Water Reuse in Developing Countries: The Golden Rule of Wastewater Reuse
Water Reuse in Developing Countries: The Golden Rule of Wastewater Reuse
Water Reuse in Developing Countries: The Golden Rule of Wastewater Reuse
REFERENCE
WATER SUPPLY AN'O
Water Reuse in Developing Countries
Including Guidelines for Wastewater Reuse
As communities around the world reach the limits of their water supplies, wastewater is increasingly being reused
to conserve and increase available water resources and to reduce pollution. However, standards and regulations to
manage and plan water reuse programs have been lacking.
In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 1980 Guidelines for Water Reuse was revised and up-
dated by Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., with funding from E.P.A. and the U.S. Agency for International Development
through AJ.D.'s Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. The primary purpose of the Guidelines is to pro-
vide information about how to develop effective wastewater reuse programs. They are intended for U.S. utilities and
regulatory agencies that are seeking to establish standards or regulations on the reclamation and reuse of wastewater.
They also provide useful information for developing countries.
The Guidelines address water reclamation for nonpotable urban, industrial, and agricultural use. Also, attention
is given to augmentation of potable water supplies by indirect reuse. Although sources of reclaimed water may range
from industrial wastewaters to the return flows from agricultural irrigation systems, the Guidelines cover only the
use of water reclaimed from the effluents generated by domestic wastewater treatment facilities.
The revised edition of the Guidelines incorporates recent institutional and technical advances in water reuse. In addition,
it includes a chapter on water reuse applications in countries outside the United States—mainly in developing countries,
particularly the arid and semi-arid countries of North Africa, although the manual is applicable to all countries.
— This Fact Sheet provides a summary of the Guidelines, outlining the basic issues for water reuse in de-
veloping countries.
Water I
The Current Situation in Developing Countries
A number of conditions that prevail in developing countries have an impact on the potential for reusing
wastewater.
Reclaimed
Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
of Reuse Treatment1 Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments
Urban Reuse • Secondary • pH=6-9 pH—weekly • 15 m topotable • At controHed-access irrigation sites where design and operational measures
All types of landscape • Filtration • <10 mg/l BOD BOD-weekly water supply significantly reduce the potential of public contact with reclaimed water, a
irrigation, also vehicle • Disinfection • <2NTU Turbidity- wells lower level of treatment, e.g., secondary treatment and disinfection to
washing, toiletflushing,use • No detectable continuous achieve <14 fecal coli/100 ml, may be appropriate.
in fire protection systems fecal coif 100 ml3 Col ¡form—daily • Chemical (coagulant and/or polymer) addition prior to filtration may be
and commercial air • 1 mg/l CI2 CI2 residual- necessary to meet water quality recommendations.
conditioners, and other residual (min.) continuous • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
uses with similar access or • Reclaimed water should be clear, odorless, and contain no substances that
exposure to the water are toxic upon ingestion.
• A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
assure that viruses and parasites are inactivated or destroyed.
• A chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/l or greater in the distribution system is
recommended to reduce odors, slime, and bacterial regrowth.
Restricted Access • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—weekly • 90 m to potable • If spray irrigation, SS less than 30 mg/l may be necessary to avoid clogging
Area Irrigation • Disinfection • <30 mg/1 BOD • BOD—weekly water supply of sprinkler heads.
Sod farms, silviculture sites, • <30mg/ISS • SS—daily wells
and other areas where • £200 fecal Coliform—daily • 30 m to areas
public access is prohibited, cosnoomi4 « CI2 residual— accessible tp the
restricted, or infrequent • 1 mg/l CI2 continuous public (if spray
residual (min.) irrigation)
Agricultural Reuse— • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—weekly • 15 m to potable • Chemical (coagulant and/or polymer) addition prior to filtration may be
Food Crops Not • Filtration • <10 mg/l BOD • BOD—-weekly water supply necessary to meet water quality recommendations.
