The document discusses the brake system of vehicles. It describes how brakes work to convert the movement of the vehicle into heat to slow and stop the wheels. The main parts of the brake system are the brake pedal, master cylinder, brake lines, wheel cylinders or calipers, and friction materials. When the driver presses the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is transferred through the lines to the wheel components to squeeze the friction materials against the rotating brake drums or rotors, slowing the wheels and ultimately the vehicle through traction with the road surface. Antilock braking systems help prevent wheel lockup under various road conditions to maximize braking effectiveness and safety.
The document discusses the brake system of vehicles. It describes how brakes work to convert the movement of the vehicle into heat to slow and stop the wheels. The main parts of the brake system are the brake pedal, master cylinder, brake lines, wheel cylinders or calipers, and friction materials. When the driver presses the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is transferred through the lines to the wheel components to squeeze the friction materials against the rotating brake drums or rotors, slowing the wheels and ultimately the vehicle through traction with the road surface. Antilock braking systems help prevent wheel lockup under various road conditions to maximize braking effectiveness and safety.
The document discusses the brake system of vehicles. It describes how brakes work to convert the movement of the vehicle into heat to slow and stop the wheels. The main parts of the brake system are the brake pedal, master cylinder, brake lines, wheel cylinders or calipers, and friction materials. When the driver presses the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is transferred through the lines to the wheel components to squeeze the friction materials against the rotating brake drums or rotors, slowing the wheels and ultimately the vehicle through traction with the road surface. Antilock braking systems help prevent wheel lockup under various road conditions to maximize braking effectiveness and safety.
The document discusses the brake system of vehicles. It describes how brakes work to convert the movement of the vehicle into heat to slow and stop the wheels. The main parts of the brake system are the brake pedal, master cylinder, brake lines, wheel cylinders or calipers, and friction materials. When the driver presses the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is transferred through the lines to the wheel components to squeeze the friction materials against the rotating brake drums or rotors, slowing the wheels and ultimately the vehicle through traction with the road surface. Antilock braking systems help prevent wheel lockup under various road conditions to maximize braking effectiveness and safety.
Brakes are by far the most important mechanism on any vehicle because the safety and lives of those riding in the vehicle depend on proper operation of the braking system. It has been estimated that the brakes on the average vehicle are applied 50,000 times a year! Brakes are an energy-absorbing mechanism that converts vehicle movement into heat while stopping the rotation of the wheels. All braking systems are designed to reduce the speed and stop a moving vehicle and to keep it from moving if the vehicle is stationary. Service brakes are the main driver-operated brakes of the vehicle. Service brakes are also called base brakes or foundation brakes see figure 8-1
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8-2 BRAKE SYSTEM PARTS.
Most vehicles built since the late 1920s use a brake on each wheel. To stop a wheel, the driver exerts a force on a brake pedal. The force on the brake pedal pressurizes brake fluid in a master cylinder. This hydraulic force (liquid under pressure) is transferred through steel lines and flexible brake lines to a wheel cylinder or caliper at each wheel. Hydraulic pressure to each wheel cylinder or caliper is used to force friction materials against the brake drum or rotor. The friction between the stationary friction material and the rotating drum or rotor (disc) causes the rotating part to slow and eventually stop. Since the wheels are attached to the drums or rotors, the wheels of the vehicles also stop. The heavier the vehicle and the higher the speed, the more heat the brakes have to be able to absorb. Long, steep hills can cause the brakes to overheat which results in the brakes not being able to produce the friction necessary to slow or stop a vehicle.
8-2-1 The Brake Pedal
The brake pedal is a simple lever. The fulcrum is at the top of the brake pedal arm, the input is on the opposite end, and the output rod is somewhere in between. For example, a driver input force of 100 N is multiplied by a 4:1 ratio into 400 N of output force. This output force becomes the input force for the power brake unit or booster. The travel of the drivers foot will be 4 times the travel of the booster input push rod. Pedal ratios on most power brake vehicles today vary between 3:1 and 5:1
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8-2-2 Master cylinder\
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION
The master cylinder is the heart of the entire braking system. No braking occurs until the driver depresses the brake pedal. The brake pedal linkage is used to apply the force of the driver’s foot into a closed hydraulic system that begins with the master cylinder.
