Theory of Knowledge Guide

Prepared by:
Maria Fe Nicolau, Ph.D.

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 Table of Contents
Theory of Knowledge Overview 3
Nature of Theory of Knowledge 4
Course Outline 4
Knowledge Questions 5
Elements of Knowledge Framework 6
Core Theme: Knowledge and Knower 7
Optional Themes
1. Knowledge and Technology 8
2. Knowledge and Language 9
3. Knowledge and Politics 10
4. Knowledge and Religion 11
5. Knowledge and Indigenous Societies 12
Areas of Knowledge
1. History 13
2. Human Sciences 14
3. Natural Sciences 15
4. The Arts 16
5. Mathematics 17
Assessments
1. Exhibition 18
2. Essay 22
Assessment Instruments 24

Examples of Students’ Exhibitions 26

Works Cited 32

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Theory of Knowledge (TOK) Overview
The TOK course provides the students with an opportunity to explore and reflect on the nature of
knowledge and the process of knowing. It is a core element of the DP to which schools are required
to devote at least 100 hours of class time.
Three Interconnected Parts of TOK
1. The core theme - Knowledge and the Knower: This theme encourages students to reflect on
themselves as knowers and thinkers and to consider the different communities of knowers to
which they belong.

2. Optional themes: This element provides an opportunity to take a more in-depth look at two
themes of particular interest to teachers and students. The given themes all have a significant
impact on the world today and play a key role in shaping people’s perspectives and identities.
Teachers select two optional themes from a choice of five:
a. knowledge and technology
b. knowledge and language
c. knowledge and politics
d. knowledge and religion
e. knowledge and indigenous societies

3. Areas of knowledge: The five compulsory areas of knowledge are history; the human
sciences; the natural sciences; mathematics; and the arts. They have a distinct nature and
sometimes use different methods of gaining knowledge.

To help teachers and students explore the three parts of the TOK curriculum, guidance and
suggested knowledge questions are provided. These suggested knowledge questions are
organized into a framework of four elements: scope, perspectives, methods and tools, and
ethics. This "knowledge framework" encourages a deep exploration of each theme and AOK.
Having these common elements run throughout the different parts of the curriculum also help
to unify the course and help students to make effective connections and comparisons across the
different themes and areas of knowledge.
Two assessment tasks in the TOK course
1. TOK exhibition assesses the ability of the students to show how TOK manifests in the world
around them. The exhibition is an internal assessment component; it is marked by the teacher
and is externally moderated by the IB.

2. TOK essay engages students in a more formal and sustained piece of writing in response to a
title focused on the areas of knowledge. The essay is an external assessment component; it is
marked by IB examiners. The essay must be a maximum of 1,600 words and must be on one of
the six prescribed titles issued by the IB for each examination session.

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Nature of the TOK
The TOK course plays a special role in the DP by providing an opportunity for students to reflect
on the nature, scope and limitations of knowledge and the process of knowing. Its main focus is
not on students acquiring new knowledge but on helping students to reflect on, and put into
perspective, what they already know.
TOK underpins and helps to:
 unite the subjects that students encounter in the rest of their DP studies
 engage students in explicit reflection on how knowledge is arrived at in different disciplines
and areas of knowledge, on what these areas have in common and the differences between them
 enrich and deepen discussions in other areas through holistic approach
 reflect on the acquired knowledge both academic studies and lives outside the classroom
 examine the evidence for claims and to distinguish fact from opinion
The concepts (evidence, certainty, truth, interpretation, power, justification, explanation,
objectivity, perspective, culture, values and responsibility) are important in the TOK course.
Exploration of the relationship between knowledge and these concepts can help students to deepen
their understanding and facilitating the transfer of their learning to new and different contexts.

Course Outline
Course Elements Hours
1. The core theme: knowledge and knower
2. Optional themes (Students are required to study two optional
themes from the five options.)
a. knowledge and technology 32
b. knowledge and language
c. knowledge and politics
d. knowledge and religion
e. knowledge and indigenous societies
3. AOKs (Students are required to study the five areas of knowledge.)
a. History
b. The human sciences 50
c. The natural sciences
d. The arts
e. Mathematics
4. Assessments
a. Exhibition 8
b. Essay 10

100

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Knowledge questions
 Knowledge questions are questions about knowledge—about how knowledge is produced,
acquired, shared and used; what it is and what it is not; who has it and who does not; and who
decides the answers to these questions. Instead of focusing on subject-specific content or
specific examples, students focus on how knowledge is constructed and evaluated.

 Knowledge questions are contestable in that there are a number of plausible answers to them.
In TOK discussions, it is perfectly conceivable that answers to a question may differ—what
matters is that the analysis is thorough, accurate and effectively supported by examples and
evidence.

 Knowledge questions also draw on TOK concepts (evidence, certainty, values, and
interpretation) and terminology, rather than using subject-specific terminology or specific
examples.

NOTE: The two assessment tasks (exhibition and essay) centre on the exploration of knowledge
questions as both the Internal Assessment prompts and the prescribed essay titles take the form
of knowledge questions.

Examples of knowledge questions

Specific situations/question Knowledge question
Studying the views of two different historians How can we decide between the judgments of
in a DP history lesson experts if they disagree with each other?
A newspaper article on predicting future How can a model be useful even if it is
population growth in Africa obviously false?
A journal article detailing the outcomes of a What ethical constraints should there be on
medical trial of an experimental new drug the pursuit of knowledge?
A discussion of “Pascal’s triangle” in a How significant have notable individuals
mathematics lesson been in shaping the development of
mathematics as an area of knowledge?
Watching a video of a talk on compassion, Does some knowledge belong only to
happiness and inner peace by the Dalai Lama particular communities of knowers?
Should driverless cars be programmed to In what ways do ethical judgments differ from
protect the passenger in the car or a pedestrian other kinds of judgments?
in the case of an accident?