Commercially Processed3 • Disinfection • S2NTU • Turbidity— wells • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
Surface or spray irrigation • No detectable continuous • A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contacttimemay be necessary to
of any food crop, including fecalcoli/IOOml3 • Coliform—daily assure that viruses and parasites are inactivated or destroyed.
crops eaten raw • 1 mg/l CI2 • CI2 residual- * High nutrient levels may adversely affect some crops during certain growth
residual (min.) continuous stages.
Agricultural Reuse— • Secondary • pH = 6 - 9 • pH—weekly • 90 m to potable • If spray irrigation, SS less than30mg/l may be necessary to avoid clogging
Food Crops Commercial • Disinfection • ¿30 mg/l BOD • BOD—weekly water supply of sprinkler heads.
Processed • £30mg/ISS • SS—daily wells • High nutrient levels may adversely affect some crops during certain growth
• £200 fecal • Coliform—daily • 30 m to areas stages.
coli/100 ml* • CI2 residual— accessible to
• 1 mg/t Cfe continuous the public
residual (min.)
Agricultural Reuse— • Secondary • pH = 6 - 9 • pH—weekly • 90 m to potable • If spray irrigation, SS less than 30 mg/l may be necessary to avoid clogging
Non-Food Crops • Disinfection • <30 mg/l BOD • BOD—weekly water supply sprinkler heads.
Pasture for milking animals; • <30mg/ISS • SS—daily weils • High nutrient levels may adversely affect some crops during certain growth
fodder, fiber and seed crops • £200 fecal • Coliform—daily • 30 m to areas periods.
coliH 00ml4 • CÍ2 residual— accessible to • Milking animals should be prohibited from grazing for 15 days after irrigation
• 1 mg/l Ck continuous the public ¡if ceases. A higher level of disinfection, e.g., to achieve <14 fecal coli/100 ml,
residual (min.) spray irrigation) should be provided if this waiting period is not adhered to.
Continued...
Reclaimed
Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
of Reuse Treatment 1
Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments
Recreational • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—weekly • 150 m to potable • Dechtorination may be necessary to protect aquatic species of flora and fauna.
Impoundments • Filtration • <10 mg/l BOD • BOD—weekly water supply • Reclaimed water should be non-irritating to skin and eyes.
Incidental contact (e.g., • Disinfection • <2 NTU • Turbidity— wells (minimum) • Reclaimed water should be clear, odorless, and contain no substances that
fishing and boating) and full • No détectable continuous if bottom not are toxic upon ingestion.
body contact with reclaimed fecalcoli/IOOmí3 • Col ¡form—daily sealed * Nutrient removal may be necessary to avoid aigae growth in impoundments.
water allowed • 1 mg/l CI2 • CI2 residual- • Chemical (coagulant and/or polymer) addition prior to filtration may be
residual (min.) continuous necessary to meet water quality recommendations.
• The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
• A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
assure that viruses and parasites are inactivated or destroyed.
• Fish caughl in impoundments can be consumed.
Landscape Impoundments • Secondary * <30 mg/l BOD • pH—weekly • 150 m topotable • Nutrient removal processes may be necessary to avoid algae growth in
Aesthetic impoundment • Disinfection * 530 mg/l SS • SS-daily water supply impoundments.
where public contact with • S200 fecal • Coiiform—daily wells (minimum) • Dechlorination may be necessary to protect aquatic species of flora and
reclaimed water is not fecal ooli/100 mi 4 • Cfe residual— if bottom not fauna.
allowed • 1 mg/l Cfe continuous sealed
residual (min.)
Industrial Reuse • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—daily • 90 m to areas • Windblown spray should not reach areas accessible to users or the public.
Once-through cooling • <30 mg/l BOD • BOD-^weekly accessible to
• <30mg/ISS • SS—weekly the public
• S200 fecal • Coiiform—daily
coli/IOOml4 • CI2 residual—
• 1 mg/l CI2 continuous
residual (min.)
Recircufating cooling towers • Secondary • Variable, • 90 m to areas • Windblown spray should not reach areas accessible to the public.
• Disinfection depends on accessible to • Additional treatment by user is usually provided to prevent scaling, corrosion,
(chemical recirculation the public. biological growths, fouling and foaming.
coagulation and ratio May be reduced
filtration may be if high level of
needed) disinfection is
provided.
