Addis Ababa University, Faculty Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

Chapter Two

Physical Characteristics of Soils

Table of Content

2. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1 Definition of Key Terms............................................................................................................... 7

2.2 Composition of soils........................................................................................................................ 8

2.2.1 Soil Formation................................................................................................................................ 8

2.2.2 Soil Types........................................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.3 Clay Minerals................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water..........................................................................11

2.2.5 Soil Fabric........................................................................................................................................ 12

2.2.6 Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use...14

2.3 Phase Relationships...................................................................................................................... 14

2.4 Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils........................................................................19

2.4.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils.........................................................................19

2.4.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils................................................................................21

2.4.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size...............................................22

2.5 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils..........................25

2.6 Determination of Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits....................................27

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2.6.1 Casagrande Cup Method...................................................................................................... 27

2.6.2 Plastic Limit Test........................................................................................................................ 29

2.6.3 Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits..........................29

2.6.4 Shrinkage Limit........................................................................................................................... 31

2.7 Soil Classification Schemes.................................................................................................... 32

2.7.1 Unified Soil Classification System................................................................................. 32

2.7.2 Engineering Use Chart........................................................................................................... 34

2 . INT R O DUCT IO N

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to soils. You will learn some
basic descriptions of soils and some fundamental physical soil properties that you
should retain for future use in this course and in geotechnical engineering practice.
Soils, derived from the weathering of rocks, are very complex materials and vary
widely. One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer is to collect, classify
and investigate the physical properties of soils. In this chapter we will deal with
descriptions of soils, tests to determine the physical properties of soils, and soil
classification systems.

When you complete this chapter you should be able to:

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 Describe and classify soils.

 Determine particle size distribution in a soil mass.

 Determine the proportions of the main constituents in a soil.

 Determine index properties of soils.

2.1 DEFIN IT IO N O F KEY TER MS

Soils are materials that are derived from the weathering of rocks.

Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids.

Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solids.

Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the total volume of soil.

Degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of volume of water to the volume of void.

Bulk unit weight (  ) is the weight of a soil per unit volume (or weight density).

Saturated unit weight (  sat ) is the weight of a saturated soil per unit volume.

Dry unit weight (  d ) is the weight of a dry soil per unit volume.

Effective unit weight (  ' ) is the weight of soil solids in a submerged soil per unit

volume.

Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between
the loosest and densest state of coarse-grained soils.

Effective particle size (D10) is the average particle diameter of the soil at 10
percentile; that is, 10% of the particles are smaller than this size (diameter).

Average particle diameter (D50) is the average particle diameter of the soil.

Liquid limit (wLL) is the water content at which a soil changes from a plastic state
to a solid state.

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Plastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil changes from a semisolid to
a plastic state.

Shrinkage limit (wSL) is the water content at which the soil changes from a solid
to a semisolid state without further change in volume.

2.2 CO MPO SIT IO N O F SO IL S

2 . 2 . 1 SO IL FO R MAT ION

Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical
weathering involves reduction of size without any change in the original
composition of parent rock. The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing and thawing. Chemical weathering causes
both reduction in size and chemical alteration of the original parent rock. The main
agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation and
oxidation. Often, physical and chemical weathering take place in concert.

Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils. These soils
retain many of the elements that comprise the parent rock. Alluvial soils, also
called fluvial soils, are soils that were transported by rivers and streams. The
composition of these soils depends on the environment under which they were
transported and is often different from the parent rock. The profile of alluvial soils
usually consists of layers of different soils. Much of our construction activities has
been and is occurring on alluvial soils. Glacial soils are soils that were transported
by glaciers (large body of ice moving slowly down a slope). Marine soils are soils
deposited in a marine environment. Loess is a wind blown, uniform, fine-grained
soil.

2 . 2 . 2 SO IL TY PES

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Figure 2.1: Soil types.

Common descriptive terms such as gravels, sands, silts and clays are used to
identify specific textures in soils. We will refer to these soil textures as soil types;
that is, sand is one soil type and clay is another. Texture refers to the appearance
or feel of a soil. Sands and gravels are grouped together as coarse-grained soils.
Clay and silts are fine-grained soils. Coarse-grained soils feel gritty and hard. Fine-
grained soils feel smooth. The coarseness of soils is determined from knowing the
distribution of particle sizes, which is the primary means of classifying coarse-
grained soils. To characterize fine-grained soils, we need further information on the
types of minerals present and their contents. The response of fine-grained soils to
loads, known as the mechanical behavior, depends on the type of predominant
minerals present.

2 . 2 . 3 CL AY MIN ER AL S

　　　Minerals are crystalline materials and make up the solid constituent of a soil.
The mineral particles of fine-grained soils are platy. Minerals are classified
according to chemical composition and structure. Most minerals of interest to
geotechnical engineering are composed of oxygen and silicon, two of the most
abundant elements on earth. Silicates are a group of minerals with a structural unit
called the silica tetrahedron. A central silica cation (positively charged ions) is
surrounded by four oxygen anion (negatively charged ions) one at each corner of
the tetrahedron (Fig. 2.2a). The charge on a single tetrahedron is -4 and to achieve

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a neutral charge, cations must be added or single tetrahedrons must be linked to

each other sharing oxygen ions. Silicate minerals are formed by addition of cations
and interaction of tetrahedrons. Silica tetrahedrons combine to form sheets, called
silica sheets, which are thin layers of silica tetrahedrons in which three oxygen
ions are shared between adjacent tetrahedrons (Fig. 2.2 b). Silicate sheets may
contain other structural units such as alumina sheets.

