INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad -500 043

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

Course Name ENGLISH

Course Code AHSB01
Programme B. Tech
Semester II
Course Coordinator Dr. Jetty Wilson, Professor
Lecture Numbers 1-41
Topic Covered All

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The students will try to learn:
I Standard pronunciation, appropriate word stress, and necessary intonation patterns for
effective communication towards achieving academic and professional targets.
II Appropriate grammatical structures and also using the nuances of punctuation tools for
practical purposes.
III A critical aspect of speaking and reading for interpreting in-depth meaning between the
sentences.
IV A conceptual awareness on writing in terms of unity, content, coherence, and linguistic
accuracy.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
After successful completion of the course, Students will be able to:
CO No Course Outcomes Knowledge
level (Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 1 Discuss the prime necessities of listening skill for academic and non- Remember
academic purposes.
CO 2 Illustrate appropriate speaking strategies such as keeping the discussion Understand
going, turn-taking, asking for clarification or confirmation, paraphrasing,
keeping the discussion on topic, and trying to reach a consensus.

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CO 3 Choose acceptable language for developing life skills to overcome the Understand
challenges at professional platform.
CO 4 Interpret the grammatical aspects effectively in speaking and writing at Understand
functional usage.
CO 5 Describe the importance of reading skill and various strategies to enhance Remember
professional growth and success.
CO 6 Demonstrate in-depth meaning of a written passageand author‘s point of Understand
view.
CO 7 Recall the rubrics of writing at formal and informal contexts. Remember
CO 8 Summarize writing skill for fulfilling the academic and non-academic Understand
requirements of various written communicative functions.

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 SYLLABUS

I Semester: AE / ECE / EEE / ME / CE II Semester: CSE / IT / CSE (AIML) / CSE(DS) /

CSE(CS) / CSIT
Module-I GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND LISTENIG SKILLS Classes: 07
Introduction to communication skills; Communication process; Elements of communication; Soft
skills vs hard skills; Importance of soft skills for engineering students; Significance of listening
skill; Different stages of listening; Barriers to listening; Effectiveness of listening.
Module-II SPEAKING SKILLS Classes: 08
Significance; Essentials of Speaking; Barriers and effectiveness of speaking; Verbal and non-
verbal communication; Generating talks based on visual prompts; Public speaking; Addressing a
small group or a large formal gathering; Oral presentation with power-point. presentation.
Module-III VOCABULARY & GRAMMAR Classes: 10
Vocabulary:
The concept of Word Formation; Root words from foreign languages and their use in English;
Acquaintance with prefixes and suffixes from foreign languages in English to form derivatives;
Synonyms; Antonyms; Standard abbreviations; Idioms and phrases; One-word substitutes.
Grammar:
Sentence structure; Uses of phrases and clauses; Punctuation; Subject verb agreement; Modifiers;
Articles; Prepositions.
Module-IV READING SKILLS Classes:
07
Significance; Techniques of reading; Skimming-Reading for the gist of a text; Scanning - Reading
for specific information; Intensive; Extensive reading; Reading comprehension; Reading for
information transfer; Text to diagram; Diagram to text.
Module-V WRITING SKILLS Classes:
09
Significance; Effectiveness of writing; Organizing principles of Paragraphs in documents; Writing
introduction and conclusion; Techniques for writing precisely; Letter writing; Formal and Informal
letter writing; E-mail writing, Report Writing.
Textbooks:
Handbook of English for Communication (Prepared by Faculty of English, IARE)

Reference books:
1.Sanjay Kumar and Pushpa Lata. Communications Skills. Oxford University Press. 2011.
2.Michael Swan. Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1995.
3.F.T. Wood. Remedial English Grammar. Macmillan. 2007.
4.William Zinsser. On Writing Well. Harper Resource Book, 2001.
5.Raymond Murphy, Essential English Grammar with Answers, Cambridge University Press 2nd
Edition.
Web References:
1. www.edufind.com
2. www.myenglishpages.com
3. http://grammar.ccc.comment.edu
4. http://owl.english.prudue.edu

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E-Text Books:
1. http://bookboon.com/en/communication-ebooks-zip
2. http://www.bloomsbury-international.com/images/ezone/ebook/writing-skills-pdf.pdf
3. https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/developing_writing.pdf
4. http://learningenglishvocabularygrammar.com/files/idiomsandphraseswithmeaningsandexampl
espdf.pdf
5. http://www.robinwood.com/Democracy/General Essays/CriticalThinking.pdf

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 INDEX

Module Contents Page

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

I 06 – 25
AND SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENIG SKILLS

II INTRODUCTION TO SPEAKING SKILLS 25 – 38

USAGE OF VOCABULARY & FUNCTIONS OF

III 39 – 68
ENGLISH GRAMMAR

IV STRATEGIES OF READING SKILLS 69 – 84

V DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS IN ENGLISH 85 – 106

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 MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

AND SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENIG SKILL

General Introduction
Human beings cannot live in society without the help of communication. Communication is the
considerably basic need of any organization and any individual. Communication requires that all
parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speech,
song, and tone of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, sign language,
paralanguage, touch, eye contact, through media, i.e., pictures, graphics and sound, and writing.

Introduction to communication skills

The English word ‗communication‘ is derived from the Latin noun ‗Communis‘ and the Latin verb
‗Communicare‘ that means ‗to make common to transmit, to impart.‘ Communication is a two-way
process. It is a natural activity of all human beings to convey opinions, information, ideas, feelings,
emotions to others by words spoken or written. The purpose of this Communication handbook is to
assist you in learning communication process effectively.

Definition
Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled and
imparted by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and
gives the sender a feedback. All forms of communication require a sender, a message, and an
intended recipient; however, the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to
communicate at the time of communication in order for the act of communication to occur.

Communication process
The communication process is the steps we take to successfully communicate. Components of the
communication process include a sender, encoding of a message, selecting of a channel of
communication, receipt of the message by the receiver and decoding of the message.

Communication has been defined by many theorists:

• According to W. H. Newman, ―Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or

emotions by two or more persons.‖
• Allen Louis says "Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants
to create an understanding in the mind of another it involves a systematic and continuous
process.

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 • To quote Norman B. Sigband, ―Communication is the transmission and reception of ideas,
feelings and attitudes both verbally and non-verbally… In general, we could define
communication as a two-way process that results in a shared meaning or common
understanding between the sender and the receiver.

Elements of Communication:
An understanding of how communication works can help us to understand and improve our
communication. Communication could be taken a process concerning exchange of facts or ideas
between persons holding different positions in an organisations to achieve mutual harmony. The
communication process is dynamic in nature rather than a static phenomenon. Hence it is considered
a continuous and dynamic inter-action, both affecting and being affected by many variables.
The basic communication model consists of five elements of communication:
• the sender
• the receiver
• the message
• the channel and feedback.

Sender: The sender plays the specific role of initiating communication. To communicate
effectively, the sender must use effective verbal as well as nonverbal techniques. Speaking or
writing clearly, organizing your points to make them easy to follow and understand, maintaining eye
contact, using proper grammar and giving accurate information are all essential in the effectiveness
of your message. You will lose your audience if it becomes aware of obvious oversights on your
part. The sender should have some understanding of who the receiver is in order to modify the
message to make it more relevant.

Receiver: A receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message. The receiver can
be one person or an entire audience. The receiver can also communicate verbally and non-verbally.
The best way to receive a message is to listen carefully, sitting up straight and making eye contact.

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As a receiver, don‘t get distracted or try to do something else while you're listening. Nodding and
smiling as you listen, demonstrate that you understand the message.

Message: A message can come in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written
document, an advertisement, an internet website. It is an important part of communication. Message
is the content that sender wants to convey. A message could be verbal or non-verbal. The thought,
idea, emotion or anything that the sender wants to convey is called message. In the basic
communication model, the way from one point to another represents the sender's message traveling
to the receiver. The message isn't necessarily what the sender intends it to be. Rather, the message is
what the receiver perceives the message to be. As a result, the sender must not only compose the
message carefully, but also evaluate the ways in which the message can be interpreted.

Channel: The person who is interested in communicating must choose the channel for sending the
required information, ideas etc. This information is transmitted to the receiver through certain
channels which may be either formal or informal. The channel sits between the sender and receiver.
Many channels, or types, of communication exist, from the spoken word to radio, television, an
Internet site or something written, like a book, letter or magazine.

Feedback: The last element of effective communication, feedback, describes the receiver's response
or reaction. The receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making comments, or just
supporting the message that was delivered. Feedback helps the sender to determine how the receiver
interpreted the message and how it can be improved.

Significance of Encoding and Decoding

The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to convey meaning,
the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a message in the form
of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process translates the ideas or concepts into the
coded message that will be communicated. The symbols can take on numerous forms such as,
languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into messages that others
can understand.

When encoding a message, the sender must begin by deciding what he/she wants to transmit. This
decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the receiver‘s knowledge and
assumptions, along with what additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. It is
important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for
the sender to improve encoding their message, is to mentally visualize the communication from
the receiver's point of view.

Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the message is received and examined, the stimulus
is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to assign some type of meaning to it. It is this
processing stage that constitutes decoding. The receiver begins to interpret the symbols sent by the
sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences in order to make the symbols

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meaningful. Successful communication takes place when the receiver correctly interprets the
sender's message.

Understand the importance of Hard Skills and Soft Skills

Hard Skills are easy to identify and define with respect to a profession. These are the technical skills
that are associated with a respective profession. For example, in the case of a mechanical engineer
the hard skills would be the personnel‘s ability with machines, for a software engineer it would be
his or her proficiency level with a programming language.

Soft skills are a cluster of productive personality traits that characterize one's relationships in a
milieu. These skills can include social graces, communication abilities, language skills, time
management, teamwork, and leadership traits. Soft skills complement hard skills, and this is known
as technical skills. It is needed for productive workplace performance and everyday life
competencies. Hard skills were the only skills necessary for career employment and were generally
quantifiable and measurable from educational background, work experience or through interview.
Soft skills is a synonym for ‗people skills‘. The term describes those personal attributes that indicate
a high level of emotional intelligence.

Unlike hard skills, soft skills are universally applicable across job titles and industries. It's often said
that hard skills will get you an interview, but you need soft skills to get -- and keep -- the job. soft
skills relate to the way you relate to and interact with other people.

Examples of soft skills include:

 Communication
 Teamwork
 Flexibility
 Patience
 Persuasion
 Time Management
 Motivation

Understanding the Importance of Soft Skills for Engineers

Success at the workplace for engineers is determined primarily by two skill sets. The first are the
hard skills and the second are the soft skills. Before we can take the discussion further, it is
important to understand the difference between the two.

The Importance of English

Professionals who are proficient in communication skills have a considerable edge over those who
have not. Lack of communication skills will certainly make them deficient in resources. Job
aspirants face several tough challenges in the global scenario if their communication skills are not

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 up to the mark. Inadequate proficiency in English language, lack of exposure, low level of
confidence and weak soft skills do not let them uphold in the global marketplace. Thus, LSRW
training is essential for any undergraduate programme. Institutes that keep themselves well stocked
and well equipped in terms of communication will be able to meet the language requirements of the
globalized world. Even the employers require several efficacies with an emphasis on an increased
ability to communicate and good foreign language skills.

Communication skills are considered as a salient feature in the making of a global professional. In a
multilingual society, modern professionals must also be able to communicate effectively in a shared
tongue. For non-native English users, English is very important because it is widely spoken all
around the world. Knowing English allows people to enjoy their life and work no matter where they
are. For students, whose mother tongue is not English, mastering English is even more important,
not only for their academic life but also for their prospective career.

What is LSRW?
When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for complete communication. When we
learn our native language, we usually learn to LISTEN first, then to SPEAK, then to READ, and
finally to WRITE. These are called the four "language skills":

Why are the four skills (LSRW) useful?

In-order to become a well-rounded communicator one needs to be proficient in each of the four
language skills. These four skills give learners opportunities to create contexts in which to use the
language for exchange of real information, evidence of their own ability (proof of learning) and, most
important, confidence. Listening and reading are the receptive skills because learners do not need to
produce language, they receive and understand it. These skills are sometimes known as passive skills.
The productive skills are speaking and writing because learners are applying these skills in a need to
produce language. They are also known as active skills.

Listening
Listening is a receptive language skill which learners usually find the most difficult. This often is
because they feel under unnecessary pressure to understand every word. The listener has to get
oriented to the listening portion and be all ears. The listener is also required to be attentive.
Anticipation is a skill to be nurtured in Listening. In everyday life, the situation, the speaker, and
visual clues all help us to decode oral messages. In due course of listening, be in a lookout for the
signpost words. Thirdly one should be able to concentrate on understanding the message thoroughly.
Listening Skills could be enhanced by focusing on making the students listen to the sounds of that
particular language. This would help them with the right pronunciation of words. To equip students
with training in listening, one can think about comprehending speeches of people of different
backgrounds and regions. This intensive listening will ultimately help a student to understand more
on the accents to be used and the exact pronunciation of words.

Speaking

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Language is a tool for communication. We communicate with others, to express our ideas, and to
know others‘ ideas as well. We must consider that the level of language input (listening) must be
higher than the level of language production. In primary school‘s elocution and recitation are main
sources to master the sounds, rhythms, and intonation of the English language through simple
reproduction. The manifestations of the language in games and pair work activities are encouraging
source to learn to speak the language. This assists the learners to begin to manipulate the language by
presenting them with a certain amount of choice, albeit within a controlled situation. This skill could
be improved by understanding para-linguistic attributes such as voice quality, volume and tone, voice
modulation, articulation, pronunciation etc. This could also be further enhanced with the help of
debates and discussions.

Reading
Reading is a learning skill. It helps you improve all parts of the English language – vocabulary,
spelling, grammar, and writing. It helps to develop language intuition in the corrected form. Then the
brain imitates them, producing similar sentences to express the desired meaning. Using skimming or
scanning technique to read quickly is highly effective. While reading underlining of key words is a
must. Reading Skills help the students grasp the content and draw conclusions. The students should
also make it a point to familiarize themselves with the jargons and new words by making reading a
habit be it reading newspapers, articles, books, magazines etc.

Writing
Writing provides a learner with physical evidence of his achievements and he can measure his
improvement. It helps to consolidate their grasp of vocabulary and structure and complements the
other language skills. It helps to understand the text and write compositions. It can foster the learner‘s
ability to summarize and to use the language freely. To write flawless language one should excel in
the Writing Skills with the help of various methods. Importance should be given to composition and
creative writing. One should also focus on coherence and cohesiveness when it comes to writing a
language.

With these four skills addressed equally while learning English, the learners can be assured of having
good communication skills, a great necessity in today‘s competitive world.

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 LISTENING SKILLS

1. Introduction
Listening comprehension is an important part of language learning. Learners want to understand
native speakers need a lot of multimedia like DVDs and the Internet. Listening is a significant skill to
develop in second language learning (Rost, 2001; Vandergrift, 2007; Kurita, 2012). According to
Rost (2001) and Kurita (2012), a major difference between more successful and less successful
learners is related to their ability to use listening as an instrument of learning. Listening skill is very
important in foreign language learning because the key to learn a language is to receive language
input. Rost (1994) stated that listening is significant in language learning because it provides input for
learners and it plays an important role in the development of learners‘ language.

According to Krashen, Terrell, Ehrman, and Herzog (1984) and Hamouda (2013) acquisition
happens when learners have sufficient comprehensible input. Rost (1994) stated that listening is
significant in language learning because it provides input for learners and it plays an important role in
the development of learners‘ language. According to Krashen (1985) and Hamouda (2013), listening
skill is an important element in obtaining understandable input. Learning will not occur if there isn‘t
any input. Hasan (2000) and Hamouda (2013) expressed that listening comprehension provides the
appropriate situations for the acquisition and expansion of other language skills. Rost (2002)
expressed that the development of listening is related to the attainment of proficiency in speaking. He
continued that listening is the most important skill in language learning because it is the most widely
used language skill in normal daily life.

Listening comprehension process provides beneficial insights in teaching listening. Learner may
find listening comprehension skill difficult to learn and this can also provide teachers with
opportunities to change their listening exercises into more effective ones. Developing listening
comprehension skill helps learners to succeed in language learning to enhance comprehensible input.
Since learners‘ self-reliance in listening comprehension will be increased, they will be motivated to
have access to spoken English such as conversations with native speakers (Kurita, 2012).

According to Pourhosein Gilakjani and Ahmadi (2011), listening plays a significant role in the
communication process. Ferris (1998), Murphy (1991), Vogely (1998), and Hamouda (2013)
expressed that listening is the most frequently used skill in the language classrooms. Therefore, it is
obvious that listening is very important for the lives of students since it is used as a means of learning
at all phases of instruction. Despite its significance in foreign language learning, the instruction of
listening comprehension has been overlooked in many EFL classes. According to Oxford (1990),
listening develops faster than the three other language skills and it can make easy the development of
the other language skills.

In this lesson, important issues concerning listening comprehension were reviewed. The
researchers defined the terms listening and listening comprehension, mentioned the reasons for
listening, explained listening comprehension process, stated the importance of listening, elaborated
teachers‘ roles in listening comprehension, and discussed strategies, techniques, and goals of
listening.

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2. Definition of listening
Listening has been defined by many researchers. Thomlison (1984) and Hamouda (2013) defined
listening as the ability to recognize and understand what others are telling. This process includes
understanding a speaker's pronunciation, the speaker‘s grammar and vocabulary, and understanding
of meaning. Morley (1972) said listening involves auditory discrimination, aural grammar, selecting
necessary information, remembering it, and connecting it to the process between sound and form of
meaning (as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016).

Bowen, Madsen, and Hilferty (1985) demonstrated that listening is understanding the oral
language. Students hear oral speech, divide sounds, classify them into lexical and syntactic units, and
comprehend the message (as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016). Listening is a process of
receiving what the speaker says, making and showing meaning, negotiating meaning with the speaker
and answering, and creating meaning by participation, creativity, and empathy. Listening is a
complex process of interpretation in which listeners match what they hear with what they already
know (Rost, 2002 as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016).

According to Goss (1982), listening is a process of understanding what is heard and

organizing it into lexical elements to which meaning can be allocated (as cited in Pourhosein
Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016). According to Purdy (1997), listening is the process of receiving, making
meaning from, and answering to spoken and/or nonverbal messages. Rost (2009) told that listening is
an active and important mental ability. It aids us to understand the world around us and is one of the
necessary elements in creating successful communication (as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani &
Sabouri, 2016).

3. Definition of listening comprehension

There have been different definitions of the term ―listening comprehension.‖ Rost (2002) and
Hamouda (2013) defined listening comprehension as an interactive process in which listeners are
involved in constructing meaning. Listeners comprehend the oral input through sound discrimination,
previous knowledge, grammatical structures, stress and intonation, and the other linguistic or non-
linguistic clues (as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016).

Nadig (2013) defined listening comprehension as the various processes of understanding and
making sense of spoken language. These involve knowing speech sounds, comprehending the
meaning of individual words, and understanding the syntax of sentences (as cited in Pourhosein
Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016). According to Brown and Yule (1983) and Hamouda (2013), listening
comprehension is an individual understanding of what he has heard and it is the listener‘s ability to
repeat the text despite the fact that the listener may repeat the sound without real comprehension.

4. Reasons for reasoning

According to Bouach (2010), listening comprehension is useful for learners' pronunciation.
That is, when learners are more exposed to spoken English, they can more know and get used to its
pitch, intonation, stress, redundancy, and clusters. Wilson (2008) mentioned some other reasons for
listening such as information gathering, enjoyment, unanimity, evaluation, and criticism. In addition,
the other reason behind listening is to improve the speaking skill by improving pronunciation.

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 There are a lot of reasons for listening. There are five main reasons for listening like to engage
in social protocols, to exchange information, to enjoy yourself, to share emotions, and to exert control
(Hedge 2000). Underwood (1989) expressed that teachers should prepare their students for the
following situations:

1. Attending a lesson. The purpose of this activity is to comprehend the major ideas and to
recognize the main information.

2. Listening to announcements, news, and weather forecast. The main goal of listeners is to
obtain pertinent information.

3. Listening to plays, watching TV, or listening to a radio for entertainment. The objective of
this activity is to amuse oneself.

4. Listening to someone delivering a speech. In this situation, the listener is interested in

opinions and attitudes of the speaker.

5. Following the instructions. The goal of the listener is to perform the function successfully.

5. Listening comprehension process

Schemata are the guiding structures in the comprehension process. The schema is a data
structure for showing the general concepts stored in memory. Schema means an abstract textual
structure that the listener uses to understand the text. The listener uses linguistic and situational cues
bout the new input to extract schemata. When a schema is extracted, it becomes a guiding structure in
comprehension. If there is harmony between incoming information and the schema, the listeners will
understand the text. The schema results in three basic modes of information processing: bottom-up
processing, top-down processing, and interactive processing (Pourhosein Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011).

