Building a Climate-Resilient City:

Urban ecosystems
KEY MESSAGES:
• Ecosystems and green infrastructure provide human health benefits and critical
environmental, social and economic services, and protect against climate
shock.
• Healthy and well-managed ecosystems are economic assets that enhance a
city’s resilience to natural disturbances and extreme weather events.
• Investing in urban ecosystems and green infrastructure can provide lower-cost
solutions to multiple challenges when compared to traditional infrastructure
solutions.

Alberta’s climate has changed and will continue in the summer. Alberta’s climate is also expected
to change in the coming decades. The province’s to become more variable, leading to greater
mean annual temperature is expected to rise risk of extreme weather such as flash floods,
2°C by the 2030s and 4°C by the 2060s (compared severe rain and hail storms, heat waves, lightning
to the 1990s) should the current rate of global and tornados and long term stresses such as
greenhouse gas emissions remain unchanged. droughts, changes in seasonality and increase of
This level of warming is greater than the pest, diseases & invasive species. These projected
projected increase for the globe as a whole. changes have significant implications for Alberta’s
Precipitation levels and patterns will likewise economy, society and environment. Should global
change; total average annual precipitation is greenhouse gas emission rates decline, the
projected to increase, but with precipitation change in Alberta’s climate will be less severe but
levels likely increasing in the winter and declining still significant.

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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

These changes have a myriad of implications for

Edmonton and Calgary and pose multiple threats BOX 1. QUALITIES OF A RESILIENT CITY2
to their urban natural spaces and the various Reflective: People and institutions reflect and
ecosystems within them. The scale and sensitivity learn from past experiences and leverage this
of these ecosystems will vary; some will be able learning to inform future decision making.
to shift and expand their ranges and others will
Robustness: Urban physical assets are
struggle to adapt. As damage in these ecosystems
designed, constructed and maintained in
and their functions accumulates, their ability
anticipation of high-impact climate events.
to supply ecosystem goods and services—the
benefits humans derive from ecosystems—may be Redundancy: Spare capacity is built into the
diminished. For example, urban ecosystems are system to account for disruptions and surges
particularly vulnerable to the arrival of a growing in demand. It also involves multiple ways of
number of invasive species as changing climatic fulfilling a need or function.
conditions make it possible for them to thrive in
Flexible: Refers to the willingness and ability
Alberta, including non-native plants and animals
to adopt alternative strategies in response to
that have no natural predators. It is important
changing circumstances or sudden crises. This
to note that the magnitude, timing and location
can be achieved through new knowledge and
of these losses is difficult to predict, considering
technologies.
that the pace and nature of climate change itself
is uncertain. Resourcefulness: Citizens and institutions are
aware of climate risks, able to adapt to shocks
In response, there is a need to build the
and stresses and can quickly respond to a
resilience of urban ecosystems and the cities that
changing environment.
surround them so that they are better able to
withstand anticipated and unanticipated shocks Inclusive: Inclusive processes emphasize the
and stresses. A resilient city is one in which need for broad consultation and many views
its institutions, communities, businesses and to create a sense of shared ownership or a
individuals have the capacity to function and are joint vision to build city resilience.
able to “survive, adapt and grow” in response to
Integrated: Integrated processes bring
any kind of sudden short or long disruption that
together and align city systems to promote
they may experience. Such cities integrate the
consistency in decision making and
qualities of flexibility, redundancy, robustness,
investments. Exchange of information between
resourcefulness, reflectiveness, inclusiveness
components of the system enables them to
and integration into all aspects of city functions
function collectively and respond rapidly.
(see Box 1). These qualities of resilience are
considered to be essential to preventing the
breakdown or failure of a system and enabling it
from using the multiple functions performed
to take action in a timely manner.1
by urban ecosystems. It is one of a series of
With this in mind, the paper focuses on enhancing papers prepared by the Prairie Climate Centre
and using urban ecosystems to reduce exposure to provide the public and government officials
to natural hazards and enhance adaptive with an overview of the means by which to build
capacity in a changing climate, underpinning the cities that are resilient to the impacts of climate
qualities of a resilient city. It further explores change, drawing on lived experience and best
the vast additional benefits that are gained practices.