Figure 2.2: a) Silica tetrahedron b) Silica sheets c) Aluminum Octahedron d)

Alumina sheet

Alumina sheets are formed by combination of alumina minerals, which consists

of aluminum ion surrounded by six oxygen hydroxyl atoms in an octahedron (Fig.
2.2 c, d).

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The main groups of crystalline minerals that make up clays are the minerals:
kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite.

Figure 2.3: Structure of kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite.

Kaolinite has a structure that consists of one silica sheet and one alumina sheet
bonded together into a layer about 0.72 nm thick stacked repeatedly (Fig. 2.3a).
The layers are held together by hydrogen bonds. Kaolinite is common in clays in
humid tropical regions.

Illite consists of repeated layers of one alumina sheet sandwiched by two silicate
sheets. The layers, each of thickness 0.96 nm, are held together by potassium ions.

Montmorillonite has similar structure to illite, but the layers are held together by
weak van der Waals forces and exchangeable ions. Water can easily enter the bond
and separate the layers resulting in swelling. Montmorillonite is often called a
swelling or expansive clay.

2 . 2 . 4 SUR FAC E FO RC ES AN D ADSO RB ED W AT ER

If we subdivide a body, the ratio of its surface area to its volume increases. For
example, a cube of sides 1 cm has a surface area of 6 cm2. If we subdivide this
cube into smaller cubes of sides 1 mm, the original volume is unchanged but the
surface area increases to 60 cm2. The surface area per unit mass (specific
surface) of sands is typically 0.01 m2 per gram, while for clays it is as high as
1000 m2 per gram (montmorillonite). The specific surface of kaolinite ranges from

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10 to 20 m2 per gram, while that of illite ranges from 65 to 100 m2 per gram. The
surface area of 45 grams of illite is equivalent to the area of a football field.
Because of their large surfaces, surface forces significantly influence the behavior of
fine-grained soils compared to coarse-grained soils.

The surface charges on fine-grained soils are negative (anions). These

negative surface charges attract cations and the positively charged side of water
molecules from surrounding water. Consequently a thin film or layer of water,
called adsorbed water, is bonded to the mineral surface. The thin film or layer of
water is known as the diffuse double layer (Fig. 2.4). The largest concentration of
cations occurs at the mineral surface and decreases exponentially with distance
away from the surface.

Figure 2.4: Diffuse double layer.

Drying of most soils (with the exception of gypsum type soils) using an oven for
which the standard temperature is 105  50C, can not remove the adsorbed water.

The adsorbed water influences the way a soil behaves. For example plasticity
(which we will deal with in section 2.5) in soils is attributed to the adsorbed water.
Toxic chemicals that seep into the ground contaminate soil and groundwater. The
surface chemistry of fine-grained soils is important in understanding the migration,
sequestration, re-release, and ultimate removal of toxic compounds from soils.
These processes are of importance to geotechnical and geoenvironmental
engineers.

2 . 2 . 5 SO IL FAB R IC

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Soil particles are assumed rigid. During deposition, the mineral particles are
arranged into structural frameworks that we call soil fabric (Fig. 2.5). Each particle
is in random contact with several particles. The environment under which
deposition occurs influences the structural framework that is formed. In particular
the electrochemical environment has the greatest influence on the kind of soil fabric
that is formed during deposition.

Two common types of soil fabric, flocculated and dispersed, are formed
during soil deposition as schematically shown in Fig. 2.5. A flocculated structure,

Figure 2.5: Soil Fabric.

formed under a saltwater environment, results when many particles tend to orient
parallel to each other. A flocculated structure, formed under a freshwater
environment, results when many particles tend to orient perpendicular to each
other. A dispersed structure is the result when a majority of the particles orient
parallel to each other.

Any loading (tectonic or otherwise) during or after deposition permanently

alters the soil fabric or structural arrangement in a way that is unique to that
particular loading condition. Consequently, the history of loading and changes in
the environment is imprinted in the soil fabric. The soil fabric is the brain; it retains
the memory of the birth of the soil and subsequent changes that occur.

The spaces between the mineral particles are called voids, which may be filled
with liquids (essentially water) and gases (essentially air). Voids occupy a large
proportion of the soil volume. Interconnected voids form the passageway through

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which water flows in and out of soils. If we change the volume of voids, we will
cause the soil to either compress (settle) or expand (dilate). Loads applied by a
building, for example, will cause the mineral particles to be forced closer together,
reducing the volume of voids and changing the orientation of the structural
framework. Consequently, the building settles. The amount of settlement depends
on how much we compress the volume of voids. The rate at which the settlement
occurs depends on the interconnectivity of the voids. Free water, not the adsorbed
water, and/or air trapped in the voids must be forced out for settlement to occur.
The decrease in volume, which results in settlement of buildings and other
structures, is usually very slow in fine-grained soils and almost ceaseless because
of their (fine-grained soils) large surface area compared with coarse-grained soils.
The large surface area in fine-grained soils compared to coarse-grained soils
provides greater resistance to the flow of water through the voids.