MASTER CYLINDER RESERVOIRS
Most vehicles built since the early 1980s are equipped with see-through master cylinder reservoirs, which permit owners and service technicians to check the brake fluid level without having to remove the top of the reservoir. Some countries have laws that require this type of reservoir. The reservoir capacity is great enough to allow for the brakes to become completely worn out and still have enough fluid reserve for safe operation. The typical capacity of the entire braking system is usually 2 to 3 pints (1 to 1.5 liters). Vehicles equipped with four wheel disc brakes usually hold 4 pints (2 liters) or more. The entire brake system is filled with brake fluid up to the “full” level of the master cylinder reservoir. see figure 8-2
Figure 8-2 the Master cylinder with brake fluid level at the “max” (maximum) line.
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8-2-3 DRUM BRAKES.
Drum brakes are used on the rear of many rear wheel-drive, front-wheel-drive, and four-wheel-drive vehicles. When drum brakes are applied, brake shoes are moved outward against a rotating brake drum. The wheel studs for the wheels are attached to the drum. When the drum slows and stops, the wheels also slow and stop. Drum brakes are economical to manufacture, service, and repair. Parts for drum brakes are generally readily available and reasonably priced. On some vehicles, an additional drum brake is used as a parking brake on vehicles equipped with rear disc brakes. See figure 8-3 shown brake drum brake shoes.
8-2-3 DISC BRAKES.
Disc brakes are used on the front of most vehicles built since the early 1970s and on the rear wheels of many vehicles. disc brake operates by squeezing brake pads on both sides of a rotor or disc that is attached to the wheel. Disc brakes use a piston to squeeze friction material (pads) on both sides of a rotating disc (rotor). Disc may be spelled disk by some manufacturers, but disc is the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) term and the most commonly used spelling in the industry. The rotor is attached to and stops the wheel. Disc brakes are used on the front wheels of late-model vehicles, and on the rear wheels of an increasing number of automobiles. Disc brakes were adopted primarily because they can supply greater stopping power than drum brakes with less likelihood of fade. This makes disc brakes especially well suited for use as front brakes, which must provide 60% to 80% of the vehicle’s total stopping power
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figure 8-3 all components of the brake system
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8-2-4 Brake lines
High-pressure double-walled steel brake lines or high-strength flexible lines are used to connect the master cylinder to each wheel. The steel brake lines are also called brake pipes or brake tubing. Brake lines carry brake fluid from the master cylinder to the ABS hydraulic control unit, wheel cylinders, and brake calipers. The brake lines contain and direct the pressure of the brake hydraulic system. Most of the total length of the brake line consists of rigid tubing. For maximum strength and durability, all brake systems use double walled brake tubing made from plated steel sheet. There are two types of double-walled tubing: _ Seamless _ Multiple ply
8-2-5 WHEEL CYLINDERS
Hydraulic pressure is transferred from the master cylinder to each wheel cylinder through brake fluid. The force exerted on the brake fluid by the driver forces the piston inside the wheel cylinder to move outward. Through pushrods or links, this movement acts on the brake shoes, forcing them.
8-2-6 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BRAKE SHOES
The primary shoe (forward facing shoe) is self-energized by drum rotation to create a servo action that forces the secondary shoe more firmly against the drum. Because of this, the two shoes have physical differences and cannot be interchanged. To help deal with the added friction, heat, and wear it undergoes, the lining of the secondary shoe extends nearly the full length of the shoe lining The secondary shoe lining material also has a high coefficient of friction to provide good stopping power. The primary shoe undergoes far less stress than the secondary shoe, and its lining is often shorter sometimes less .
Figure 8-4 A typical dual-servo drum brake
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8-3 Brake design requirement.