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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

Understanding Resilient Urban bodies. Moreover, ecosystems play a vital

role in cycling and storing carbon for
Ecosystems
climate regulation. Soils store carbon while
Ecosystems and their services are critical to vegetation, particularly trees and forests,
human health and well-being and provide society store carbon in biomass.
with products that support biodiversity and
• Social benefits. Urban natural spaces
economic development (e.g., food, clean water,
provide mental and physical health
flood mitigation and disease control). These
benefits. Access to green space has
products and services are often referred to as
been linked to reduced mortality and
ecosystem goods and services.3 A diverse array
improved, perceived and actual general
of urban ecosystems and habitats can provide
and mental health benefits.8 In urban
ecosystem goods and services, including: green
areas, vegetation helps to significantly
spaces (such as parks urban forests), cemeteries,
reduce air and noise pollution, positively
vacant lots, gardens and yards, and campus
affecting health. In addition, natural spaces
areas; and blue spaces, including streams,
provide an excellent opportunity for
lakes, ponds, artificial swales and stormwater
education and citizen’s involvement in their
retention ponds.4 This list can be expanded to
communities, which in turn can promote
include green infrastructure (e.g., green roofs),
development of a stewardship culture
which is defined as natural vegetative systems
and create opportunities for residents
and green technologies that replicate the
to be meaningfully engaged in planning
functions of ecosystems and provide society with
processes.
a multitude of benefits.5 Healthy and functional
urban ecosystems are essential to building the
resilience of cities as, through their ecosystems
goods and services, they provide multiple
environmental, social and economic benefits:
• Environmental benefits. Natural spaces
such as urban parks, green walls, green
roofs and street trees provide a number
environmental benefits: they offset the
urban heat island effect, improve air
quality and reduce air temperatures
through shade, thereby reducing energy
use for cooling. Ecosystem services within
and around cities can provide insurance
by helping to buffer against many
disturbances, such as flooding and storms.6
For example, urban wetland ecosystems
can act as filtration systems, treating
stormwater to reduce pollution while
simultaneously offering amenity value.
Natural spaces and green infrastructure can
reduce soil erosion and protect river banks7
as well as help manage water quality and
quantity by reducing total runoff, including
untreated runoff, before it enters water

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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

• Economic benefits. Urban ecosystems Building a resilient city therefore requires:

and green infrastructure, which can be (1) Ensuring a resilient supply of urban natural
combined with engineered infrastructure spaces to maintain and increase their
or other technological approaches, are quality, quantity and diversity.
often more cost-effective than grey
(2) Expanding and making active use of natural
infrastructure alone. To illustrate, Elmqvist
spaces and green infrastructure.
et al. (2015) analyzed 25 studies done in
urban regions that estimated the monetary There are various ways in which the benefits
value of benefits of ecosystem services of urban ecosystems can be maximized and
based on quantification in biophysical contribute to building resilient cities, some of
units (e.g., carbon storage, stormwater which are illustrated through interventions that
reduction, pollution removal).9 The data enhance three of the qualities of resilient cities:
from the studied cities estimated that the robustness, redundancy and resourcefulness.
ecosystems analyzed provided between
Building Robustness
USD 3,212 and USD 17,772 in benefits per
hectare of urban green areas per year.10 Since urban ecosystems must thrive in a variable
These calculations provide a useful climate, it is important to integrate uncertainty
economic rationale for investments and change into municipal management
in environmental protection and processes while ensuring sustainable delivery of
improvements. Green infrastructure can ecosystem services. This can be translated into
also simultaneously provide both climate the practical techniques outlined below.
change mitigating and adaptation benefits, Assessments of the climate change vulnerability
which are particularly beneficial in the of urban ecosystems such as forests, the urban
context of cities working within limited tree canopy, wetlands and other natural features
budgets. in the city will be essential to understanding
Overall, urban ecosystems and green how ecosystem functioning might change over
infrastructure provide a large roster of critical space and time and what factors contribute to
ecosystem services that can improve human this change.11 The results of these assessments
health and well-being while also buffering against can be used to integrate climate adaptation into
natural disturbances and extreme weather events. biodiversity conservation efforts by learning from
Maintaining a sustainable and vibrant supply monitoring outcomes and being proactive about
of these services in the face of climate change managing urban ecosystems.12 For example, in the
and other threats is therefore essential toward case of planting trees, ensuring the continued
fostering resilience. presence of a riparian forest may mean adjusting
its species and age mix so that the forest can
However, only healthy, well-functioning withstand diseases or storms anticipated to
ecosystems can provide these valuable services become more common as the climate changes.13
and make a positive contribution to building a
city’s resilience. Climate change is a threat to the Biodiversity is integral to healthy ecosystems.
future health of urban ecosystems. Therefore, Thus, enhanced biodiversity increases the
not only do we need to ensure the continued resilience of ecosystems. Protecting street trees
existence of urban ecosystems and the services and sites of ecological significance, such as
they provide to help build the resilience of cities, mature forests and wetlands, and considering
we also need to ensure that these ecosystems are the connectivity of urban landscapes during
themselves resilient in the face of climate change. city design and land-use planning are crucial
to maintaining the resilience of ecosystems.14