Continued...
Reclaimed
Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
1
of Reuse Treatment Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments
Environmental Reuse • Variable Variable, but not • BOD—weekly • Dechlorination may be necessary to protect aquatic species of flora and
Wetlands, marshes, wildlife • Secondary and to exceed: • SS-daily fauna.
habitat, stream disinfection • <30 mg/l BOD * Coliform—daily • Possible effects on groundwater should be evaluated.
augmentation (min.) • <30 mg/l SS • CI2 residual— • Receiving water quality requirements may necessitate additional treatment
* <200 fecal continuous • The temperature of the redaiimed water should not adversely affect
coli/100 ml* ecosystem.
Groundwater Recharge , • Site specific and • Site specific • Depends on • Site specific • Facility should be designed to ensure that no reclaimed water reaches
By spreading or injection use dependent and use treatment and potable water supply aquifers.
into non potable aquifers • Primary (min.) dependent use • For injection projects, filtration and disinfection may be needed to prevent
for spreading clogging.
• Secondary (min.)
for injection
Indirect Potable Reuse • Site specific • Site specific Includes, but not • 600 m to • The depth to groundwater (i.e., thickness of the vadose zone) should be at
Groundwater recharge by • Secondary and • Meet drinking limited to, the extraction wells. least 2m at the maximum groundwater mounding point.
spreading into potable disinfection (min.) water standards following: May vary • The reclaimed water should be retained underground for at least 1 year prior
aquifers May abo need after percolation • pH—daily depending on to withdrawal.
filtration and/or through vadose • Coliform—daily treatment • Recommended treatment is site-specific and depends on factors such as
advanced waste- zone • CI2 residual- provided and type of soil, percolation rate, thickness of vadose zone, native groundwater
water treatment continuous site-specific quality, and dilution.
* Drinking water conditions. • Monitoring wells are necessary to detect the influence of the recharge
standards— operation on the groundwater.
quarterly • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens
• Other5— after percolation through the vadose zone.7
depends on
constituent
Groundwater recharge by • Secondary Includes, but not Includes, but not • 600 m to • The reclaimed water should be retained underground for at least 1 year prior
injection into potable • Filtration limited to, the limited to, the extraction wells. to withdrawal.
aquifers • Disinfection following: following: May vary • Monitoring wells are necessary to detect the influence of the recharge
• Advanced • pH = 6.5-8.5 * pH—daily depending on operation on the groundwater.
wastewater • <2NTU • Turbidity— site-specific • Recommended quality limits should be met at the point of injection.
treatment • No detectable continuous conditions. • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens at
fecal coli/100 ml 3 • Coliform—daily the point of injection.7
• 1 mg/l CI2 • CI2 residual— • A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
residual (min.) continuous assure virus inactivation.
• Meet drinking • Drinking water
water standards standards-
quarterly
• Other5—
depends on
constituent
Continued...
3 Reclaimed
í/5
<D Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
1
3- of Reuse Treatment Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments
O
1
Indirect Potable Reuse • Secondaiy Includes, but not Includes, but not • Site specific • Recommended levei of treatment is site-specific and depends on factors
Augmentation of surface • Filtration limited to, the limited to, the such as receiving water quality, time and distance to point of withdrawal,
supplies ...-' • Disinfection following: following: dilution and subsequent treatment prior to distribution for potable uses.
XI • Advanced • pH =6.5-8.5 • pH—daily • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
w wastewater • <2NTU • Turbidity— • A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
<D treatment • No detectable continuous assure virus ¡nactivation.
