Water Reuse in Developing Countries: The Golden Rule of Wastewater Reuse

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INFORMATION FOR ACTION FROM THE WATER AND SANITATION FOR HEALTH PROJECT

REFERENCE
WATER SUPPLY AN'O
Water Reuse in Developing Countries
Including Guidelines for Wastewater Reuse

As communities around the world reach the limits of their water supplies, wastewater is increasingly being reused
to conserve and increase available water resources and to reduce pollution. However, standards and regulations to
manage and plan water reuse programs have been lacking.
In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 1980 Guidelines for Water Reuse was revised and up-
dated by Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., with funding from E.P.A. and the U.S. Agency for International Development
through AJ.D.'s Water and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Project. The primary purpose of the Guidelines is to pro-
vide information about how to develop effective wastewater reuse programs. They are intended for U.S. utilities and
regulatory agencies that are seeking to establish standards or regulations on the reclamation and reuse of wastewater.
They also provide useful information for developing countries.
The Guidelines address water reclamation for nonpotable urban, industrial, and agricultural use. Also, attention
is given to augmentation of potable water supplies by indirect reuse. Although sources of reclaimed water may range
from industrial wastewaters to the return flows from agricultural irrigation systems, the Guidelines cover only the
use of water reclaimed from the effluents generated by domestic wastewater treatment facilities.
The revised edition of the Guidelines incorporates recent institutional and technical advances in water reuse. In addition,
it includes a chapter on water reuse applications in countries outside the United States—mainly in developing countries,
particularly the arid and semi-arid countries of North Africa, although the manual is applicable to all countries.
— This Fact Sheet provides a summary of the Guidelines, outlining the basic issues for water reuse in de-
veloping countries.

The Golden Rule of Wastewater Reuse


-; Whether wastewater is being reused in industrialized or developing countries, it must be treated. The ex-
tent of the treatment depends upon how it will be used. Higher-level uses, such as irrigation of vegetables
to be consumed without processing, require a higher level of treatment than lower-level uses, such as pas-
ture irrigation. In urban reuse, where there is a high potential for human exposure to reclaimed water used
- for landscape irrigation, toilet flushing, and industrial purposes, the water must be adequately disinfected
and a chlorine residual must be maintained in the distribution system.

The Basic Rationale for Wastewater Reuse


Many urban residential, commercial, and industrial uses can be satisfied with water of less than potable
quality: irrigation of lawns, parks, and roadway borders; air conditioning and industrial cooling towers; in-
dustrial processing; toilet and urinal flushing; construction; cleaning and maintenance, including vehicle
washing; scenic waters and fountains, and environmental and recreational purposes. Customarily, public
water supplies provide water of potable quality to serve all these purposes. When reclaimed water is substi-
tuted for potable water formerly used for nonpotable purposes it is as if a "new" source has been discov-
ered, and it becomes possible to maintain the highest quality for public consumption and to extend potable
water to an increased population.
While the need for additional water supply has been the impetus for numerous water reuse programs in
the United States, many programs have been initiated in response to rigorous and costly requirements for
effluent discharge to surface waters. In developing countries the rationale for reuse is generally to increase
water supplies, although pollution abatement is a growing concern.

Water I
The Current Situation in Developing Countries
A number of conditions that prevail in developing countries have an impact on the potential for reusing
wastewater.

• Lack of wastewater collection ana treatment. In reuse, including consumptive use in