A. Bottom-up Process
Bottom-up processing is activated by the new data. The data pass into the system through schemata.
Schemata are formed from the most specific at the bottom to the most general at the top. In this
process, listening decodes the sounds from the meaningful units to complete texts. Therefore,
phonemic units are connected together to make words, words are connected together to make phrases,
phrases are connected together to make utterances, and utterances are connected together to make
complete and meaningful text. Certain incoming sounds precipitate schemata formed in a listener‘s
mind like the phonological knowledge, the morphological knowledge, and lexical and syntactical
knowledge. The listener uses his knowledge of words, syntax, and grammar to work on form in the
bottom-up processing (Rubin, 1994 as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011). This process
is closely associated with the listener‘s linguistic knowledge.

B. Top-down Process
Top-down processing uses background knowledge for understanding the meaning of a message.
Top-down processing constructs general predictions based on general schemata and then looks for
information to fit into these schemata. The listener actively constructs the original meaning of the
speaker using the new input. The listener uses previous knowledge of the context within which the
listening happens to comprehend what he/she hears. Context includes knowledge of the topic, the

14
speaker or speakers, and their connection with the situation and with each other and previous
happenings. If the incoming information is unfamiliar for the listener, it can‘t extract his schemata
and he can only depend on his linguistic knowledge in listening comprehension. Thus, only
depending on top-down processing may leads to the failure of comprehension (Carrell & Eisterhold,
1983 as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011).

C. Interactive Process
According to the interactive processing, top-down and bottom-up listening processing should be
combined to each other increase listening comprehension. The application of background knowledge
information, contextual information, and linguistic information makes comprehension and
interpretation easy. When the content of the material is familiar to the listener, he uses his
background knowledge to make predictions which is proved by the new input. If the content of the
listening text is unfamiliar to the listener, he can only use his linguistic knowledge, particularly the
lexical and syntactical knowledge to understand information (Pourhosein Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011).

Comprehension involves perception, parsing, and utilization. Perceptual processing is the

encoding of the auditory or written message and it includes chunking phonemes from the continuous
speech). A person pays particular attention to input and the sounds are kept in memory. While the
input is in memory, the analysis of the language code begins and encoding process changes the input
into meaningful representations (Anderson, 1995 as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011).

In the parsing process, words are changed into the mental representation of the combined
meaning of words. Proposition is the main unit of listening comprehension. In parsing, a meaning-
based representation of the original words can be kept in short-term memory and this representation is
an abstraction of the original word sequences that can multiply the original sequences or their planned
meaning. The size of the unit processed depends on the learner‘s language knowledge, general
knowledge, and way of presenting information. The purpose of segmentation is meaning that can be
indicated syntactically, semantically, and phonologically. Listeners can have some difficulties in
comprehending spoken language by native speakers if they are not familiar with the rules for
segmentation (Anderson, 1985 as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011).

Memory span for target language input is shorter than for native language input. Complex
input materials can be difficult to understand in a second language because they require combining of
parsed segments in comprehension process and putt an extra burden on short-term memory which can
already be burdened with un-encoded parts of the new input (Call, 1985 as cited in Pourhosein
Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011).

Utilization process involves connecting a mental representation of the auditory meaning with
existing knowledge. Existing knowledge is maintained in long-term memory as propositions or
schemata. Connections between the new input meaning and existing knowledge occur through which
knowledge in long-term memory is activated so that it is connected with the new meanings in short-
term memory. Perception, parsing, and utilization processes are closely connected to each other and
can take place simultaneously in listening comprehension. According to Coakley and Wolvin (1986,
as cited in Pourhosein Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011) listening comprehension involves a listener
who brings previous knowledge of the topic, linguistic knowledge and cognitive processes to the
listening activity, the aural text, and the interaction between the two.

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6. The importance of listening
Listening comprehension needs more concentration and a quick understanding is also required. When
listening, a lot of factors should be specifically paid attention. They are context, facial expressions,
and body gestures that are very important for the listeners to facilitate the understanding of what is
conveyed by speakers (Ziane, 2011).

According to Rost (1994) and Ziane (2011), listening comprehension is very important
because it is a process through which we get input and without its comprehension learning does not
happen. Doff (1995) and Ziane (2011) represented that listening has a significant effect on developing
speaking. That is, we cannot develop our speaking ability unless we develop our listening skill. If a
learner has a good listening ability in English language, it would be very easy for him to listen to the
radio, to study, watch films, or communicate with foreigners. Learners should have a lot of practice
and exposure to English in order to develop this ability. There is a relationship between listening to a
language and learning it. If we compare two learners; one is living in a country where the target
language is the first language and the other is living in a country where English is only spoken in
academic places. The difference is that the first learner can acquire English more easily, effectively,
and rapidly than the second one. Consequently, learners need as much exposure to English language
as possible.

According to Hedge (2000), listening has an important role in everyday life and when people
are engaged in communication nine percent is spent to writing, 16 percent to reading, 30 percent to
speaking, and 45 percent to listening which shows the significance of listening in the communication
process. Lundsteen (1979) expressed that listening is the first skill to appear. He continued that
children listen before they speak. Hedge (2000) indicated that modern society likes to change from
printed media towards sound and its members. Therefore, the significance of listening cannot be
ignored. He emphasized that listening is of great importance in English language classrooms.

Stages of Listening
The listening process involves five stages: receiving, understanding, remembering, evaluating, and
responding. These stages will be discussed in more detail in later sections. Basically, an effective
listener must hear and identify the speech sounds directed toward them, understand the message of
those sounds, critically evaluate or assess that message, remember what has been said, and respond
(either verbally or nonverbally) to information they have received.

1. Receiving
This is the first and most basic stage of the listening process: the act of absorbing the information
being expressed to you, whether verbally or nonverbally. Not all communication is done through
speech, and not all listening is done with ears.

Focus all your energy on them, by following these three simple tips:

Avoid distractions. This is obvious. Do not have your cell phone out, or your iPod in, or the
television on. Do not try to divide your attention between the speaker and something else.

16
Do not interrupt the speaker. You might want to assume about what the speaker is saying, or what
they are about to say – do not. It is rude, and you may find your assumption was wrong, which is
beneficial to no one.

Do not rehearse your response. Not yet. At this stage, your job is only to listen. If you start to plan
a speech while the other person is speaking, you are going to miss certain points and not be able to
respond to their larger message when it‘s your turn to talk.

2. Understanding
This is the point in the listening process where you can plan your response. Understanding takes
place after you have received the information from the speaker and begin to process its meaning.

You can do this by asking questions, or rephrasing parts of the speaker‘s message. This allows you
to demonstrate your active engagement with their words, and help you better understand their key
points.

3. Remembering
Remembering is about retaining that information, and the most effective way to do so in an
important conversation is to move the key elements of a message from your short-term memory, and
into your long-term memory.
There are numerous methods for doing this. Identify the fundamental points. By converting a
collection of small details into a central theme, you can create something potentially complicated
into an easy-to-grasp general concept. The details will remain in your short-term memory but
isolating the main ideas will help you understand them better and remember them longer.

Make the message familiar. If the speaker touches some old memories and past experiences,
it becomes easy to retain the attention of the listener. Use those to help you retain incoming
information as a listener.

4. Evaluating
It is at this stage where you can begin to prepare for your response, but remember you are still a
listener, not a speaker. After the message has been absorbed, processed, and remembered, you can
begin to sort the information into pieces.

What is fact, and what is opinion?

What parts of their message were interpreted, and which parts were unbiased?
What was the speaker‘s intent with their message?
After interpreting the speaker‘s message, through a combination of understanding, retention, and
evaluation, you are ready to form a response.

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5. Responding
If you have completed the receiving, understanding, remembering, and evaluating portions of the
listening process, responding should be easier than ever. It is important to understand the transition
between listening and speaking though and be aware of the ways responding is still a part of the
active listening process.

Do not complete the speaker’s sentences. This is a presumptuous and rude way to segue into your
own response. It impedes on the receiving process and will make the original speaker want to listen
to you less.

Address the speaker’s points. It will make it easier for the speaker to transition into a listener
when they know exactly what part of their message you are addressing.

BARRIERS TO LISTENING
As pointed out earlier, listening is not easy and there are several obstacles that stand in the way of
effective listening, both within and outside the workplace. These barriers may be categorized as
follows.

1. Physiological Barriers:
Physiology means the state of human body and mind. Physiological barriers of communication
occur due to the physical condition of sender or receiver which might even be physical disabilities.
It includes sensory dysfunction and other physical dysfunctions.

2. Physical Barriers:
Physical barrier is the environmental and natural condition that act as a barrier in communication in
sending message from sender to receiver. Organizational environment or interior workspace design
problems, technological problems and noise are the parts of physical barriers. These are referred to
distraction in the averment such as the sound of an air conditioner, cigarette smoke, or an
overheated room, which interfere with the listening process. They could also be in the form of
information overload.

3. Attitudinal Barriers:
Attitudes are commonly formed by an individual's opinions or personal feelings on a subject or
person and can be difficult to alter. When attitudinal barriers override the sense of professionalism
in a workplace, it can become difficult for a group to engage in productive communication.

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One attitudinal barrier is preoccupation. It means the state or condition of being preoccupied or
engrossed with something. This results in the difficulty to focus one‘s attention completely on what
speaker is saying. Another common attitudinal barrier is egocentrism, or the belief that you are more
knowledgeable than the speaker and that you have nothing new to learn from his ideas. People with
this kind of close-minded attitude may extremely poor listeners.
4. Wrong Assumptions:
The success of communication depends on the both the sender and receiver. It is wrong to assume
that communication is the sole responsibility of the sender or the speaker and those listeners have no
role to play. Such an assumption can create a barrier to listening. For example, a brilliant speech or
presentation, however well delivered, is wasted if the receiver is not listening at the other end.
Listeners have as much responsibility as speakers to make the communication successful, by paying
attention seeking clarifications and giving feedback.
Another wrong assumption is to think that listening is a passive activity, in which a listener merely
hears the thoughts of the speaker. On the contrary, real listening or active listening is hard work- it
requires speaking sometimes to ask questions, agree or disagree with the speaker, give feedback etc.

5. Cultural Barriers:
Wherever we live, you are going to be influenced by the attitudes, customs, and practices of the
people around us. Those basic elements are the definition of culture. When a person of one culture
encounters the beliefs and resulting actions of another culture, a clash can occur. This is known as
cultural barrier.

Accents can be barriers to listening, since they interfere with the ability to understand the meaning
of words that are pronounced differently. Another type of cultural barrier is doddering cultural
values. The importance attached to listening and speaking differs in western and oriental cultures.
Generally,

6. Gender Barriers:
Communication research has shown that gender can be barrier to listening. Studies have revealed
that men and women listen very differently and for different purposes. Women are more likely to
listen for the emotion behind a speaker‘s words, when men listen more for the facts and the content.
Example: a salesperson giving a demonstration of a new type of office equipment may be asked by
two colleagues if the equipment will work without problem and respond by saying ―sure‖. A male
user may take this at face value, whereas the female user may detect some hesitation in his voice.
This is because the male users listen for the content of the message, whereas the female users listen
for the tone of the message.

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7. Lack of Training:
Listening is not an inborn skill. People are not born good listeners. They must develop the art of
listening through practice and training. Lack of training in listening skills is an important barrier to
listening, in the Indian context.

8. Bad Listening Hobbits:

Most people are very average listeners who have developed poor listening habits that are hard to
said and that act as barriers to listening. For example, some people have the habits of ―faking‖
attention, or trying to look like a listener, to impress the speaker and to assure him that they are
paying attention. Others may tend to listen to each fact and, as a result, mis out on the main point.

9. Bringing in Emotions:
Emotions erect barriers to effective communication. A listener's senses are not likely to be
functioning at their optimum level when he or she is angry. Likewise, it is not possible to
understand or appreciate what the speaker is saying if the listener is excessively sad.

10. Fear
Fear is a great barrier to listening. People who are afraid during a conversation are not likely to
listen. They become defensive and tend to argue.

Tips to overcome fear:

Be aware that fear can only worsen the situation. Listen to what the other person is about to say
without fear. Keeping calm will give you mental strength to face any situation. Taking a deep breath
helps in overcoming fear.

Listening comprehension
Listening is the one skill that you use the most in everyday life. Comprehension means the ability
to understand completely and be familiar with a situation, facts, etc. Listening comprehension is the
basis for your speaking, writing, and reading skills. To train your listening skills, it is important to
listen actively, which means to actively pay attention to what you are listening to. Make it a habit to
listen to audio books, podcasts, news, songs, etc. and to watch videos and films in the foreign
language. The following are the methods to achieve effective listening of comprehension.

1. Set the purpose

Students need to understand the purpose for listening to get the most from the experience. Having
an explicit purpose in mind will help them know where to focus, enabling them to achieve success.
2. Set the stage
Getting ready to listen is like getting in the zone or warming up. A good first step in setting the
stage is to tell students the purpose for listening. A second step is to prepare the environment.

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 Eliminating background noise, sitting in an appropriate configuration, and third, telling students
what will transpire after they have listened are three ways to set the stage for listening.

3. Provide follow up
Immediately after students have listened, hold them accountable for whatever it was that they were
attending to when listening. Many times, this follow up will be in a written format so that there is a
paper trail of student learning. Such follow-up enables you to see what they were able to ascertain
while listening, thus serving as an authentic assessment of sorts.

Different types of listeners

You can group different types of listeners into four main categories:

Non-listeners
A non-listener does not intend to listen to you, does not hear, and does not make an effort to pay
attention. The non-listener would rather do all the talking. As a result, this person constantly
interrupts the speaker and always attempts to have the last word. A non-listener may offer you blank
stares and demonstrate nervous mannerisms while you are speaking and may even fake attention
during a conversation. However, it will become clear that this person is not paying attention when
they respond incorrectly or inappropriately. Non-listeners are generally not liked because their lack
of effort shows a lack of respect for what others have to say.

Superficial listeners
A superficial listener hears what you are saying but does not grasp the point you are making. A
superficial listener listens only for the basic meaning of the spoken words and takes no notice of
body language, voice tone, and other subtle forms of communication. Most often, superficial
listeners are busy thinking about what they want to say next. You might get the impression that they
do understand what you are saying, which can lead to confusion and mistakes. People who listen
superficially often search for an excuse to avoid conversation or difficult discussions.

Logical listeners
Logical listeners try to hear what you are saying and to comprehend the meaning of the actual
words. However, they do not understand your intent or the meaning behind your words. Because
they do not receive messages from vocal intonation, body language, or facial expressions, they miss
important components of what a speaker is trying to communicate. Logical listeners need to
concentrate more on the nonverbal communication accompanying speech.

Active listeners
Listening actively requires concentration and emotional effort. Active listeners will not judge you as
you speak but will try their best to understand what you are saying and why you are saying it. In

21
other words, they will respect your point of view. They will listen for the intent and emotions
behind the words so that they can better understand your line of thought.

In summary, listening effectively is important in the workplace. It helps you improve productivity
and build smoother relationships. Listening effectively also helps you collaborate more easily and
become more innovative. There are four types of listeners, each with a different level of listening
skill. A non-listener does not try to hear what you say, and a superficial listener hears but does not
grasp the points being made. A logical listener understands the meaning of the words but not the
intent behind them. An active listener has the highest level of listening skill and understands both
the meaning of the words and the intent behind them.

Effectiveness of listening
In today‘s high-tech, high-speed, high-stress world, communication is more important than ever, yet
we seem to devote less and less time to really listening to one another. Genuine listening has
become a rare gift—the gift of time. It helps build relationships, solve problems, ensure
understanding, resolve conflicts, and improve accuracy. At work, effective listening means fewer
errors and less wasted time. At home, it helps develop resourceful, self-reliant kids who can solve
their own problems. Listening builds friendships and careers.

Here are eight tips to bring effectiveness to your listening.

Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

Eye contact occurs when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time. In human beings,
eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication and is thought to have a large influence on social
behavior. This term came from the West in mid 1960s. This term defines the act as a meaningful
and important sign of confidence, respect, and social communication. Eye Contact provides some of
the strongest emotions during a social conversation. It provides details on emotions and intentions.
Prolonged eye contact can tell someone you are interested in what they have to say.

Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.

Now that you have made eye contact, relax. You do not have to stare fixedly at the other person.
You can look away now and then and carry on like a normal person. The important thing is to be
attentive. Mentally screen out distractions, like background activity and noise. In addition, try not to
focus on the speaker‘s accent or speech mannerisms to the point where they become distractions.
Finally, do not be distracted by your own thoughts, feelings, or biases.

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Step 3: Keep an open mind.
Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things she tells you. Listen
without jumping to conclusions. Remember that the speaker is using language to represent the
thoughts and feelings inside his or her brain. Do not be a sentence-grabber.

Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying.
Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being communicated. Your brain will
do the necessary work if you stay focused, with senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches,
concentrate on, and remember, key words and phrases. Finally, concentrate on what is being said,
even if it bores you. If your thoughts start to wander, immediately force yourself to refocus.

Step 5: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.

When you do not understand something, of course you should ask the speaker to explain it to you.
But rather than interrupt, wait until the speaker pauses. Then say something like, ―Back up a second.
I didn‘t understand what you just said about…‖

Step 6: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.

If you feel sad when the person with whom you are talking expresses sadness, joyful when she
expresses joy, fearful when she describes her fears—and convey those feelings through your facial
expressions and words—then your effectiveness as a listener is assured. Empathy is the heart and
soul of good listening.

To experience empathy, you must put yourself in the other person‘s place and allow yourself to feel
what it is like to be her at that moment. This is not an easy thing to do. It takes energy and
concentration. But it is a generous and helpful thing to do, and it facilitates communication like
nothing else does.

Step 7: Give the speaker regular feedback.

Show that you understand where the speaker is coming from by reflecting the speaker‘s feelings. Or
just nod and show your understanding through appropriate facial expressions and an occasional
well-timed ―hmmm‖ or ―uh huh.‖

The idea is to give the speaker some proof that you are listening, and that you are following her train
of thought—not off indulging in your own fantasies while she talks to the ether.

In task situations, regardless of whether at work or home, always restate instructions and messages
to be sure you understand correctly.

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Step 8: Pay attention to what is not said—to nonverbal cues.
If you exclude email, most of the direct communication is probably nonverbal. We glean a great
deal of information about each other without saying a word. Even over the telephone, you can learn
almost as much about a person from the tone and cadence of her voice than from anything she says.
When I talk to my best friend, it does not matter what we chat about, if I hear a lilt and laughter in
her voice, I feel reassured that she is doing well.

Face to face with a person, you can detect enthusiasm, boredom, or irritation very quickly in the
expression around the eyes, the set of the mouth, the slope of the shoulders. These are clues you
cannot ignore. When listening, remember that words convey only a fraction of the message.
Essentials of listening skills
A conversation requires concentrated listening. Many people assume they know how to listen.
However, these people may be mistaking just hearing for effective listening. Listening does require
hearing, but it also requires interpretation and understanding – in other words, two-way
communication.

Listening effectively enables you to better understand and interpret what someone is saying. For
example, you will know what your manager needs from you only if you listen attentively. This can
help you improve productivity and avoid mistakes.

If you listen effectively, you are able to show your coworkers that you're interested in and have
respect for what they have to say. You encourage them to do the same and so develop mutual
respect, which fosters strong and smooth work relationships.

The ability to listen effectively also means opening your mind to new experiences. You learn
constantly and other people's thoughts, knowledge, or ideas will inspire your thinking and
encourage you to be more innovative.

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 Phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the production and classification of the world‘s
speech sounds. The production of speech looks at the interaction of different vocal organs, for
example the lips, tongue and teeth, to produce particular sounds. By classification of speech, we
focus on the sorting of speech sounds into categories which can be seen in what is called the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The IPA is a framework that uses a single symbol to
describe each distinct sound in the language and can be found in dictionaries and in textbooks
worldwide. For example, the noun ‗fish‘ has four letters, but the IPA presents this as three sounds:
/f i ʃ/, where ‗ʃ‘ stands for the ‗sh‘ sound.

Phonetics as an interdisciplinary science has many applications. This includes its use in forensic
investigations when trying to work out whose voice is behind a recording. Another use is its role in
language teaching and learning, either when learning a first language or when trying to learn a
foreign language.

Phonetics looks at the physical production of sounds, focusing on which vocal organs are
interacting with each other and how close these vocal organs are in relation to one another.
Phonetics also looks at the concept of voicing, occurring at the pair of muscles found in your voice
box, also known as the Adam‘s apple. If the vocal folds are vibrating, this creates voicing and any
sound made in this way are called voiced sounds, for example ―z‖. If the vocal folds are not
vibrating, this does not lead to voicing and creates a voiceless sound e.g. ―s‖. You can observe this
yourself by placing two fingers upon your voice box and saying ―z‖ and ―s‖ repeatedly. You should
feel vibrations against your finger when saying ―z‖ but no vibrations when saying ―s‖.