2 . 2 . 6 C O M P A R I S O N O F C O A R S E A N D F I N E - G R A I N E D SO I L S F O R
ENGINEERING USE

Coarse-grained soils have good load bearing capacities and good drainage
qualities, and their strength and volume change characteristics are not significantly
affected by change in moisture conditions. They are practically incompressible when
dense, but significant volume change can occur when they are loose.

Fine-grained soils have poor load bearing capacities compared with coarse-
grained soils. Fine grained soils are practically impermeable, and change strength
and volume with variations in moisture conditions. The engineering properties of
coarse-grained soils are controlled mainly by the grain size of the particles and their
structural arrangement. The engineering properties of fine-grained soils are
controlled by mineralogical factors rather than grain size. Thin layers of fine-grained
soils, even within thick deposits of coarse-grained soils, have been responsible for
many geotechnical failures and therefore you need to pay special attention to fine-
grained soils.

2.3 PHASE R EL AT ION SHIPS

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Soil is composed of solids, liquids and gases (Fig. 2.6a). The solid phase may
be mineral, organic matter, or both. We will not deal with the organic matter in this
course. The spaces between the solids (soil particles) are called voids and are filled
with liquids or gases or both. Water is the predominant liquid and air is the
predominant gas. We will use the terms water and air instead of liquids and gases.
The soil water is commonly called pore water and plays a very important role in the
behavior of soils under load. If all the voids are filled with water, the soil is
saturated. Otherwise, the soil is unsaturated. If the voids are filled with air the soil
is said to be dry.

Figure 2.6: Soil Phases.

We can idealize the three phases of soil as shown in Fig. 2.6b. The physical
properties of soils are affected by the relative proportions of each of these phases.
The total volume of the soil is the sum of the volume of solids (Vs), volume of water
(Vw), and the volume of air (Va), that is:

V  V s  V w  V a  V s  Vv (2.1)

where Vv is the volume of voids. The weight of the soil is the sum of the weight of
solids (Ws), and weight of water (Ww). The weight of air is negligible. Thus,

W  Ws  Ww (2.2)

The following definitions have been established to describe the proportion of each
constituent in soil. Each equation can be represented with different variables. The
most popular and convenient ones are given here. You should try to memorize
these definitions and equations.

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1. Water content (w) is the ratio, often expressed by percentage, of the weight
of water to the weight of solids.

Ww
w  100% (2.3)
Ws

The water content of a soil is found by weighing a sample of the soil and then
placing it in an oven at 110  50C until the weight of the sample remains constant;

that is all the absorbed water is driven out. For most soils a constant weight is
achieved in about 24 hours. The soil is removed from the oven, cooled, and then
weighed to obtain the water content. You will later do an example on how to
measure and calculate the water content of a soil.

2. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solids.

Vv
e  (2.4)
Vs

3. Specific Volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids.

V
V'  1 e (2.5)
Vs

This equation is useful in relating volumes and in the calculation of volumetric

strains (chapter 3).

4. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume. Porosity is
usually expressed as a percentage.

Vv
n  (2.6)
V

Porosity and void ratio are related by the expression,

e
n  (2.7)
1 e

The proof of Eq. (2.7) is simple and is shown below,

Vv Vv Vv Vs e
n   
V Vv  Vs Vv V s  V s V s 1 e

5. Specific gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to the weight
of water of equal volume:

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Ws
Gs  (2.8)
Vs  w

where  w = 9.81 kN/m3 is the unit weight of water. The specific gravity of soils
ranges from approximately 2.6 to 2.8. For most problems, Gs can be assumed, with
little error, to be equal to 2.7.

Two types of containers are used to determine the specific gravity. One is a
pycnometer, which is used for coarse-grained soils. The other is a 50 mL density
bottle, which is used for fine-grained soils. The container is weighed and a small
quantity of dry soil is placed in it. The mass of the container and the dry soil is
determined. De-aired water is added to the soil in the container. The container is
then agitated to remove air bubbles. When all air babbles has been removed the
container is filled with de-aired water. The mass of container, soil, and de-aired
water is determined. The contents of the container are discarded and the container
is thoroughly cleaned. De-aired water is added to fill the container and the mass of
the container and de-aired water is determined.

Let m1 be the mass of the container; m2 be the mass of the container and dry
soil; m3 be the mass of the container, soil, and water; and m4 be the mass of the
container and water. The mass of dry soil is ms = m2 – m1, the mass of water
displaced by the soil particles is m5 = m4 – m3 + ms and Gs = ms/m5.

6. Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage, of the

volume of water to the volume of voids:

Vw wG s
S   or Se  wGs (2.9)
Vv e

If S = 1 or 100%, the soil is saturated. If S = 0, the soil is dry. It is practically

impossible to obtain a soil with S = 0.