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Elements of the Knowledge Framework
In order to encourage and support students in making comparisons and connections across different
elements of the course, the knowledge questions suggested for each theme and AOK are organized
into a “knowledge framework” consisting of four common elements: scope, perspectives,
methods and tools and ethics.
Elements Examples
Scope
 explores the nature and scope of the  What motivates the pursuit of knowledge in
different themes and AOKs these themes/areas of knowledge?

 explores how each theme/AOKs fits  What practical problems can be solved
within the totality of human knowledge through the application of knowledge from
these themes/ areas of knowledge?
 considers the nature of the problems that
each theme/AOKs faces and tries to  What are the key current open/unanswered
address questions in these themes/areas of
knowledge?
Perspectives
 focuses on the importance and influence of  What is the significance of key historical
perspectives and context developments within these themes/areas of
knowledge?
 includes reflection on the students’ own  What do these themes/areas of knowledge
perspectives and what informs them, as identify about knowledge that is rooted in
well as how different people or groups particular social and cultural groups?
view or approach knowledge in the
different themes/AOKs  Is an understanding of the perspective of
other knowers essential in the pursuit of
 includes reflection on historical knowledge?
perspectives and how knowledge changes
over time
Methods and Tools
 focuses on exploring the methods, tools  What assumptions underlie the methods of
and practices that we use to produce inquiry used in these themes/areas of
knowledge knowledge?

 includes building of conceptual  Does what is seen to constitute “good

frameworks, establishing of traditions and evidence” vary from discipline to discipline
practices, and methodologies employed by and culture to culture?
formal disciplines
 How is knowledge produced and
 includes consideration of the cognitive and communicated in these themes/areas of
material tools available to help us in the knowledge?
pursuit of knowledge, and how these tools

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 have changed as a result of technological  How important are material tools in the
developments production and acquisition of knowledge?
Ethics
 focuses on exploring ethics and the ethical  Should the pursuit of knowledge in these
considerations that have an impact on inquiry themes/areas of knowledge be subject to
in the different themes and AOKs ethical constraints?

 includes aspects such as the relationship  What responsibilities rest on the knower as
between facts and values, and how ethical a result of their knowledge in these
and epistemic values are built into the quest themes/areas of knowledge?
for knowledge
 How can we know when we should act on
 includes questions relating to knowledge and what we know?
inequality and injustice
 Do established values change in the face of
new knowledge?
The four elements provide a structure to help students explore and analyse the different aspects
of TOK as well as providing a common vocabulary to help encourage comparisons and
connections.

Teachers are free to explore the themes and AOK using a variety of different examples and
knowledge questions of their choice. However, teachers are required to ensure that, within their
discussions of each theme and area of knowledge, they include discussion of examples and
knowledge questions that relate to each of the four elements.

TOK discussions about ethics should focus on the knowledge questions that are woven into, and
implied, in the ethical issues being discussed, rather than the focus being on debating the ethical
issues themselves.

Core theme: Knowledge and the knower

 provides an opportunity for students to reflect on what shapes their perspective as a knower,
where their values come from, and how they make sense of, and navigate, the world around
them

 does not focus exclusively on the individual knower. It considers aspects such as the impact of
the different communities of knowers to which they belong, and how knowledge is constructed,
critically examined, evaluated and renewed by communities and individuals

 includes reflection on how our interactions with others and with the material world shape our
knowledge

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 encourages careful and critical consideration of claims, provoking students to reflect on how
they distinguish between claims that are contestable and claims that are not

 highlights the importance of not simply accepting claims at face value, and explores how this
can be reconciled with a recognition that many situations require them to make decisions
without possessing absolute certainty

The optional themes

(Teachers must select two optional themes from the following five options.)

These themes have been selected because of their contemporary real-world relevance and their
rich potential to stimulate interesting and engaging TOK discussions around key areas, such as the
justification of, and evidence for, claims. They also have a huge impact on the world today and
play a particularly key role in shaping people’s perspectives and identities.

1. Knowledge and technology. This theme focuses on issues relating to the impact of
technology on knowledge and knowers, and how technology helps and hinders our pursuit of
knowledge. It examines the ways that technology can be seen to shape knowledge creation,
knowledge sharing and exchange, and even the nature of knowledge itself.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to:
 engage with highly topical and engaging issues, such as the impact of artificial intelligence on
knowledge and knowing (e.g. discussion of whether humans are needed to create new
knowledge; whether machines can know, think or learn; or whether a knower is always human)

 discuss ethical and power issues relating to emerging technologies (e.g. biometric data, or
situations where people are unaware that their personal data is being collected; driverless
cars—as a 21st-century variation on the “trolley problem”—as a way to identify issues about
the assumptions that underpin, and the criteria we use to make, our moral decisions)

 discuss the impact of social networks on knowledge sharing, or of whether social networks
create “echo chambers” that reinforce existing perspectives rather than boosting engagement
with diverse perspectives

 discuss the impact of historical technological developments on knowledge and knowing (e.g.
impact on the developments of mass printing or machine translation on access to knowledge;
impact of technological developments such as advances in navigational instruments and map-
making, or developments in air travel, and how these have had an impact on the transmission
of knowledge and have allowed us to gain greater knowledge of different places and cultures)

Note: It is crucial that discussions within this theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge
rather than consisting of general discussions about technology.

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Making connections to the core theme
How has increased access to images and other multimedia sources had an scope
impact on what we know and how we know?
How might personal prejudices, biases and inequality become “coded into” perspectives
software systems?
How does technology extend and modify the capabilities of our senses? methods
and tools
Do you use different criteria to make ethical decisions in online environments ethics
compared to in the physical world?