These sounds are classified into two types:

1. Vowel Sounds (20)

2. Consonant Sounds (24)

A vowel sound is produced when the air comes out of the mouth freely without any blockage or
closure in the mouth cavity by the tongue, teeth, lips, etc. The vowel sounds are two types:

25
Vowel sounds of English:
a. Monophthongs

S. No Examples Classification of tongue positions for vowels.

1 /i:/ each, sea Front close unrounded

2 /I/ in, pit Front unrounded vowel between close and half-close

3 /e/ egg, fend Front unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open

4 /æ/ and, mat Front unrounded vowel just below the half-open position

5 /a:/ ask, flask Back open unrounded

6 /ɒ / off, lot Back open unrounded

7 /ɔː/ all, tall Back rounded vowel between half-close and half-open

8 /u/ pull, sugar Back rounded vowel between close and half-close

9 /u:/ food, stool Back close rounded vowel

10 /ʌ/ up, fun Central unrounded vowel between open and half-open

26
 11 /3:/ earth, yearn Central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open

12 /ə / sofa, alike Central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open

b. Diphthongs: These vowel sounds are a combination of two single vowel sounds and in
pronouncing them the tongue moves from one position to another. For instance, in the word ‗light‘
the sound of ‗i‘ is a combination of the vowel sounds /a:/ as in ‗art‘ and /i/ as in ‗it‘. The words ‗hair‘,
‗toy‘ and ‗poor‘ also contain double vowel sounds.

Diphthongs consist of sounds such as:

Sounds Description Examples

A glide from a front unrounded vowel just below half-close to a Ale, make
/ / centralized front unrounded vowel just above half-close.
A glide from a front – open unrounded vowel to a centralized Ice, mike
/ / from unrounded vowel just above half-close.
A glide from a back rounded vowel between open and half-open Oil, boy
/ / to a centralized front unrounded vowel just above the half-close
position.
A glide from the back open unrounded position and moves in the About, mouth
/ / direction of RP. (u)
A glide from a central unrounded vowel between half-close and No, old
/ / half-open to a centralized back rounded vowel just above the
half-close position.

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 A glide from a central unrounded vowel between half-close and No, old
/ / half-open to a centralized back rounded vowel just above the
half-close position.
A glide from a centralized front unrounded vowel just above Serious,
/ / half-close to a central unrounded vowel between half-close and period
half-open.
A glide from the centralized back rounded vowel just above Poor, cure
/ / half-close to a central unrounded vowel between half-close and
half-open.
A glide from a front half-open unrounded vowel to a central Air, hair
/ / unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open.

Consonant sounds: This list describes the consonant sounds of English.

Plosives Examples
/p/ Voiceless Pet, spill
/b/ Voiced Bun, above
/t/ Voiceless Talk, active
/d/ Voiced Day, adopt
/k/ Voiceless Keeper, speaker
/g/ Voiced Goal, begin
Fricatives Examples
/f/ Voiceless fit, before
/v/ Voiced Vow, avoid

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 // Voiceless Thought, atheist
// Voiced These, weather
/s/ Voiceless Set, post
/z/ Voiced Desert, reason
// Voiceless Sheet, cash
/ / Voiced Provision, occasion
/h/ Voiceless Hay, behind
Affricates Examples
/t/ Voiceless Chop, latch
/d / Voiced Jew, jar
Nasals Examples
/m/ Voiced Man, calm
/n/ Voiced Nose, banal
// Voiced Ring, singing
Semi-vowels Examples
/j/ Voiced Yes, yesterday
/w/ Voiced Wonder, widow
Lateral Examples
/l/ Voiced Live, calm
Frictionless
Examples
continuant
/r/ Voiced– continuant Ground , great

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 MODULE II
INTRODUCTION TO SPEAKING SKILLS

Introduction
Language is a tool for communication. We communicate with others, to express our ideas, and to
know others‘ ideas as well. Communication takes place, where there is speech. Without speech we
cannot communicate with one another. Without speech, a language is reduced to a mere script. The
use of language is an activity which takes place within the confines of our community. We use
language in a variety of situations. People at their workplaces, i.e. in a language laboratory, are
supposed to speak correctly and effectively in-order to communicate well with one another. Any
gap in commutation results in misunderstandings and problems.

Definition:
Speaking is an act of making vocal sounds. We can say that speaking means to converse or
expressing one's thoughts and feelings in spoken language. To speak often implies conveying
information. It may be from an informal remark to a scholarly presentation to a formal address.
Speaking skills are the skills that give us the ability to communicate effectively. These skills allow
the speaker, to convey his message in a passionate, thoughtful, and convincing manner.

Significance
The English language has become an international language. Among nations it serves as a lingua
franca. It is spoken, learnt, and understood even in those countries where it is not a native‘s
language. English is playing a major role in many sectors including medicine, engineering,
education, advanced studies, business, technology, banking, computing, tourism etc. All our
software development today, the communication facilities available to us through internet, our
access to a variety of websites, are all being carried out in English. Most of the research works are
conducted and compiled in English. Anything written and recorded in this language is read and
listened to, in wider circles. As a result, English is being taught and learned around the world as a
second language today.

Language is a tool for communication. We communicate with others, to express our ideas, and to
know others‘ ideas as well. Communication takes place, where there is speech. Without speech we
cannot communicate with one another. The importance of speaking skills hence is enormous for the
learners of any language. Without speech, a language is reduced to a mere script. The use of
language is an activity which takes place within the confines of our community. We use language in
a variety of situations. People at their workplaces, i.e. researchers working either in a medical
laboratory or in a language laboratory, are supposed to speak correctly and effectively in-order to
communicate well with one another.

30
Essentials of Effective Speaking skills:
The Essentials of Effective Speaking are

1. The audience is not the enemy

The reason why many people avoid public speaking is because they have a fear of it, which is
partially feared of an unknown and possibly hostile audience. Just remember that the audience is
not the enemy. Do not try to get rid of your fear; strap up it and consider it a constant companion
which keeps you trying to do your best. The audience will forgive an occasional mistake; Just
remember to locate some friendly faces out there, those people who seem to be nodding and in
general getting enthusiastic about your message. If you do happen to make a mistake, locate those
friendly faces! Just remember that because you see somewhat who seems not to be enthusiastic, it
could be a combination of culture, personality, or occupation that does permit them to show it as
openly as others.

2. Write your speech word for word

Good speaking begins with good writing; good writing depends on good editing. For example,
Gettysburg Address, delivered by Abraham Lincoln during American Civil War, this consists of 10
sentences that took a total of 2 minutes to deliver. There is an apocryphal story about how it was
cobbled together by Lincoln on the back of an envelope on his way to give the speech: that is
simply not true, because we have several drafts of his speech which prove otherwise. What is
interesting in reading the drafts is not what was included in the speech; it was how much was taken
out. Every word has a purpose.

3. Bring life to your words with colorful images and examples

This is where style becomes apparent. Choose those words which evoke the audience‘s own
imagination so that they start to experience what you are saying, rather than just hearing it.

4. Six words that can change the way you speak: Make a Point; Tell a Story
The speaker should have a point in his/her speech; rather than explain that point to audience, He
needs to have them discover it through experiencing it as part of the story he tells.

5. Six emotions that will connect with any audience: happiness, sadness, anger, surprise,
disgust, and fear
Choose words which not only create an image but evoke at least one of the emotions listed above.
When people empathize with you, they are more willing to accept your message that you want to
convey in your speech.

6. Do not underestimate the power of laughter

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When we laugh, we relax. When we relax, our minds are more receptive to learning. A
professional joke-teller is a comedian; you do not have to be a comedian to make people laugh. Just
ask yourself what makes you laugh. Take a notebook with you or a digital recorder and if you see
something that makes you laugh, write it down and make a ―humor file.‖ In fact, this technique
works with the six emotions listed above. Then have this on hand so that you can insert these into a
speech into a place where they will have the most impact.

7. Do not tell us, take us

Rather than describing the incident like a reporter, take us as an eyewitness to the event by acting it
out with movements, gestures, vocal inflections that put us right there in the middle of the action.

Barriers of Speaking skills:

It does not matter how effective you are in communicating with others, sometimes you may face
communication barriers. Communication barriers are defined as the factors that break or interrupt a
communication process.

They are roughly classified as two – a) Listening barriers and b) Speaking barriers

Listening Barriers:
1. Interrupting the speaker with improper body language and meaningless questions.
2. Less concentration on speaker‘s facial expressions and not keeping eye contact with the
speaker
3. Provoking the speaker to conclude the topic as soon as possible.
4. Giving the impression that the speaker is wasting his/her time with his speech
5. More concentration on distracting material which is not a part of the ongoing discussion
6. Going ahead of the speaker and concluding his/her ideas
7. Less memory power – this makes you out of the subject being discussed
8. Asking too many questions to prove your attentiveness

Speaking Barriers:
1. Rough and unclear data or information about the topic
2. Inconsistent communication – Missing the flow and going too fast or too slow
3. Unclear pronunciation – abrupt sentences or words
4. Miscommunication or not understanding the listener
5. Using negative words – Meaning of some words may differ from region to region and culture
to culture.

Effectiveness of speaking skills:

 Ability to inform, persuade, and direct:

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Ability to inform, to persuade, and direct. Business managers, educators, military leaders, lawyers,
and politicians, among others, seek to develop their speaking skills to such a level that they are
transformed into master communicators. Speaking clearly and confidently can gain the attention of
an audience, providing the golden opportunity for the speaker to make the message known.

 Ability to stand out from the rest:

When one thinks of speaking skills, one tends to think of it as a common skill. Think again. The
ability to stand before others and speak effectively is not an ordinary ability. Many people are
deathly afraid of public speaking; others have little ability to form thoughts into sentences and then
deliver those words in a believable way.

• Career enhancement:
Speaking skills are important for career success, but certainly not limited to one‘s professional
aspirations. Speaking skills can enhance one‘s personal life, thereby bringing about the well-
rounded growth we should all seek.

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Our communication skills are influenced by the culture we have been socialized in. They are
strongly affected by a person‘s values, believes and attitudes. Every person communicates verbally
and non-verbally. It is a general believe, that most communication takes place non-verbally.

Verbal Communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is transmitted

through the spoken words. Here the sender gives words to his/her feelings, thoughts, ideas and
opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches, discussions, presentations, and conversations.

The effectiveness of the verbal communication depends on the tone of the speaker, clarity of speech,
volume, speed, body language and the quality of words used in the conversation. In the case of the
verbal communication, the feedback is immediate since there are a simultaneous transmission and
receipt of the message by the sender and receiver respectively.

The success of the verbal communication depends not only on the speaking ability of an individual
but also on the listening skills. How effectively an individual listens to the subject matter decides
the effectiveness of the communication. The verbal communication is applicable in both the formal
and informal kind of situations.

Nonverbal communication includes gestures, facial expressions, and body positions (known
collectively as ―body language‖), as well as unspoken understandings and presuppositions, and
cultural and environmental conditions that may affect any encounter between people.

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Body Language:

Definition
Body language means the conscious and unconscious movements and postures by which attitudes
and feelings are communicated. Such behavior includes facial expressions, body posture, gestures,
eye movement, touch, and the use of space. Body movements include gestures, posture, head and
hand movements or whole-body movements. They can be used to reinforce or emphasize what a
person is saying and offer information about the emotions and attitudes of a person. There are
several different categories of body movement, these include:

1. Gestures: It means a movement of part of the body, especially a hand or the head, to express an
idea or meaning. There are different types of them. These are divided into four types.

a) Emblems: Gestures that serve the same function as a word are called emblems. For example,
the signals that mean 'OK', 'Come here!', or the hand movement used when hitch-hiking.
However, be aware that whilst some emblems are internationally recognized, others may need
to be interpreted in their cultural context.

b) Illustrators: Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known as
illustrators. For example, the common circular hand movement which accompanies the phrase
'over and over again‘ or nodding the head in a particular direction when saying 'over there'.

c) Regulators: Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called regulators. Examples
of 'regulators' include head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm', and expressions of
interest or boredom.

d) Adaptors: Adaptors are non-verbal behaviors which satisfies some physical need. Adaptors
include such actions as scratching or adjusting uncomfortable glasses, or represent a
psychological need such as biting fingernails when nervous. Although normally
subconscious, adaptors are more likely to be restrained in public places than in the private
world of individuals where they are less likely to be noticed. Adaptive behaviours often
accompany feelings of anxiety or hostility.

2. Posture:
Posture can reflect emotions, attitudes, and intentions. Research has identified a wide range of
postural signals and their meanings, such as:

34
Open and Closed Posture:
Two forms of posture have been identified, ‗open‘ and ‗closed‘, which may reflect an
individual's degree of confidence, status, or receptivity to another person.

Closed Posture:
Someone seated in a closed position might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be
positioned at a slight angle from the person with whom they are interacting.

Open Posture: In an open posture, you might expect to see someone directly facing you with hands
apart on the arms of the chair. An open posture can be used to communicate openness or
interest in someone and a readiness to listen, whereas the closed posture might imply
discomfort or disinterest.

3. Facial Expressions:
Facial expressions are one form of nonverbal communication. These subtle - and sometimes
not so subtle - expressions can communicate everything from pleasure or displeasure to
surprise or boredom. Think for a moment about how much a person can convey with just a
facial expression. A smile can indicate approval or happiness. A frown can signal disapproval
or unhappiness. In some cases, our facial expressions may reveal our true feelings about a
situation. While you say that you are feeling fine, the look on your face may tell people
otherwise.

Just a few examples of emotions that can be expressed via facial expressions include:
1. Happiness
2. Sadness
3. Anger
4. Surprise
5. Disgust
6. Fear
7. Confusion
8. Excitement
9. Desire
10. Contempt

Generating talks based on visual or written prompts:

Visual aids mean an item of illustrative matter, such as a film, slide, or model, designed to
supplement written or spoken information so that it can be understood more easily. One should only
use visual aids if they are necessary to maintain interest and assist comprehension in your

35
presentation. If visual aids are used well, they will enhance a presentation by adding impact and
strengthening audience involvement, yet if they are managed badly, they can ruin a presentation.

Most visual aids will need advance preparation and should be operated with efficiency. If you wish
to use such aids in an unfamiliar room or location, check what facilities are available in advance so
that you can plan your presentation accordingly.
Here it provides the details of the following common visual aids:

i. Whiteboards and Interactive Whiteboards

ii. Flip chart
iii. Over-head projector (OHP)
iv. Slides
v. Video
vi. PowerPoint or other presentation software
vii. Handouts

Whiteboards and Interactive Whiteboards:

If available, whiteboards are good for developing an explanation, diagrams and simple headings,
and for recording interaction with, and comments from, the audience during brainstorming sessions.
Remember if using a whiteboard, you should ensure that your handwriting is legible, aligned
horizontally, and is sufficiently large to be seen by all the audience. Also ensure that you use non-
permanent pens (sometimes referred to as dry-wipe pens) rather than permanent markers so that
your writing can be erased later.

If you have access to an interactive whiteboard, you should make sure you know how this works,
and practice using it, before your presentation.

Flip Charts
A flip chart is a popular, low cost, low tech solution to recording interactive meetings and
brainstorming sessions.

A flip chart can be prepared in advance and is portable; it requires no power source and no technical
expertise. Flip charts are ideal for collecting ideas and responses from the audience and are good
for spontaneous summaries. However, if the audience is large, a flip chart will be too small to be
seen by everyone.
Video
Videos are excellent for training purposes but can be difficult to fit into a presentation structure. If a
computer connected to a projector is available then videos can be played as files, from a DVD or
with an Internet connection via YouTube or other online sources. Videos can also be built into a
presentation using PowerPoint or other presentation software.

36
Power Point
Use of PowerPoint and other presentation software is quite common when preparing for a
presentation. Care should be taken, however, that visual effects do not detract from the presentation
itself. If you choose to use PowerPoint, try to have a practice run well in advance of a presentation
so that you are confident when giving the presentation itself.

Older Visual Aids That May Still Be Effective:

Over-Head Projector (OHP)

Displays can be prepared on acetates, both in written and graphic form.
They command attention but, as with other visual aids, care must be taken to talk to the audience
and not the screen. OHPs are suitable for both large and small groups although the machines can be
noisy and unreliable, and the projector can obscure the screen. OHPs as a method of presenting have
now largely been replaced by presentations projected from a computer onto a whiteboard or other
screen.

Slides
Slides of excellent visual quality can have great impact on any size of group.
However, a good blackout is required for the images to be seen clearly and this causes eye contact
with the audience to be lost. Unlike with other methods of presentation, you will not be able to add
any spontaneous notes or records to the slides. If you are using slides, ensure that they are prepared
in the correct order, ideally numbering the slides so that if the carousel is dropped the slides can
quickly be reordered.

Handouts:
Handouts summarizing or including the main points of a presentation are an excellent addition but
must be relevant. Presentation software packages such as PowerPoint can automatically generate
handouts from your presentation slides.

Public speaking
Addressing a Small group or a Large Formal Gathering

Public speaking (also called oratory or oration) is the process or act of performing a speech to a
live audience. It is the process of communicating information to an audience. It is usually done
before a large audience, like in school, the workplace and even in our personal lives. The benefits of

37
knowing how to communicate to an audience include sharpening critical thinking and verbal/non-
verbal communication skills.

This type of speech is deliberately structured with three general purposes:

 to inform,
 to persuade and
 to entertain.

Addressing a small group or a large formal gathering:

Addressing a small group or a large formal gathering is not an easy goal, but it can be done. Begin
by setting aside time to assemble your piece. Move on by jotting down points you want to get across
to your audience. Then arrange them logically, so they flow naturally from one to the next. After
this you can mix in something more to hold your audience‘s attention: stories, illustrations, and
props, like images, and videos in your slideshow.

Strengthen your speech following the given methods

Know Your Audience:

First, you need to know who will be listening when you speak. To put it another way, know your
audience. Find ways to get acquainted with your listeners. Aim to be intimate with them. Dig up
their eccentricities, wants, aches, and pet peeves. Be aware of their age bracket. Demographics are
an integral part of discovering your audience. You do not need a formal survey to get this
information, either. Just interact with them in the first five minutes of your talk.

Be an Expert on Your Topic:

Make sure there are not things you are embarrassed to say or are not positive of the pronunciation. It
will also help to not use words you do not know the meaning to, so you do not use a wrong word or
do not give it the right emotion. And also, if you use too many words that people don't know the
definition of, that alone might make them not care for your speech, considering the fact they would
be awesome have a clue what you were talking about.

Accentuate the Positive:

What kind of a speaker are you? To be more effective, you must identify your style. Get in touch
with your strengths and weaknesses as a speaker and zero in on what you do best. Do you have a
great sense of humor? Or are you a good storyteller? After a thorough analysis, pick your kind and
focus on delivering your talk with your own style and in this way, you can shine like a star. Do not
alter yourself because you think one style is better than another or try to be somebody you are not.

38
Get Comfortable with the Environment:
Go check the event venue where you will speak. Acquaint yourself with the place. Get to know its
size. By knowing the dimensions of the area, you will be able to prepare your movements wisely.

If you check your speaking venue first, you will also discover whether you will have the freedom to
walk to and fro an aisle, or you‘ll be confined in a tiny spot, like behind a podium. These small
details are actually not small at all, and if you think thoroughly about them, they‘ll make all the
difference in your speaking engagement.

Visualize Your Audience:

Fear of public speaking is related to the fear of criticism, and the fear of criticism is related to the
fear of people‘s opinions and of non-acceptance. You will not beat this fear easily but try this:
Imagine that you are talking to a group of people who are ignorant Visualize the scene. I am quite
sure you will be smiling while climbing the stage.

When you are finally up on that podium, relax, take three long and deep breaths, smile, and say hi to
the crowd. If you are still nervous after saying hi, read your first two lines with all the confidence
you can muster right from your script. After your first two lines, move on to your third, the fourth,
and so on. Maintain eye contact.

Oral Presentations:
A presentation is the process of presenting a topic to an audience. It is typically a demonstration,
introduction, lecture, or speech meant to inform, persuade, inspire, motivate, or to build good will
or to present a new idea. Scholars, professionals, and students in all fields desire to disseminate the
new knowledge they produce, and this is often accomplished by delivering oral presentations in
class, at conferences, in public lectures, or in company meetings. Therefore, learning to deliver
effective presentations is a necessary skill to master both for college and further endeavors.

Oral presentations typically involve three important steps:

1) Planning,
2) Practicing, and
3) Presenting

1. Planning
Oral presentations require a good deal of planning. Scholars estimate that approximately 50% of all
mistakes in an oral presentation occur in the planning stage (or rather, lack of a planning stage).
Make sure to address the following issues:

39
Audience:
i. Focus your presentation on the audience.
ii. Organize your information into three to five points/categories.
iii. Build repetition.

Listening is much different than reading. Your audience cannot go back and read over something
they missed or did not understand. Build repetition through internal summaries, transitions,
analogies, and stories.

Introduction:
· Introduce yourself if needed, providing your affiliation and/or credibility.
· Create an effective opening that will interest your audience: pose a question, give an amazing
fact, or tell a short, interesting story.
· Reveal your topic to the audience and explain why it is important for them to learn about.
· Give a brief outline of the major points you will cover in your presentation.

Main Body:
· Explain your points. Give clear explanations. Provide sufficient evidence to be convincing.
Use transitions between sections of your presentation (introduction, body, and conclusion) as
well as between points in your main body section.
Use analogies and stories to explain complicated ideas and to build repetition.