7. Unit weight is the weight of a soil per unit volume. We will use the term bulk
unit weight,  , to denote the unit weight of a soil:

W  G  Se 
    s  w (2.10)
V  1 e 

Table 2.1: Typical values of unit weight for soils

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Soil type sat (kN/m3) d (kN/m3)

Gravel 20 – 22 15 – 17

Sand 18 – 20 13 – 16

Silt 18 – 20 14 – 18

Clay 16 – 22 14 – 21

Special Cases

(a)Saturated unit weight (S = 1):

G  e
 sat   s  w (2.11)
 1 e 

(b)Dry unit weight (S = 0)

Ws  Gs  
d     w  (2.12)
V 1  e  1 w

(c) Effective or buoyant unit weight is the weight of a saturated soil,

surrounded by water, per unit weight of soil:

 G  1
 '   sat   w   s  w (2.13)
 1 e 

8. Relative Density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing

between the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as
determined by experiments:

emax  e
Dr  (2.14)
emax  emin

where e max is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), e min is the minimum
void ratio (densest condition), and e is the current void ratio.

The maximum void ratio is found by dry sand, for example, into a mold of
volume (V) using a funnel. The sand that fills the mold is weighed. If the weight of
the sand is W, then by combining Eqs. (2.10) and (2.12) we get　
emax  G s  w (V / W )  1 . The minimum void ratio is determined by vibrating the
sand with a weight imposing a vertical stress of 13.8 kPa on top of the sand.

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Vibration occurs for 8 minutes at a frequency of 3600 Hz and amplitude of 0.064

mm. From the weight of the sand (W1) and the volume (V1) occupied by it after
vibration, we can calculate the minimum void ratio using emin  G s  w (V1 / W1 )  1 .

Table 2.2: Description based on relative density

Dr(%) Description

0 – 15 Very loose

15 – 35 Loose

35 – 65 Medium dense

65 – 85 Dense

85 – 100 Very dense

The relative density correlates very well with the strength of coarse-grained soils,
denser soils being stronger than looser soils. A description of sand based on relative
density is given in Table 2.2.

EXAMPLE 2.1

Prove the following relationships:

wG s 
(a) S  (b)  d 
e 1 w

 G  Se  G  (1  w)
(c)     w  s w
s

 1 e  1 e

EXAMPLE 2.2

A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The weight was
6 N. The clay in its container was placed for 24 hours at 1050C. The weight reduced
to a constant value of 5 N. The weight of the container is 1 N. If Gs = 2.7,
determine a) the water content, b) void ratio, c) bulk unit weight, d) dry density,
and e) effective unit weight.

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EXAMPLE 2.3

An embankment for a highway is to be constructed from a soil compacted to a dry

unit weight of 18 kN/m3. The clay has to be trucked to the site from a borrow pit.
The bulk unit weight of the soil in the borrow pit is 17 kN/m 3 and its natural water
content is 5%. Calculate the volume of clay from the borrow pit required for 1 cubic
meter of embankment. Assume Gs = 2.7.

Strategy: This problem can be solved in many ways. We will here use two ways.
One way is direct; the other a bit longer. In the first way we are going to use the
ratio of the dry unit weights of the compacted soil and the borrow pit soil to
determine the volume. In the second way, we will use the specific volume. In this
case, we need to find the void ratio for the borrow pit clay and the desired void
ratio for the embankment. We can then relate the specific volumes of the
embankment and the borrow pit clay.

If the borrow soil in Example 2.3 were to be compacted to attain dry unit weight of
18 kN/m3 at a water content of 7%, determine the amount of water required per
cubic meter of embankment, assuming no loss of water during transportation

EXAMPLE 2.4

Strategy: Since water content is related to the weight of solids and not the total
weight, we need to use the data given to find the weight of solids.

2.4 DET ER MIN AT IO N O F PAR T IC L E SIZ ES O F SO IL S

2 . 4 . 1 PAR T IC L E SIZ E O F C O AR SE- GR AIN ED SO IL S

The distribution of particle size or average grain diameter of coarse-grained

soils – gravels and sands – is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil
through a stack of sieves of progressively finer mesh size. A typical stack of sieves
is shown in Fig. 2.6.

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Each sieve is identified by a number that corresponds to the number of

square holes per linear inch of mesh. The particle diameter in the screening
process, often called sieve analysis, is the maximum particle dimension to pass
through the square hole of a particular mesh.

Figure 2.7: Stack of sieves.

A known weight of dry soil is placed on the largest sieve (the top sieve) and
the nest of sieves is then placed on a vibrator, called a sieve shaker, and shaken.
The nest of sieves is dismantled, one sieve at a time. The soil retained on each
sieve is weighed and the percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated.
The results are plotted on a graph of percent of particles finer than a given sieve
(not the percent retained) as the ordinate versus the logarithm of the particle sizes
as shown in Fig. 2.8. The resulting plot is called a particle size distribution curve (s)
or, simply, the gradation curve (s). Engineers have found it convenient to use a
logarithmic scale for particle size because the ratio of particle sizes from the largest
to the smallest in a soil can be greater than 104.