developing countries only about 7% of the population is agriculture or evaporative cooling.
served by wastewater collection and treatment facilities.
Many cities are unsewered, and the sewers that do exist • It is more feasible. Urban markets for
often discharge untreated wastewater into the nearest reuse are generally closer to the point of
drainage channel or water course. Collecting the origin of the reclaimed water than
wastewaters for treatment is a formidable and agricultural markets. Also, the value of
expensive task, but reuse cannot begin until sewers, water for urban reuse is generally far
interceptors, trunk sewers, and treatment plants are greater than for agricultural reuse. It can be
built. metered and costs can be recovered. The
costs of providing water for domestic urban
• Inadequate treatment of wastewater. The major reuse may be higher than water for some
cities of developing countries, including Eastern Europe irrigation uses because more treatment is
and the former Soviet Union, generally do have sewers necessary. For market crops, the quality
and often wastewater treatment plants, but treatment is requirements are much the same as for
seldom sufficient for safe reuse. As these countries unrestrictive urban use.
rehabilitate their urban infrastructure, there will be
significant opportunities to upgrade wastewater • The best prospects for wastewater reuse. The
treatment plants to reclaim wastewater for urban developing areas of larger, richer, rapidly growing cities
nonpotable reuse. with short water supplies, some sewerage, and pressures
to control pollution are ideal candidates for wastewater
• Protection of public health. High-quality water is reuse. Sao Paulo, Brazil, is a good example. There the
generally not available for irrigating high-value high quality effluent produced by the first module of an
market crops near developing country cities. The activated sludge treatment plant inspired studies of
common practice today is to use raw wastewater for reuse for industry.
irrigation or to withdraw water from streams that are
polluted with raw wastewater. The consequent
contamination of food stuffs to be eaten raw Institutional & Financial Aspects of
maintains a high level of enteric disease. Although Wastewater Management
wastewater reuse is common in developing countries,
the protection of public health has not yet provided Related WASH Reports
an incentive for initiating safe agricultural reuse
practices in these countries. Point Source Pollution in the Danube Basin:
Vol. 1—Summary: Vol. II—Institutional
• Potential for wastewater reuse. Almost all water Studies: Vol. Ill: Country Technical Reports;
reuse in developing countries currently is for
Users Manual for the Danube Emissions
agricultural purposes; however, meeting a range of
urban nonpotable water demands through reuse is a Management Decision Support System.
promising option in the growing urban areas of Asia, (FR 374)
Africa, Latin America, Europe, the former Soviet Union, Guidelines for Improving Wastewater and Solid
and Australia. By 2020, more than half the population
of Asia, Africa, and Latin America will be living in Waste Management, (forthcoming)
cities. With urban growth, water reclamation for Andean Regional Workshop on Alternative Ap-
nonpotable reuse may be less costly and more feasible proaches to Wasteii'v^r Management.
than developing new sources of fresh water. Urban
reuse has two main advantages over agricultural reuse. (FR394)

• It is partially nonconsumptive. Urban uses, To obtain a copy of these reports or a


such as toilet flushing, vehicle washing, complete list of WASH reports^ contact
stack gas cleaning, and industrial ;
processing are nonconsumptive. The water
WASH headquarters.
can be reclaimed again for subsequent

2 Water Reuse Fact Sheet


Table 2:1 PA. Comprehensive Guidelines for Wastewater Reuse

Reclaimed
Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
of Reuse Treatment1 Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments

Urban Reuse • Secondary • pH=6-9 pH—weekly • 15 m topotable • At controHed-access irrigation sites where design and operational measures
All types of landscape • Filtration • <10 mg/l BOD BOD-weekly water supply significantly reduce the potential of public contact with reclaimed water, a
irrigation, also vehicle • Disinfection • <2NTU Turbidity- wells lower level of treatment, e.g., secondary treatment and disinfection to
washing, toiletflushing,use • No detectable continuous achieve <14 fecal coli/100 ml, may be appropriate.
in fire protection systems fecal coif 100 ml3 Col ¡form—daily • Chemical (coagulant and/or polymer) addition prior to filtration may be
and commercial air • 1 mg/l CI2 CI2 residual- necessary to meet water quality recommendations.
conditioners, and other residual (min.) continuous • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
uses with similar access or • Reclaimed water should be clear, odorless, and contain no substances that
exposure to the water are toxic upon ingestion.
• A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
assure that viruses and parasites are inactivated or destroyed.
• A chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/l or greater in the distribution system is
recommended to reduce odors, slime, and bacterial regrowth.

Restricted Access • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—weekly • 90 m to potable • If spray irrigation, SS less than 30 mg/l may be necessary to avoid clogging
Area Irrigation • Disinfection • <30 mg/1 BOD • BOD—weekly water supply of sprinkler heads.
Sod farms, silviculture sites, • <30mg/ISS • SS—daily wells
and other areas where • £200 fecal Coliform—daily • 30 m to areas
public access is prohibited, cosnoomi4 « CI2 residual— accessible tp the
restricted, or infrequent • 1 mg/l CI2 continuous public (if spray
residual (min.) irrigation)

Agricultural Reuse— • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—weekly • 15 m to potable • Chemical (coagulant and/or polymer) addition prior to filtration may be
Food Crops Not • Filtration • <10 mg/l BOD • BOD—-weekly water supply necessary to meet water quality recommendations.
Commercially Processed3 • Disinfection • S2NTU • Turbidity— wells • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
Surface or spray irrigation • No detectable continuous • A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contacttimemay be necessary to
of any food crop, including fecalcoli/IOOml3 • Coliform—daily assure that viruses and parasites are inactivated or destroyed.
crops eaten raw • 1 mg/l CI2 • CI2 residual- * High nutrient levels may adversely affect some crops during certain growth
residual (min.) continuous stages.