Conclusion:
 Signal your conclusion with a transition.
 Summarize your points.
 Refer to future action if needed.
 End with, ―Thank You.‖
 If answering questions, tell your audience, ―I‘ll now be happy to answer any questions.‖

2. Practicing
Practicing your presentation is essential. It is at this stage of the process that you figure out word
and phrase emphasis and the timing of your sections and overall presentation.
 Record your presentation and review it to know how you sound and appear to your audience.
 Consider using different colored highlighters to remind yourself when to pause, when to
emphasize a point, when you have a slide change on your PowerPoint, etc.
 Practice in front of peers and elicit feedback. Ask your peers to comment on your delivery and
content.

3. Presenting

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As the person in charge of the situation when presenting, it is your job to make your audience feel
comfortable.
● maintain eye contact. Only look at notes or slides very briefly. Sweep the room with your gaze,
pausing. Briefly on various people.
● be aware of your body posture.
● be enthusiastic about your topic.
● smile
● slow down your speech. We naturally talk faster when we are nervous. Include pauses to allow
your listeners to keep up and time for you to think ahead.
● use gestures to emphasize points and move about the space if possible.

PowerPoint presentation
Use of PowerPoint and other presentation software is quite common in presentation today. Care
should be taken, however, that visual effects do not distract from the presentation itself. If you do
choose to use Power Point, try to have a practice run well in advance of a presentation so that you
are confident when giving the presentation itself.

Easy ways to make PowerPoint presentation:

1. Build your slides last
2. Do not try to replace you
3. Use a consistent theme
4. One narrative per slide
5. Fade to black when speaking
6. When in doubt, dump it

1. Build your slides last:

You could be tempted to start monk eying with slides early in your speech writing process – do not.
It is like building a road – until you know where that road is heading there‘s no point laying down
sidewalks and planting trees. Your slides are there to ADD to a well-designed speech, not to replace
it.

2. Do not try to replace you:

People come to listen to you – your thoughts, interpretations, and insights. Fancy transitions,
YouTube clips, and tons of text steal from your content and delivery.
Remember: every time you hit that clicker the audience leaves you and goes to the screen.

3. Use a consistent theme:

41
A consistent theme pulls together the variety in your images and message, as you move from
problem to solution. You could use the baked-in themes supplied in PowerPoint or Keynote – I do
not because I want a simpler, more unique look.
I create a custom theme simply with my titles, a consistent white background, and sometimes with
my logo or my client‘s logo.

4. One narrative per slide:

In 60-minute, speech, one can have 30-35 slides, depending on content or complexity of the
message. Each slide represents a complete thought. It might be presenting statistics (sparingly),
recalling an experience that leads to a lesson, or teaching a lesson.

5. Fade to black when speaking:

Your slides are not the point—you are. When you fade to black, you regain your audience‘s
attention. For example, after presenting one solution, you fade to black while you explain on how to
apply the solution in your work.

6. When in doubt, dump it:

In the process of presentation, slides can be essential – they can also be a distraction. When you are
struggling, trying to decide if you need a slide, or not, ask yourself: “Will it make my speech
better?” If not, dump it. Remember, nobody will miss what is not there.

MODULE III
USAGE OF VOCABULARY AND FUNCTIONS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR

VOCABULARY

The concept of Word Formation:

In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes
contrasted with semantic change. Semantic change means a change in a single word's meaning. The
boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define: a new use of an
old word be a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form.
There are several methods of word formation.

42
 1. Derivation
2. Compounding
3. Blending
4. Acronym
5. Loaned words
6. Neologism

1. Derivation:
Derivation in general means the formation of a word from another word or base and the relation of a
word to its base or root.

2. Compounding:
In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem.
Compounding occurs when two or more words are joined to make one longer word. The component
stems of a compound may be of the same part of speech—as in the case of the English word
footpath, composed of the two nouns foot and path. They may belong to different parts of speech,
as in the case of the English word blackbird, composed of the adjective black and the noun bird.

3. Blending:
In linguistics, a blend word is one formed from parts of two or more other words. These parts are
called morphemes (the smallest grammatical unit in a language). cat + -s = the two morpheme units.

Formation

Most blends are formed by one of the following methods:

The end of one word is appended to the beginning of the other

smoke (1) + fog (1) → smog (1)

The beginnings of two words are combined. For example, cyborg is a blend of cybernetic and
organism.

Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds, also known as blends with
overlapping.
The word motel is a blend of motor and hotel.

4. Acronym:
An acronym is a word or name formed as an abbreviation from the initial components in a phrase or
a word, usually individual letters (as in NATO or laser) and sometimes syllables.
Acronyms are pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters

43
 NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Scuba: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
Laser: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
GIF: Graphics Interchange Format

5. Loaned words:
In linguistics, loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-
for-word or root-for-root translation. means to borrow a word or phrase from another language.
"Calque" itself is a loanword from the French noun calque which means to copy, or to imitate.

List of loanwords from French:

Adam's Apple
By heart
Governor
Staircase
Marriage of Convenience
Point of view
Pineapple (Dutch)
Antibody (German)
Scapegoat (Hebrew)
Killer whale - ballena asesina (Spanish)
Muscle - musculus (Latin)
Rest in Peace - requiescat in pace (Latin)

6. Neologism:
This word is derived from the Greek words neo means new, and logos means speech. A word
derived from neologism is a relatively recent or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the
process of entering common use.

Neologisms can become popular by way of mass media, the Internet, and word mouth. The title of
a book may become a neologism, for instance, Catch-22 (from the title of Joseph Heller's novel).
Culture and technology use are major drivers in neologism development. The use and over-use of
brand names is another example of neologism creation. The terms "coke" or "cola" may be used
about any Coca-Cola like beverage regardless of brand.

Antonyms and Synonyms

44
S.No. Words Synonyms Antonyms

1. Acumen Awareness, brilliance Stupidity, Ignorance

2. Adhere Comply, observe Condemn, disjoin

3. Abolish Abrogate, annual Setup Establish

4. Abash Disconcert, rattle Uphold, Discompose

5. Abound Flourish, proliferate Deficient, Destitute

6. Abate Moderate, decrease Aggravate

Commendable,
7. Abject Despicable, servile
Praiseworthy

8. Abjure Forsake, renounce Approve, Sanction

9. Abortive Vain, unproductive Productive

10. Absolve Pardon, forgive Compel, Accuse

11. Accord Agreement, harmony Discord

12. Acrimony Harshness, bitterness Courtesy, Benevolence

13. Adamant Stubborn, inflexible Flexible, Soft

14. Adherent Follower, disciple Rival, Adversary

15. Adjunct Joined, Added Separated, Subtracted

16. Admonish Counsel, reprove Approve, Applaud

17. Adversity Misfortune, calamity Prosperity, Fortune

18. Alien Foreigner, outsider Native, Resident

19. Allay Pacify, soothe Aggravate, Excite

20. Alleviate Abate, relieve Aggravate, Enhance

45
21. Allure Entice, fascinate Repulse Repel

22. Ascend Climb Escalate Descend, Decline

23. Amplify Augment, deepen Lessen, Contract

24. Arraign Incriminate, indict Exculpate, Pardon

25. Audacity Boldness, Courage Mildness, Cowardice

26. Authentic Accurate, credible Fictitious, unreal

27. Awkward Rude, blundering Adroit, clever

28. Axiom Adage, truism Absurdity, Blunder

29. Baffle Astound, Faze Facilitate, Clarify

30. Bewitching Alluring, charming Repulsive, Repugnant

31. Bleak Grim, Austere Bright, Pleasant

32. Brittle Breakable, crisp Tough, Enduring

33. Bustle Commotion, Tumult Slowness, Quiet

34. Barbarous Frustrate, perplex Civilized

35. Baroque Florid, gilt Plain, unadorned

36. Barren Desolate, Sterile Damp, Fertile

37. Barrier Barricade, Obstacle Link, Assistance

38. Base Vulgar, Coarse Summit, Noble

39. Batty Insane, silly Sane

40. Bawdy Erotic, Coarse Decent, Moral

41. Befogged Becloud, Dim Clear headed, Uncloud

42. Benevolent Benign, Generous Malevolent, Miserly

46
43. Benign Favorable, friendly Malignant, Cruel

44. Bind Predicament Release

45. Bleak Austere, Blank Bright, Cheerful

46. Blunt Dull, Insensitive Keen, Sharp

47. Boisterous Clamorous, rowdy Placid, Calm

48. Bold Adventurous Timid

49. Busy Active, Engaged Idle, Lazy

50. Calculating Canny, Devious Artless, honest

51. Calamity adversity, misfortune Fortune

52. Callous obdurate, unfeeling Compassionate, Tender

53. Calumny defamation, aspersion Commendation, Praise

54. Capable competent, able Incompetent, Inept

55. Captivate Charm, fascinate Disillusion offend

56. Captivity imprisonment, confinement Freedom, Liberty

57. Cease terminate, desist Begin, Originate

58. Chaste virtuous, pure Sullied, Lustful

59. Chastise punish, admonish Cheer, encourage

60. Compassion kindness, sympathy Cruelty, Barbarity

61. Comprise include, contain Reject, lack

62. Concede yield, permit Deny, reject

63. Concur approve, agree Differ, disagree

64. Consent agree, permit Object Disagree

47
65. Consequence effect, outcome Origin, Start

66. Consolidate solidify, strengthen Separate, Weaken

67. Conspicuous prominent, obvious Concealed, hidden

68. Contempt scorn, disregard Regard, Praise

69. Contradict deny, oppose Approve, Confirm

70. Contrary dissimilar, conflicting Similar, Alike

71. Calm Harmonious, unruffled Stormy, turbulent

72. Callous Insensitive, indurated Kind, merciful

73. Camouflage Cloak, disguise Reveal

74. Candid Blunt, bluff Evasive

75. Captivate Beguile, bewitch Repel

76. Carnal Earthly, fleshly Spiritual

77. Catholic Generic, liberal Narrow- minded

78. Celebrated Acclaimed, lionized Unknown, Inglorious

79. Cement Plaster, mortar Disintegrate

80. Censure Rebuke, reprimand Praise, Acceptance

81. Cheap Competitive, Inexpensive Dear, unreasonable

82. Clandestine Covert, fruitive Open, Legal

83. Classic Simple, Typical Romantic, Unusual

84. Coarse Bawdy, Boorish Fine, Chaste

85. Comic Clown, Jester Tragic, tragedian

86. Compact Bunched, thick Loose, Diffuse

48
87. Compress Abbreviate, Shrink Amplify, Expand

88. Conceit Egotism, Immodesty Modesty

89. Concord Agreement, accord Discord

90. Condemn Castigate, Chide Approve, Praise

91. Confident Bold, Undaunted Diffident, cowardly

92. Consolidate Centralize, Fortify Weaken

93. Courtesy Generosity, Reverence Disdain, Rudeness

94. Creation Formation, foundation Destruction

95. Cunning Acute, Smart Nave, Coarse

96. Decay Collapse, decompose Flourish, Progress

97. Deceit deception, artifice Veracity, Sincerity

98. Decipher interpret, reveal Misinterpret, distort

99. Defile contaminate, pollute Purify, sanctity

100. Defray spend, pay Disclaim, Repudiate

101. Deliberate cautious, intentional Rash, Sudden

102. Demolish Ruin, devastate Repair, construct

103. Deprive despoil, divest Restore, Renew

104. Deride mock, taunt Inspire, Encourage

105. Disdain detest, despise Approve, praise

106. Dissuade Remonstrate, Counsel Insite, Persuade

107. Denounce Blame, boycott Defend

108. Dense Opaque, piled Sparse, brainy

49
109. Derogatory Sarcastic, critical Laudatory, appreciative

110. Despair Depression, misery Contentment, Hope

111. Destructive Catastrophic, pernicious Creative, Constructive

112. Docile Pliable, pliant Headstrong, obstinate

113. Dwarf Diminutive, Petite Huge, Giant

114. Eager Keen, acquisitive Indifferent, apathetic

115. Eclipse Diminution, Dimming Shine, eclipse

116. Eccentric strange, abnormal Natural, Conventional

117. Ecstasy delight, exultation Despair, Calamity

118. Efface destroy, obliterate Retain, Maintain

119. Eloquence expression, fluency Halting, Stammering

120. Encumbrance hindrance, obstacle Incentive, stimulant

121. Endeavour undertake, aspire Cease, quit

122. Enormous colossal, mammoth Diminutive, negligible

123. Epitome precise, example Increment, expansion

124. Equivocal uncertain, hazy Obvious, lucid

125. Eradicate destroy, exterminate Secure, plant

126. Fabricate construct, produce Destroy, Dismantle

127. Fallacy delusion, mistake Veracity, Truth

128. Falter stumble, demur Persist, Endure

129. Fanatical narrow-minded, biased Liberal, Tolerant

130. Feeble weak, frail Strong, Robust

50
131. Ferocious cruel, fierce Gentle, Sympathetic

132. Feud strife, quarrel Harmony, fraternity

133. Fluctuate deflect, vacillate Stabilize, resolve

134. Forsake desert, renounce Hold, maintain

135. Fragile weak, infirm Enduring, Tough

136. Frantic violent, agitated Subdued, gentle

137. Frivolous petty, worthless Solemn, significant

Lavishness,
138. Frugality economy, providence
extravagance

139. Gather Converge, huddle Disperse, Dissemble

140. Gloom obscurity, darkness Delight, mirth

141. Glut stuff, satiate Starve, abstain

142. Gorgeous magnificent, dazzling Dull, unpretentious

143. Gracious courteous, beneficent Rude, Unforgiving

144. Grisly disgusting, atrocious Pleasing, attractive

145. Grudge hatred, aversion Benevolence, Affection

146. Guile cunning, deceit Honesty, frankness

147. Generosity Altruism, bounty Stinginess, greed

148. Genuine Absolute, Factual Spurious

149. Gloomy Bleak, cloudy Gay, Bright

150 Glory Dignity, renown Shame, Disgrace

51
Idioms and Phrases

English idioms, proverbs, and expressions are an important part of everyday English. They come up
all the time in both written and spoken English. Because idioms don't always make sense literally,
you'll need to familiarize yourself with the meaning and usage of each idiom. Idioms are
expressions peculiar to the language.

Definition: An idiom is a phrase where the words together have a meaning that is different from the
dictionary definitions of the individual words. English has thousands of idioms. Most of English
idioms are informal. Idioms are a group of words used for more effective use of language. These
words are not interpreted by their literal meaning but by their indicative meaning. Their effective
use brings the command over the language.

For example, if someone says to you ―I‘m pulling your leg‖, you might think it is strange because
you would definitely be able to feel if someone was holding your leg and pulling it! This idiom
means that they are teasing you or playing a joke on you. As the meanings are usually completely
different to the meanings of the actual words, it can be exceedingly difficult to learn them – you
need to learn them in the same way you learn new vocabulary.

Nouns and Verbs in English combination with Prepositions, Adverbs, and other parts of speech,
constantly make idioms. The more it is increasingly used the better will be one‘s command over the
language.
 A bitter pill A situation or information that is unpleasant but must be
accepted.

 A hot potato A controversial issue or situation that is awkward or

unpleasant to deal with.

 Achilles' heel A metaphor for a fatal weakness in spite of overall

strength.

 At the drop of a hat Without any hesitation; instantly.

 Call it a day To retire

 Cheap as chips Inexpensive or of good value

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  Couch potato A lazy person

 Don‘t count your chicken Don‘t make plan for something that may not happen
before they hatch

 Fit as a fiddle In good physical health

 Fly in the ointment That one tiny drawback

 Grass is always greener on the A phrase implying that a person is never satisfied with
other side their current situation; they think others have it better.

 Heard it through the grapevine You learned something through means of a rumour.

 Ignorance is bliss Life is good when you are naive to the hardships
happening all around

 It takes two to tango It takes more than one person to start a fight

Here, 15 common English idioms and phrases that will enrich English vocabulary and make sound
like a native speaker in no time.

1. ‗The best of both worlds‘ – means you can enjoy two different opportunities at the same time.
‗By working part-time and looking after her kids two days a week she managed to get the best of
both worlds.‘
2. ‗Speak of the devil‘ – this means that the person you are just talking about actually turns up at that
moment.
‗Hi Tom, speak of the devil, I was just telling Sara about your new car.‘
3. ‗See eye to eye‘ – this means agreeing with someone.
‗They finally saw eye to eye on the business deal.‘
4. ‗Once in a blue moon‘ – an event that happens infrequently.

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 ‗I only go to the cinema once in a blue moon.‘
5. ‗When pigs fly‘ – something that will never happen.
‗When pigs fly, she‘ll tidy up her room.‘
6. ‗To cost an arm and a leg‘– something is expensive.
‗Fuel these days costs and arm and a leg.‘
7. ‗A piece of cake‘– something is quite easy.
‗The English test was a piece of cake.‘
8. ‗Let the cat out of the bag‘ – to accidentally reveal a secret.
―I let the cat out of the bag about their wedding plans.‖
9. ‗To feel under the weather‘ – to not feel well.
‗I‘m really feeling under the weather today; I have a terrible cold.‘
10. ‗To kill two birds with one stone‘ – to solve two problems at once.
‗By taking my dad on holiday, I killed two birds with one stone. I got to go away but also spend
time with him.‖
11. ‗To cut corners‘ – to do something badly or cheaply.
‗They really cut corners when they built this bathroom; the shower is leaking.‘
12. ‗To add insult to injury‘ – to make a situation worse.
‗To add insult to injury the car drove off without stopping after knocking me off my bike.‘
13. ‗You can‘t judge a book by its cover‘ – to not judge someone or something based solely on
appearance.
‗I thought this no-brand bread would be horrible; turns out you can‘t judge a book by its cover.‘
14. ‗Break a leg‘ – means ‗good luck‘ (often said to actors before they go on stage).
‗Break a leg Sam, I‘m sure your performance will be great.‘
15. ‗To hit the nail on the head‘ – to describe exactly what is causing a situation or problem.
‗He hit the nail on the head when he said this company needs more HR support.‘

Usages of phrases:
Definition:
Phrase means a small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit.
Examples:
1. blow up - explode - The terrorists tried to blow up the railroad station.
2. call off -cancel - They called off this afternoon's meeting

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3. find out - discover - My sister found out that her husband had been planning a surprise party for
her.
4. give away -give something to someone else for free - The filling station was giving away free gas.
5. make out - hear, understand - He was so far away, we really could not make out what he was
saying.
6. take down - make a written note - These are your instructions. Write them down before you
forget.
7. use up - exhaust, use completely - The gang members used up all the money and went out to rob
some more banks.

One-word substitutes
One-word substitution is a process in which people use one word to replace a wordy phrase, to make
the sentence structure clearer. This also makes work more succinct, instead of convoluted. For
example, if you have a sentence that states ‗He drives me in a vehicle around town.‘ instead you can
use ‗He chauffeurs me around town.‘ The meaning is identical, yet the sentence is shorter. This adds
a complexity to writing, while still making sure the writing is concise.

Most used One Word Substitution

1. To fall apart over time - Disintegrate

2. A copy of something that is identical - Facsimile
3. Old age that results in odd and unique behaviors - Senility
4. A smart and educated individual - Intellectual
5. Someone who is driven by passion to do crazy things - Zealot
6. Things to be done throughout the day - Schedule
7. To leave somewhere that is treacherous - Escape
8. A person who pushes an idea or belief system they do not believe - Hypocrite
9. Someone who sees everything negatively - Cynic
10. Something that is not understandable - Incomprehensible
11. A person who is talented in many different facets of life - Versatile
12. A movie or play held during the daytime - Matinee
13. Timeframe between kids hitting puberty and being an adult - Adolescence
14. A person that is unknown - Anonymous
15. Someone that you work with – Colleague
16. One who is not sure about God's existence – Agnostic
17. A person who deliberately sets fire to a building – Arsonist
18. One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession – Amateur
19. One who can use either hand with ease – Ambidextrous
20. One who makes an official examination of accounts – Auditor

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21. A person who believes in or tries to bring about a state of lawlessness – Anarchist
22. A person who has changed his faith – Apostate
23. One who does not believe in the existence of God – Atheist
24. A person appointed by two parties to solve a dispute – Arbitrator
25. One who leads an austere life – Ascetic
26. One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession – Amateur
27. One who can either hand with ease – Ambidextrous
28. An unconventional style of living – Bohemian
29. One who is bad in spellings – Cacographer
30. One who feeds on human flesh – Cannibal
31. A person who is blindly devoted to an idea/ A person displaying aggressive or exaggerated
patriotism – Chauvinist
32. A critical judge of any art and craft – Connoisseur
33. Persons living at the same time – Contemporaries
34. One who is recovering health after illness – Convalescent
35. A girl/woman who flirts with man – Coquette
36. A person who regards the whole world as his country – Cosmopolitan
37. One who is a center of attraction – Cynosure
38. One who sneers at the beliefs of others – Cynic
39. A leader or orator who espoused the cause of the common people – Demagogue
40. A person having a sophisticated charm – Debonair
41. A leader who sways his followers by his oratory – Demagogue
42. A dabbler (not serious) in art, science, and literature – Dilettante
43. One who is for pleasure of eating and drinking – Epicure
44. One who often talks of his achievements – Egotist
45. Someone who leaves one country to settle in another – Emigrant
46. A man who is womanish in his habits – Effeminate
47. One hard to please (very selective in his habits) – Fastidious
48. One who runs away from justice – Fugitive
49. One who is filled with excessive enthusiasm in religious matters – Fanatic
50. One who believes in fate – Fatalist
51. A lover of good food – Gourmand
52. Conferred as an honour – Honorary
53. A person who acts against religion – Heretic
54. A person of intellectual or erudite tastes – Highbrow
55. A patient with imaginary symptoms and ailments – Hypochondriac
56. A person who is controlled by wife – Henpeck
57. One who shows sustained enthusiastic action with unflagging vitality – Indefatigable
58. Someone who attacks cherished ideas or traditional institutions – Iconoclast

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 59. One who does not express himself freely – Introvert
60. Who behaves without moral principles – Immoral
61. A person who is incapable of being tampered with – Impregnable
62. One who is unable to pay his debts – Insolvent
63. A person who is mentally ill – Lunatic
64. A person who dislikes humankind and avoids human society – Misanthrope
65. A person who primarily concerned with making money at the expense of ethics – Mercenary
66. Someone in love with himself – Narcissist
67. One who collect coins as hobby – Numismatist
68. A person who likes or admires women – Philogynist
69. A lover of mankind – Philanthropist
70. A person who speaks more than one language – Polyglot
71. One who lives in solitude – Recluse
72. Someone who walks in sleep – Somnambulist
73. A person who is indifferent to the pains and pleasures of life – Stoic
74. A scolding nagging bad-tempered woman – Termagant
75. A person who shows a great or excessive fondness for one's wife – Uxorious
76. One who possesses outstanding technical ability in a particular art or field – Virtuoso

Root words from foreign languages and their use in English:

Root Words
English has been called one the most difficult languages for non-native speakers to learn. One reason
is that English has so many rules – and almost as many exceptions of those rules!