Let Wi be the weight of the soil retained on the ith sieve from the top of the
nest of sieves and W be the total soil weight. The percent weight retained is:

Wi
% Retained on ith seive  100 (2.15)
W

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The percent finer is:

i
% Finer than ith seive  100   (% Retained on ith seive)
i 1
(2.16)

You can use mass instead of weight. The unit of mass is in grams or kilograms.

Figure 2.8: Typical particle size distribution curves.

2 . 4 . 2 PAR T IC L E SIZ E O F FIN E- G R AIN ED SO IL S

The screening process can not be used for fine-grained soils – silts and clays –
because of their extremely small size. The common laboratory method to determine
the size distribution of fine-grained soils is the hydrometer test (Fig. 2.9). The
hydrometer test involves mixing a small amount of soil into suspension and
observing how the suspension settles in time. Larger particles will settle quickly
followed by smaller particles. When the hydrometer is lowered into the suspension,
it will sink into the suspension until the buoyant force is sufficient to balance the
weight of the hydrometer. The calibration of hydrometer is affected by temperature
and specific gravity of the suspended solids. You must then apply a correlation
factor to your hydrometer reading based on the test temperatures.

Typically, a hydrometer test is conducted by taking a small quantity of a dry

fine-grained soil (approximately 10 grams) and thoroughly mixing it with distilled

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water to form a paste. The paste is placed in a 1 liter glass cylinder and distilled
water is added to bring the level to the 1 liter mark. The glass cylinder is then
repeatedly shaken and inverted before being placed in a constant temperature
bath. A hydrometer is placed in the glass cylinder and a clock is simultaneously
started. At different times, the hydrometer is read. The diameter D of the particle
at time tD is calculated from Stokes’s law as:

18z
D  (2.17)
(G s  1) w t D

Where  is the viscosity of water (10.09 millipoises at 200C), z is the depth,  w is

the unit weight of water, and Gs is the specific gravity. The dashed line in Fig. 2.8
shows a typical particle size distribution for fine-grained soils.

Figure 2.9: Hydrometer in soil water suspension.

2 . 4 . 3 C HAR ACT ER IZ AT IO N O F SO IL S B ASED O N PART IC L E SIZ E

The grading curve is used for textural classification of soils. Various

classification systems have evolved over the years to describe soils based on their
particle size. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) – which we will discuss
in detail in section 2.7 – is one of most common methods. The USCS separates soils
into two categories. One category is coarse-grained soils that are delineated if more
than 50% of the soil is greater than 0.075 mm (No. 200 sieve). The other category
is fine-grained soils that are delineated if more than 50% of the soil is finer than
0.075 mm. Coarse-grained soils are subdivided into gravels and sands while fine-

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grained soils are divided into silts and clays. Each soil type – gravel, sand, silt, and
clay – is identified by grain size as shown in table 2.3. The USCS does not
differentiate silts from clays. Clays have particle sizes less than 0.002 mm

Real soils consist of a mixture of particle sizes. The selection of a soil for a
particular use may depend on the assortment of particles it contains. Two
coefficients have been defined to provide guidance on distinguishing soils based on
the distribution of the particles. One of these is a numerical measure of uniformity,
called the uniformity coefficient, UC, defined as:

D60
UC  (2.18)
D10

where D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the particles are
finer, and D10 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 10% of the particles are
finer. Both of these diameters are obtained from the grading curve.

The other coefficient is the coefficient of curvature, CC (other terms used

are the coefficient of gradation and the coefficient of concavity), defined as:

( D30 ) 2
CC  (2.19)
D10 D60

Where D30 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 30% of the particles are
finer. A soil that has a UC < 4 contains particles of uniform sizes (approximately
one size). The minimum value of UC is 1 and corresponds to an assemblage of
particles of the same size. The gradation curve for a uniform soil is almost vertical
(Fig. 2.8). Higher values of UC (> 4) indicate a wider assortment of particle sizes. A
soil that has a UC > 4 is described as a well-graded soil and has a flat curve (Fig.
2.8). The CC is between 1 and 3 for well-graded soils. The absence of certain grain
sizes, termed gap-graded, is diagnosed by a CC outside of the range 1 to 3 and a
sudden change of slope in the particle size distribution cure as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Table 2.3: Soil types, descriptions, and average grain sizes according to USCS

Soil type Description Average grain size

Gravel Rounded and/or angular bulky hard Coarse : 75 mm to 19 mm

rock
Fine: 19 mm to 4.75 mm

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Sand Rounded and/or angular bulky hard Coarse : 4.75 mm to 1.7 mm

rock
Medium: 1.7 mm to 0.38 mm

Fine: 0.38 mm to 0.075 mm

Silt Particles smaller than 0.075 mm, 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm

exhibit little or no strength when
dried.

Clay Particles smaller than 0.002 mm, < 0.002 mm

exhibit significant strength when
dried, water reduces strength.