Agricultural Reuse— • Secondary • pH = 6 - 9 • pH—weekly • 90 m to potable • If spray irrigation, SS less than30mg/l may be necessary to avoid clogging
Food Crops Commercial • Disinfection • ¿30 mg/l BOD • BOD—weekly water supply of sprinkler heads.
Processed • £30mg/ISS • SS—daily wells • High nutrient levels may adversely affect some crops during certain growth
• £200 fecal • Coliform—daily • 30 m to areas stages.
coli/100 ml* • CI2 residual— accessible to
• 1 mg/t Cfe continuous the public
residual (min.)

Agricultural Reuse— • Secondary • pH = 6 - 9 • pH—weekly • 90 m to potable • If spray irrigation, SS less than 30 mg/l may be necessary to avoid clogging
Non-Food Crops • Disinfection • <30 mg/l BOD • BOD—weekly water supply sprinkler heads.
Pasture for milking animals; • <30mg/ISS • SS—daily weils • High nutrient levels may adversely affect some crops during certain growth
fodder, fiber and seed crops • £200 fecal • Coliform—daily • 30 m to areas periods.
coliH 00ml4 • CÍ2 residual— accessible to • Milking animals should be prohibited from grazing for 15 days after irrigation
• 1 mg/l Ck continuous the public ¡if ceases. A higher level of disinfection, e.g., to achieve <14 fecal coli/100 ml,
residual (min.) spray irrigation) should be provided if this waiting period is not adhered to.

Continued...
Reclaimed
Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
of Reuse Treatment 1
Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments

Recreational • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—weekly • 150 m to potable • Dechtorination may be necessary to protect aquatic species of flora and fauna.
Impoundments • Filtration • <10 mg/l BOD • BOD—weekly water supply • Reclaimed water should be non-irritating to skin and eyes.
Incidental contact (e.g., • Disinfection • <2 NTU • Turbidity— wells (minimum) • Reclaimed water should be clear, odorless, and contain no substances that
fishing and boating) and full • No détectable continuous if bottom not are toxic upon ingestion.
body contact with reclaimed fecalcoli/IOOmí3 • Col ¡form—daily sealed * Nutrient removal may be necessary to avoid aigae growth in impoundments.
water allowed • 1 mg/l CI2 • CI2 residual- • Chemical (coagulant and/or polymer) addition prior to filtration may be
residual (min.) continuous necessary to meet water quality recommendations.
• The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
• A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
assure that viruses and parasites are inactivated or destroyed.
• Fish caughl in impoundments can be consumed.

Landscape Impoundments • Secondary * <30 mg/l BOD • pH—weekly • 150 m topotable • Nutrient removal processes may be necessary to avoid algae growth in
Aesthetic impoundment • Disinfection * 530 mg/l SS • SS-daily water supply impoundments.
where public contact with • S200 fecal • Coiiform—daily wells (minimum) • Dechlorination may be necessary to protect aquatic species of flora and
reclaimed water is not fecal ooli/100 mi 4 • Cfe residual— if bottom not fauna.
allowed • 1 mg/l Cfe continuous sealed
residual (min.)

Construction Uses • Secondary • <30 mg/l BOD • BOD—weekly • Workercontactwithreclaimedwatershould be minimized.


Soil compaction, dust • Disinfection • ¿30 mg/l SS • SS-daily • A higher level of disinfection, e.g., to achieve <14 fecal coli/100 ml, should
control, washing aggregate, • <200 fecal • Coiiform—daily be provided where frequent worker contact with reclaimed water is likely.
making concrete fecaJcoliiiOOml4 • CÎ2 residual-
• 1 mg/l CI2 continuous
residual (min.)

Industrial Reuse • Secondary • pH=6-9 • pH—daily • 90 m to areas • Windblown spray should not reach areas accessible to users or the public.
Once-through cooling • <30 mg/l BOD • BOD-^weekly accessible to
• <30mg/ISS • SS—weekly the public
• S200 fecal • Coiiform—daily
coli/IOOml4 • CI2 residual—
• 1 mg/l CI2 continuous
residual (min.)

Recircufating cooling towers • Secondary • Variable, • 90 m to areas • Windblown spray should not reach areas accessible to the public.
• Disinfection depends on accessible to • Additional treatment by user is usually provided to prevent scaling, corrosion,
(chemical recirculation the public. biological growths, fouling and foaming.
coagulation and ratio May be reduced
filtration may be if high level of
needed) disinfection is
provided.

