compounds have gonorrhea, rabies in dogs, TB, wounds, ear
been isolated from the Maytenus genus, problems and cancer [7,8]. The root of the plant
maytansinem (an ansa macrolide) was isolated is preferred for treating cancer.

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Supporting the traditionally claimed anticancer The different parts of S. nigrum are reported to
activity of the plant, there are some lines of be eaten as food in different rural communities of
evidence from scientific studies. An Ethiopia. In addition, the leaves, roots and stems
extract prepared from the bark of P. Africana of the plant are used for the treatment of various
(commonly known as pygeum), has been shown diseases including stomachache, skin allergy,
to have anti-inflammatory property and to anthrax, gonorrhea, rabies, cancerous sores
improve urinary symptoms associated with [14,17,19]. In support of the reported anticancer
prostate hyperplasia [7,8,51]. In addition, the effects, the leaves of the plant have been
compounds, tenuifolin and ferulic acid, isolated demonstrated experimentally to inhibit growth of
from the roots and leaves of P. africana, have cervical carcinoma in mice [7]. Solanum nigrum
been demonstrated to be antineoplastic [7,8,51]. and other species in the genus have been shown
to contain the compound solasodine which has
2.1.17 Rumex abyssinicus potent antineoplastic activity, supporting at least
the claimed anticancer activity of the plants used
Rumex abyssinicus is a perennial weed plant in in Ethiopia [7].
the family Polygonaceae [51]. It grows in tropical
Africa, particularly in central and Eastern Africa, 2.1.19 Stephania abyssinica
more commonly in cultivated lands. It is widely
known as meqmeqo in Ethiopia [8,11,15-17]. Stephania abyssinica is a climbing shrub within
The roots of the plant are commonly used as the family Menispermaceae [55]. It is found
cosmetic by Ethiopian women in northern widely distributed in tropical Africa, including
Ethiopia for dying the palms of the hands and Ethiopia. Its natural habitat includes grassland,
feet. As a traditional medicinal plant, the roots of abandoned fields and road sides, at elevations
R. abyssinicus are also claimed to be used for up to 3500 m. The plant is obtained from the
treating various types of diseases including wild for local use as a source of medicine and
hypertension, hepatitis, malaria, gonorrhea, dyeing material. In Ethiopia, it is commonly
constipation, neuralgia, rheumatism, migraine, called yeayet hareg or itse-eyesus [11,17,28].
ear problems, rabies, scabies, wound, typhus, As a traditional medicinal plant, it is used in
diabetes and breast cancer [52]. However, Ethiopia as a remedy against multiple conditions,
concerning the anticancer effect of the plant including anthrax, stomach problems,
asserted traditionally, no detailed information is miscarriage, rabies, syphilis and external
available as to how it is used. On the other tumor/swelling [7]. For treatment of
hand, there is scientific evidence supporting this tumor/swelling, the root of the plant is crushed,
activity of the plant. In this regard, it has been squeezed and then spread on affected part of the
shown that extracts of the roots of R. abyssinicus body. In confirmation of the antitumor activity
displayed cancer inhibitory activity when reported, stephanine and stephavanine isolated
evaluated in tumor cell lines of prostate, brain from S. abyssinica have been shown to exhibit
and breast, and in leukemia cell cultures [52,53]. antineoplastic activity [7]. Other compounds with
As part of the mechanism for this action, COX-2 anticancer properties have also been isolated
inhibition by anthraquinones present in the from several other members of the genus [7].
extract has been proposed. It is thus clear that
scientific evidence supports the value of 2.1.20 Vernonia spp. (V. amygdalina and
traditional knowledge as a possible source of V. hymenolepis)
information for developing therapeutic agents
[52,53]. Vernonia is a genus of about 1000
species of relatively small plants in the
2.1.18 Solanum nigrum Compositae family [56,57]. There are numerous
distinct subgenera and subsections in this genus
Solanum nigrum is a species of perennial shrub that are known for having intense purple flowers.
that belongs to the Solanaceae family [54]. It is In Ethiopia, at least two species of Vernonian
believed to be native to Eurasia, but it is unclear have been reported to grow widely and be used
when it was introduced into Ethiopia. There are in the practice of traditional medicine as a
several species of the genus in Ethiopia which remedy for different types of disease conditions.
share the same local name- embuay/zerech These are V. amygdalina and V. hymenolepis,
embuay [17,19]. Solanum nigrum usually grows with overlapping medicinal uses in some aspects
in wooded areas and disturbed habitat. [7,28].