Sometimes, this leaves learners confused. For example, the order of words in a sentence can be
tricky.

Another reason English is hard to learn is that the pronunciation of its words cannot always be
predicted by their spelling. For example, there are at least six ways to pronounce the group of
letters spelled o-u-g-h. And, maybe the worst thing of all is that there are many idioms, or
expressions, in English. You could say we use idioms like they're going out of style.

So, it is comforting to know that learning root words can help a non-native speaker use English. A
root word is the most basic form of a word.

Root words can help you to break down large, new words into smaller units to discover their
meanings.

Learning just one root word can help you understand several words in English. So, by learning just 20

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or 30 root words, you can expand your English vocabulary to include hundreds of new words.

A root can be any part of a word that carries meaning: the beginning, middle or end. Prefixes, bases,
and suffixes are types of roots. The prefix appears at the beginning of a word, the base in the middle
and the suffix at the end.

Most English root words came from the Greek and Latin languages.

Building vocabulary through root words

One useful method for building vocabulary through root words is to first look at a base word and then
look for familiar prefixes and suffixes that go with that base.

Let's try an example: the base word ―struct-.‖ It comes from the Latin word meaning ―build.‖ Any
English word you hear containing ―struct-‖* will relate to building, developing or creating something.
By itself, ―struct‖ is not a word, but it is the basis for more than 30 words in English.

For example, the word ―construct‖ is a verb that means ―to build.‖ The prefix ―con‖ means ―together‖
or ―with.‖ So, "construct" means to put things together to build or create something.

Learning just one root word in English can help you understand several words and grow your
vocabulary.
Adding suffixes to ―struct-‖ creates additional words.

For example, adding ―-ion‖ in English makes verbs into nouns. When we add "-ion" to ―construct,"
we get "construction," which means the process, or act, of building something.

Adding the suffix ―-ing‖ to ―construct‖ makes ―constructing.‖ That is the gerund form and has a
similar meaning as the noun "construction."

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Adding the suffix ―-ive‖ to make ―constructive‖ gives us the adjective form, and means helpful in
developing or improving something.

Now, let's build onto ―constructive." Adding the suffix ―ly‖ to "constructive" gives us the word
―constructively‖ and produces an adverb. It means doing something in a way that is helpful.

There are many other words that the base word ―struct‖ produces. For instance, ―destruction‖ is the
opposite of ―construction.‖

"Destruction" is the act of taking apart or damaging something that was built. "Instruction" means the
act of building knowledge and has a similar meaning to the gerund "teaching."

And, just like with "construct," you can add many suffixes to "destruct" or "instruct" to get several
more words. The suffixes may include -ion, -ing, -ive, ing+ly or -ive+ly.

So, you see, by knowing just one root word – ―struct-‖ – you can get a better idea of the meaning of
at least 15 words in English.

A root is the basic unit of a word. It is the form of a word after all affixes are removed. It is what's
left after you remove all the affixes — the prefixes like "un-" or "anti-" and suffixes such as "-able"
and "-tion." There are many root words that can be used on their own or as parts of other common
words in the English language. These are also referred to as base words.

Act - means to move or do. Acting

Ego - mean "I". Egotist
Legal - means related to the law. Illegal
Normal - means typical. Normality
Phobia - means to fear. Claustrophobia
Sent - to feel, send. Consent
Root Words from foreign languages
Here are some more examples of roots, their meanings and other words that are formed by adding
prefixes and/or suffixes to these language building blocks:

1. Ambul - means move or walk. Amble, ambulant, ambulate

2. Auto - means self or same. Autocrat, automatic
3. Bene - means good. Benefactor, benevolent
4. Cardio - means heart. Cardiovascular, cardiology
5. Cede - means go, yield. Intercede, recede, concede

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 6. Counter - means against or opposite. Counteract, counterpoint, counterargument
7. Dem - means people. Democracy, democrat, demographic
8. Derm - means skin. Dermatology, epidermis
9. Equi - means equal. Equity, equilateral, equidistant
10. Hypno - means sleep. Hypnosis, hypnotic
11. Intra - means within or into. Intrapersonal, intramural, intravenous
12. Ject - means to throw. Reject, eject, inject
13. Mal - means bad. Malignant, malfunction, malice
14. Mangi - means big or great. Magnificent, magnify
15. Multi - means many. Multiple, multifaceted, multilingual
16. Omni - means all. Omnipotent, omnipresent, omnivore
17. Poly - means many. Polygamous, polychrome, polytheist
18. Script - means write. Manuscript, postscript
19. Sect - means cut. Intersect, dissect, section
20. Vis, vid - means see. Envision, evident

Root words can be helpful in improving our vocabulary. When we know root words, we can
recognize the basis of any word and use that knowledge to help us define a word.

Linguists, scientists who study language, refer to the root as the base or foundation of a word.
‗port‘ is a root word. It appears as a part of many words. However, anytime it appears in a word,
‗port‘ means ‗to carry‘ or ‗to move.‘ It gives the meaning of ‗to carry‘ or ‗to move‘ to any word it is
a part of. So, when you see words that include ‗port,‘ like transport, portable, teleportation, deport or
export, you know these words have something to do with ‗carrying‘ or ‗moving.‘

Acquaintance with prefixes and suffixes from foreign languages in English to form derivatives:
Prefixes in English to form Derivatives:
It is the process of forming a new word from an existing word, often by adding a prefix o
Acquaintance with prefixes in English to form derivatives
Definitions of Root Words:
1. Alter meaning: Other – alternate
2. Ami or amic meaning: Love - amicable
3. Amphi meaning: All side or both ends - amphibian
4. Anthrop meaning: Human or man - Anthropology
5. Aqua or Aque meaning: Water - aquarium
6. Aud meaning: Sound - audio
7. Bio meaning: Life - Biography
8. Cap meaning: To take or seize control of - capsize
9. Carn meaning: Meat - carnivorous

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 10. Chron meaning: Time - chronicle
11. Cogn meaning: Know - cognitive
12. Cred meaning: Believe - credibility
13. Dei meaning: god - deity
14. Demo meaning: People - democracy
15. Dent meaning: Tooth - dental
16. Derm meaning: Skin - dermatology
17. Duo meaning: Two - dual, duet
18. Dynam meaning: Power - dynamo
19. Ego meaning: Self - egoist
20. Equ meaning: Equal or equivalent

Suffixes from foreign languages in English to form derivatives:

Suffix, such as -ness or un-. For example, happiness and unhappy derive from the root word happy.

1. adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → eg: slowness

2. adjective-to-verb: -ise (modern →eg: modernise in British English
3. or -ize (final → finalize) in American English and Oxford spelling
4. adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → eg: reddish
5. adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → eg: personally
6. noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → eg: recreational
7. noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → eg: glorify
8. verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → eg: potable
9. verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → eg: deliverance
10. verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → eg: writer

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 FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Sentence structure
Sentence means a set of words that is complete, typically containing a subject and predicate. It
conveys a statement, question, exclamation, or command. It consists of a main clause and
sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.
Basic word order is subject, verb, and object, like in English. ―I drink water‖
Types of sentence:
1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Complex sentence
4. Compound complex sentence

Simple sentence
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
What is an ―independent clause‖? It is one subject followed by one verb or verb phrase. It expresses
a single idea.
Examples of simple sentences:
a) I am happy.
b) Robert does not eat meat.
c) My brother and I went to the mall last night.
d) This new laptop computer has already crashed twice.

Compound sentence
A compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so, yet,
however).
Each independent clause could be a sentence by itself, but we connect them with a linking word:
a) I am happy, but my kids are always complaining.
b) Robert does not eat meat, so Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him.
c) My brother and I went to the mall last night, but we did not buy anything.
d) This new laptop computer has already crashed twice, and I have no idea why.
Note that each sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verb phrases.

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Complex sentence
A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. A dependent
clause cannot be a complete sentence by itself.
a) I am happy, even though I do not make much money.
b) Robert, a friend I have known since high school, does not eat meat.
c) After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night.
d) This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice.

Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains 3 or more clauses: 2 independent clauses and at least 1
dependent clause.
a) I am happy, even though I do not make much money, but my kids are always complaining
since we can‘t afford to buy the newest toys.

Independent clauses: ‗I‘m happy‘ and ‗my kids are always complaining.‘

Dependent clauses:
1. ‗even though I don‘t make much money‘ and ‗since we can‘t afford to buy the newest toys.‘
Linking word: ‗but‘
2. Robert, a friend I have known since high school, does not eat meat – so Barbara made a special
vegetarian dish for him.
Independent clauses: ‗Robert doesn‘t eat meat‘ and ‗Barbara made a special vegetarian dish
for him.‘
Dependent clause: ‗a friend I‘ve known since high school.‘
Linking word: ‗so‘
3. After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night, while my sister
stayed home and studied.
Independent clauses: ‗My brother and I went to the mall last night‘ and ‗my sister stayed
home and studied.‘
Dependent clause: ‗After getting home from work.‘
Linking word: ‗while‘
4. This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice; however, I
have no idea why.
Independent clauses: ‗This new laptop computer has already crashed twice‘ and ‗I have no
idea why.‘
Dependent clause: ‗which I bought yesterday‘
Linking word: ‗however‘

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Uses of phrases and clauses in sentences:

Phrases and Clauses

There are many different types of phrases and clauses. The first step to identifying the different
types, though, is to understand the difference between a phrase and a clause.

Phrases
A phrase is a related group of words. The words work together as a "unit," but they do not have a
subject and a verb.
Examples of Phrases and Clauses:
Examples of Phrases
1. the boy on the bus (noun phrase)
2. will be running (verb phrase)
3. in the kitchen (prepositional phrase)
4. very quickly (adverb phrase)
5. Martha and Jan (noun phrase)

Clauses:
A clause is a group of words that does have both a subject and a verb. Some clauses are
independent, meaning that they express a complete thought. An independent clause is the same as a
complete sentence. Some clauses are dependent, meaning that they cannot stand alone. They do
have a subject and a verb, but they do not express a complete thought. Another word for dependent
is subordinate.

Dependent clauses:
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by
a dependent marker word.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied?
The thought is incomplete.)
Independent Clause
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.

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 • Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.
Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a
complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is
marked by a dependent marker word.
• When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he
studied? The thought is incomplete.)

Practice:
Exercise 1
Identify whether the sentences are simple, complex, compound or compound complex. Please
Underline dependent clauses where it applies.
1. Vampires Diaries is my favorite television show, but I also love True Blood.
2. The student wiped the white board that was filthy with last week‘s notes.
3. The trendy fashion designer released her new line on Wednesday.
4. Trina and Hareem went to a bar in Hollywood to celebrate their anniversary.
5. Wicked Regina cast a spell on the entire city, so the citizens decided to rebel.
6. While waiting for the paint to dry, Angela went to Home Depot, and Martin organized the
kitchen appliances.
7. After listening to the Kanye West CD, I have new respect for his music.
8. After the teacher chose groups, John and Sara were selected as partners for a project, yet
9. Sarah did most of the work.

Importance of punctuation:
Punctuation can be defined as the marks, such as full stop, comma, and brackets, used in writing to
separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning. Marks of punctuation play important
role in giving intended meaning to the language. Use of wrong mark of punctuation or even wrong
placement of mark of punctuation can change the meaning of the sentence completely and
sometimes even convert the sentence to complete nonsense.
The comma is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Wrong placement of comma
can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is placed. Consider following
sentences:
• Let us eat, daddy.
• Let us eat daddy.

In the first sentence daddy is being called for dinner. However, in the second sentence, daddy
himself has become an item to be eaten. Omission of comma in this case has converted the first
sentence to complete nonsense.
Types of punctuation
1. Full stop

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 2. Comma
3. Semicolon
4. Colon
5. Apostrophe
6. Hyphen
7. Dash
8. Brackets
9. Inverted commas
10. Exclamation mark
11. Question mark
12. Bullet points

Full stop:
Full stops are used
• To mark the end of a sentence that is a complete statement:
All their meals arrived at the same time.
• To mark the end of a group of words that do not form a conventional sentence, to emphasize a
statement:
It is never acceptable to arrive late. Not under any circumstances.
• In some abbreviations, for example etc., Jan., or a.m.:
Please return the form by Monday 8 Dec. at the latest.
The shop has groceries, toiletries, etc. and is open all day.
• in website and email addresses:
E.g.: www.OxfordDictionaries.com

Comma:
A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. There are four common
occasions on which commas are necessary; follow the links for more information.
• Using commas in lists (e.g., The flag was red, white, and blue.)
• Using commas in direct speech (e.g., 'That's not fair,' she said.)
• Using commas to separate clauses (e.g., As we had already arrived, we were reluctant to wait.)
• Using commas to mark off parts of a sentence (Her best friend, Eliza, sang for a living.)

Semicolon:
The semicolon is most used to mark a break that is stronger than a comma but not as final as a full
stop. It is used between two main clauses that balance each other and are too closely linked to be
made into separate sentences. For example:
The film was a critical success; its lead actors were particularly praised.

Colon:

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There are three main uses of the colon:
• Between two main clauses in cases where the second clause explains or follows from the first:
We have a motto: live life to the full.
• To introduce a list:
The cost of the room included the following: breakfast, dinner, and Wi-Fi.
• Before a quotation, and sometimes before direct speech:
The headline read: ‗Local Woman Saves Geese‘.

Apostrophe:
There are two main cases where apostrophes are used:
• Using apostrophes to show possession
Malcolm‘s cat was extremely friendly.
We took a day trip to the Gibsons‘ house.
• Using apostrophes to show omission
I am afraid the pie isn‘t suitable for vegetarians.
We did not think about the consequences of our actions.

Hyphen:
Hyphens are used to link words and parts of words. There are three main cases where you should
use them:
• In compound words
My mother-in-law is visiting soon.
• To join prefixes to other words
The novel is clearly intended to be a post-Marxist work.
• To show word breaks
He collects eighteenth- and nineteenth-century vases.

Dash:
There are two main occasions on which a dash can be used, usually in informal writing:
• To mark off information that is not essential to an understanding of the rest of the sentence
Many birds—do you like birds? —can be seen outside the window.
• To show other kinds of break in a sentence where a comma, semicolon, or colon would be
traditionally used
Tommy cannot wait for Christmas—he's very excited.

Brackets:
There are two main types of brackets. Round brackets are mainly used to separate off information
that is not essential to the meaning of the rest of the sentence: He asked Sarah (his great-aunt) for a
loan. Square brackets are mainly used to enclose words added by someone other than the original

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writer or speaker, typically in order to clarify the situation: The witness said: 'Gary [Thompson] was
not usually late for work.'

Inverted commas:
Inverted commas are mainly used in the following cases:
• to mark the beginning and end of direct speech:
'There wasn't,' he said, 'any need for you to say that.'
• to mark off a word or phrase that is being discussed, or that‘s being directly quoted from
somewhere else:
They called it the 'land of milk and honey'.
• (also known as scare quotes) to draw attention to an unusual, ironic, or arguably inaccurate
use:
The 'food' she put on our plates was inedible.

Exclamation mark:
The main uses of the exclamation mark (most used in informal writing) are to end sentences that
express:
• an exclamation:
Ouch! That hurts!
• direct speech that represents something shouted or spoken very loudly:
'Run as fast as you can!' he shouted.
• something that amuses the writer:
They thought I was dressed as a smuggler!
• An exclamation mark can also be used in brackets after a statement to show that the writer
finds it funny or ironic:
He thought it would be amusing (!) to throw a plastic mouse at me.

Question mark:
A question mark is used to indicate the end of a question:
What time are you going to the fair?
A question mark can also be used in brackets to show that the writer is unconvinced by a statement:
The bus timetable purports to be accurate (?).

Bullet points:
Bullet points are used to draw attention to important information within a document so that a reader
can identify the key issues and facts quickly.
Creating Coherence
Creating Coherence in Your Writing

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 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Subject and verb must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject
is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural. This is
grammatically named as Concord or Subject verb agreement.
Rules for subject-verb agreement
Rule 1 – A verb agrees with its subject in number.
Singular subjects take singular verbs:
a) The car stays in the garage.
b) The flower smells good.

There is an old saying: ―Opposites attract.‖ The rule for singular and plural verbs is just the opposite
of the rule for singular and plural nouns. Remember this when you match subjects and verbs. You
might guess that stays and smells are plural verbs because they end in s. They aren‘t. Both stays and
smells are singular verbs.

Rule 2 – The number of the subject (singular or plural) is not changed by words that come between
the subject and the verb.
One of the eggs is broken. Of the eggs is a prepositional phrase. The subject one and the verb is are
both singular. Mentally omit the prepositional phrase to make the subject verb-agreement easier to
make.

Rule 3 – Some subjects always take a singular verb even though the meaning may seem plural.
These subjects always take singular verbs:
Each someone
Either anyone
Neither nobody
One somebody
no one anybody
everyone everybody
Someone in the game was (not were) hurt.
Neither of the men is (not are) working.

Rule 4 – The following words may be singular or plural, depending upon their use in a sentence,
some, any, all, most.
Most of the news is good. (singular)
Most of the flowers were yellow. (plural)
All the pizza was gone. (singular)

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 All the children were late. (plural)
Rule 5 – Subjects joined by and are plural. Subjects joined by or nor take a verb that agrees with the
last subject.
Bob and George are leaving.
Neither Bob nor George is leaving.
Neither Bob nor his friends are leaving.

Rule 6 – There and here are never subjects. In sentences that begin with these words, the subject is
usually found later in the sentence.
There were five books on the shelf. (were, agrees with the subject book)
Here is the report you wanted. (Is agrees with subject report)

Rule 7 – Collective nouns may be singular or plural, depending on their use in the sentence.
A collective noun is a noun used to name a whole group.
Following are some common examples:
Army crowd orchestra
Audience flock public
Class group swarm
Club herd team
Committee jury troop

The orchestra is playing a hit song. (Orchestra is considered as one-unit – singular.)

The orchestra were asked to give their musical backgrounds. (Orchestra is considered as separate
individuals—plural)

Rule 8 – Expressions of time, money, measurement, and weight are usually singular when the
amount is considered one unit.
Five dollars is (not are) too much to ask.
Ten days is (not are) not nearly enough time.
On occasion, however these terms are used in the plural sense:
There were thirty minutes to countdown.

Rule 9 – Some nouns, while plural in form, are actually singular in meaning.
Mathematics is (not are) an easy subject for some people.
Physics is (not are) taught by Prof, Baldwin.

Mumps home economics social studies economics

Measles calisthenics statistics civics
Physics gymnastics phonics news
Acrobatics aesthetics thesis mathematics

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Rule 10 – Do not and does not must agree with the subject. Use does not after ‗he, she, it‘.
Doesn‘t he (not do not) know how to sail?
They do not (not does not) make movies like that anymore.

Exercise 1
Circle the correct verb in each of the sentences below:
1) The football players (run-runs) five miles every day.
2) That red-haired lady in the fur hat (live - lives) across the street.
3) Everybody (was-were) asked to remain quiet.
4) Neither of the men (is-are) here yet.
5) Either the cups or the glasses (are-is) in the dishwasher.
6) Vern and Fred (need-needs) a ride to work.
7) There (is-are) a dog, a cat, and a bird in the garage.
8) It (does not - do not) seem so cold today.
9) Gymnastics (is-are) easy for Angela.
10) Interesting news (is-are) what sells our paper.