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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

With jurisdiction over parks, urban forests and

conservation areas, cities are well positioned to
integrate biodiversity into planning. Calgary’s
Biodiversity Strategy and Edmonton’s municipal
and environmental strategic plans contain
measures to integrate biodiversity into the growth
and development of these cities.
Preserving a city’s natural infrastructure in good
working condition will be critical to ensuring
the resilient supply of ecosystem services and
benefits. There are multiple ways through which
cities can protect their natural spaces, such as
through zoning, tradable development rights and
support for land acquisition and securement.
Included among these options is the use of asset
management systems for urban ecosystems
and natural landscapes in a similar way as for
engineered infrastructure. An asset management
system would recognize the services provided BOX 2. SUSTAINABLE URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
by urban ecosystems and the value of these POLICIES AND GUIDELINES (CHICAGO)17
services, and allow for them to be integrated Chicago’s Sustainable Urban Infrastructure
into municipal operating budgets to ensure Policies and Guidelines establish a city-
maintenance and regular support. Greenbelts, or wide approach for integrating environmental
land that is kept in reserve, are example of how performance goals into infrastructure
zoning can be used to protect environmentally design. The document is specifically directed
sensitive areas from urban development and at Chicago Department of Transportation
sprawl. The urban population benefits from staff with the goal of integrating green
important ecosystem services such as clean air, infrastructure best practices and ecological
services into all capital projects. The
water filtration, flood control and open spaces
guidelines are organized into eight categories:
that offer opportunities for outdoor recreation.
water, energy, materials and waste, place-
At the same time, the greenbelt can protect making, economics, commissioning, urban
agricultural activities.15 ecology and climate and air quality. Each
Promoting Redundancy category has three to six environmental
objectives, which are implemented through
Increasing green spaces and green infrastructure over 60 specific requirements and 35
addresses multiple challenges and offers policies. The document is comprised of
multiple benefits. They often turn out to be specific strategies, references and resources
more economically viable, even under prevailing to help project managers, engineers and
economic models, provided that the multiple other professionals to accomplish the laid
services and associated benefits for the large out set of sustainability goals and set of
number of recipients in cities are properly requirements. Through past pilot projects,
quantified and recognized.16 the city’s Department of Transportation has
validated that the cost for green infrastructure
Increasing the uptake and incorporation of green can be lower than the cost for traditional
infrastructure or low-impact development (small- grey infrastructure and achieve numerous
economic and environmental benefits.