2. Knowledge and language. Language plays an important role in communicating and

sharing knowledge and has a significant impact on the way that we experience the world. However,
some see language as having an even more central role, arguing that language doesn’t just describe
our experiences of the world but, in fact, actually structures those experiences, limiting and shaping
what we know.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to:
 reflect on the role that language plays in our lives, and the influence it has on thought and
behavior

 draw on their personal experience of language-learning as part of their DP studies (e.g. reflect
on what knowledge of a language consists of, and how that is similar to, or different from, other
forms of knowledge)

 reflect on the role of language in allowing knowledge to be shared with others (e.g. knowledge
to be accumulated for, and passed down to, future generations)

Some interesting discussion related to the theme:

 language and power (e.g. role of language in sustaining relationships of authority by
considering how control of written language can create or reinforce power structures; role of
language in creating and reinforcing distinctions of class, ethnicity and gender)

 non-human communication (e.g. how technological developments have affected the ways that
language is used and the ways that communication takes place such as “machine language”;
animal communication)

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Making connections to the core theme
If you speak more than one language, is what you know different in each scope
language?
Do people from different linguistic or cultural backgrounds live, in some sense, perspectives
in different worlds?
What are the implications if we do not produce knowledge in language that methods
respects people’s preferred modes of self-identification? and tools
Who decides whether language should be censored in films and TV shows, and ethics
using what criteria?

3. Knowledge and politics. This theme provides an opportunity for discussions about the
practice of politics and our everyday interactions with politics in the world around us.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to:
 engage with high-profile contemporary debates and examples, such as those around “fake
news” and “post-truth politics” (where our political views and values come from, and how these
inform and influence other areas of our lives)

 consider the role and origin of their own political beliefs and positions, as well as exploring
issues relating to how groups make decisions that affect large numbers of people
Some interesting discussion related to the theme:
 “politics of knowledge” and issues around knowledge, power and oppression (e.g. the concept
of “epistemic injustice” and situations where someone’s knowledge or expertise may be
dismissed because they are a member of a particular social group)

 control of knowledge (e. g. cases where political leaders and groups (e.g. the Khmer Rouge
in Cambodia) have attempted to eradicate specific bodies of knowledge, “rewrite” history or
persecute educated elites).

 data analytics in shaping political policies and decision-making

 impact of social media on political discussion, or the challenges of reducing complex political
issues into media friendly “sound bites”

 around persuasion, manipulation, misinformation and propaganda (e.g. facts and knowledge
have been systematically distorted for political gain, or where political actors have denied or
subverted knowledge)

 differences between political rhetoric and propaganda, as well as interesting reflections on the
role of think tanks, pressure groups, political activists, funded research and fact checkers

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Making connections to the core theme
How can we know whether we have sufficient knowledge before voting in an scope
election?
Has technology changed how and where our political views are shaped? perspectives
Are objective facts or appeals to emotion more effective in shaping public methods
opinion? and tools
In a democratic system, do we have an ethical obligation to be knowledgeable ethics
about political issues and events?

4. Knowledge and religion. This theme provides an opportunity for students to think
carefully, critically and respectfully about knowledge and religion, and to reflect on the significant
impact that religion has on how we view the world.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to:
 consider the diversity of perspectives within individual religions as well as across different
religions (e.g. fundamentalist, conservative and liberal perspectives within Christianity).
In some traditions belief that is not based on evidence is seen as superior to belief that is based
on evidence, as the demand for concrete evidence is seen to signify a lack of faith or a
misunderstanding of the nature of religion.

 consider the relationship between religion and morality, and whether religion and ethics are
inextricably linked (e.g religion provides a way to systematize concepts of right and wrong,
or whether religious claims carry any particular obligation or responsibility for the knower)

Making connections to the core theme

What kinds of knowledge can be gained through introspection? scope
How does our own theism, atheism or agnosticism have an impact on our perspectives
perspectives?
Do you agree with Carl Sagan’s claim that “extraordinary claims require methods
extraordinary evidence”? and tools
To what extent does religion influence social norms and values? ethics

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5. Knowledge and indigenous societies. This optional theme provides an opportunity to
undertake a more detailed exploration of knowledge that is principally bound to a particular group,
culture or society. It focuses on knowledge that is deeply embedded in the culture and traditions
of particular communities of knowers, and how what might be seen as “traditional” indigenous
knowledge and societies operate today.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to:
 reflect critically on the category “indigenous societies” itself (e.g. discussions on the history
and context of the emergence of the word “indigenous” and its contested meaning; power
relations that influence hierarchies of how knowledge is classified and validated)

 consider the diversity of indigenous societies, as well as the diversity within these societies, and
to avoid the assumption that all members of a particular culture or society will share exactly the
same outlook and values

 engage with specific examples rather than generalizations(e.g. the impact of the building of the
Ok Tedi mine on the Wopkaimin people of Papua New Guinea, or the importance of music and
traditional craftsmanship to the Namaqua people of Southern Africa)

 focus in many indigenous societies on a holistic view of knowledge, and on the particularly
long-standing and close relationships between many indigenous societies and the natural world

 provide opportunities for rich conversations such as the embodiment and transmission of
knowledge in traditional artistic and cultural practices, rituals and objects

Some interesting discussion related to the theme:

 impact and legacy of colonialism on indigenous societies, or how external influences like
globalization, have brought about changes and challenges in relation to the ownership and
custodianship of knowledge in indigenous societies

 devaluation of knowledge (e.g. emphasis on the primacy of science, or the viewing of oral
tradition as inferior to the written word)

Making connections to the core theme

Is it possible to have knowledge of a culture in which we have not been raised? scope
To what extent are we aware of the impact of our culture(s) on what we believe perspectives
or know?
How can we know when we should trust and defer to the authority of experts? methods
and tools
What ethical concerns are raised by the commercialisation of indigenous ethics
knowledge and cultures?

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Areas of knowledge
The students are encouraged to think about, and draw examples from, specific individual academic
disciplines that are included within the different areas of knowledge. This deepen students’
understanding of what gives each area its character.
Teachers must ensure that the focus remains clearly on knowledge in that area and that they engage
with the four compulsory elements (scope, perspectives, methods and tools and ethics) to
provide a useful vocabulary for making effective comparisons.