Other Industrial Uses

Continued...
Reclaimed
Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
1
of Reuse Treatment Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments

Environmental Reuse • Variable Variable, but not • BOD—weekly • Dechlorination may be necessary to protect aquatic species of flora and
Wetlands, marshes, wildlife • Secondary and to exceed: • SS-daily fauna.
habitat, stream disinfection • <30 mg/l BOD * Coliform—daily • Possible effects on groundwater should be evaluated.
augmentation (min.) • <30 mg/l SS • CI2 residual— • Receiving water quality requirements may necessitate additional treatment
* <200 fecal continuous • The temperature of the redaiimed water should not adversely affect
coli/100 ml* ecosystem.

Groundwater Recharge , • Site specific and • Site specific • Depends on • Site specific • Facility should be designed to ensure that no reclaimed water reaches
By spreading or injection use dependent and use treatment and potable water supply aquifers.
into non potable aquifers • Primary (min.) dependent use • For injection projects, filtration and disinfection may be needed to prevent
for spreading clogging.
• Secondary (min.)
for injection

Indirect Potable Reuse • Site specific • Site specific Includes, but not • 600 m to • The depth to groundwater (i.e., thickness of the vadose zone) should be at
Groundwater recharge by • Secondary and • Meet drinking limited to, the extraction wells. least 2m at the maximum groundwater mounding point.
spreading into potable disinfection (min.) water standards following: May vary • The reclaimed water should be retained underground for at least 1 year prior
aquifers May abo need after percolation • pH—daily depending on to withdrawal.
filtration and/or through vadose • Coliform—daily treatment • Recommended treatment is site-specific and depends on factors such as
advanced waste- zone • CI2 residual- provided and type of soil, percolation rate, thickness of vadose zone, native groundwater
water treatment continuous site-specific quality, and dilution.
* Drinking water conditions. • Monitoring wells are necessary to detect the influence of the recharge
standards— operation on the groundwater.
quarterly • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens
• Other5— after percolation through the vadose zone.7
depends on
constituent

Groundwater recharge by • Secondary Includes, but not Includes, but not • 600 m to • The reclaimed water should be retained underground for at least 1 year prior
injection into potable • Filtration limited to, the limited to, the extraction wells. to withdrawal.
aquifers • Disinfection following: following: May vary • Monitoring wells are necessary to detect the influence of the recharge
• Advanced • pH = 6.5-8.5 * pH—daily depending on operation on the groundwater.
wastewater • <2NTU • Turbidity— site-specific • Recommended quality limits should be met at the point of injection.
treatment • No detectable continuous conditions. • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens at
fecal coli/100 ml 3 • Coliform—daily the point of injection.7
• 1 mg/l CI2 • CI2 residual— • A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
residual (min.) continuous assure virus inactivation.
• Meet drinking • Drinking water
water standards standards-
quarterly
• Other5—
depends on
constituent

Continued...
3 Reclaimed
í/5
<D Types Reclaimed Water Water Setback
1
3- of Reuse Treatment Quality2 Monitoring Distances6 Comments
O
1
Indirect Potable Reuse • Secondaiy Includes, but not Includes, but not • Site specific • Recommended levei of treatment is site-specific and depends on factors
Augmentation of surface • Filtration limited to, the limited to, the such as receiving water quality, time and distance to point of withdrawal,
supplies ...-' • Disinfection following: following: dilution and subsequent treatment prior to distribution for potable uses.
XI • Advanced • pH =6.5-8.5 • pH—daily • The reclaimed water should not contain measurable levels of pathogens.7
w wastewater • <2NTU • Turbidity— • A higher chlorine residual and/or a longer contact time may be necessary to
<D treatment • No detectable continuous assure virus ¡nactivation.
? fecalcoli/IOOml3 • Coliform—daily
2- • 1 mg/l Cfc • Cl2 residual- • . • • •

CO residual (min.) continuous


3"
S> • Meet drinking • Drinking water
s. water standards standards-
quarterly
• Other5—
depends on
constituent