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Vernonia amygdalina is the species that grows disease, impotence, infertility and tumor
more widely in tropical Africa [56-58]. In its [7,8,11,18,28]. The roots have been implicated
natural habitat, it grows more commonly in for tumor treatment. Consistent with the reported
overgrazed areas, forest edges and in secondary use of V. sinaiticum as antitumor, the chemical
scrub, 1700-3000 m above sea level. Because compound sinaitiein has been isolated with
of its bitter taste, the species is called bitter leaf. proven anticancer activity against breast and
However, the cooked leaves are eaten as prostate cancer cells [7].
vegetable in different forms in tropical Africa. In
Ethiopia, V. amygdalina is commonly known by 2.1.22 Withania somenifera
the local name grawa [7,19,21,28]. Its leaves are
often used to prepare a local drink called tella. Withania somnifera is a shrub in the Solanaceae
On the other hand, V. hymenolepis (with the family [60]. It is common in open grasslands and
same local name) is less popular in Ethiopia. it is widely found in Ethiopia, where it is more
The nutritional composition of V. hymenolepis commonly known by the local name gezawa
leaves is generally believed to be comparable to [8,15,17,18,29]. As a traditional medicinal plant,
that of V. amygdalina, but the former is less bitter W. somnifera is used in Ethiopia as a remedy for
[19,21,56-58]. Compared to V. amygdalina, there malaria, arthritis, and tumor/swelling [7,17,29].
is less information on V. hymenolepis regarding Supporting the reported antitumor effect, extracts
its use in Ethiopia. of the plant have been reported demonstrating
anticancer activity in animal and cell culture
As a traditional medicinal plant, different parts of models [7]. Further, the compounds, withaferin A
V. amygdalina are used in Ethiopia for treating and withanolides isolated from W. somnifera
ascariasis, excessive menstrual bleeding, have also been shown to possess tumor
wound, gastrointestinal disorder, malaria, inhibitory effect [7]. Withaferin A was also shown
and cancer/tumor [7]. On the other hand, to have antimitotic action.
V. hymenolepis is more recognized for its use as
an antitumor. Confirming the anticancer effects 2.2 Medicinal Plants with no Documented
claimed for both plants in Ethiopian traditional Experimental / Clinical Evidence for
medicine, extracts from both species were found
Anticancer Activity
to be active against Erlich ascites carcinoma
cells under in vitro condition [7].
2.2.1 Clematis hirsute perr
As a follow up to the above anticancer effects,
different potentially bioactive compounds have Clematis hirsute perr is a species of woody
been isolated from both V. amygdalina and climbing plant among more than 250 species in
hymenolepis and other species of Vernonia. the family of Ranunculacae [61]. It usually grows
Among the many compounds isolated, vernoid, in galleried forest and in open or wooded areas.
vernodaline and vernomygdin have been shown It is found widely spread in tropical Africa and in
more convincingly as effective cytotoxic and regions of intermediate altitudes, including
antitumor in multiple tests [7]. More specifically, Ethiopia. Clematis hirsute, in Ethiopia, is
both compounds exhibited inhibition of commonly known as yeazo hareg, and as a
carcinoma cells of nasopharynx in vitro, among traditional medicinal plant it has been reported to
other effects. Another compound identified as be used for treating edema, leishmaniasis,
verlnolepin was also reported to act as cytotoxic herpes, hemorrhoids and tumor on the neck,
as well as antitumor against Walker 256 among others [8,18,21]. Powder made from
carcinosarcoma in a rat model [7]. barks, leaves and stems of the plant are applied
directly to affected tumor sites. However, there is
2.1.21 Verbascum sinaiticum no experimental or clinical evidence supporting
or rejecting this claim, thus awaiting future
Verbascum sinaiticum is a biennial plant species investigations.
in the family Scrophulariaceae [59]. It is
commonly found in eastern Africa and the 2.2.2 Calpurnia aurea
Arabian Peninsula. It grows in a wide range of
geographic areas in Ethiopia and is commonly Calpurnia aurea is a species of a small multi-
known by the local language yeferes zeng stemmed tree in the family Fabaceae [62]. It
[8,11,18,28]. In traditional Ethiopian medicine, it occurs widespread in bushland and grassland in
is used for treating a number of ailments sub-Saharan Africa and India. In Ethiopia, it is
including ascites, anthrax, diarrhea, fever, heart commonly recognized as degeta, which is often