Exercise 2
Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.
2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.
3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.
4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.
5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.
6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.
7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.
8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.
9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.
10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.

Exercise 3

Fill in the blanks with the verb that agrees with the subject in each of the
sentences.
1. Everyone ---------------(tries, try) his or her best to achieve the best in life.
2. Few students from our school -------------(competes, compete) every month.
3. Either of these houses------------ (is, are) suitable as a guest house.
4. Several of my paintings ------------------(are is) displayed in the gallery.
5. Some are usually -----------------(bring, brings) blankets for the orphans in the home.
6. Several of the roses---------(has, have) bloomed.

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 7. Anything the teacher says -------------------(turn, turns) out to be a good idea.
8. A few of the dogs -------------(has, have) got lost.
9. T here --------- (is, are) plenty of time for you to complete your work.
10. Many gymnasts‘ -------------(is, are) training for the international meet.

i. ---------------- the laws allow people to spit on the roads?

ii. ----------- you read the newspaper every day?
iii. ------------the factory give out large quantities of smoke?
iv. -------- the milk man delivered the milk packets?
v. -------- the girl been introduced to her neighbour?
vi. Economics -------- a subject that puzzles me.
vii. Gymnastics -------something that should be taught in school.
viii. Diabetes -------- a disease that can be handled easily by everyone.
ix. Dramatics------ now become an important part of the school curriculum.

MODIFIERS

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Definition: Modifier is a word or phrase that is used with another word or phrase to limit or add to
its meaning:

Purpose of Modifiers
A modifier adds detail or limits or changes the meaning of another word or phrase. The following
are the examples
1. Happy
2. Pretty
3. Silly
4. Crazy
5. Hopeful
6. Fast
7. Slow
8. Very
9. Much
10. Many

Types of Modifiers
Once you have identified a modifier, you need to identify the person, place, or thing that it is
modifying. Modifiers usually must accompany the thing they are modifying or go as close to it as
possible.

1. Adjective Modifiers
Adjectives typically go before the words they are modifying, or after with helping verbs. For
example:
 The pretty girl
 The girl was pretty.
In the first example, pretty is an adjective modifying the noun girl. In the second example, was is a
helping verb and pretty is again an adjective modifying girl.

2. Adverbial Modifiers
Adverbs can go before or after the thing they are modifying, depending on what exactly is it they
are modifying. For example:
 The very pretty girl
 He ran quickly
In the first example, the adverb very is modifying the adjective pretty which is modifying the noun
girl. In the second example, the adverb quickly is modifying the verb ran.
When you have a single adjective or adverb, misplaced modifiers rarely occur since they would
immediately sound incorrect. However, when a modifying phrase is used, misplaced modifiers
become more common.

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Exercise 1
Pick out the modifier and show which word it modifies.

1. He tied red and orange ribbons round the present.

2. For years, we kept a pet dog that gave us much joy.
3. A strong wind swept through the countryside.
4. Dark clouds were gathering in the west.
5. If we are quick, there will be tickets available.
6. The film was short but exciting.
7. He was nervous and shaking on stage.
8. This is the best movie we have watched.
9. The exam is hard to pass.

Exercise 2
Pick out the modifier and show which word it modifies.
1. Sue sat silently throughout the meal.
2. I rarely interrupt when other people are speaking.
3. She suddenly left the party.
4. He receives his copy of the magazine monthly.
5. My father often reads the newspaper in bed.
6. We finally decided to stay where we were.
7. Jack and Jill regularly visit their parents.
8. There is someone standing outside the door.
9. He is quite serious about resigning.
10. The girls are kept separately from the boys.

ARTICLES

Article is a word which points out at a person, thing or place spoken of. Thus, article refers to the
noun.

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There are two Articles - a/an and the
A or an is called the indefinite article, as it leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of as:

A doctor, A school, A man, A woman

Here, it can be pointed out any doctor, any school or any man or woman.

A or An
The choice between a and an is determined by sound before a word beginning with a vowel sound
an issued: For e.g. an egg, an orange an honest man, an hour. a and an are used with the singular
number only.
The is called the Definite Article, as it normally points out some particular person or thing as: He
saw the doctor - where the points out some particular doctor.
The indefinite article is used before singular countable nouns e.g. A book, an orange, A girl. The
definite article is used before singular countable nouns, plural countable and uncountable nouns, for
e.g.: The book, the books, the milk

A or An
The choice between a and an is determined by sound before a word beginning with a vowel sound
an is used:
eg.: an egg, an orange an honest man, an hour. A and An are used with the singular number only.

Usage of indefinite article

1. In its original numerical sense of one:
For e.g. Twelve inches make a foot. Not a word was said
2. In a vague sense of a certain
For e.g. One evening a beggar came to my door
3. In the sense of any, to single out an individual as the representative of a class: for eg., A pupil
should obey his teacher A cow is a useful animal
4. To make a common noun of a proper noun:
For e.g. A Daniel comes to judgment! (A Daniel - an incredibly wise man)

Usage of definite article

1. When we talk about a particular person or thing, or one already referred to earlier,
2. When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class for e.g. The cow is a useful animal,
The rose is the sweetest of all flowers
3. before some proper names:
For e.g., oceans and seas: the Pacific, the black sea rivers: the Ganga, the Nile
4. Before the names of certain books:
For e.g., The Vedas, the Puranas, the Ramayana
5. before names of things unique of their kind; as for e.g. the sun, the sky, the earth

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6. Before a Proper noun when it is qualified by an adjective or a defining adjectival clause:
For e.g. the great Caesar, The immortal Shakespeare
7. with Superlatives
For e.g. the darkest cloud has a silver lining, this is the best book of elementary chemistry.
8. with ordinals:
For e.g., He was the first man to arrive, the ninth chapter of the book is remarkably
interesting.
9. Before an adjective when the noun is understood, for e.g. The poor is always with us.
10. Before a noun to give the force of a Superlative for e.g., The Verb is the word in a sentence.
11. As an Adverb with Comparatives: for e.g. The more the merrier.
12. Uncountable nouns take ‗the’ when used in a particular sense (especially when qualified by an
adjective of adjectival phrase of clause.
for e.g. Would you pass me the sugar! The Wisdom of Solomon is great.

Omission of article:
1. Before names of substances, proper and abstract nouns (uncountable nouns) used in a general
sense:
For e.g. Sugar is bad for your teeth.
Gold is a precious metal Delhi is the capital of India Wisdom is the gift of heaven
2. Before plural countable nouns used in a general sense: for e.g.: Children like chocolates
Computers are used in many offices
3. before languages
For e.g. We are studying English.
They speak Punjabi at home
4. Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position i.e., a position that is normally held at
one time by one person only:
For e.g. He was elected Chairman of the Board
Mr. Mathura became Principal of the School in 1995.

INTRODUCTION TO PREPOSITIONS

Introduction
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what relation the person or
thing denoted by it stands regarding something else.
The word preposition means ‗that which is placed before‘.

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 The noun or pronoun which is used with a preposition is called its Object. A preposition may have
two or more objects as:
For e.g. The road runs over hill and plain.
A preposition is often placed before its object, but sometimes follows it : for eg.,
i) Here is the watch that you asked for.
ii) What are you looking at?

The Preposition for, from, in, on are often omitted before nouns of place or time as:
For e.g. We did it last week.
I cannot walk a yard.

Types of preposition
Prepositions may be arranged in the following classes:

1. Simple Preposition:
At, by, for, from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to, up, with.
1. Compound Preposition
Which are generally formed by prefixing a preposition to a Noun,an Adjective or an Adverb.
For e.g. About, Above, Across, Along, Amidst, Among, Before, Behind, Beside, Between, Inside,
Outside, Underneath, Within, Without.

2. Phrase Preposition:
Phrase Preposition is a group of words used with the force of a single preposition
For e.g. According to, in accordance with, in place of, along with, in course of, owing to, with a
view to, in order to, for the sake of.
3. Preposition of Place:
About, across, among, before, between below, behind, from, through, near, on, over, under, upon,
within, round, without, beside into.
4. Preposition of Time:
After, at, in, on, during, since, through, throughout, towards, from, during, into, behind.
At – is used to indicate a definite point of time:
For eg., He came at 8 o‘clock, I shall tell him the fact at the right time.
In – is used to indicate year, century, morning, evening, time period (in years, hours, days, months)
seasons etc as:
for eg.: I get up early in the morning. It shall be completed in four hours/months.
On – is used in expressing days and dates, as
For e.g. My school shall reopen on Monday
India was declared independent on 15th August1947.
From and To–
From is used to indicate the beginning of an action, and to indicate the time when the action ends.

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 For eg.: The Diwali vacation is from 15th October to 22nd October.

Exercise 1
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions. Choose your answers from the options given in
the brackets.
1. This material is different ………………… that. (from / to / with)
2. You should explain this ………………… them. (to / at / with)
3. He has been absent ………………… Monday. (since /for / from)
4. I have not been to the theatre ………………… a long time. (since / for /from)
5. He goes ………………. school by car. (to / at / on)
6. This is a comfortable house to live ……………… (on / at / in)
7. They are called …………………. different names. (by / with / for)
8. We should not spend money ………………. luxuries. (for / on / with)
9. I gave him a chair to sit ………………. (on / at / in)
10. The new term begins …………………. June 1st. (on / in / from)
11. He poured the tea …………………. the mug. (into / on / in)
12. He said that he was incredibly pleased …………………. my work. (with / on / at)

MODULE IV
STRATEGIES OF READING SKILLS

Introduction
Success at the university level mainly depends on existing pre-entry college attributes,
including the mastery of some fundamental academic skills (Tinto, 1993). These include –
reading, writing, critical thinking, oral presentation, and media literacy. Despite the
importance of these skills for academic success, professors seldom teach them (Bean, 1996).

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They generally take them for granted, as they tend to presuppose that all students already
acquired these skills either as part of their secondary education or elsewhere in college
(Erickson, Peters, & Strommer, 2006). The reality is that most first-year students need
academic reading skills, especially because University-level reading greatly differs from
High School reading. Thus, most students employ non-university strategies to read
academic texts, which results in students taking a surface approach to reading.

The objective of this lesson is to discuss some strategies, examples, and resources aimed
at promoting students to take a deep approach to reading. The major tenet of this lesson is
that if teachers explicitly teach students how to read academic texts in aligned courses
where students have ample opportunities to engage in reading activities throughout the term,
students are more likely to adopt a deep approach to reading.

Surface and Deep Approaches to Reading

Learning a discipline involves developing familiarity with the ways of being, thinking,
writing, and seeing the world of those experts in the discipline. Reading academic texts
published by those disciplinary experts permits students to immerse in the culture of the
discipline and facilitates learning its conventions, discourse, skills, and knowledge
(Erickson, Peters, & Strommer, 2006, p.122). But this is only possible if students take a
deep approach to reading.

A surface approach to reading is the tacit acceptance of information contained in the

text. Students taking a surface approach to reading usually consider this information as
isolated and unlinked facts. This leads to superficial retention of material for examinations
and does not promote understanding or long-term retention of knowledge and information.
In contrast, a deep approach to reading is an approach where the reader uses higher-order
cognitive skills such as the ability to analyze, synthesize, solve problems, and thinks meta-
cognitively in order to negotiate meanings with the author and to construct new meaning
from the text. The deep reader focuses on the author‘s message, on the ideas she is trying to
convey, the line of argument, and the structure of the argument. The reader makes
connections to already known concepts and principles and uses this understanding for
problem solving in new contexts. Simply put, surface readers focus on the sign, i.e., the text
itself, while deep readers focus on what is signified, i.e., the meaning of the text (Bowden &
Marton, 2000, p. 49).

Research studies show that most university students today take a surface approach to
reading and learning (Biggs, 1998, p. 58). This phenomenon occurs because teachers
usually lecture the texts and evaluates students on their retention of facts and principles
conveyed in the lectures (Wendling, 2008; Hobson, 2004, p.1).

Reading Academic Texts

Reading is a process shaped partly by the text, partly by the reader's background, and
partly by the situation the reading occurs in (Hunt, 2004, p. 137). Reading an academic text
does not simply involve finding information on the text itself. Rather, it is a process of

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working with the text. When reading an academic text, the reader recreates the meaning of
the text, together with the author. In other words, readers negotiate the meaning with the
author by applying their prior knowledge to it (Maleki & Heerman, 1992). But this process
is only possible if the reader uses a series of categories of analysis, some of which are
specific to each academic discipline. Thus, working with a text and recreating its meaning
entail both non discipline specific and specific strategies. The expert reader has incorporated
these categories and applies them almost intuitively. But, first-year students ignore these
categories of analysis. So, professors in each discipline need to teach both the general
analytical tools and the discipline- specific values and strategies that facilitate disciplinary
reading and learning (Bean, 1996, p. 133).

Categories of Analysis
General categories of analysis to interact with academic texts include the following: (i)
reading purpose; (ii) context; (iii) author‘s thesis; (iv) deconstruction of assumptions; (v)
evaluation of author‘s arguments; and (vi) consequences of author‘s arguments. The expert
reader approaches an academic text with a specific purpose, e.g., to get ideas about activities
that promote deep learning, to compare Kelsen‘s and Austin‘s notion of law, to analyze the
use of swimming pool images in Lucrecia Martel‘s films, or to examine the characteristics
of dysfunctional families in Alejandro Casavalle‘s dramaturgy. As novice readers in
academic disciplines, first-year students do not know why they have to read the assigned
texts. The reading guides help students navigate through the texts and to help them focus on
the fundamental issues of each text. Understanding the context helps students understand
the background, environment, and circumstances in which the author wrote the text. In
order to analyze the context of any given text, students to do some research about the
author. The students are to understand whether the author's opinion usually reflects the
mainstream school of thought in the discipline or whether the author writes from the
margins of the discipline. When reading the author‘s Space Law publications, which are
more sophisticated, this familiarity with the author‘s ideas becomes very helpful in
understanding the author‘s Space Law texts. Students also need to be taught how to identify
the author‘s thesis, main claims, and arguments dealing with the issues they are interested
in. For this purpose, students are encouraged to try to understand what the author intends to
do. They need to consider whether, for example, the author intends to challenge an existing
position, whether she wants to examine a variable that previous researchers have missed, or
to apply a theory or a concept in a new way. Students need to be taught to identify the
different positions used by the author, the arguments used to hold these positions as well as
the counter-arguments. Bean recommends an activity where students are asked to write
what a paragraph says and what it does. This exercise helps students to identify the purpose
and function of academic texts (Bean, 1996). Unlike authors of textbooks specifically
designed for the college classroom, authors of academic books and articles take for granted
many concepts, principles, and debates of the discipline as they presuppose that their
audience is familiar with them. So, it is important to help students become aware of these
assumptions and to learn to deconstruct them. Thus, students need to examine the concepts
not analysed in the text. Students need to look up these concepts in college textbooks,
encyclopaedias, or other reference books. Similarly, if the author refers to a debate in the
discipline or is responding to another article or book, they need to briefly read about these

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debates or articles in other publications. Perhaps the single most important step of reading
academic texts is for students to judge the strength or validity of the author‘s arguments.
The students do not take the author's argument at face value. Teachers need to show our
students the importance of evaluating the argument's effectiveness in making its claims, and
considering the evidence the author offers in support of her claim. Students also need to
ponder counter-arguments used, and the logical reasoning used by the author. Furthermore,
they need to evaluate any inconsistencies of thought, and the relevance of examples and
evidence. Finally, it is important to help students consider the nonimmediate consequences
of the arguments used by the author. Students are helped reflecting about the implications
and applications of the author's thesis. Students are to make connections to other texts, to
relate the arguments to other topics learned in class, and to relate the author‘s arguments to
their own experience. For example, if students read an article on terrorism in the aviation
industry where the author proposes a series of measures to prevent terrorist acts. While
these measures may undoubtedly deter new terrorist attacks, a careful look at the author‘s
proposal leads to the conclusion that very few people will qualify to fly. So, the students
usually argue that measures that will exclude the majority of passengers from flying are not
a very sensible way of controlling terrorism.

Definition: Reading is a method of communication that enables a person to turn writing into
meaning. It allows the reader to convert a written text as a meaningful language with
independence, comprehension, and fluency, and to interact with the message.

Reading skill refers to the ability to understand written text. Reading is one of the most
important ways of knowing the word around us. Reading influences us in the following
ways: Reading helps us expand our mind. Reading help us know who we are, what is
important to us, and it helps us understand the world around us. The purpose of reading is to
connect the ideas on the page to what you already know. If you don't know anything about a
subject, then pouring words of text into your mind is like pouring water into your hand.

Techniques of Reading
Reading is a great habit that can change human life significantly. The ability to read is as
important today as it ever was. It can entertain us; amuse us and enrich us with knowledge
and experiences narrated.

There exist some reading techniques, which if mastered at a growing stage can help us, be
better and far more comprehensive readers.

The four main types of reading techniques are the following:

1) Skimming

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2) Scanning
3) Intensive
4) Extensive

Skimming – Reading for the gist of a text

This reading technique is used for getting the gist of the whole text lead. We generally use
this technique at the time of reading newspaper or magazine. Under this technique, we read
quickly to get the main points, and skip over the detail. It is useful in getting a preview of a
passage before reading it in detail or reviving understandings of a passage after reading it in
detail.

Gist is the general meaning or purpose of a text, either written or spoken. Reading a text for
gist is known as skimming. Before answering detailed comprehension questions on a short
story, learners read it quickly for gist, and then match the text to a picture that summarizes
what happens in the story.

Scanning – Reading for specific information

Scanning through the text is a reading strategy that is used for getting some specific points
by looking at the whole text. For highlighting the important points of a book, the readers
can skim through the summary or the preface or the beginning and ending chapters of that
book. For example, this technique is used for looking up a name from the telephone
guidebook.

Intensive Reading
You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. If you need
to list the chronology of events in a long passage, you will need to read it intensively. This
type of reading has indeed beneficial to language learners as it helps them understand
vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It moreover, helps with retention
of information for long periods of time and knowledge resulting from intensive reading
persists in your long-term memory.

Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an element of enjoyment
in extensive reading it is unlikely that students will undertake extensive reading of a text
they do not like. It also requires a fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in
front of you. If the text is difficult and you stop every few minutes to figure out what is
being said or to look up new words in the dictionary, you are breaking your concentration
and diverting your thoughts.
The followings are some techniques of reading used in different situations:

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5.Active Reading Style
Active reading aims to get an in-depth understanding of the text. Under this technique, the
reader actively involved with the text while reading it.

Getting in depth knowledge on the text at hand is not possible by reading to skim through or
scan through the text. This technique of Structure-Proposition-Evaluation. This is an
interesting reading technique suggested by Mortimer Adler in his book How to Read a
Book. This reading technique is mainly applicable to non-fiction writing. This technique
suggests reading as per the three following patterns: Studying the structure of the work;
Studying the logical propositions made and organized into chains of inference; Evaluation
of the merits of the arguments and conclusions.
6. Detailed Reading
This technique is used for extracting information accurately from the whole text. Under this
technique, we read every word for understanding the meaning of the text.
In this careful reading, we can skim the text first for getting a general idea and then go back
to read in detail. We can use a dictionary to find the meaning of every unfamiliar word.

7. Speed Reading
Speed-reading is a combination of various reading methods. The aim of speed-reading is
basically to increase the reading speed without compromising the understanding of the text
reading. Some of the strategies used in speed reading are as follows:
 Identifying words without focusing on each letter
 Not to sounding-out all words
 Not sub vocalizing some phrases
 Spending less time on some phrases than others

Skimming small sections:

Reading is the basic foundation on which academic skills of individuals are built. As we
know the paramount importance of reading, it is given the top priority in primary education.
Many believe that reading is a true measure of a person‘s success in academics. Most of the
subjects taught to us are based on a simple concept – read, understand, analyze, synthesize,
and get information.

8. How to Read Your Textbook More Efficiently

PREVIEW - READ - RECALL at first glance seems to be an intricate and time-consuming
process. However, it gets easier and faster with practice, ensures thorough learning, and
facilitates later "re-learning" when you revise for exams.

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Preview

Why
If you give your mind a general framework of main ideas and structure, you will be better
able to comprehend and retain the details you will read later.

HOW?
1. Look quickly (10 minutes) over the following key parts of your textbook to see what it's
all about and how it is organized:
a. Title
b. Front and back cover info.
c. Author's biographical data
d. Publication date
e. Table of Contents
f. Introduction or Preface
g. Index

Glossary

1. Before you read each chapter, look over:

Title
Introduction
Sub-headings
First sentences of each paragraph (should give main idea).
Any diagrams, charts, etc.
Conclusions or summaries
2. Then answer the following questions:
What is this mainly about?
How is it organized?
How difficult is it?
About how long will it take to read?

Reading Comprehension:
Reading comprehension is an intentional, active, interactive process that occurs before,
during and after a person reads a particular piece of writing.

Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of reading. When a person reads a
text, he engages in a complex array of cognitive processes. He is simultaneously using his
awareness and understanding of phonemes (individual sound ―pieces‖ in language),

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phonics (connection between letters and sounds and the relationship between sounds,
letters and words) and ability to comprehend or construct meaning from the text. This last
component of the act of reading is reading comprehension. It cannot occur independent of
the other two elements of the process. At the same time, it is the most difficult and most
important of the three.

There are two elements that make up the process of reading comprehension: vocabulary
knowledge and text comprehension. In order to understand a text the reader must be able
to comprehend the vocabulary used in the piece of writing.
Types of Reading comprehension
1. Literal
Literal comprehension involves what the author is actually saying. The reader needs to
understand ideas and information explicitly stated in the reading material. Some of this
information is in the form of recognizing and recalling facts, identifying the main idea,
supporting details, categorizing, outlining, and summarizing. The reader is also locating
information, using context clues to supply meaning, following specific directions,
following a sequence, identifying stated conclusion, and identifying explicitly stated
relationships and organizational patterns. These organizational patterns can include cause
and effect as well as comparison and contrast.

For example, some questions and activities may include:

What words state the main idea of the story?
How does the author summarize what she/he is saying?
Outlining the first paragraph of the story.
What happened first, second and last?
How are these things alike? How are they different?
What things belong together?

2. Inferential
Inferential comprehension deals with what the author means by what is said. The reader
must simply read between the lines and make inferences about things not explicitly stated.
Again, these inferences are made in the main idea, supporting details, sequence, and cause
and effect relationships. Inferential comprehension could also involve interpreting
figurative language, drawing conclusions, predicting outcomes, determining the mood, and
judging the author‘s point of view. The following questions are usually asked:

What is the theme?

What effect does this character/event have on the story?
How do you think this story will end?

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3. Critical
Critical comprehension concerns itself with why the author says what he or she says. This
high level of comprehension requires the reader to use some external criteria from his/her
own experience in order to evaluate the quality, values of the writing, the author‘s
reasoning, simplifications, and generalizations. The reader will react emotionally and
intellectually with the material. Because everyone's life experiences are varied, answers to
some of the following questions will vary:
Could this possibly happen?
Is this argument logical?
What alternatives are there?
Is this a fact or an opinion?
Do you agree or disagree with the author?
What is the best solution to this problem?

To conclude, literal, inferential, and critical comprehensive reading is what makes a

skilled, strong reader. This skill must be learned and developed. It does not just happen.
With that thought in mind, it has also been shown that strong readers make good writers.
Sustained exposure to the English language does allow for an expanded vocabulary and
knowledge of correct grammar usage. When this is combined with literal, inferential, and
critical reading experiences, it enables writers to better express themselves.

Poor Reading Comprehension

There are a variety of reasons why a reader may have difficulty deriving meaning and
gaining understanding from a passage. The reasons include decoding deficiency, attention
deficit, poor vocabulary, and limited knowledge base.

1.Decoding Deficiency
There are a variety of reasons why a reader may have difficulty deriving meaning and
gaining understanding from a passage. The reasons include but are not limited to decoding
deficiency, attention deficit, poor vocabulary, and limited knowledge base.

2.Attention Deficit
Another reason for difficulty in reading comprehension is an attention deficit which, when
officially diagnosed, is referred to as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention
Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

3.Poor Vocabulary
The third cause of weak reading comprehension is insufficient vocabulary. No matter how

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skillful a person is at sounding out words, if he or she does not know the meaning of the
words he or she is reading, he will not gain understanding from the text.

4.Lack of Knowledge Base

The final cause of ineffectual reading comprehension to be discussed here is lack of
knowledge base. This refers to how much knowledge a reader has about the subject of
which he or she is reading. It actually goes hand-in-hand with vocabulary. If the reader
knows little about the subject he is reading, he will find it more difficult to comprehend
the material than someone who has some knowledge about the subject. To sum, causes of
poor reading comprehension can be varied and complex.

Exercise 1
Philosophy of Education is a label applied to the study of the purpose, process, nature and
ideals of education. It can be considered a branch of both philosophy and education.
Education can be defined as the teaching and learning of specific skills, and the imparting
of knowledge, judgment, and wisdom, and is something broader than the societal
institution of education we often speak of.

Many educationalists consider it a weak and woolly field, too far removed from the
practical applications of the real world to be useful. But philosophers dating back to Plato
and the Ancient Greeks have given the area much thought and emphasis, and there is little
doubt that their work has helped shape the practice of education over the millennia.

Plato is the earliest important educational thinker, and education is an essential element in
"The Republic" (his most important work on philosophy and political theory, written
around 360 B.C.). In it, he advocates some rather extreme methods: removing children
from their mothers' care and raising them as wards of the state, and differentiating children
suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could
act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. He believed that education should be
holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, music and art. Plato believed that talent
and intelligence is not distributed genetically and thus is be found in children born to all
classes, although his proposed system of selective public education for an educated
minority of the population does not really follow a democratic model.

Aristotle considered human nature, habit and reason to be equally important forces to be
cultivated in education, the ultimate aim of which should be to produce good and virtuous
citizens. He proposed that teachers lead their students systematically, and that repetition be
used as a key tool to develop good habits, unlike Socrates' emphasis on questioning his
listeners to bring out their own ideas. He emphasized the balancing of the theoretical and

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practical aspects of subjects taught, among which he explicitly mentions reading, writing,
mathematics, music, physical education, literature, history, and a wide range of sciences,
as well as play, which he also considered important.

During the Medieval period, the idea of Perennialism was first formulated by St. Thomas
Aquinas in his work "De Magistro". Perennialism holds that one should teach those things
deemed to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere, namely principles and
reasoning, not just facts (which are apt to change over time), and that one should teach
first about people, not machines or techniques. It was originally religious in nature, and it
was only much later that a theory of secular perennialism developed.

During the Renaissance, the French skeptic Michel de Montaigne (1533 - 1592) was one
of the first to critically look at education. Unusually for his time, Montaigne was willing to
question the conventional wisdom of the period, calling into question the whole edifice of
the educational system, and the implicit assumption that university-educated philosophers
were necessarily wiser than uneducated farm workers, for example.

Q1. What is the difference between the approaches of Socrates and Aristotle?
a) Aristotle felt the need for repetition to develop good habits in students; Socrates felt
that students need to be constantly questioned
b) Aristotle felt the need for rote-learning; Socrates emphasized on dialogic learning
c) There was no difference
d) Aristotle emphasized on the importance of paying attention to human nature;
Socrates emphasized upon science

Q2. Why do educationists consider philosophy a ‗weak and woolly‘ field?

a) It is not practically applicable
b) Its theoretical concepts are easily understood
c) It is irrelevant for education
d) None of the above

Q3. What do you understand by the term ‗Perennialism‘, in the context of the given
comprehension passage?
a) It refers to something which is of ceaseless importance
b) It refers to something which is quite unnecessary
c) It refers to something which is abstract and theoretical
d) It refers to something which existed in the past and no longer exists now

Q4. Were Plato‘s beliefs about education democratic?

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 a) He believed that only the rich have the right to acquire education
b) Yes
c) He believed that only a select few are meant to attend schools
d) He believed that all pupils are not talented

Q5. Why did Aquinas propose a model of education which did not lay much emphasis on
facts?
a) Facts are not important
b) Facts do not lead to holistic education
c) Facts change with the changing times
d) Facts are frozen in time

Exercise 2
―A principal fruit of friendship,‖ Francis Bacon wrote in his timeless meditation on the
subject, ―is the ease and discharge of the fulness and swellings of the heart, which passions
of all kinds do cause and induce.‖ For Thoreau, friendship was one of life‘s great rewards.
But in today‘s cultural landscape of muddled relationships scattered across various
platforms for connecting, amidst constant debates about whether our Facebook
―friendships‖ are making us more or less happy, it pays to consider what friendship
actually is. That‘s precisely what CUNY philosophy professor Massimo Pigliucci explores
in Answers for Aristotle: How Science and Philosophy Can Lead Us to A More
Meaningful Life (public library), which also gave us this provocative read on the science
of what we call ―intuition.‖

Philosophers and cognitive scientists agree that friendship is an essential ingredient of

human happiness. But beyond the dry academic definitions — like, say, ―voluntary
interdependence between two persons over time, which is intended to facilitate socio-
emotional goals of the participants, and may involve varying types and degrees of
companionship, intimacy, affection and mutual assistance‖ — lies a body of compelling
research that sheds light on how, precisely, friendship augments happiness.

The way friendship enhances well-being, it turns out, has nothing to do with quantity and
everything to do with quality — researchers confirm that it isn‘t the number of friends (or,
in the case of Facebook, ―friends‖)

Q1. Name one change effected in the present situation which hassled to a re-thinking of
the concept of friendship.
a) Bacon and Thoreau‘s theories are no longer available to read

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 b) The arrival of social media on the scene
c) There is more interest in the sciences
d) Friendships are not possible in the real world anymore, due to over-competition

Q2. Friendship leads to happiness. Is it true?

a) Yes, researches have proven that friendship does lead to happiness
b) No, there is no relationship between friendship and happiness
c) Friends cannot make each other happy
d) One needs to find one‘s happiness alone, with peace of mind

Q3. Did Pigluicci‘s book discuss intuition too?

a) No, it only discussed friendship
b) It explained science and philosophy
c) It discusses Aristotle‘s theories
d) Yes

Q4. Is the quality of friends important?

a) No, it is important to have a greater number of friends, quality does not matter
b) No, number of comments on social networking sites is important, not the quality of
friends
c) Yes, it matters
d) No, quality comes automatically with quantity

Q5. As per the first, paragraph what are the debates about?
a) They are centered around whether our Facebook friends are helping us become more
or less happy
b) There are no debates around friendship
c) The quality of comments of social media is debatable
d) Thoreau and Aristotle‘s thinking is at loggerheads

Exercise 3
India is a secular, democratic nation. This implies that every religion is treated equally and
at par with every other religion. No religion is accorded any preferential treatment of any
kind. All citizens are also free to practice, preach or profess any religion of their choosing.
The state does not have a unified or homogeneous religious following

This unique characteristic of India ensures its unity in diversity. India has been the

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birthplace of several religions and is the land where all these religions - such as Hinduism,
Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism and so on exist simultaneously,
peacefully and harmoniously.

But some anti-social elements have interpreted the sanctity of religions in a twisted way.
No religion preaches violence or rioting. All the religions are but various ways to reach the
Supreme Being, they are paths which lead to the ultimate truth and salvation, though we
refer to the destination by various names such as Jesus, Krishna, Buddha. Allah and so on.
It is important to realize that in order to ensure a peaceful mosaic of cultural distinctness,
the path of non-violence or ahimsa, as given by the Father of the nation, must be followed
unwaveringly.

God created man in his own image. Hence, it follows naturally that there is some divinity
within all human beings. Thus, to kill and murder in the name of religion is blasphemy.
Only once the religious fanatics understand this, will there be perpetual peace in the land.

Questions:
Q 1 What is meant by the term "Secular"?
Q 2 What is special about India's association with religion?
Q 3 Why are human beings divine?
Q 4 How can all religions co-exist peacefully?

Exercise 4
The Mona Lisa was one of Leonardo da Vinci's favourite paintings, and he carried it
around with him until he died. Today it is regarded as the most famous painting in the
world and is viewed by thousands of people annually. Who is this painted figure? Many
suggestions have been made, and the most likely candidate is Lisa Gherardini, the wife of
a Florentine silk merchant.

Another more likely, but popular theory, is that the painting was a self-portrait. There are
certainly similarities between the facial features of the Mona Lisa and the artist's self-
portrait painted many years later. Could this be the reason for Vinci giving the portrait
such an enigmatic smile?

Today, the Mona Lisa looks rather sombre, in dull shades of brown and yellow. This is
due to layer of varnish covering the paint, which has yellowed over the years. It is possible
that the painting was once brighter and more colourful than it is now.

The Mona Lisa was stolen from the Louvre in 1911, by a former employee who believed

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that the painting belonged in Italy. The thief walked out of the gallery with the picture
underneath his painter's smock. He was apprehended by the police two years later and the
painting was returned to the Louvre, where it is placed even today.
Questions:
State whether the following are true or false:
Q 1 The Mona Lisa is actually somber-hued.
Q 2 Vinci's self-portrait has an enigmatic smile
Q 3 The varnish has yellowed the painting
Q 4 The painting is still placed in the Louvre, in Italy.

Exercise 5
In the Middle Ages, the Roman Church burned books that dared present contradictory
viewpoints. Authors who failed to heed this warning risked being burned at stake.

Though we no longer live in the Dark Ages, we are naturally disturbed by the burning of
Arun Shourie's book - Worshipping False Gods - by some members of parliament
recently. They claimed that Shourie had twisted facts, misquoted Dr. Ambedkar, to make
him appear anti-national, instigated prejudice and violence against the Dalits. And so, they
demanded a ban.

The reasons given by the Roman Church for burning books and authors too, were
disturbingly similar. The Church too professed to be a guardian of morality and order, and
accused liberals from Galileo to Voltaire of twisting facts, hurting the sentiments of
people, proclaiming untruths, sowing seeds of conflict and encouraging violence. Our
book-burning members of parliament may feel outraged by Shourie's book but should
remember that the Roman Church felt no less outraged in its time.

The progress of civilization lies in rising above such narrow outlook and honoring dissent.
Voltaire once said - "I might disagree with what you say but I will defend to death your
right to say it"

Questions- True or false:

Q 1 We live in the Middle Ages.
Q 2 Shourie had actually twisted facts
Q 3 Voltaire twisted facts
Q 4 Civilization can progress by misquoting authors.

Exercise 6
Indians as a community have always been known to be resourceful and hard-working, and

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 it is clearly demonstrated by the students heading abroad for undergraduate or higher
studies.
More than ever before, the youth are switching over from a bank-loan to self-financing of
their studies almost invariably from the second year if not within the first six months of
joining a foreign university.

Part-time jobs at gas stations, restaurants, kitchens, baby-sitting, car-cleaning, fruit-picking

during the harvest season - nothing seems difficult to the able-bodies youth.

In the recent years, along with fees, the quantum of loans has gone up. Some banks have
seen nearly 50% of their clients (mostly students) becoming self-sufficient after the first
tranche of the loan allocated to them. Even the number of undergraduate students who
reduce their dependence on institutional support is estimated to have grown by 20-25%.

Estimates have also revealed that while students do seek a loan for the entire spell of two to
five years, depending on the programme that they have enrolled in, smarter children have
invariably succeeded in bagging an assistantship or a part-time job which helps them to
fund either completely or partially the remaining spell of their studies.

Questions
True or false:
Q 1 This passage discusses about all students studying abroad
Q 2 As soon as students join the university, funding no longer remains a
problem
Q 3 The youth prefer jobs which can be easily done
Q 4 All students become self-sufficient after getting the loans

Exercise 7
As we look forward to the bright future awaiting us, we must determine where our strengths
lie. Much of the conventional analyses of India's position in the world rely on the all-too
familiar indices of GDP, impressive economic growth rates and our military prowess. But if
there is one attribute of independent India to which we have not yet paid much attention is
its 'soft power'.

The notion of soft power is relatively new. It was coined by Harvard's Joseph Nye to
describe the extraordinary strengths of the United States that went well beyond the
American military and economic dominance. The fact is that the U.S. is home to Boeing,
Microsoft, Apple, Intel, MTV, Hollywood, Disneyland, Kodak and so on - in short, most of
the major products that dominate daily life around the globe. This has ensured the

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maximization of the soft power of the US - that is, the ability to attract and persuade others
to adopt America's agenda, rather than relying purely on the coercive hard power of military
force. Thus, this soft power is undoubtedly more important than the hard power.

For India, it means paying attention to the aspects and products of our society that the world
would find attractive - not in order to directly persuade others to support us but to enhance
our country's standing in their eyes. Bollywood is doing a great deal in this direction by
bringing entertainment home to people (the Diaspora) in the U.S. and elsewhere. Indian
classical music and dance have the same effect. So does the work of our fashion designers,
chefs, and cricketers.

Questions - mark true or false

Q 1 Soft power has been in use in international discourse since a long time
Q 2 Soft power will ensure direct support to India
Q 3 Soft power is less effective in making the world accept America's agenda
Q 4 Bollywood is enhancing India's soft power

Exercise 8
People do not always do the things we want them to do. No matter how reasonable or
minimal our expectations may be, there are times when we are let down. Naturally, we feel
upset and hurt when our expectations are not met. We dread confrontations because they are
unpleasant and can damage relationships. Yet not confronting a person does not solve the
problem because unresolved issues also affect relationships in an adverse way. The real
problem lies in our style of confrontation, not in the issue. Typically, we use character-
based confrontations. They help in venting our anger and hurt, but that is the only thing they
do. They lead to angry showdowns and bring all discussions to a grinding halt.

It is important to remember that self-image is the most important possession of all human
beings. It is the way we view and regard ourselves in our own eyes and in the eyes of others.
As self-conscious beings, we are acutely aware of our image and constantly work towards
protecting it from any damage. We also seek approval from others about our own self-
image. We feel distraught if we sense that there is even a slight threat to our self image,
because our character is the essence of our lives.

To ensure a rational dialogue over dashed expectations, we need to deploy issue-based

confrontations. They involve an explanation of which actions have bothered us, in what
manner and what changes we would like from the other person.

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Questions - true or false
Q 1 Confrontations damage our self-image
Q 2 Not confronting an issue helps in solving the problem
Q 2 Approval from others for our own self-image is not necessary
Q 4 Issue - based confrontations are an easier way out

Information Transfer
Text to diagram
Diagram to text

Information transfer is equivalent to data transmission which highlights more practical,

technical aspects. Sometimes transfer of information can help students learn more quickly
or more easily.

1. Tree Diagram
2. Flow chart

Tree Diagram:
A Tree Diagram is a way of visually representing hierarchy in a tree-like structure.
Typically, the structure of a Tree Diagram consists of elements such as a root node, a
member that has no superior/parent. Then there are the nodes, which are linked together
with line connections called branches that represent the relationships and connections
between the members.
Tree Diagrams are often used:
1. To show family relations and descent.
2. In taxonomy, the practice and science of classification.
3. In evolutionary science, to show the origin of species.
4. In computer science and mathematics.
5. In businesses and organisations for managerial purposes.

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What Is a Flowchart?

A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a workflow or process. A flowchart can

also be defined as a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach
to solving a task. The flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order
by connecting the boxes with arrows.

A flowchart is simply a graphical representation of steps. It shows steps in sequential order

and is widely used in presenting the flow of algorithms, workflow, or processes. Typically,
a flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them
with arrows.

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 MODULE V
WRITING SKILLS

Writing is a form of communication that allows to put people their feelings and ideas on
paper, to organize their knowledge and beliefs into convincing arguments, and to convey
meaning through well-constructed text. In its most advanced form, written expression can
be as vivid as a work of art.

Significance of writing:
Writing skills are an important part of communication. Good writing skills allow you to
communicate your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-
to-face or telephone conversations.

Definition
Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with
signs and symbols. It consists of letters or characters that serve as visible signs of ideas,

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words, or symbols.

Significance
Writing is the framework of our communication. Good writing skills allow us to
communicate our message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-
to-face or telephone conversations. Writing plays an important role in our day to day life.
We write in order to prepare notes, note down important points of heard and watched
content, or even writing answers in the examination is considered as a skill of writing. We
write letters to convey official information or sending emails includes framing the content in
understandable written content.

Writing skills can be major criteria towards better academic position and greater educational
Success. students should believe the importance of writing skills in helping them achieve
academic mastery. Every career path requires its workers to write notes, memos, emails, and
reports, all of which require good writing skills to effectively communicate a certain set of
ideas.

Effectiveness of Writing

Five Keys to Effective Written Communication

Of course, you might have the opportunity to write other types of correspondence as fitness
professional. So how do you make sure you clearly communicate your purpose regardless of
the document? No matter which type of writing you do, ―get your general ideas on paper or
the computer screen—this is your first draft,‖ says Vogel. ―Now go back and edit.‖

When editing, consider the following factors:

Key 1: Use a Professional Tone. Your readers will form an opinion of you from the content.
Create a professional, positive tone by using simple, direct language. Adopt a ―you-attitude‖
versus an ―I-attitude,‖ to show that you‘re sincere in your focus on the reader rather than on
yourself as the writer.

Key 2: Know Your Audience. The intended readers of your correspondence can vary. You
must consider their backgrounds, technical expertise, and educational levels as well as their
mindsets and possible reactions to your writing.

Key 3: Organize Your Information Clearly. Arrange your thoughts so that your
correspondence can be read quickly and comprehended easily. Organize the information
based on your purpose. For example, when writing instructions, organize your information
in sequential, or step-by-step, order. For incident reports, write in chronological order,

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explaining how the events unfolded. When sharing news and information, use the ―6Ws‖—
who, what, when, where, why and how—to guide you.

Key 4: Use the Right Format. Format refers to how your correspondence is laid out on
paper or online. Usually writers choose their formats based on the method of delivery—
letter, memo, or e-mail. Each type has distinct format conventions (guidelines) for including
and placing elements such as the date, addressee, subject line, salutation, message body,
closing line, signature block and company letterhead or logo.