Note: Portions of this table are discussed in detailin theGt/(tfef;nes.Ariy country interested in using the table to develop standards is advised to obtain a copy of theGLf/dei/nesforreference. Copies may be obtained or»
request from WASH headquarters or from Camp Dresser & McKee Inc. in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
For virtually ail types of reuse, other recommended levels for trace heavy metals and other parameters may apply. Also.ahigh standard of treatment reliability is required, because of the potential for harm in the
use of improperly treated water. A number of fallible elements combine to make up a water reclamation system. These include the power supply, individual treatment units, mechanical equipment, the maintenance
program, and the operating personnel. Design features and backup systems are important in maintaining reclaimed system reliability, similar to drinking water reliability because customers depend upon continuity of
supply as well as quality.
Footnotes
1. Types of treatment are as follows: Primary—a. physical treatment process to remove settteable organic and inorganic solids by sedimentation and floating materials by skimming; Secondary— includes activated sludge
processes, trickling f¡Itera, rotating biological contactors, and stabilization pond systems (secondary treatment should produce effluent in which both the BOD [biochemical oxygen demand] and SS [suspended solids] do
not exceed 30 mg/l); Filtration—the passing of wastewater through undisturbed filter media such as sand and/or anthracite; Disinfection—the destruction, ¡nactivation, or removal of pathogenic micro-organisms by
chemical, physical, or biological means (disinfection may be accomplished by chlorination, ozonation, other chemical disinfectants, UV radiation, and membrane and other prooesses); Advanced Wastewater
Treatment—in cludeschemicaldarification, carbon aci sorption, reverse os mos is, and othe r mem brane processes , ai r stripp i ng, u I trafiltration, and ¡on exchange.
2. Unless otherwise noted, recommended quality limits appty to the reclaimed water at the point of discharge from the treatment facility. Concerning taking measurements of BOD, NTU, fecal coliforms and chlorine residual,
please note the following. BOD levels are as determined from the 5-day BOD test. NTU (nephelometric turbidity units) limits should be met prior to disinfection; the average turbidity should be based on a 24-hour time
period; the turbidity should not exceed 5 NTU at any time; if SS is used in lieu of turbidity, the average SS should not exceed 5 mg/l. Unless otherwise noted, recommended coliform limits are median values determined
from the bacteriological results of the last 7 days for which analyses have been completed. Either the membrane filter or fermentation tube technique may be used. Total chlorine residual should be measured after a
minimum contact time of 30 minutes.
3. The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 14/100 ml in any sample.
4. The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 800/1 (SO ml in any sample. Some stabilization pond systems may be able to meet this coliform limit without disinfection.
5. Monitoring should include inorganic and organic compounds, or dasses of compounds, that are known or suspected tobe toxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, or mutagenic and are not included in #ie drkiking water
standards.

7. It is advisable to fully characterize the microbiological quality of the reclaimed water prior to implementation of a reuse program.
8. Commercially processed food crops are those that, prior to sale to the public or others, have undergone chemical or physical processing sufficient to destroy pathogens.
CEv
Ai
te
P.O. oi..
Tel. (070)

-(.Ci
Developing-Country Wastewater Reuse Issues

— —

Planning Issues

any
effective than one which uses more modem
capital-intensive technology. In instanceT
17-f l ^ k t o b e Perf°rmed cannot be
madüy performed by even l o w e s t labor,
ould however, mechanization and automation
are appropriate in the developing world.
* The difference in availability of qualified
en&neers, sdntists, and technicians calls for a
different approach to planning. I n developing
countnes, where qualified staff and support
institutions are not readily available
investments in equipment that is reliable
and simple, even though the initial costs
• ^intensive designs are to be preferred in may be higher, may be advisable.
developing countries. While the principles of
wastewater reclamation facility design and The advantages of new construction
operation are the same in developing and over
industrialized countries, i m p l i c a t i o n of
projects dlffers. Industrialized countries tend
to be capital-intensive while developing
countries are labor-intensive. In develop™ te
7 a t h e r * » * Points of disposal
countries a facility that can be built and reclamation facilities is far more costly than
operated with local labor will be more cost

Technical Issues
• The need for infrastructure. The first technical
* Reducing the minimum slopes to reduce
construction and pumping costs.
* Increasing the distance between
manholes.
municipal wastewater treatment pllms fn
• Using indigenous materials.
* Using computer-aided design to obtain
least-cost sewerage system layouts.
% technol
L £ f T °gies- While the planning and Most of these modifications increase maintenance
design of sewerage systems is beyond the scopíof the
Guidelines, it l s an important consideration. The c o s o f ' Ttheg e a t e l0W C0StS f lab0r in
°
r maintena
n dd ee
^^ PP «« SS
; ^ «ste are offset by
ngs in construction. Also required are strone
instuutions that can provide the nelssaTy per o n S for
preventive maintenance and other labor-intensive
programs of construction and operation