The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil and was established
by Allen Hazen (1893) in connection with his work on soil filters. The effective size
is particularly important in regulating the flow of water through soils. The higher
the D10 value, the coarser the soil and the better the drainage characteristics. The
diameter of the finer particle sizes, in particular D15, has been used to develop
criteria for soil filters. Terzaghi and Peck (1948), for example, proposed the
following set of criteria for an effective soil filter:

D15( F )
 4 ( to prevent filter soil from being washed away)
D85( BS )

and

D15( F )
 4 ( to ensure a higher rate of flow water)
D15( BS )

where F denotes filter and BS is the base soil. The average diameter of a soil is
given as D50. Particle size analysis has many uses in engineering. They are used to
select aggregates for concrete, soils for the construction of dams and highways,
soils as filters, and material for grouting and chemical injection.

EXAMPLE 2.5

A sample of dry coarse-grained material of mass 500 grams was shaken through a
nest of sieves and the following results were obtained:

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Sieve Opening Mass retained

no. (mm) (grams)

4 4.75 0

10 2.00 14.8

20 0.85 98

40 0.425 90.1

100 0.15 181.9

200 0.075 108.8

Pan 6.1

(a)Plot the particle size distribution curve.

(b)Determine (1) the effective size, (2) the average particle size, (3) the uniformity
coefficient, and (4) the coefficient of curvature.

(c) Determine the textural composition of the soil (i.e. the amount of gravel, sand,
etc.).

Strategy: the best way to solve this type of problem is to make a table to carry
out the calculation and then plot a gradation curve. Total mass of dry sample (M)
used is 500 grams but on summing the masses of the retained soil in column 2 we
obtain 499.7 grams. The reduction in mass is due to losses mainly from a small
quantity of soil that gets stuck in the meshes of the sieves. You should use the
“after sieving” total mass of 499.7 grams in the calculations.

2.5 PHY SIC AL ST AT ES AN D IN DEX PR O PERT IES O F FIN E- GR AIN ED

SO IL S

The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained soils is linked to four

distinct states – solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid – in order of increasing water
content. Let us consider a soil in a liquid state that is allowed to dry uniformly. If
we plot a diagram of volume versus water content as shown in Fig. 2.10, we can

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locate the original liquid state as point A. as the solid dries its water content
reduces and consequently its volume.

Figure 2.10: Change in soil states as a function of soil volume and water content.

At point B, the soil becomes so stiff that it can no longer flow as a liquid. The
boundary water at point B is called the liquid limit; it is denoted by wLL. As the soil
continues to dry, there is a range of water content at which the soil can be molded
into any desired shape without rapture. The soil at this state is said to exhibit
plastic behavior – the ability to deform continuously without rapture. But if drying is
continued beyond the range of water content for plastic behavior, the soil becomes
a semisolid. The soil can not be molded now without visible cracks appearing. The
water content at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid state is known
as the plastic limit, denoted by wPL. The range of the water contents over which
the soil deforms plastically is known as the plasticity index, IP:

I P  wLL  wPL (2.20)

As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid state. At
this state, no further volume change occurs since nearly all the water in the soil has
been removed. The water content at which the soil changes from the semisolid to a
solid is called the shrinkage limit, denoted by wSL. The shrinkage limit is useful for
the determination of the swelling and shrinkage capacity of soils. The liquid and
plastic limits are called Atterberg limits (also known as consistency limits). The
Atterberg limits were originated by a Swedish soil scientist, A. Atterberg (1911).

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We have changed the states of fine-grained soils by changing the water

content. Since engineers are interested in the strength and deformation of
materials, we can associate specific strength characteristics to each of the soil
states. At one extreme – the solid state – the soil has the largest strength and the
lowest deformation. A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits is known
as the liquidity index (IL) and is expressed as:

w  wPL
IL  (2.21)
IP

The liquidity index is the ratio of the difference in water content between the
natural (or in situ) water content of a soil and its plastic limit to its plasticity index.
Table 2.4 shows a description of soil strength based on values of IL.

Table 2.4: Description of soil strength based on liquidity index

Values of IL Description of soil strength

IL < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle (sudden) fracture is

expected.

0 < IL < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil deformation like

a plastic material.

IL > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms like a viscous

fluid.

　 　 　 Typical values for the Atterberg limits for soils are shown in Table 2.5. The
Atterberg limits depend on the type of predominant mineral in the soil. If
montmorillonite is the predominant material, the liquid limit can exceed 100%.
Why? Recall that the bond between the layers in montmorillonite is weak and large
amounts of water can easily infiltrate the spaces between the layers. In the case of
kaolinite, the layers are held relatively tightly and water can not easily infiltrate
between the layers in comparison with montmorillonite. Therefore, you can expect
the Atterberg limits for kaolinite to be, in general, much lower than either
montmorillonite or illite.

Table 2.5: Typical Atterberg limits for soils

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Soil Type wLL (%) wPL (%) IP (%)

Sand Non plastic

Silt 30 – 40 20 – 25 10 – 15

Clay 40 – 150 25 – 50 15 – 100

Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular mineralogy, the
plasticity index is linearly related to the amount of the clay fraction. He coined a
term called activity (A) to describe the importance of the clay fractions on the
plasticity index. The equation for A is:

IP
A
Clay fraction (%)

You should recall that the clay fraction is the amount of particles less than 2 μm.
Skempton classified clays according to Table 2.6.