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found in overgrazed areas [28]. Calpurnia aurea medicine for the treatment of a number of
is used in traditional Ethiopian medicine to treat diseases including ascariasis, gonorrhea,
diverse medical conditions and parasitic leprosy, rabies, ‘mitch’ (allergy), toothache,
infestations, both in humans and animals. In syphilis, tinea infestation, TB, and skin cancer
humans, these conditions include scabies, [8,11,12,19,28]. For skin cancer treatment,
syphilis, tinea captis, rectal prolapse and cancer pulverized roots and plant latex prepared as
on the neck [8,11,15-18]. For cancer, leaf powder pastes/ointments are applied onto the affected
of the plant mixed with water is applied externally area. However, the effectiveness this treatment
on site. Although the compounds calpurmenin, has not been verified scientifically for this
virgiline and lupanine have been isolated from C. particular species. On the other hand, reports on
aurea as biologically active ingredients in several two other related species of Euphobia, namely,
aspects, their role as anticancer compounds has E. tirucalli and E. prolifera, have described their
not yet been specifically determined/established. use as anticancer/antitumor remedies in
traditional medicine outside Ethiopia [7]. In
2.2.3 Dodonea (V. angustifolia and D. viscosa) addition, compounds isolated from these species
have also been shown to possess anticancer
Dodonacea angustifolia is an evergreen slender activities. Based on the reported information, it is
shrub belonging to the Sapindaceae family [63]. justifiable to scientifically evaluate E. abyssinica
It is commonly found in scrub, mountain and in for what it is used in Ethiopia by traditional
rocky soils. Although it is considered to be native medicine practitioners.
to Australia, it is widely distributed throughout the
tropics and subtropics. Growing in Ethiopia, it is 2.2.5 Gladiolus candidus
commonly known by the local name ketketa
[8,11,15,16,19,21,28]. It has a wide range of Gladiolus candidus is one of the more than 300
traditional therapeutic applications in Ethiopia, species that belongs to the family Iredaceae
including treatment of multiple infectious and [66,67]. It mostly grows in moderately moist soil
non-infectious disease conditions, such as snake in a sunny condition. The genus is found in Asia,
bite, taeniasis, gastrointestinal disorders, and southern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa and South
cancer on neck [28]. However, no information is Africa. Gladiolus candidus is considered by some
available in the literature as to how the plant is authorities to be native to eastern Africa, which
used traditionally for cancer treatment nor is includes Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, the species is
there scientific evidence for its claimed popularly known as milas golgul, which has been
anticancer activity. used in traditional medicine for treatment of
some diseases, among which are included
2.2.4 Euphorbia abyssinica edema and cancerous tumor [21]. As to cancer
treatment, powdered root is either applied
Euphorbia abyssinica is a succulent, leafless tree directly on the tumor or it is taken orally by
belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae [64]. It is mixing it with water. However, there is no
a plant that survives well in moist montane forest, experimental or clinical evidence reported in the
humid woodlands and scrub savannah, mostly in literature supporting this claim.
East Africa. In Ethiopia, it grows in dry, moist and
wet agroclimatic zones, usually above 1,900 m. 2.2.6 Malva verticillata
Locally, it is widely known by the name kulkuwal
[28]. Euphorbia abyssinica produces milky Malva verticillata is a species of plant within the
vesicant/poisonous latex which in part family Malvaceae [68]. It is reported to be widely
contributes to its traditionally claimed medicinal found in east Asia. It mostly inhabits woodland
property. Although E. abyssinica finds some use areas of different soil types. The genus is
as a traditional medicinal plant in Ethiopia, it is widespread throughout the different climatic
mostly used by the local population for live regions of Africa, Asia and Europe.
fencing, firewood and timber.
In Ethiopia, M. verticillata is commonly known as
There is no published information on the use of lut and it is used in the practice of the local
E. abyssinica as a traditional medicinal plant traditional medicine for treating various diseases
outside Ethiopia. On the contrary, it is classified including vomiting, dysentery, and tumor of the
as a poisonous plant by the US Food and Drug neck [15,17]. However, there is no report on the
Administration (FDA) [65]. In Ethiopia, the plant use of M. verticillata as an anticancer medicinal
has been reported to be used in traditional plant in any other known traditional medical

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practice elsewhere, nor is there scientific greater attention to further investigate the
evidence confirming or refuting this claim. The potential for developing anticancer drug therapy.
lack of evidence awaits further investigations
based on the traditional knowledge reported. 3. DISCUSSION