Water Reuse Fact Sheet 3


• Water quality standards. A critical objective for any • Monitoring water quantity. Because reclaimed water
reuse program is assurance that health protection is not is a product, the provision of promised quantity, as well
compromised by the use of reclaimed water. Although as quality, must be assured. For agricultural applications,
other objectives—such as preventing environmental brief intervals of nondelivery may be tolerable; for most
degradation and meeting user requirements—are also urban applications, a continuous supply is mandatory,
important, the major consideration, especially in
developing countries, is the safe delivery and use of • Choice of treatment. In developing countries, the
appropriate quality reclaimed water. Therefore water choice of treatment—conventional with primary
quality standards must be established. sedimentation, secondary treatment (activated sludge,
Public health is protected by reducing concentrations trickling filtration, rotation biological contactors or
of pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, and enteric viruses in something similar), sand filtration, and disinfection, or
the reclaimed water; controlling chemical constituents the use of stabilization ponds—is usually determined
in reclaimed water; and limiting human exposure by local circumstances.
(contact, inhalation, ingestion) to the reclaimed water. • If nearby lands are available at a low cost,
Although potable reuse may not be intended, stabilization ponds may be the most
inadvertent ingestion may occur. Reclaimed water for appropriate choice. The effluent produced
unrestricted nonpotable reuse to which the public at will be suitable for agricultural irrigation,
large is exposed must be free of pathogenic and the WHO guidelines indicate the
microorganisms. effluent may be acceptable for market
The box on pages 5-6 and the four-page table on the crops, recognizing that fruit and vegetable
insert provide guidance on setting standards for products may need disinfecting before
wastewater reuse. The box summarizes the WHO use. Filtration and chemical disinfection
guidelines for wastewater reuse in agriculture and of pond effluents may not be
aquaculture that were prepared partly to meet the need operationally feasible; the cost may also
for reuse standards in developing countries. be prohibitive.
The table summarizes guidelines for all types of
wastewater reuse, not just for agriculture. Suggested • In larger cities that have sewerage systems,
treatment processes, reclaimed water quality, conventional treatment will likely be the
monitoring frequency, and setback distances are given treatment of choice. In such areas, where
for the following reuse categories: unrestricted urban reclamation and reuse may be promising,
reuse, restricted access area irrigation, irrigation of food sufficient land for ponds may be unavailable,
crops, irrigation of non-food crops, recreational too expensive, or unacceptable to the public
impoundments, landscape impoundments, construction as the city expands.
uses, industrial reuse, environmental reuse,
groundwater recharge, and indirect potable reuse.
The table is intended for use mainly by utilities and
regulatory agencies in the United States that have not
designed their own standards. It is based principally on
water reclamation and reuse practice in the United
States, but is included here because no other
comprehensive guidelines are available. It should
provide reasonable guidance but should not be viewed
as definitive. Also, it should be noted that A.I.D. does
not use the direct application of the guidelines in the
table as a strict criterion for funding.
• Monitoring water quality, A protocol for monitoring
the quality of wastewater is required. Deviations in the
established standards may be permissible for wastewater
discharges to a river; for reclaimed water, particularly in
urban reuse, deviations are no more acceptable than they
are for drinking water. On-line, real-time monitoring is
preferable to sampling and laboratory analysis where the
results arrive too late to take corrective action. Although
some tests, like fecal coliform counts, take time, a simple
and useful measure of reclaimed water quality is
turbidity. A sudden increase in turbidity provides a
warning that corrective action is required. In countries where wastewater is used for irrigation, treatment
like these trickling filters at a wastewater treatment facility in
Melipilla, Chile, improve the quality of water for reuse.

4 Water Reuse Fact Sheet


WHO Guidelines for Wastewater Reuse In Agriculture and Aquaculture
Guidance in establishing regulations is provided by the World Health Organiza-
tion. In 1973, WHO recommended health criteria and treatment processes for reuse
applications ranging from irrigation of crops not intended for human consumption all
the way to potable reuse. These recommendations were reviewed in 1985, and a re-
vised approach to the nature of health risks associated with agriculture and aquacul-
ture was developed (other nonpotable uses were not reviewed). The 1989 WHO
publication, Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture
(Technical Series No. 778), is consistent with the revised approach.