1. HISTORY involves exploration and inquiry into the past.

Some interesting discussion in History:
 does not directly observe the past; historians are unable to utilize some of the methods of inquiry
that are used in other areas of knowledge

 promotes empathy with, and understanding of, people living in diverse places and at different
times

 Documentary evidence. Raises questions about the reliability of the evidence, particularly
given that historical sources are often incomplete and that different sources can corroborate,
complement or contradict each other.

 interpretive discipline that allows for multiple perspectives and opinions. (e.g. role and
importance of historians, particularly in terms of why their interpretations may differ or how we
evaluate conflicting interpretations of past events; a subjective element in historical writing -
historians are influenced by the historical and social environment in which they are writing—
which unavoidably affects their selection and interpretation of evidence)

 concept of historical significance (e.g. why some aspects of history have been recorded and
preserved whereas others have been lost or excluded from historical accounts)

 promote a particular dominant perspective or consider how specific groups, such as minorities
or women, may have experienced events in the past differently (e.g. reflect on controversies
surrounding the historical events taught, and history textbooks used, how different textbooks can
sometimes tell different versions of history)

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Making connections to the core theme
Is it possible to know who we are without knowledge of the past? scope
How does the way that we identify with past events, such as military victories perspectives
or defeats, shape our perspective?
How might the methods of the historian help us to evaluate claims we are methods
exposed to in the media today? and tools
What ethical concerns are raised by the digitization and online publication of ethics
archive material containing people’s personal images and documents?

2. THE HUMAN SCIENCES include a diverse range of disciplines, such as psychology,

social and cultural anthropology, economics, political science, and geography. These disciplines
share a common focus on the study of human existence and behaviour.
Some interesting discussion in the human sciences:
 fundamental differences between the human sciences and the natural sciences in terms of how
they interpret the word “science”, the methods they use for collecting data, or how they test the
validity and reliability of hypotheses

 use of questionnaires and polls in the human sciences (e.g. reliability of questionnaires’ results
given the challenges around neutral language, leading questions, or sampling and selection
effect)

 issues relating to respondents not being truthful or deliberately giving misleading responses

 different ways in which social, political, cultural or financial factors may affect the types of
research that are supported and financed in the human sciences (e.g. market research is often
undertaken as a way for companies to increase their profits, and social science research
sometimes seeks to influence public policy)

Making connections to the core theme

How does advertising utilize knowledge of human psychology to influence and scope
persuade us?
What is it about a theory that gives it the power to destabilize our view of perspectives
ourselves and of the world?
How might the language used in polls and questionnaires influence the methods
conclusions that are reached? and tools
What moral obligations to act or not act do we have if our knowledge is ethics
tentative, incomplete or uncertain?

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3. THE NATURAL SCIENCES are often seen to rely on evidence, rationality and the quest
for deeper understanding. Observation and experimentation play a key role, and terms such as
“theory” have a special meaning in the natural sciences compared to how they are used in daily
life and in other areas of knowledge.
Some interesting discussion in the human sciences:
 differentiate the scientific from the nonscientific or “pseudo-scientific” (can raise the question
of what it is about these methods that generate knowledge which is often regarded as being highly
reliable)

 Does “science” mean different things in different languages, or whether it has been used
differently in different periods of history?

 development, revolutions and paradigm shifts (Does scientific knowledge has always grown?
How technological developments have driven scientific progress and discoveries?)

 the role of consensus in the natural sciences, and the role and importance of the “scientific
community” (e.g. role of peer review as a method of scrutinizing scientific claims and the extent
to which this is an effective and objective form of self-regulation)

 the issue of funding (How are the priorities determined in funding scientific research? Who
determines which research directions are pursued?)
Making connections to the core theme
How might we, as members of the public, judge whether to accept scientific scope
findings if we do not have detailed scientific knowledge?
How is it that scientific knowledge is often shared by large, geographically perspectives
spread and culturally diverse groups?
Is the depiction of the “scientific method” traditionally found in many school methods
science textbooks an accurate model of scientific activity? and tools
Do the natural sciences provide us with good examples of people who approach ethics
knowledge in a rigorous and responsible way?

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4. THE ARTS include visual arts, theatre, dance, music, film and literature.
Some interesting discussion in the arts:
 meaning to works of art (Does the artist’s intention determine the meaning of art? Students
can draw on their experiences from their DP studies in language and literature classes, where
they are required to understand and interpret a range of texts.)

 role of the audience in the arts (Does art require a response from, or an emotional interaction
with, from the audience? It can include the role of critics and experts whether everyone is an
equally competent judge in the arts.)

 social character and function of the arts (Does arts shed light on fundamental questions about
the human condition? How the arts are often regarded as having an important function as a
medium for social criticism and a vehicle for social change?)

 limits to what is acceptable in art (Students could consider examples of controversial works
of art considering whether there should be ethical constraints on the pursuit of knowledge in
the arts, or whether artists or audiences have any particular ethical responsibilities.)

 relationship between arts and culture (Students could explore art forms and art works that
are strongly rooted in a particular culture or tradition, as well as reflecting on the diversity of
the arts across time, cultures and contexts. Students could also explore examples of “outsider
art” as a way to stimulate conversations about the potential for art to challenge established
values.)
Making connections to the core theme
Does art provide knowledge of the artist or of ourselves? scope
How is art used in advertising to affect the beliefs of individuals and groups? perspectives
Does artistic creation rely more heavily on imagination than on other cognitive methods
tools? and tools
What moral responsibilities do we have regarding art that has been created or ethics
published by other people?

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5. MATHEMATICS is sometimes seen to have a degree of certainty that is unmatched by
other areas of knowledge.
Some interesting discussion in mathematics:
 why mathematical treatments of a topic are often taken by many to be a sign of intellectual rigour

 the role of creativity, imagination, beauty and elegance in mathematics

 the relationship between mathematics and the world around us (Mathematics is often used to
model real-world processes. Yet, in some ways, it seems quite abstract and detached from the
real world, strongly focused on the application of reason rather than relying on experience and
observation of the world.)

 the role and significance of proof in mathematics, and how this relates to concepts such as truth
(Students could reflect on whether the term “proof” is used differently in mathematics compared
to how it is used in our everyday lives or in other areas of knowledge.)