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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

scale, on-site interventions) into city planning

alongside existing or planned grey infrastructure BOX 3. PHALEN WETLAND RESTORATION
can provide complementary benefits by retaining PROJECT (ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA)23
stormwater, shading surfaces such as asphalt and The City of St. Paul in Minnesota replaced
membranes, providing wind breaks and reducing a crumbling shopping centre site with its
energy demand. For example, green roofs retain original wetlands to create the Phalen
rainwater and reduce runoff, create habitats, Wetland Park. With the assistance of the City
moderate the urban heat island effect, improve of St. Paul, Phalen neighbourhood residents
air quality and create new amenity spaces explored a range of design alternatives for
for community gardens or other recreational the deteriorating and financially bankrupt
shopping centre. The residents embraced
purposes.18 In 2009, the City of Toronto passed a
a plan to restore the original wetlands and
Green Roof Bylaw, which is complemented by the
redevelop the area, including a park to
Eco-Roof Incentive Program.19 Between 2009 and revitalize for the community. The shopping
2016, Toronto’s green roof program saved the city centre was demolished and a new urban
CAD 135,462 per year in electricity, diverted 10.5 ecosystem was constructed to mimic the
million litres of stormwater from sewers, avoided original natural system.
approximately 200 tonnes of greenhouse gas
TThis urban ecological restoration project
emissions, increased green spaces and generated
resulted in multiple benefits for the City of
new employment.20 Bio swales and constructed
St. Paul. The restored wetlands have become
wetlands present another good example of green a cost-effective part of the area’s stormwater
infrastructure that has the potential of combining retention system, as they serve as natural
multiple urban functions in one measure. Apart holding tanks for rainwater and prevent
from water retention, constructed wetlands could sewer overflow. In addition, they created an
be used in cities for recreation, water purification, attractive natural landscape and studies
cooling and aesthetics.21 have documented how the wetlands park has
increased biodiversity and become a popular
Mainstreaming green infrastructure elements part of the cultural life of the community.
into road planning, design and implementation In addition, the neighbourhood around
represents an important tool for addressing the park has seen new investments in its
multiple challenges and promoting various immediate area in the form of new housing
benefits. Traditional engineering practices are and commercial development in a previously
based on addressing economic inefficiencies low-income neighbourhood.
and traffic congestions. Building a resilient city
requires a more holistic approach to road design
that addresses a broader range of problems
and creates beneficial environmental outcomes.
Design elements such as street trees, permeable
surfaces and greening around main roads are
specific opportunities that provide the additional
benefits of managing surface water runoff,
reducing the urban heat island effect and creating
an improved environment—all elements that can
contribute to a “smarter” and more sustainable
city.22

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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

Urban ecological restoration and rehabilitation Recommendations

projects are approaches that are not only
ecologically but also socially desirable. Successful Protecting and enhancing urban ecosystems
examples of such restoration projects include provide low-cost, health-alleviating and
sites of former landfills, previous industrial areas, educational opportunities to address climate
vacant lots, and other “brown” areas. Restoring change and increase resiliency in urban areas. In
natural features and re-greening areas of the light of these observations, consideration could
city provide an opportunity to connect ecological be given to future actions that build on Calgary’s
systems and urban spaces and contribute and Edmonton’s early achievements in this area:
positively to the health and well-being of Strategic
citizens.24
• Prepare and assess natural urban spaces to
Encouraging Resourcefulness gain knowledge and a better understanding
Local governments can provide opportunities of the current distribution, abundance,
for active civic engagement through community trends and status of biodiversity and
gardens, residential gardening, greening natural areas. Assessments and long-term
programs, land acquisition and restoration, monitoring are essential to the protection
and advisory committee participation.25 These and resilience of natural spaces.
initiatives can provide opportunities for • Actively consider restoration and
educating young children and transmitting local rehabilitation projects to assist in the
ecological knowledge. They can also create a recovery of natural spaces that have
strong sense of place, which was found to be been degraded, damaged or destroyed,
a major driver for environmental stewardship. particularly along migration corridors, to
For instance, residents engaged in community encourage movement of species. Restoring
gardening can display strong emotional ties degraded ecosystems has been an
to their gardens and the surrounding areas.26 important tool that contributes to reducing
Strong community programs that allow people vulnerability to natural hazards, enhancing
to participate in and take ownership of the ecological networks and improving the
management of urban natural spaces promotes quality of life in many large urban centres.
the development of a stewardship culture and • Due to the potential for significant
has the potential to reduce centralized municipal environmental change in the future,
efforts and resources.27 adaptability is a key component that
should be integrated into natural spaces
management. This means that actions and
initiatives should be taken in response to
actual or projected climatic changes, thus
reducing the effects of climate change
on natural systems. This could include
guidelines for planting and selecting
vegetation that is adaptable to a changing
climate.
• Consider capacity building and professional
development for involved professionals,
such as road authorities, to better enable
them to take steps toward mainstreaming
green infrastructure in city planning and
investment decisions.
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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