Agricultural Reuse
The 1989 guidelines are based on the conclusion that the main health risks asso-
ciated with agricultural reuse in developing countries are associated with helminthic
diseases and, therefore, a high degree of helminth removal is necessary for the safe use
of wastewater for agriculture and aquaculture. The WHO Guidelines for wastewater
use in agriculture are summarized in the table below.

WHO Recommended Microbiological Guidelines for Wastewater Use In Agriculture

intestinal Wastewater
nematodes Fecal treatment expected
(arithmetic conforms to achieve the
mean no. of (geometric required
Reuse Exposed eggs per mean no. per microbiological
Category Conditions Group liter)2 100 ml)2 quality

A Irrigation of crops Workers, S1 £1,000 A series of stabilization ponds


likely to be eaten consumers, designed to achieve the
uncooked, sports public microbiological quality indicated, or
fields, public parks equivalent treatment
B irrigation of cerea Workers S1 No standards Retention in stabilization ponds for
crops, industrial crops, recommended 8-10 days or equivalent helminth
fodder crops, pasture and fecal coliform removal
and trees
Localized irrigation of None Not Not Pretreatment as required by the
crops in Category B if applicable applicable irrigation technology, but not less
exposure of workers and than primary sedimentation
the public does not occur
Note: In specific cases, local epidemiológica!, socioculturel, and environmental factors should be taken into account, and the guidelines modified
accordingly.
Footnotes
1. Ascaris and Trichuris species and hookworms.
2. During the irrigation period.
3. In the case of fruit trees, irrigation should cease 2 weeks before fruit Is picked, and no fruit should be picked off the ground. Sprinkler Irrigation
should not be used.
Source: WHO, 1989.

Water Reuse Fact Sheet 5


WHO Guidelines Continued
Additional water quality considerations include:
• Agricultural irrigation near cities. Where dual urban water
systems exist (fresh water for potable purposes in one system
and reclaimed water for nonpotable purposes in another) and
where water is used for agricultural irrigation near the city,
the irrigation water should meet the quality requirements for
unrestricted urban reuse.
• No land available for stabilization ponds. If the use of stabilization
ponds is not feasible and conventional wastewater treatment is
used, chlorine disinfection is required for irrigation of market
crops.
• Standards for exports. If fruits and vegetables are exported, the
standards must be those of the target country.

Aquaculture

Concerning aquaculture, a number of infections caused by excreted pathogens


are of concern, including invasion of fish muscle by bacteria and high pathogen
concentrations in the digestive tract and the intraperitoneal fluid of the fish. Due to
the limited available data, the following guidelines are tentative.
• A geometric mean of 1,000 fecal coliforms per 100 rril to insure
that bacterial invasion of fish muscle is prevented. The same stan-
dard should be maintained for pond water in which aquatic vege-
tables are grown.
• High standards of hygiene during fish handling and
gutting.
• Total absence of viable trematode eggs is recommended as the
appropriate helminths quality guideline. This can be readily
achieved by stabilization pond treatment.
The WHO guidelines have been and continue to be controversial. Some view
them as too stringent; others as not stringent enough. However, in many locations
where raw sewage or rivers heavily polluted with raw sewage are used for irriga-
tion, any treatment would be an improvement. If stabilization ponds are feasible
and the WHO guidelines Can be attained, that would be a major public health ad-
vance. If ponds are not feasible, the standards may be approached in stages by pro-
viding conventional treatment facilities.

6 Water Reuse Fact Sheet


Institutional Issues
• Institutional development. In some instances, the • Lack of funds and agencies for wastewater.
need for reuse may prompt institutional development. Developing countries have relatively strong institutions
When large investments are to be made in urban for managing water-supply systems, but agencies for
sewerage, the government will often assign responsibility managing wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal
for sewerage and wastewater treatment to the water are poorly organized and lacking in funds. Water-supply
agency instead of creating or strengthening a sewerage agencies, which can recover some of their costs through
agency. An advantage of this approach is that an operating user fees for water service, resist being joined with
organization with experienced officials is involved in the agencies responsible for sewerage since these agencies
enterprise. It also offers economies and efficiencies of scale depend almost entirely on the limited financial resources
and provides a mechanism for cost recovery. of local government.
Examining the relevant institutions and a plan for
their modification to permit them to undertake the
capital program should be the first order of business.