? fecalcoli/IOOml3 • Coliform—daily
2- • 1 mg/l Cfc • Cl2 residual- • . • • •
Note: Portions of this table are discussed in detailin theGt/(tfef;nes.Ariy country interested in using the table to develop standards is advised to obtain a copy of theGLf/dei/nesforreference. Copies may be obtained or»
request from WASH headquarters or from Camp Dresser & McKee Inc. in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
For virtually ail types of reuse, other recommended levels for trace heavy metals and other parameters may apply. Also.ahigh standard of treatment reliability is required, because of the potential for harm in the
use of improperly treated water. A number of fallible elements combine to make up a water reclamation system. These include the power supply, individual treatment units, mechanical equipment, the maintenance
program, and the operating personnel. Design features and backup systems are important in maintaining reclaimed system reliability, similar to drinking water reliability because customers depend upon continuity of
supply as well as quality.
Footnotes
1. Types of treatment are as follows: Primary—a. physical treatment process to remove settteable organic and inorganic solids by sedimentation and floating materials by skimming; Secondary— includes activated sludge
processes, trickling f¡Itera, rotating biological contactors, and stabilization pond systems (secondary treatment should produce effluent in which both the BOD [biochemical oxygen demand] and SS [suspended solids] do
not exceed 30 mg/l); Filtration—the passing of wastewater through undisturbed filter media such as sand and/or anthracite; Disinfection—the destruction, ¡nactivation, or removal of pathogenic micro-organisms by
chemical, physical, or biological means (disinfection may be accomplished by chlorination, ozonation, other chemical disinfectants, UV radiation, and membrane and other prooesses); Advanced Wastewater
Treatment—in cludeschemicaldarification, carbon aci sorption, reverse os mos is, and othe r mem brane processes , ai r stripp i ng, u I trafiltration, and ¡on exchange.
2. Unless otherwise noted, recommended quality limits appty to the reclaimed water at the point of discharge from the treatment facility. Concerning taking measurements of BOD, NTU, fecal coliforms and chlorine residual,
please note the following. BOD levels are as determined from the 5-day BOD test. NTU (nephelometric turbidity units) limits should be met prior to disinfection; the average turbidity should be based on a 24-hour time
period; the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at any time; if SS is used in lieu of turbidity, the average SS should not exceed 5 mg/l. Unless otherwise noted, recommended coliform limits are median values determined
from the bacteriological results of the last 7 days for which analyses have been completed. Either the membrane filter or fermentation tube technique may be used. Total chlorine residual should be measured after a
minimum contact time of 30 minutes.
3. The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 14/100 ml in any sample.
4. The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 800/1 (SO ml in any sample. Some stabilization pond systems may be able to meet this coliform limit without disinfection.
5. Monitoring should include inorganic and organic compounds, or dasses of compounds, that are known or suspected tobe toxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, or mutagenic and are not included in #ie drkiking water
standards.
7. It is advisable to fully characterize the microbiological quality of the reclaimed water prior to implementation of a reuse program.
8. Commercially processed food crops are those that, prior to sale to the public or others, have undergone chemical or physical processing sufficient to destroy pathogens.
CEv
Ai
te
P.O. oi..
Tel. (070)
-(.Ci
Developing-Country Wastewater Reuse Issues
— —
Planning Issues
any
effective than one which uses more modem
capital-intensive technology. In instanceT
17-f l ^ k t o b e Perf°rmed cannot be
madüy performed by even l o w e s t labor,
ould however, mechanization and automation
are appropriate in the developing world.
* The difference in availability of qualified
en&neers, sdntists, and technicians calls for a
different approach to planning. I n developing
countnes, where qualified staff and support
institutions are not readily available
investments in equipment that is reliable
and simple, even though the initial costs
• ^intensive designs are to be preferred in may be higher, may be advisable.
developing countries. While the principles of
wastewater reclamation facility design and The advantages of new construction
operation are the same in developing and over
industrialized countries, i m p l i c a t i o n of
projects dlffers. Industrialized countries tend
to be capital-intensive while developing
countries are labor-intensive. In develop™ te
7 a t h e r * » * Points of disposal
countries a facility that can be built and reclamation facilities is far more costly than
operated with local labor will be more cost
Technical Issues
• The need for infrastructure. The first technical
* Reducing the minimum slopes to reduce
construction and pumping costs.
* Increasing the distance between
manholes.
municipal wastewater treatment pllms fn
• Using indigenous materials.