Key 5: Use Visual Elements Carefully. Visual elements—such as font size and type;
underlined, italicized or bold text; and bulleted or numbered lists—help emphasize key
points and make your correspondence more effective.
Characteristics of Effective Language
There are six main characteristics of effective language. Effective language is:

1) concrete and specific, not vague, and abstract

2) concise, not verbose
3) familiar, not obscure
4) precise and clear, not inaccurate, or ambiguous
5) constructive, not destructive
6) Appropriately formal
Organizing principles of paragraphs in documents

Writing paragraphs:
Document means a piece of written, printed, or electronic matter that provides information
or evidence or that serves as an official record. A document consists of several paragraphs
to present the various aspects of intended information. A paragraph is a collection of related
sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a
writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages.

The Basic Rule: Keep one idea to one paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you
begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph.

Elements of a paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity,
Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all these traits
overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct
effective paragraphs.

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Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or
major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can
help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Logical bridges
• The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
• Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges
• Key words can be repeated in several sentences
• Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
• Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
• Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence:
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the
paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences,
and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first
sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your
reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the
beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers,
although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic
sentence or not, you should be able to easily summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and
adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's
purpose, but writers should be wary of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It
is a good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:
• Use examples and illustrations
• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and

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 paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

You should start a new paragraph when:

• When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new
paragraphs
• To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a
debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
• When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short
"break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing be more readable.
• When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your
introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many
introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content,
length, and the writer's purpose.

Writing Introduction and Conclusion.

These represent the most serious omission students regularly make. Every essay or paper
designed to be persuasive needs a paragraph at the very outset introducing. It also needs a
final paragraph summarizing what has been said and driving the author's argument home.

These are not arbitrary requirements. Introductions and conclusions are crucial in writing.
They put the facts to be cited into a coherent structure and give them meaning. Even more
important, they make the paragraph readily accessible to readers and remind them of that
purpose from start to end.

A. How to Write an Introduction. The introduction of an essay or paper must be

substantial. Having finished it, the reader ought to have a noticeably clear idea of the
author's purpose in writing. After reading the introduction, you need to stop and ask
yourself where the rest of the paper is headed, what the individual paragraphs in its body
will address and what the general nature of the conclusion will be. If I'm right, it's because
the introduction has laid out in clear and detailed fashion the theme and the general facts
which the author will use to support it.

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B. How to Write a Conclusion. In much the same way that the introduction lays out the
thesis for the reader, the conclusion of the paper should reiterate the main points—it should
never introduce new ideas or things not discussed in the body of the paper!—and bring the
argument home. The force with which you express the theme here is especially important,
because if you're ever going to convince the reader that your thesis has merit, it will be in
the conclusion. In other words, just as lawyers win their cases in the closing argument; this
is the point where you will persuade others to adopt your writing/ point of view.

If the theme is clear and makes sense, the conclusion ought to be quite easy to write. Simply
begin by restating the theme, then review the facts you cited in the body of the paper in
support of your ideas—and it's advisable to rehearse them in some detail—and end with a
final reiteration of the theme.

Techniques for writing precisely

Writing precisely means to write in exact terms, without vagueness. Here are some
techniques for writing precisely.

1.Use Active Voice

When a sentence includes be or any other copulative verb, such as is or are, recast the
sentence to omit the verb.
Before: ―The meeting was seen by us as a ploy to delay the project.‖
After: ―We saw the meeting as a ploy to delay the project.‖

2. Avoid Vague Nouns

Phrases formed around general nouns such as aspect, degree, and situation clutter sentences.
Before: ―She is an expert in the area of international relations.‖
After: ―She is an expert in international relations.‖

3. Use Words, Not Their Definitions

Replace explanatory phrases with a single word that encapsulates that explanation.
Before: ―The crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell any
yields that exceeded what they personally required.‖
After: ―The crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell any
surplus.‖

4. Avoid Noun Strings

Reorganize sentences to eliminate series of nouns used as adjectives.
Before: ―The lack of a secure transfer may hamper computer security incident response

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efforts.‖
After: ―The lack of a secure transfer may hamper responses to computer-security incidents.‖

5. Convert Nouns to Verbs

When a sentence includes a noun ending in -tion, change the noun to a verb to simplify the
sentence.
Before: ―They will collaborate in the creation of new guidelines.‖
After: ―They will collaborate to create new guidelines.‖

6. Reduce Verb Phrases to Simple Verbs

Identify the verb buried in a verb phrase and omit the rest of the phrase.
Before: ―The results are suggestive of the fact that tampering has occurred.‖
After: ―The results suggest that tampering has occurred.‖

7. Replace Complex Words with Simple Ones

Choose simpler synonyms for multisyllabic words.
Before: ―The department will disseminate the forms soon.‖
After: ―The department will pass out the forms soon.‖

LETTER WRITING

Letter means a written, typed, or printed communication, sent in an envelope by post or

messenger or an email.
Elements of a Business Letter
The elements of a business letter are:
I. the heading
II. the date
III. the inside address
IV. Subject
V. the salutation
VI. the body
VII. and the complimentary close
VIII. Signature

Important aspects to be taken care of while writing a letter

1. Be concise and relevant:

a. Letters should take seconds rather than minutes to read. As a result, get straight to the

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point and stick to it, don‘t include any unnecessary or supplementary information, don‘t use
any flowery language or long words just for the sake of it, and don‘t repeat too much
information.

b. Check your grammar and spelling very carefully

Mistakes will create a very bad impression, will lessen the effect of what you‘re saying
and in the case of a job application letter, could well also consign it to the bin. So: -

c. Use the spellchecker if you are using a computer

d. Check the spelling yourself, as the spellchecker won‘t recognize incorrect use, for
example, of dose and does. Use a good dictionary.

e. Check your grammar carefully.

f. If it has been pointed out to you that you make mistakes, look especially for these kinds of
errors. Get someone else to check it for you if necessary.
g. Check your sentences and punctuation. Are the sentences complete? Does the
punctuation help to make what you are saying clearer?

2. Use the right tone of language

It is important to use the right type of language, the right ‗register‘. Most letters you write
will need to be formal, but not overly so. In fact, you should use similar language to that
which you use in your academic writing. This means you should:-
* avoid everyday, colloquial language; slang or jargon
* avoid contractions (I‘m; it‘// etc)
* avoid emotive, subjective language (terrible, rubbish etc)
* avoid vague words such as nice, good, get etc

Types of Letters
There are different ways to carry out this type of letter depending on which country you are
in. This article will address the English/American way.
We will discuss the following elements:

Informal Letter
An informal letter is a letter that is written in a personal fashion. You can write them to
relatives or friends, but also to anyone with whom you have a non-professional relationship,
although this does not exclude business partners or workers with whom you're friendly.

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How Do You Write an Informal Letter?
An informal letter can be written in nearly any way you choose, but there are a few
organizational guidelines you can follow if you are unsure of what to write or how to format
your letter. The perfect informal letter consists of three sections:
1. Opening
2. Body text
3. Closing

There is one final part of an informal letter that does not need listed here: the signature,
which consists of no more than a farewell remark and your name. Learn about each of the
three main parts of an informal letter below.
Opening
 How are you?
 How have you been?
 How is life treating you?
 How are the kids?
 I hope you are doing well.
 I hope you, Mike, and the kids are having a great time in (location).

Body
Subjects to Include in the Body
 State your reason for writing
 Expand on what you mentioned in the first paragraph
 Ask about the person you are writing to
 Make some concluding remarks
 Invite the person to write back

Closing
The closing is where you summarize your letter and say goodbye to the reader. The
examples below offer some ideas of what to write in the closing section of your informal
letter.

Examples of Closing Sentences

 I am looking forward to seeing you.
 I am looking forward to hearing from you soon.
 I hope to hear from you soon.
Complimentary close
In terms of signing off, the choice is yours and you have a lot of freedom here. Below are

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some commonly used signoffs that maintain a friendly, informal tone. After you have
chosen one that fits the overall tone of your letter, simply sign your name.
 Best wishes,
 Kind regards,
 Best regards,

Example of an Informal Letter

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Formal Letter
The formal letter is written in a professional tone using carefully chosen and polite language
for an official purpose. Unlike the informal letter, there is nothing friendly or quirky about
this type of letter, which must adhere to a strict format.
Elements of a formal letter

Heading and Addresses

The heading of a business letter includes the address to which the recipient should reply.

Date
This includes the date of the month, name of the month and the numeral of the year.

Salutation
Introduce the body of your business letter with a greeting. Begin a salutation with ―Dear‖
followed by the recipient‘s title and last name, in most cases.

Body
The text in the body of a business letter is single-spaced; if the letter is short, the text may
be double-spaced. Separate paragraphs and the first line after the salutation with a blank
line.
Closing
The closing occurs two lines beneath the last line of the body of the letter. Close with
―Sincerely‖ or ―Regards‖ to match the formal tone of the letter. Print your ull name far
enough down the page to allow space for your signature

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Email writing

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Definition:
Email means messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or
more recipients via a network.

Do‘s and Don‘ts about Email:

Do‘s
 Use informative subject line
 Write most important information first
 Use number and bullet marks to make the message clearer
 Use simple grammar and language
 Write short sentences
 Use separate paragraphs

Don‘ts
 Write about relevant issues
 Give personal information that you do not want someone else to know
 Write all the words in capital letters as it is considering shouting
 Use different fonts (the recipient‘s computer does not compatible)
 Use italics
 Use exclamation marks
 Use incomprehensible abbreviations, acronyms, and smileys

Significance of Email:
1. Be sure an email is necessary
2. Use separate business and personal email addresses
3. Be clear, brief and polite
4. Use short sentences
5. Use a spell checker
6. Read your email personally before sending it
7. Use an appropriate closing

The following are the usual formal complimentary close phrases used in emails.
I. With regards
II. Yours truly
III. Regards

Informal emails could be ended with a complimentary close phrase such as ―yours‖.

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Types of Emails
One note before we continue: As I mentioned in the first section, if you‘re writing a very
important email—for example, if you‘re applying to a university or you need to send
condolences (express sympathy) after someone dies—then you should definitely ask a
native speaker to read your email and help you.

1. An Informal email: Introducing yourself for the first time

Many people still write formal business emails, but these days there aren‘t as many
reasons to write personal emails. A lot of our communication is through online chatting,
apps, texts, or other methods. But there are still some situations when an English student
might need to write a personal /informal email in English.

General rules for personal emails:

 Politeness: You do not need to use formal language, but you do want to appear
polite and friendly. Because of that, if you make any requests, be sure to make them polite.
Instead of saying ―Write me back,‖ for example, try something like ―If you have a chance,
I‘d love to hear back from you,‖ or even ―Please write back when you have a chance.‖
 Greetings: For greetings, it‘s common to use ―Dear [First Name].‖
 Closings: To say goodbye, use something like ―Thanks,‖ ―See you soon!‖ or even a
brief sentence like ―I‘m really looking forward to meeting you in person.‖ Be sure to
write/type your name, even if it will be included in your signature.
 Casualness: With these types of emails, you can probably include more jokes or
informal comments. However, still be careful about the tone of your email, especially if
you don‘t know the recipient well.

Example of a personal email:

For this example, let us imagine that you are going to travel to the United States, Canada
or another English-speaking country. When you get there, you will stay with a host family.
So, the organization has matched you with a family and you need to introduce yourselves
before you meet in person.

Here is what you might send:

Dear Smith Family,

Hello, my name is John. I received a confirmation letter from the exchange organization
today. It said I will be staying with you for two months later this year. I wanted to
introduce myself so you can know a bit more about me.
I am 18 years old. I like listening to rock music, playing basketball, and reading comic
books. I will graduate from high school later this year, and I hope to go to college next

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 year. I have never traveled outside of my country, so meeting you and visiting your
country will be an exciting, new experience for me!
I would also like to know more about you, so if you have a chance, please write back at
this email address. If you have any questions for me, I would be happy to answer them.
Thanks again for agreeing to host me—I am very excited to meet you in person!
John

General rules for formal emails:

1. Politeness: Once again, be very polite. Remember that if someone works in customer
service, they probably receive many complaints emails every day. So have some patience
and compassion. The other person is human, too.

2. Formality: Avoid making jokes, using slang words, or saying things that seem
informal.

3. Clarity: Be clear by including any relevant details. Requests: State the result or
response that you want or expect. This is also called making your email ―actionable.‖ For
example, if your product broke, you may want to request a replacement or a refund. So,
state exactly what you are requesting.

4. Greetings: For greetings, a common phrase is ―To Whom It May Concern,‖ since you
probably will not know the name of the person who will be receiving the email. But if you
do know the name, you can use ―Dear [Title] [Last Name],‖ like in the semi-formal email
example.

If those seem too formal, you may want to try something like ―Good
Morning/Afternoon/Evening.‖ It could make you seem friendly and make the recipient
more receptive to your complaint or questions.

5. Closings: For goodbyes, a simple ―Sincerely‖ is best. But if it is a less formal company
or you‘ve already interacted with them, you could also say some kind of thanks.

6. Samples: In addition to asking a native speaker to check your email, it is a good idea to
search for templates or samples of the type of email you are writing. There are many
different examples on the Internet, and you can probably find ones that will help guide you
in your situation.

Example of a formal email:

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 To Whom It May Concern,
I recently bought a toaster from your company, but unfortunately it appears that the
heating element is not working correctly.
For reference, the model number is TOS-577, and I bought it on May 1, 2019 at the
Toaster Emporium in New Hyderabad. I returned the toaster to the store, but they said I
should contact you because the model had been an ―open-box‖ discontinued model.
Because of that, they could not offer a refund or exchange.
I can understand the Toaster Emporium‘s position, but the toaster should not have broken
so soon. It is still covered under your company‘s one-year warranty, so I would like to
exchange the toaster for a working model. If that isn‘t possible, I would like to receive a
refund. Please let me know what steps I need to take for this to happen.
Thanks very much for your help with this situation.
Sincerely,
John Johnson

REPORT WRITING
What is a report?

A report is a methodical, well planned document which outlines and evaluates a subject or
problem, and which may include:

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• The record of an order of events
• Explanation of the implication of these events or facts
• Evaluation of the facts or results of research presented
• Discussion of the consequences of a conclusion or course of action
• Conclusions
• References

Reports must always be:

• Correct
• Crisp
• Clear
• Well-Structured

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Types of Report Writing
Everything must be in details. There are many types of report writing for organizations that
are used for various purposes. To format your report to serve varied needs, have a look at
the primary report writing types mentioned below.

Formal Report Writing

Formal Report Writing is pretty complex and time-consuming. Usually, it demands an
immense research, explanation, references, links, lists and many other things to make the
primary point clear enough for the readers.

This type of report writing is usually preferred for an important incident, issue, or matter by
big organizations. Formal report writing is generally long and expensive.

Formal Report writing has an internationally accepted pattern that includes various
components that are mentioned below.

Cover – The cover of a report is something that drives a reader‘s attention first. The report‘s
cover leaves a huge impression on the reader‘s mind and he/she can get an idea regarding
the report‘s topic or quality through the cover design.

There is a saying – ‗‘don‘t judge a book by its cover‘‘ but it is also true – what seems well,
sells well and hence the report writer must take care of the cover of the report with has a
major role to depict the report brief.

Title of The Report – This component includes the report‘s title and the name of the writer.
Apart from these things, the title can also have a date and the name of the organization for
which the report has been prepared.
The cover also has these things but putting them in detail in the title section is mandatory.

Table of Contents – This section includes headings and subheadings of the primary text
written. This is an important portion of report writing. It helps your readers to reach desired
sections in your report in a hassle-free manner.
Summary – Here you basically provide the synopsis of the whole report‘s primary text and
you can also call it an informative summary.
Many times, it is referred as ‗executive summary‘. You can also use descriptive summary
which is a simple table of contents. The format is always decided by the organization.

Introduction – This is the most important section of the main text. The main text always
includes three components – introduction, discussion, and conclusion.

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Here, you introduce the main text of your report in the most intriguing a detailed manner so
that all types of readers can get your point without much effort.

Discussion – In the discussion section, a report writer discusses the main story of the report.
According to your reader‘s convenience, you decide the order of the report‘s results.
You can also do a result to theory comparison here along with the analysis, evaluation and
interpretation of the data included.

Conclusion/Recommendation – You can present the summary of the discussion section

here. Here, you mention your findings and recommend the elements to your readers as per
your overall evaluation.

Appendix – In the appendix portion, you can attach the graphs, lists, survey and suchlike
stuff that are related to your report and helps your readers to understand the report
comprehensively.

Reference/Bibliography – You can cite your report‘s references in this portion.

Informal Report Writing

This type of report writing is comparatively easier and less time-consuming than the formal
report writing. Here, you need to perform lesser research and it also includes lesser
components.

The basic components of informal report writing include – Introduction, Discussion &
Reference/Recommendations. Different organizations include more components to this type
as per their requirements.

Informal Report Writing can also be divided into few types – Credit Report, Feasibility
Report, Progress Report, Sales Activity Report, Financial Report, Personal Evaluation and
Literary Report.

Best Process for Report Writing

To bring up an effective report, the right process must be followed. Here are seven steps to
undertake best report writing process.

Decide the Objective:

Like any other process, report writing sets its base on the purpose, why a report is being
created. With a clear objective ahead, it helps report writer to stay focused and produce
quality report that is easier to engage the reader.

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Understand Your Audience:
Right understanding of the audience leads to a quality report. For example, an annual
financial report for stakeholders is completely different from a financial review.

Having a personal touch as per the audiences‘ preference can help produce ideas based on
their choice. With an understanding writer can present the report that suits their preference.

Report Format and Types

For a report to be an effective communication tool, it must follow a format or type.
Deciding on parameters like, written report or presentation; what type – formal, informal,
financial, annual, technical, fact-finding, or problem-solving report; design templates if any
available.

Collect the Facts and Data

Adding figures, facts and data adds credibility to the report and strengthens the argument.
Adding data or facts brings along a crucial responsibility to cite or mention the sources, like
interviews, articles, sayings, articles, etc.

Structure the Report:

A report typically has four elements, the executive summary (this is written after the report
is finished), introduction (this includes the structure of the report and table of contents),
body (main text and report is occupied in this portion), conclusion (this is a binding portion
that brings all the elements of the report into a systematical end.

Readability: The readability part is definitely a crucial aspect as it becomes a must to make
the report enjoyable and accessible to read. A great navigation is the best way to make the
reader take a uniformed path through the information flow.

Adding proper formatting (h1, h2, h3…), graphics/visuals, break up of long text into shorter
for better read and giving the text in report writing structure with bullet points for better
understanding.

Edit: The initial draft of report writing is never perfect (at least 90% of times). This
calls for edition and revision of the content.
Best practice can be keeping aside the report document for few days and then once more
start working over it again or ask a fellow member to review or proofread it for you.
Also, while you edit or get it edited, make sure you keep writing samples handy. These
samples can act as a guideline.

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Event Report: Techfest and Spandna ’15
MARCH 29, 2015

The Institute of Aeronautical Engineering is one of the most prestigious engineering

institutes in Hyderabad. Apart from its outstanding academic programme, IARE is also
known for the versatility and vibrancy of its extra-curricular scenario. All of these
activities are organized by the students. Tech Fest & Annual Day Celebrations are the
events organized each year by IARE.

Tech Fest Spandana

Day 1:-
On Friday March 20, 2015, participants entered IARE fully equipped with the
necessities of the event along with the great ambition in order to prove themselves in the
competition. The host team welcomed participants whole-heartedly and facilitated the
participants starting from their arrival at the front desk to checking in at their respective
stalls. they gave general instructions to the participants which they had to follow during
their three days stay at IARE. After the opening ceremony, the participants were asked
to prepare themselves for the treasure hunt. So, this was where the real fun began. In
scavenger hunt the participants were given the list of items which they had to find and
some of the list of tasks which they had to perform, and they were given specific time to
complete their tasks. The first amazing day of the Tech fest Spandana‘15 ended.

News Report on Hyderabad Book Fair

The 31st Hyderabad Book Fair begins

Jan19, 2018
Energy Mnister G. Jagadish Reddy on Thursday inaugurated the 31st Hyderabad Book Fair
at the NTR Stadium. He said, "I was in class VIII when I read a book that changed my life.
It opened my eyes to the world and its wonders. Earlier, when I was young, TV was
considered a threat to learning, but now cellphone has emerged a bigger threat."

"Knowledge is like a missile that travels far. We can go far in life only if we read books."
Mr. Reddy added, imploring the assembled children at the inaugural to make a habit of
reading books.

The much-awaited book fair is a 10-day affair that will end on January 28. The fair will
have an interesting line-up of events to attract more children and young adults to the fair.
On the final day, the fair would host Okka Nimsham (an elecution competition) where the

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contestants must speak for a minute in Telugu without using a single word of English. 213
booksellers and publishers are participating this year.

The Hyderabad Book Fair will also allow children free entry if they show their school
identity cards, informed K. Chandra Mohan, secretary of Hyderabad Book Fair Society.

***

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