Making connections to the core theme

Why do you think mathematics enjoys a privileged status in many education scope
systems?
Who judges the validity of a proof? perspectives
What steps can we take to help ourselves avoid being misled by statistics used methods
in unclear or disingenuous ways in the media? and tools
To what extent do you agree with the claim that mathematics “serves as a ethics
training that shapes thinking in an ethics-free and amoral way”?(Paul Ernest)

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Assessment
Assessment component Points Weighting
Internal assessment
Exhibition is internally assessed by the teacher and externally 10 1/3 (33%)
moderated by the IB.
External assessment
Essay is externally marked by IB examiners. The student is 10 x 2 2/3 (67%)
Required to write an essay in response to one of the six
prescribed titles that are issued by the IB.

THE EXHIBITION
 Students base their exhibition on one of the TOK themes (either the core theme or one of the
optional themes).

 Students are encouraged to select objects that have personal relevance or that link to areas of
personal interest.

 Students are required to create an exhibition of three objects that connect to one of the 35
“IA prompts” which as seen below.
1. What counts as knowledge?
2. Are some types of knowledge more useful than others?
3. What features of knowledge have an impact on its reliability?
4. On what grounds might we doubt a claim?
5. What counts as good evidence for a claim?
6. How does the way that we organize or classify knowledge affect what we know?
7. What are the implications of having, or not having, knowledge?
8. To what extent is certainty attainable?
9. Are some types of knowledge less open to interpretation than others?
10. What challenges are raised by the dissemination and/or communication of knowledge?
11. Can new knowledge change established values or beliefs?
12. Is bias inevitable in the production of knowledge?
13. How can we know that current knowledge is an improvement upon past knowledge?
14. Does some knowledge belong only to particular communities of knowers?
15. What constraints are there on the pursuit of knowledge?
16. Should some knowledge not be sought on ethical grounds?
17. Why do we seek knowledge?
18. Are some things unknowable?
19. What counts as a good justification for a claim?
20. What is the relationship between personal experience and knowledge?
21. What is the relationship between knowledge and culture?
22. What role do experts play in influencing our consumption or acquisition of knowledge?
23. How important are material tools in the production or acquisition of knowledge?

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24. How might the context in which knowledge is presented influence whether it is accepted or
rejected?
25. How can we distinguish between knowledge, belief and opinion?
26. Does our knowledge depend on our interactions with other knowers?
27. Does all knowledge impose ethical obligations on those who know it?
28. To what extent is objectivity possible in the production or acquisition of knowledge? 29. Who
owns knowledge?
30. What role does imagination play in producing knowledge about the world?
31. How can we judge when evidence is adequate?
32. What makes a good explanation?
33. How is current knowledge shaped by its historical development?
34. In what ways do our values affect our acquisition of knowledge?
35. In what ways do values affect the production of knowledge?

Note:
 The chosen IA prompt must be used exactly as given; it must not be altered in any way.
 If the IA prompt has been modified but it is still clear which IA prompt the student is referring
to, the TOK exhibition should be marked as using the original IA prompt.
 Any lack of relevance in the student’s response arising from this modification will be
reflected in the score awarded.
 If it is clear that the TOK Exhibition is not based on one of the IA prompts listed, the TOK
exhibition should be awarded a score of zero.

 Students must select just one IA prompt on which to base their exhibition, and all three objects,
or images of objects, and an accompanying written commentary on each object. All must be
linked to the same IA prompt.

 Students are required to produce a single file containing:

 a title clearly indicating the selected IA prompt
 images of the three objects
 a typed commentary on each object that identifies each object and its specific real-world
context, justifies its inclusion in the exhibition and links to the IA prompt (max: 950 words
excluding any text contained on/within the objects themselves; acknowledgments,
references (whether given in footnotes, endnotes or in-text)
 appropriate citations and references

 Each student must create an individual exhibition. Group work may not be undertaken by
students. Multiple students in the same TOK class are permitted to create exhibitions on the
same IA prompt. However, students in the same class are not permitted to use any of the same
objects.

 The TOK exhibition task has been explicitly designed to be completed during the first year of
the DP.

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Summary of the TOK exhibition process
Step Students should…
1  select one IA prompt and 3 objects, or images of objects, that show how this question
manifests in the world around us
 link all three objects to the same prompt
 root the exhibition in one of the TOK themes (either the core theme or one of the
optional themes)
Step  Student should produce a single file containing their TOK exhibition
2  Teachers are permitted to provide feedback on one draft of this work. They should
provide oral or written advice on how the work could be improved, but should not
edit the draft. The next version handed to the teacher must be the final version for
submission.
Step Students should showcase their exhibits to an audience. Exhibitions can be :
3 1. within one of the students’ regular TOK classes
2. two classes of TOK students in the same school, or different schools
3. showcased for prospective DP students
4. presented for parents and other members of the school community
5. a “virtual exhibition” using an online virtual gallery space
6. a combined event celebrating the PYP exhibition, MYP personal project and the TOK
exhibition
7. presented to a panel of visitors from the local community
8. presented to teachers other DP subjects
9. a combined “DP core” event where students discuss their TOK exhibition, CAS
experiences and EE research question
10. showcased in a central public place within the school (e.g. library or entrance foyer)
to help raise the profile of TOK within the school

Objects
 Students are encouraged to choose objects that are of personal interest and that they have come
across in their academic studies and/or their lives beyond the classroom.

 Digital objects (e.g. a photograph of an object, such as a historical treaty, a tweet by a political
leader) can be used.

 Specific objects need to have a specific real-world context -- objects that exist in a particular
time and place (including virtual spaces).

 Objects that the student has created themselves, but they must be pre-existing objects rather
than objects created specifically for the purposes of the exhibition.

 Students identify specific objects to discuss rather than using generic objects and images from
the internet (e.g. photograph of a student’s baby brother is an example of an object that has a

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 specific real-world context, whereas a generic image of “a baby” from an internet image search
is not).