Legal Issues
• Vested water rights. Traditional practice or reclaimed water appropriate for various uses; controls,
customary law in most developing countries, and such as use restrictions, that will reduce human
formal law in many, recognize that a water user exposure; access controls on reclaimed water systems
acquires vested rights to use a certain amount of water and controls preventing cross-connections between
under defined circumstances. If the amount of water drinking water and reclaimed water distribution
available to a current user changes, vested rights may networks; regulations on sludge disposal and facility
entitle the user to compensation such as monetary siting; and mechanisms to enforce these regulations
payment or a supplemental water supply. Rights in including monitoring requirements, inspection
reclaimed water are uncertain; they may be vested in authority, and authority to assess violation penalties.
the producer or in riparian downstream owners
deprived of the water, who may require compensation. • Legal and procedural issues touched on above.
• An agreed-upon definition of "reclaimed
• Regulations. Water reuse projects should include water".
development and implementation of regulations to
prevent or moderate public health or environmental • Specified rights of ownership to reclaimed
problems. These regulations include: permit systems for water.
authorizing wastewater discharges; technical controls • A licensing system for use of reclaimed water.
on wastewater treatment; water quality standards for

Economic and Financial Issues


• Cost recovery. In the United States it is now generally • Integrated approach. Because water supply and
accepted that the user is responsible for meeting the sewerage costs in water reclamation and reuse should
costs of water and sanitation services; however, in be considered together, all the agencies involved,
developing countries water has often been provided including external support agencies, should approach
free or at a nominal charge. The economic justification water reclamation projects in an integrated way.
for water reuse is that the costs of developing additional
water sources can be offset, but, where such costs are • Economic rationale. The economic rationale for
subsidized by governments or external support water reuse in developing countries must take into
agencies, they appear low. Unless the real costs of consideration costs savings from new sources that
providing water and sewerage are passed through to would not be required or that could be postponed. Also,
users, a reclaimed water system will be no more the costs of collection and treatment can be construed as
sustainable than a system that does not recover its costs benefits in terms of providing sewerage services that
from users. would be necessary in any case.

Continued on page 8.

Water Reuse Fact Sheet 7


Continued from page 7. • Setting tariffs. A reuse program can be the means of
introducing a rational pricing structure, based on a
• Cost/benefit calculations. Benefits other than cost rational market price for water. All reclaimed water
savings need to be considered more carefully than in customers should be metered. The price for fresh or
developed countries. For example, a wastewater reuse reclaimed wastewater to all customers should reflect the
project may free potable water service and full production cost. The full resource costs of reclaimed
accompanying benefits to be extended to people who water, if conventional sewerage and wastewater
otherwise would have had to haul water for their treatment are considered separately, should be less than
households, purchase high priced water, or use that of fresh water, and this difference should be
contaminated water. reflected in tariff structures.

Conclusion
Water reclamation and reuse is a viable option for expanding usable water resources in developing
countries. However, it is not sufficient to imitate methods used in industrialized countries; what is done
must be adjusted for the specific problems encountered in developing countries. Reuse of untreated
wastewater, without regulation by public authorities, is already common practice in urban areas of devel-
oping countries where water is scarce. This has resulted in serious health problems.
Implementation of wastewater reuse in most cities in the developing world must begin with provision of
basic sanitation services.

Resources
Guidelines for Water Reuse by James Crook, David K. Ammerman, Daniel A. Okun, and Robert L. Matthews. Cambridge,
MA: Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., 1992. (Also issued by WASH as Technical Report No. 81.)
Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture, report of a World Health Organization
Scientific Report, Technical Report Series 778. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 1989.
Irrigation with Reclaimed Municipal Wastewater—A Guidance Manual, edited by G. Stuart Pettygrove and Takashi Asano.
Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers, Inc., 1985.
Proceedings of Four Symposia on Water Reuse sponsored by the American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
Use of Human Wastes in Agriculture and Aquaculture. Utilization Practices and Health Perspectives by Martin Strauss and
Ursula J. Blumenthal. IRCWD Report No. 08/90. International Reference Center for Waste Disposal, Duebendorf,
Switzerland.
Wastewater Irrigation in Developing Countries. Health Effects and Technical Solutions. Summary of World Bank Technical Paper
Number 51 by Hillel I. Shuval. World Bank, 1990.
"Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse," edited by R. Mijeriego and T. Asano. Report of a symposium sponsored by the
International Association on Water Pollution Research and Control. Water Science and Technology, 24(9) (1991): 36.

Il

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This fact sheet, prepared by TEL: (703) 243-8200 FAX: (703) 243-9004
Diane Bendahmane, is based Sponsored by:
primarily on Chapter 8 of the U.S. Agency for International Development
Guidelines by Daniel Okun. Operated by: CDM and Associates

8 Water Reuse Fact Sheet

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