Regulatory/Administrative Economic Instruments

• Consider ways to introduce or enhance • Explore and identify incentive or subsidy
assessments, approval processes, programs to encourage developers to
development limitations, surcharges, integrate natural features (e.g., wetlands)
fees, incentives and rebates as well as and green infrastructure (e.g., green
by-law enforcement mechanisms within roofs) into new development. The benefits
local regulatory regimes to ensure the of such incentive programs have been
sustainable management and protection of demonstrated by initiatives such as
natural spaces. Toronto’s Eco-Roof Incentive Program.
• Integrate biodiversity and green Voluntary/Community Linkages
infrastructure guidelines into city planning,
streetscape design and design site plans • Engage citizens in neighbourhood and city
to mimic natural habitat and functions. planning processes and promote learning
Integration is particularly encouraged when opportunities. Connecting urban residents
replacing aging infrastructure. Examples through public engagement with nature will
include bioswales, constructed wetlands, build awareness and ecological literacy.
stormwater detention ponds, rain gardens, Cities should advertise best management
tree-lined streets, permeable pavement, practices for naturalizing private property
green roofs and walls. and consider homeowner grants to enable
their implementation.
• Consider integrating urban ecosystem
and natural infrastructure into asset • Promote nature and biodiversity
management programs to help ensure programming in schools and support
ecosystems function properly and yield programs that encourage students to learn
expected environmental services. about natural spaces and biodiversity in
their cities.
• Consider regulatory compliance
for developers to ensure that new
developments integrate natural features
and capitalize on opportunities to create
and enhance green infrastructure and
natural landscape features.

Further reading:
American Rivers, American Society of
Landscape Architects, ECONorthwest, Water
Environment Federation. (2012). Banking on
green: A look at how green infrastructure
can save municipalities money and provide
economic benefits community-wide.
Retrieved from https://www.asla.org/
uploadedFiles/CMS/Government_Affairs/
Federal_Government_Affairs/Banking on
Green HighRes.pdf

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Building a Climate-Resilient City: Urban ecosystems

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The Eco-Roof Incentive Program is self-sustaining, with
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7
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Elmqvist et al. (2015) supra note 4.
22
Black, J., Tara, K., & Pakzad, P. (2016, January).
10
Ibid. Mainstreaming green infrastructure elements into the
11
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ICLEI Canada. (2012). Finding the nexus: Exploring
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Dowdell, J., Fraker, H., & Nassauer, J. (n.d.). Replacing
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Ordóñez, C. (2016). Three key ideas for making sense
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Elmqvist et al. (2015) supra note 4.
27
Ordóñez (2016) supra note 11.

prairieclimatecentre.ca 9
 In parternership with:

©2017 The International Institute for Sustainable Development and the University of Winnipeg
The Prairie Climate Centre is a collaboration of the University of Winnipeg and the International
Institute for Sustainable Development established to advance practical climate change solutions for
the Canadian Prairies. The centre’s mandate is to translate climate science into knowledge products,
frameworks and decision-making tools that will help local governments, the private sector, civil
society organizations and other practitioners implement adaptation measures.
For more information visit: http://prairieclimatecentre.ca/
Author: Anika Terton, International Institute for Sustainable Development