Table 2.6: Typical Atterberg limits for soils

A Description

< 0.75 Inactive

0.75 – 1.25 Normal

> 1.25 Active

2.6 DET ER MIN AT IO N O F L IQ UID, PL AST IC , AN D SHR IN KAG E L IMIT S

2 . 6 . 1 C ASAG R AN DE C UP MET HO D

　　　　　The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus (Fig. 2.11) that consists
of a semispherical brass cup that is repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base
from a height of 10 mm by a cam-operated mechanism.

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Figure 2.10: Cup apparatus for the determination of liquid limit.

The apparatus was discovered by A. Casagrande (1932) and the procedure for the
test is called the Casagrande cup method.

A dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water into a paste and placed
in the cup to a thickness of about 12.5 mm. The soil surface is smoothed and a
groove is cut into the soil using a standard grooving tool. The crank operating the
cam is turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and the number of blows
required to close the groove over a length of 12.5 mm is counted and recorded. A
specimen of soil within the closed portion is extracted for determination of the
water content. The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which the groove
cut into the soil will close over a distance of 12.5 mm following 25 blows. This is
difficult to achieve in a single test. Four or more tests at different water contents
are usually required for terminal (number of blows to close the groove over a
distance of 12.5 mm) ranging from 10 to 40. The results are presented in a plot of
water content (ordinate, arithmetic scale) versus terminal blows (abscissa,
logarithmic scale) as shown in Fig. 2.12.

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Best-fit straight line

called the liquid state line

Figure 2.12: Typical liquid limit results from the Casagrande cup method.

The best-fit straight line to the data points, usually called the flow line, is
drawn. We will call this line the liquid state line to distinguish it from flow lines used
in describing flow of water through soils. The liquid limit is read from the graph as
the water content on the liquid state line corresponding to 25 blows. The cup
method of determining the liquid limit has many shortcomings. Two of these are:

1. The tendency of soils of low plasticity to slide and to liquefy with shock in the
cup rather than to flow plastically.

2. Sensitivity to operator and to small differences in apparatus.

2 . 6 . 2 PL AST IC L IMIT T EST

The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay sample into threads
and finding the water content at which threads approximately 3 mm in　diameter
will just start to crumble. Two or more determinations are made and the average
water content is reported as the plastic limit.

2 . 6 . 3 FAL L C O N E MET HO D T O DET ER MIN E L IQ UID AN D PL AST IC

L IMIT S

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　　　　　A fall cone test, popular in Europe and Asia, appears to offer a more
accurate (less prone to operator’s errors) method of determining both the liquid
and plastic limits. In the fall cone test (Fig. 2.13), a cone with apex angle of 300
and total mass of 80 grams is suspended above, but in contact with the soil
sample. The cone is permitted to fall freely for a period of 5 seconds. The water
content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 mm defines the liquid limit. The
sample preparation is similar to the cup method except that the sample container in
the fall cone test has a different shape and size (Fig. 2.13).

Four or more tests at different water contents are also required because of
the difficulty of achieving the liquid limit from a single test. The results are plotted
as water content (ordinate, arithmetic scale) versus penetration (abscissa,
logarithmic scale) and the best-fit straight line (liquid state line) linking the data
points is drawn (Fig. 2.14). The liquid limit is read from the plot as the water
content on the liquid state line corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm. The
plastic limit is obtained by repeating the test with a cone of similar geometry, but
with a mass of 240 grams. The penetration depth in the soil for the bigger cone
mass at given water content will be

Figure 2.13: Fall cone apparatus

larger than the smaller cone mass of 80 grams. Thus the liquid state line for the
240 gram cone will be below the liquid state line for the 80 gram cone and parallel
to it. The plastic limit is given as:

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2w
wPL  wLL   wLL  4.2w (2.22)
log10 ( M 2 M 1 )

where w is the separation in terms of water content between the liquid state

lines (Fig. 2.14) of the two cones, M1 is the mass of 80 grams cone, and M2 is the
mass of the 240 gram cone.

80 gram cone

Best-fit straight line

△w 240 gram cone

wLL=44
%

Figure 2.14: Typical fall cone test results.

2 . 6 . 4 SHR IN KAG E L IMIT

The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet soil, m1, is

placed in a porcelain dish 44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven-
dried. The volume of oven-dried soil is determined by using mercury to occupy the
vacant spaces caused by shrinkage. The mass of the mercury is determined and
the volume decrease caused by shrinkage can be calculated from the density of
mercury. The shrinkage limit is calculated from:

 m  m2 V  V2  w 
wSL   1  1   100 (2.23)
 m2 m2 g 

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where m1 is the mass of the wet soil, m2 is the mass of the oven-dried soil, V1 is the
volume of the wet soil, V2 is the volume of the oven-dried soil, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).

EXAMPLE 2.6

A liquid limit test conducted on a soil sample in the cup device gave the following
results.