 The image of each object used in the exhibition must be appropriately referenced. If an object is
the student’s own original work (e.g. a painting that they created in a visual arts class) then this
should be identified and acknowledged to ensure that teachers and moderators are clear about the
origins of the object.

Examples of the Objects used in a TOK exhibition

Physical objects

Photographs

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THE TOK ESSAY
 A set of six prescribed titles for each examination session are published six months before the
submission deadline.
Note: The chosen title must be used exactly as given; it must not be altered in any way.

 If the title has been modified but it is still clear which prescribed title for the current session
it refers to, the essay will be marked against that prescribed title.

 Any lack of relevance in the student’s response to the prescribed title arising from this
modification will be reflected in the score awarded.

 If it is clear that the title bears no resemblance to any title for the current session, the essay
will be awarded a score of zero.

 Format : standard 12 type size and be double spaced

 Sources must be acknowledged.

Structure of the TOK Essay

1 Introduction
 get the reader’s attention
Example: ‘Compare the roles played by reason and imagination in at least two Areas of
Knowledge.’ You might begin with the following anecdote: ‘When the German
mathematician David Hilbert (1862–1943) was told that one of his students had given up
mathematics to become a novelist, he said, “It is just as well – he did not have any
imagination!”’ This is surprising because we usually identify mathematics with reason, and
literature with imagination. So we begin to wonder what Hilbert meant by this comment and
how, if at all, it could be justified.

 explain what you understand by the question

 formulate it in your own words (be careful not to change its meaning)
 indicate key terms that are unclear or ambiguous
 say why the question is interesting or important (perhaps it challenges an entrenched
stereotype)

 briefly outline how you plan to tackle it

 impose your own limits on the question
 include a thesis statement (This is the fundamental claim you are making in your essay and
is the thread which runs through it and holds everything together.)

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2 Paragraphs
 signal the introduction of major new points in your argument
 length and order of the paragraphs:
1. Devote more space to important points and less to minor ones, and avoid getting
sidetracked by trivial or irrelevant details.
2. Pay particular attention to the transitions between your paragraphs and organise them
in such a way that one flows smoothly into the next.
3. Help the readers by occasionally signposting where you are in the overall development
of your argument.
3 Conclusion
 write a conclusion which draws things together and gives the reader a sense of closure
 find a new way of formulating the key insights rather than repeating what have been already
stated
 may mention unresolved issues and the broader implications of the argument
 write a striking and well-crafted last sentence which acts as an effective full stop and give
the reader a positive overall impression of the essay
Word count
 The maximum word count of the essay is 1,600 words (includes the main part of the essay,
quotations). Extended footnotes or appendices are not appropriate for the TOK essay.

 Exclusion of the word count:

 any acknowledgments
 the references (whether given in footnotes, endnotes or in-text) and bibliography
 any maps, charts, diagrams, annotated illustrations or tables.

 Students are required to indicate the number of words in the essay.

 The examiner will not hesitate to reduce the score if the student writes the essay beyond the
word limit.

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Assessment Instruments
If a piece of work seems to fall between two descriptors, teachers, moderators and examiners should reread the driving
question that underpins the global impression judgment and then read the two levels again. The level that more
appropriately describes the overall holistic impression of the student’s work should be chosen. If the decision is taken
to place the response in the higher of the two levels being considered, then the bottom of the two marks in that band
should be awarded. If the decision is taken to place the response in the lower of the two bands being considered, then
the upper mark in the band should be awarded.

TOK exhibition assessment instrument

Does the exhibition successfully show how TOK manifests in the world around us?
Excellent Good Satisfactory Basic Rudimentary
9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4 1-2 0
The exhibition clearly The exhibition The exhibition The exhibition The exhibition The exhibition does
identifies three identifies three identifies three identifies three presents three not reach the
objects and their objects and their objects, although the objects, although the objects, but the real- standard described
specific real-world real-world contexts. real-world contexts real-world contexts world contexts of by the other levels
contexts. Links Links between each of these objects may of the objects may these objects are not or does not use one
between each of the of the three objects be vaguely or be implied rather stated, or the images of the IA prompts
three objects and and the selected IA imprecisely stated. than explicitly stated. presented may be provided.
the selected IA prompt are There is some Basic links between highly generic
prompt are clearly explained, although explanation of the the objects and the images of types of
made and well this explanation may links between the selected IA prompt object rather than of
explained. There is a lack precision and three objects and are made, but the specific real-world
strong justification clarity in parts. the selected IA explanation of these objects. Links
of the particular There is a prompt. There is links is unconvincing between the objects
contribution that justification of the some justification and/or unfocused. and the selected IA
each individual contribution that for the inclusion of There is a superficial prompt are made,
object makes to the each individual each object in the justification for the but these are
exhibition. All, or object makes to the exhibition. Some of inclusion of each minimal, tenuous, or
nearly all, of the exhibition. Many of the points are object in the it is not clear what
points are well- the points are supported by exhibition. Reasons the student is trying
supported by supported by evidence and for the inclusion of to convey. There is
appropriate evidence appropriate evidence references to the the objects are very little
and explicit and references to selected IA prompt. offered, but these justification offered
references to the the selected IA are not supported by for the inclusion of
selected IA prompt. prompt. appropriate evidence each object in the
and/or lack exhibition. The
relevance to the commentary on the
selected IA prompt. objects is highly
There may be descriptive or
significant repetition consists only of
across the unsupported
justifications of the assertions.
different objects.
Possible characteristics
Convincing Focused Adequate Simplistic Ineffective
Lucid Relevant Competent Limited Descriptive
Precise Coherent Acceptable Underdeveloped Incoherent