2.2.7 Rubia/Rubus discolor Traditional medicine plays an important role in

the healthcare of the majority of the people in
Rubia discolor is a perennial species of developing countries, including Ethiopia, and
blackberry in the family Rubiaceae, which occurs medicinal plants serve as valuable sources of
widely in different parts of the world [69]. While natural therapeutic agents. In recent years, there
the plant is cultivated for its berries in some has been greater awareness that cancer in
places, growing as a wild plant in most other Ethiopia has become an increasing health
places has given it the reputation of being problem [23,24]. In view of these important
considered an invasive species. In Ethiopia, R. observations, the present paper is designed to
discolor is found in different altitude zones and it give an overview of the purported use of
is commonly known by the local name encheber Ethiopian traditional medicinal plants for
[28]. treatment of cancer based on the review of the
available published literature.
In Ethiopian traditional medicine, R. discolor is
used to treat cough, gastrointestinal disorders Reviewing the literature, it has become apparent
and cancer [8,15,28]. The root of the plant has that only 30 species of plants have been reported
been reported to be used for cancer treatment. to be used in Ethiopian traditional medicine for
The claimed anticancer effect of R. discolor in the treatment of cancer. Most of these plants
Ethiopia is the first report of its kind, as this has belong to a wide variety of unrelated plant
not as yet been documented elsewhere nor has it families. The following general observations were
been investigated scientifically. This observation, made regarding the use of these purported
once again, provides evidence for the possible anticancer plants.
role that plant-based natural resources play in
(1) For 73% of the plants reported to be used
the discovery of novel anticancer remedies. It
for cancer treatment, there was some kind
should, however, be noted that experimentally R.
of independent experimental/clinical
discolor has been shown to be a powerful
evidence supporting their claimed
antioxidant, a property that could be linked to
anticancer activity, while this was not the
anticancer activity, despite absence of direct
case for the rest (27%) of the plants.
evidence [7]. Moreover, root extracts of a closely
(2) In addition to cancer, about 93% of the
related species, namely, R. cordifolia, and
plants were also reported to be used for
compounds isolated from the root of this plant
treating various types of other diseases,
have been found to be inhibitory to tumor and
while the rest (7%) were used only for
neoplasm [7].
cancer treatment.
(3) Nearly 13% of the plants were reported to
2.2.8 Ranunculus multifidus be used for treatment of cancer only in
Ethiopia, but without documented scientific
Ranunculus multifidus is a species of a perennial evidence.
herb in the family Ranunculaceae [70]. It is found
throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa, The availability of scientific evidence
including Ethiopia, where it is considered a native (experimental and/or clinical) for most of the
plant. It often grows in wet ground, near rivers, traditional medicinal plants reviewed, justifies the
streams, ditches and swampy places. In importance of ethnopharmacological knowledge
Ethiopia, R. multifidus is commonly known as as a source of information for drug discovery
etse siol [8,21]. While no documented evidence and/or development using scientific methods.
is available for the medicinal use of this species This positive correlation between the two
anywhere else, in Ethiopia, the roots are reported experiences provides support for continued
to be used traditionally for cancer treatment scientific research on purported anticancer
externally [8]. However, there is neither activity of plants that have not yet been
experimental nor clinical evidence to support or experimentally/clinically tested. Such an effort
refute this report. This observation indicates the may lead to the discovery of therapeutic
uniqueness of this species of plant, drawing substances through scientifically validated

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methods. Since 27% of the medicinal plants subject and for designing and conducting future
reviewed (about 13% used only in Ethiopia) fall in research by identifying areas of weaknesses and
this category, this observation is too important to formulating research approaches that need be
be ignored. pursued.

The fact that many plant species (93%) were CONSENT

reported to be used for treating different types of
diseases (some of them unrelated), besides It is not applicable.
cancer, suggests that each of the plants in this
category may contain different bioactive ETHICAL APPROVAL
constituents with different biological and
therapeutic effects. Alternatively, the possibility It is not applicable.
exists that one constituent may have different
effects on different systems. However, a more
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
likely scenario would be a combination of both
effects. To have a better understanding of the
processes involved, and exploit the opportunity The author thanks Dr. David Pashley of DCG,
that may be available, it is relevant to conduct Augusta University, for reviewing the manuscript
further research geared towards addressing this and providing valuable suggestions.
particular issue. Such research may enable to
come up with a more targeted treatment COMPETING INTERESTS
modality, with a likelihood of reduced adverse
consequences. Author has declared that no competing interests
exist.
4. LIMITATION
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_________________________________________________________________________________
© 2016 Abebe; This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

Peer-review history:
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://sciencedomain.org/review-history/14446

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