All braking forces must provide for the following:
1- Equal forces must be applied to both the left and right sides of the vehicle to assure straight stops. 2- Hydraulic systems must be properly engineered and serviced to provide for changes as vehicle weight shifts forward during braking. Hydraulic valves must be used in the hydraulic system to permit the maximum possible braking forces but still prevent undesirable wheel lockup. Antilock braking systems (ABS) are specifically designed to prevent wheel lockup under all driving conditions, including wet or icy road conditions. 3- The hydraulic system must use a fluid that will not evaporate or freeze. The fluid has to withstand extreme temperatures without boiling and must not damage rubber or metal parts of the braking system. 4- The friction material (brake shoes or brake pads) must be designed to provide adequate friction between the stationary shoes or pads and the rotating drum or rotor. The friction material should be environmentally safe. Non asbestos lining is generally considered to be safe for the environment and the technician. The design of the braking system should secure the brake lining solidly to prevent the movement of the friction material during braking. It is this movement of the friction material that causes brake noise (squeal). 5- Most braking systems incorporate a power assist unit that reduces the driver’s effort but does not reduce stopping distance. The most commonly used brake booster is vacuum operated.
Due to the friction between the road surface and the tires, the vehicle stops. To summarize, the sequence of events necessary to stop a vehicle include the following:
1. The driver presses on the brake pedal.
2. The brake pedal force is transferred hydraulically to a wheel cylinder or caliper at each wheel. 3. Hydraulic pressure inside the wheel cylinder or caliper presses friction materials (brake shoes or pads) against rotating brake drums or rotors. 4. The friction slows and stops the drum or rotor. Since the drum or rotor is bolted to the wheel of the vehicle, the wheel also stops.
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5. When the wheels of the vehicle slow and stop, the tires must have friction (traction) with the road surface to stop the vehicle.
8-4 Antilock braking systems (ABS)
ABS help prevent the wheels from locking during sudden braking, especially on slippery surfaces. This helps the driver maintain control. Antilock brakes increase safety because they eliminate lockup and minimize the danger of skidding, allowing the vehicle to stop in a straight line. ABS also allows the driver to maintain steering control during heavy braking so the vehicle can be steered to avoid an obstacle or another vehicle. ABS can improve braking when road conditions are less than ideal, as when making a sudden panic stop or when braking on a wet or slick road. ABS does this by monitoring the relative speed of the wheels to one another. It uses this information to modulate brake pressure as needed to control slippage and maintain traction when the brakes are applied.
ABS AND TIRE TRACTION
Preventing brake lockup is important because of the adverse effect a locked wheel has on tire traction. The brakes slow the rotation of the wheels, but it is friction between the tire and road that stops the vehicle and allows it to be steered. If tire traction is reduced, stopping distances increase, and the directional stability of the vehicle suffers. Traction is defined in terms of tire slip, which is the difference between the actual speed and the rate at which the tire tread moves across the road. A free-rolling wheel has nearly zero tire slip, while a locked wheel has 100% tire slip. between the tire and road that stops the vehicle and allows it to be . When the brakes are applied, the rotational speed of the wheel drops, and tire slip increases because the tread moves across the road slower than the actual vehicle speed. This slip creates friction that converts kinetic energy into braking and cornering force.
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he theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A skidding wheel (where the tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction than a non- skidding wheel. If you have been stuck on ice, you know that if your wheels are spinning you have no traction. This is because the contact patch is sliding relative to the ice By keeping the wheels from skidding while you slow down, anti-lock brakes benefit you in two ways: You'll stop faster, and you'll be able to steer while you stop.
There are four main components to an ABS system:
Speed sensors
Pump
Valves
Controller
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Speed Sensors
The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock up. The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential, provide this information.
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve has three positions:
In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the brake.
In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.
In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
Pump
Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure back up.
Controller
The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and controls the valves.
ABS at Work
There are many different variations and control algorithms for ABS systems. We will discuss how one of the simpler systems works.
The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking
for decelerations in the wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 kph) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second.
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The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it
reduces the pressure to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power.
When the ABS system is in operation you will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 15 times per second.