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TOK essay assessment instrument
Does the student provide a clear, coherent and critical exploration of the essay title?
Excellent Good Satisfactory Basic Rudimentary
9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4 1-2 0
The discussion has The discussion is The discussion is The discussion is The discussion is The discussion
a sustained focus focused on the title focused on the title connected to the weakly connected does not reach the
on the title and is and is linked and is developed title and makes to the title. While standard
linked effectively effectively to with some links to superficial or there may be links described by the
to areas of areas of areas of limited links to to the areas of other levels or is
knowledge. knowledge. knowledge. areas of knowledge, any not a response to
Arguments are Arguments are Arguments are knowledge. The relevant points are one of the
clear, coherent clear, coherent offered and are discussion is descriptive or prescribed titles
and effectively and supported by supported by largely descriptive. consist only of for the correct
supported by examples. There is examples. There is Limited arguments unsupported examination
specific examples. awareness and some awareness are offered but assertions. session.
The implications of some evaluation of of different points they are unclear
arguments are different points of of view. and are not
considered. There view. supported by
is clear awareness effective examples.
and evaluation of
different points of
view.
Possible characteristics
Insightful Pertinent Acceptable Underdeveloped Ineffective
Convincing Relevant Mainstream Basic Descriptive
Accomplished Analytical Adequate Superficial Incoherent
Lucid Organized Competent Limited Formless

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Samples of Students Exhibition
Example A
TOK exhibition: Subtext and Connotation
The TOK prompt I have selected is: “What challenges are raised by the dissemination and/or
communication of knowledge?”. This exhibition explores this prompt by reflecting on knowledge
and language, and more specifically on whether subtext and connotation always create confusion
rather than help us to communicate knowledge. The language we use in our everyday lives can
often be interpreted many different ways by different people, depending on their cultural
background, beliefs, ideologies, affiliations, personal experiences etc. In particular it seems that
subtext and connotation can be particularly challenging as they are often only recognised by people
that share some particular knowledge or experiences, and it seems that they can easily be
interpreted very differently by different people which can cause confusion and hinder
communication of knowledge.
Object 1. Starbucks holiday cup

This cup was used by Starbucks in 2017 and was controversial because
some people viewed the symbol of the two hands holding hands on the cup
as a sign that Starbucks was promoting a homosexual agenda, because they
saw the cups as having an LGBT subtext. However, many other people
just saw the cup as spreading joy and love during the holiday season and
did not think that there was any particular subtext at all.
This cup is particularly interesting for this exhibition because a Starbucks
spokesman said that they had intentionally designed the cup so that customers could interpret it in
their own way, which suggests that they were deliberately trying to communicate in an open or
vague way rather than seeing the disagreement this might cause as being negative/ a challenge. In
this way, the cup highlights how confusion arising from the use of subtext can be useful or can
actually even be used by people intentionally to provoke discussion. The cup generated a lot of
media attention for the company while still allowing them to say that how the cup was to be
interpreted was up to their individual customers to decide.
This cup also enriches this exhibition because both some members of the LGBT community and
also some members of the right-wing media and public saw the cups as promoting same sex
relationships. While both of these different groups interpreted the cup this way, their reaction was
very different, with one seeing this as very positive and one being very upset about it. Yet other
people didn’t see this subtext at all. So in this particular case it wasn’t only that the subtext itself
was only seen or understood by some groups and not others, but also that the reaction to that
subtext also differed very dramatically.

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Object 2. My Chinese-English Translation Dictionary

This object is a dictionary I use to help me translate between Chinese

and English. When we think about how language is translated so that it
can be communicated between people who speak different languages
we can see that this poses many challenges to communication of
knowledge, particularly because of the way that language uses
connotations, euphemisms, proverbs and idioms that go beyond the
literal meaning of a word.
The meaning and true essence behind many words and phrases is often
unique to a specific language and the cultural/historical understanding that comes with an intimate
knowledge only a native speaker can acquire, particularly things like connotation where language
can have not only its literal translation but also can have secondary meanings.
This dictionary is therefore included in this exhibition as an example of where language and culture
can really impact on communication of knowledge and on whether we see connotation or subtext
at all as those nuances might be lost in translation. I have also included this dictionary in this
exhibition because of how it represents me and the challenges around language and communication
that I have personally experienced in my life and as a DP student – for example I have personally
experienced how some words and ideas do not translate easily from Chinese into English.

Object 3. Billie Holiday’s song Strange Fruit

The song Strange Fruit was sung by Billie Holiday in 1939. It is
often seen to use vivid imagery to protest against the treatment of
black people in America and to have a subtext about promoting civil
rights. This can be seen to be heavily insinuated throughout the
song, especially with the use of “strange fruit” as a gruesome
metaphor for the lynching of black people.
This song makes us think about whether there are things that only
some people see or understand because of their culture, personal
experiences, etc. I do think that subtext and connotation are
sometimes interpreted very differently by different groups and the
group that a person belongs to impacts on the meaning and on what
is being communicated. For example, Strange Fruit was sung by Billie Holiday, a black artist. The
fact that this subtext was being expressed by a black artist means that the singer was themselves
part of a group of people had been marginalised for so long, which makes the song lyrics even
more powerful and emotional.
The use of metaphor, connotation and subtext in this song helps the song communicate complex
emotions and themes about racism and civil rights. In this way, this song is a helpful addition to

27
this exhibition because it provides a good contrast to the dictionary. The dictionary highlighted
that subtext and connotation can sometimes cause confusion because they add a layer of
interpretation to the literal meaning of language. But this song shows that sometimes subtext and
connotation can actually help communicate complex ideas and emotions rather than always being
a challenge to the communication of knowledge. Thinking about this song, I have realised that
connotations and subtext don’t always have to be challenging or misleading. If the person is trying
to evoke a powerful meaning or emotion, often words that have many layered meanings deliver a
more powerful impact.
References
Lynskey, D. 2011. ‘Strange Fruit: the first great protest song’, The Guardian, accessed online at
https://www.theguardian.com/music/2011/feb/16/protest-songs-billie-holiday-strange-
fruit. Date accessed 15 Dec 2019.

Sugar, R. 2018. ‘How Starbucks’s annual holiday cup became a battleground for the heart and soul
of America’,Vox, accessed online at https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/11/2/18052
550/ starbucks-holidaycup-explained-2018-controversies. Date accessed 2 Aug 2019.