Number of blows 10 19 23 27 40

Water content 60.0 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2

(%)

Two determinations for the plastic limit gave water contents of 20.3% and 20.8%.
Determine (a) the liquid limit and plastic limit, (b) the plasticity index, (c) the
liquidity index if the natural water content is 27.4 %, and (d) void ratio at the
liquid limit, if Gs = 2.7. If the soil were to be loaded to failure, would you expect a
brittle failure?

Strategy: To get the liquid limit, you must make a semi-logarithm plot of water
content versus number of blows. Use the data to make your plot, then extract the
liquid limit (water content on the liquid state line corresponding to 25 blows). Two
determinations of the plastic limit were made and the differences in the results are
small. So, use the average value of water content as a plastic limit.

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EXAMPLE 2.7

The results of a fall cone test are shown in the table below.

Parameter 80 gram cone 240 gram cone

Penetration 5.5 7.8 14.8 22 32 8.5 15 21 35

(mm)

Water content 39.0 44.8 52.5 60.3 67 36.0 45.1 49.8 58.1
(%)

Determine (a) the liquid limit, (b) the plastic limit, (c) the plasticity index, and (d)
the liquidity index if the natural water content is 36%.

Strategy: Adopt the same strategy as in Example 2.6. Make a semi-logarithm plot
of water content versus penetration. Use the data to make your plot, then extract
the liquid limit (water content on the liquid state line corresponding to 20 mm).
Find the water content difference between the two liquid state lines at any fixed
penetration. Use this value to determine the plastic limit.

2.7 SO IL CL ASSIFIC AT IO N SC HEMES

A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in a particular

group that would likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification is used to
specify a certain soil type that is best suitable for a given application. There are
several classification schemes available. Of the number of classification systems
proposed over the past few decades, the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) system are the most widely used by current practitioners, particularly in
America. Other countries like Japan, Europe and China also posses their own soil
classification systems. The AASHTO system classifies soils according to their

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usefulness in roads and highways, while USCS was originally developed for use in
airfield construction but was later modified for general use.

2 . 7 . 1 UN IFIED SO IL CL ASSI FIC AT IO N SY ST EM

In this course, we will study the USCS in detail. The USCS uses symbols for
particular size groups. These symbols and their representations are: G – gravel, S –
Sand, M – Silt, C – Clay. These are combined with other symbols expressing
gradation characteristics – W for well-graded and P for poorly graded – and
plasticity characteristics – H for high and L for low, and a symbol O for the presence
of Organic material. A typical classification of CL means a clay soil with low
plasticity and, while SP means a poorly graded sand. The flowcharts shown in Figs.
2.15 a and b provide systematic means of classifying a soil according to the USCS.

Experimental results from soils tested from different parts of the world were
plotted on a graph of plasticity index (ordinate) versus liquid limit (abscissa). It was
found that clays, silts, and organic soils lie in distinct regions of the graph. A line
defined by the equation

I P  0.73 ( wLL  20) % (2.24)

called the “A-line,” delineates the boundaries between clays (above the line) and
silts and organic soils (below the line) as shown in Fig. 2.16. A second line, the U-
line expressed as IP = 0.9(wLL – 8), defines the upper limit of the correlation
between plasticity index and liquid limit. If the results of you soil tests fall above
the U-line, you should be suspicious of your results and repeat your tests.

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Figure 2.15a: Unified soil classification flowchart for coarse-grained soil.

Figure 2.15b: Unified soil classification flowchart for fine-grained soil.

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CH

OH
CL-ML CL
MH

ML ML & OL

Figure 2.16: Plasticity chart.

2 . 7 . 2 ENG IN EER IN G USE C HART

　　　　　You may ask “How do I use a soil classification to select a soil for a
particular type of construction, for example, a dam?” Geotechnical engineers have
prepared charts based on experience to assist you in selecting a soil for a
particular construction purpose. One that chart is shown in Table 2.7. The
numerical values 1 to 9 are ratings with No. 1 the best. The chart should only be
used to provide guidance and to a preliminary assessment of the suitability of a
soil for a particular use. You should not rely on such descriptions as “excellent”
shear strength or “negligible” compressibility to make the final design and
construction decisions. You will learn later more reliable method to determine
strength and compressibility properties.

EXAMPLE 2.8

Particle size analyses were carried out on two soils – Soil A and Soil B – and the
particle size distribution curves are shown in Fig. E2.8 below. The Atterberg limits
for the two soils are:

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Soil wLL wPL

A 26 18

B Non plastic

Figure E2.8: Particle size distribution curves for soil A and soil B.

(a) Classify these soils according to the Unified Soil Classification System.

(b) Is either of the soils organic?

(c) In a preliminary assessment, which of the two soils is a better material for the
core of a rolled earth dam?

Strategy: If you examine the flowcharts of Figs. 2.15 a and b, you will notice that
you need to identify the various soil types based on texture: for example, the
percentage of gravel or sand. Use the particle size distribution curves to extract
the different percentages of each soil type and then follow the flowchart. To
determine whether your soil is organic or inorganic, plot your Atterberg limits on
the plasticity chart and check whether the limits fall within an inorganic or organic
soil region.

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