* Using computer-aided design to obtain
least-cost sewerage system layouts.
% technol
L £ f T °gies- While the planning and Most of these modifications increase maintenance
design of sewerage systems is beyond the scopíof the
Guidelines, it l s an important consideration. The c o s o f ' Ttheg e a t e l0W C0StS f lab0r in
°
r maintena
n dd ee
^^ PP «« SS
; ^ «ste are offset by
ngs in construction. Also required are strone
instuutions that can provide the nelssaTy per o n S for
preventive maintenance and other labor-intensive
programs of construction and operation
Agricultural Reuse
The 1989 guidelines are based on the conclusion that the main health risks asso-
ciated with agricultural reuse in developing countries are associated with helminthic
diseases and, therefore, a high degree of helminth removal is necessary for the safe use
of wastewater for agriculture and aquaculture. The WHO Guidelines for wastewater
use in agriculture are summarized in the table below.
intestinal Wastewater
nematodes Fecal treatment expected
(arithmetic conforms to achieve the
mean no. of (geometric required
Reuse Exposed eggs per mean no. per microbiological
Category Conditions Group liter)2 100 ml)2 quality
Aquaculture
Legal Issues
• Vested water rights. Traditional practice or reclaimed water appropriate for various uses; controls,
customary law in most developing countries, and such as use restrictions, that will reduce human
formal law in many, recognize that a water user exposure; access controls on reclaimed water systems
acquires vested rights to use a certain amount of water and controls preventing cross-connections between
under defined circumstances. If the amount of water drinking water and reclaimed water distribution
available to a current user changes, vested rights may networks; regulations on sludge disposal and facility
entitle the user to compensation such as monetary siting; and mechanisms to enforce these regulations
payment or a supplemental water supply. Rights in including monitoring requirements, inspection
reclaimed water are uncertain; they may be vested in authority, and authority to assess violation penalties.
the producer or in riparian downstream owners
deprived of the water, who may require compensation. • Legal and procedural issues touched on above.
• An agreed-upon definition of "reclaimed
• Regulations. Water reuse projects should include water".
development and implementation of regulations to
prevent or moderate public health or environmental • Specified rights of ownership to reclaimed
problems. These regulations include: permit systems for water.
authorizing wastewater discharges; technical controls • A licensing system for use of reclaimed water.
on wastewater treatment; water quality standards for
Continued on page 8.
Conclusion
Water reclamation and reuse is a viable option for expanding usable water resources in developing
countries. However, it is not sufficient to imitate methods used in industrialized countries; what is done
must be adjusted for the specific problems encountered in developing countries. Reuse of untreated
wastewater, without regulation by public authorities, is already common practice in urban areas of devel-
oping countries where water is scarce. This has resulted in serious health problems.
Implementation of wastewater reuse in most cities in the developing world must begin with provision of
basic sanitation services.
Resources
Guidelines for Water Reuse by James Crook, David K. Ammerman, Daniel A. Okun, and Robert L. Matthews. Cambridge,
MA: Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., 1992. (Also issued by WASH as Technical Report No. 81.)
Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture, report of a World Health Organization
Scientific Report, Technical Report Series 778. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 1989.
Irrigation with Reclaimed Municipal Wastewater—A Guidance Manual, edited by G. Stuart Pettygrove and Takashi Asano.
Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers, Inc., 1985.
Proceedings of Four Symposia on Water Reuse sponsored by the American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
Use of Human Wastes in Agriculture and Aquaculture. Utilization Practices and Health Perspectives by Martin Strauss and
Ursula J. Blumenthal. IRCWD Report No. 08/90. International Reference Center for Waste Disposal, Duebendorf,
Switzerland.
Wastewater Irrigation in Developing Countries. Health Effects and Technical Solutions. Summary of World Bank Technical Paper
Number 51 by Hillel I. Shuval. World Bank, 1990.
"Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse," edited by R. Mijeriego and T. Asano. Report of a symposium sponsored by the
International Association on Water Pollution Research and Control. Water Science and Technology, 24(9) (1991): 36.
Il