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Example B
TOK Exhibition: What is the relationship between personal experience and knowledge?
(Knowledge and the Knower)
This is a Rubik’s cube. It is a puzzle that you have to solve by getting all of the
blocks of the same colour onto the same side of the cube. This cube shows that
unfamiliarity with something can be a barrier to knowledge because of the lack
of personal experience that we have to rely on. In the hands of someone who
does not know how to solve this puzzle it puts them in an unfamiliar situation.
They don’t know the problem and have to go through a process to try to solve
it. It requires a lot of logical problem-solving skills to be able to solve it, so the person has to rely
on their logic to help them rather than their experience, because they don’t have any personal
experience of solving the cube. Some people solve the cube through detailed observation and
finding patterns in the puzzle. But others use a set method that has been proven effective by other
people. This method is achieved through mulitple practices and an understanding of how the cube
works, but a lot of that practicing and understanding is done by the other people who develop the
method, so the person can skip a lot of that and use the method that has already been developed
by other people. It still takes time and some practice to solve the cube even if you know the method.
But it makes it a lot easier if you can use the knowledge of other people to help you solve the cube
when you haven’t got personal experience of doing it yourself. This cube shows that not having
personal experience can be a barrier to knowledge. But it is possible to overcome that barrier by
using things like logic and by having other people who do know how to do something share their
experience with you to help you.

This is a replica of a Mayan tablet. These tablets come from a lost

civilization. This tablet shows that it can be difficult to have
knowledge of things that happened in the past because we don’t have
personal experience of them and we have to rely on other kinds of
evidence. In history, historians seek to use primary and secondary
sources to try to uncover our past. However, with things like the
Mayans we have a very hard time because of the unfamiliarity of the
topic and huge gaps in history. Evidence about the Mayans is difficult to find because a lot of the
evidence was destroyed. However some tablets similar to this replica one have been found. For
example, in 2015 an original Mayan tablet was discovered in a jungle in Guatemala. This shows
that sometimes physical evidence survives that can help us to have knowledge of the past even
though we were not there to experience it personally. But even where physical tablets have
survived we don’t really know for sure what the Mayan people used these tablets for or what the
symbols really mean. This tablet is a replica not an original tablet and it is in my house as a
decoration. When I look at this tablet on my wall at home it does not have any spiritual or cultural
significance for me because I do not know what the symbols really mean.

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 This is my Spanish dictionary. It can give me knowledge so that I can
understand the Spanish language better. Even though this dictionary
helps me to learn Spanish I don’t think that I know Spanish in the same
way that a person who is Spanish knows it, because they have personal
experience of the language that is impossible for me to have. The
experience of learning Spanish for me now is different to a person who
has been speaking Spanish from when they are a baby. Although this
dictionary helps me to know the words of the Spanish language, there is more to a language than
just the words. Without personal experience of a culture it can be hard to understand these other
things that go along with the words of a language. For example, in some languages gestures and
body language are really important but this dictionary only provides the words. Learning Spanish
will allow me to talk to people in my life that otherwise I would not be able to talk to. This means
that it will allow me to have personal experiences that I could not have otherwise. This shows that
personal experiences can give us knowledge but also having new knowledge can help us to have
different personal experiences.

Sample C
How is current knowledge shaped by its historical development? (Knowledge and technology)

For my objects I have chosen a stone tablet, a letter and

a laptop. These pieces themselves are directly linked to
communication and the evolution of technology. From
the “original” stone tablets to a more old-fashioned letter
that is still in use but incredibly ineffective and has many
quicker alternatives, particularly the laptop.
The stone tablet is something that a lot of people
wouldn't necessarily qualify as “technology”. However
it is a perpetuator of language. We can hear stories from
past especially on the stone, things like hieroglyphics
have been used to learn about the myths and stories of ancient cultures. It would be much harder
to know about history without texts such as these that last generations.
The stone tablet highlights that if we lived in a world without written language and records
everything would be different. A huge part of everything would be gone. The nature of humanity
is one that remembers and without a long-term record other than the subjective memory of those
that were witness to an event or situation, the human race would be unable to learn from its own
mistakes.
The letter demonstrates the disconnect between what was once perceived as technology and what
is currently perceived as technology. The letter solves the transportability issue of a massive sheet
of stone but it loses some of its ability to share information due to the time it takes for a letter to

30
be sent and because it is only sent to one person who might not keep it. A letter might contain
knowledge that then gets lost or destroyed, so it shows that there could be knowledge that we don’t
know about because it has been lost over the years because there wasn’t the technology available
to record and preserve it.
The letter also highlights that without writing many forms of art would not exist. Books in their
entirety would be unable to exist, the beautiful literature and literary masters we have come to love
would not exist. Not only the artistic books but the text books we use for many forms of learning.
The laptop shows how knowledge can now be communicated and shared much faster than via a
letter or movement of a stone tablet. It enhances the communication process by opening a dialogue
that happens rapidly instead of the immense amounts of time that are involved in older forms of
communication. The laptop also allows for people to talk to each other by video rather than by
writing via letter. There is a major drawback to communication being limited only to writing
because the only thing that you know is the words that are written down. As evidenced by most
literary analysis, the words that are written can be affected by the subtext, personal life experience
and so much more. So that can make knowledge hard to discern. But the laptop shows how new
technology can allow us to communicate via video instead of just words, so it changes how
knowledge is communicated and shared.
The laptop also shows that as technology changes over time, some knowledge is lost as well as
being gained. For example, if everything was done by laptop then signatures, a vital part of
identifying you are who you say you are as an adult, would be nonexistent.

Works Cited
"DP PD Learning Resources." International Baccalaureate®, www.ibo.org/professional-
development/free-learning/dp-pd-learning-resources/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2020.

Lagemaat, Richard V. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma. Cambridge UP, 2015.

Theory of Knowledge Guide. IB, 2020.

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