Haack, R. C., P. Sundararaman, J. O. Diedjomahor, H. Xiao, N. J. Gant, E. D.

May,
and K. Kelsch, 2000, Niger Delta petroleum systems, Nigeria, in M. R. Mello
and B. J. Katz, eds., Petroleum systems of South Atlantic margins: AAPG
Memoir 73, p. 213–231.

Chapter 16

Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria

Richard C. Haack Eric D. May

P. Sundararaman Chevron Overseas Petroleum Inc.
San Ramon, California, U.S.A.
Jacob O. Diedjomahor
Hongbin Xiao Ken Kelsch
Nicholas J. Gant P.T. Caltex Pacific Indonesia
Rumbai, Indonesia
Chevron Petroleum Technology Co.
San Ramon, California, U.S.A.

Abstract
Regional integration of results from conventional exploration geochemistry, structural analysis, and
gravity–magnetic data provide a comprehensive new understanding of Niger Delta petroleum systems.
Nigeria is the 12th largest producer of crude oil in the world. Daily oil production from the Niger Delta is
2.1 million bbl, and recoverable reserves are estimated to be about 22.5 billion bbl. Historically, structural
play types have dominated, although large stratigraphic traps have also been discovered. The basin has
matured through one cycle of successful exploration, and future success depends on linking the geology
of the shelf and onshore areas to deep-water areas and exploiting new play types in older producing areas.
Three petroleum systems are present in the Niger Delta and delta frame: Lower Cretaceous (lacustrine),
Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene (marine), and Tertiary (deltaic). One biodegraded seep oil from
Nigerian tar sands along the northern flank of the Dahomey Embayment has been correlated to
Neocomian source rocks in Ise-2 well. A source rock extract and pyrolyzate of the seep are similar to the
Bucomazi petroleum system in the Lower Congo Basin. Oil recovered from Paleogene sandstones in
Shango-1 well are inferred to be derived from Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene source rocks identified
in Epiya-1 well, consisting of type II and II–III kerogens. The principal source for oil and gas in the Niger
Delta is the Tertiary deltaic petroleum system, consisting of type II, II–III, and III kerogens. On the basis of
oils and source rocks, source facies variation characteristic of this system has been regionally mapped in
the northwestern part of the delta. Similar trends exist delta-wide and are responsible, along with burial,
for controlling the complex distribution of gas and oil across the delta.

Shell D’Arcy, which resumed after World War II in the

INTRODUCTION southern part of Nigeria, resulted in the first well being
The Niger Delta Basin, situated at the apex of the Gulf drilled in 1951. After about 15 wells, the first commercial
of Guinea on the west coast of Africa, is one of the most oil discovery in the Tertiary delta was confirmed at
prolific deltaic hydrocarbon provinces in the world Oloibiri-1 well in 1956.
(Figure 1). The sedimentary basin occupies a total area of Over the past 40 years, the Niger Delta has matured
about 75,000 km2 and is at least 11 km deep in its deepest through one cycle of exploration during which a variety
parts. Reserves are currently estimated to be 22.5 billion of different structural play types have been exploited. The
bbl of oil, 770 million bbl of condensate, and 124 TCFG. 3-D bar graph in Figure 2 summarizes the relationships
Current daily oil production is 2.1 million bbl, and daily among different play types and recoverable reserves for
condensate production is 85,000 bbl. The present reserve most of the delta. Important relationships apparent in the
to production ratio is about 30 years. Oil exploration by graph have previously been noted by Weber (1987). Each

213
214 Haack et al.

Africa
0 400 Km.

NIGERIA

N
NIGER DELTA

Figure 1—Index map for the study area. The Niger Delta Basin is located at the apex of the Gulf of Guinea along the west-
central coast of Africa.

play type is associated with large oil fields. Most of the

structural–stratigraphic traps have been discovered in
the southeastern part of the delta, but they have also been
noted elsewhere, particularly offshore in deep water. A
variety of new combination trap styles have been drilled 60

with encouraging results, and they represent one possible 50

exploration future for Nigeria. 40
Faulted Anticline
The Tertiary petroleum system of the Niger Delta has Simple Rollover
30 Collapsed Crest
most recently been discussed in papers by Ekweozor and Closure Behind Fault
Daukoru (1994) and Stacher (1995). A considerable 20 Structural - Stratigraphic
amount of new information, however, has become avail- 10
able since publication of those papers, including penetra- 0
tion of a Tertiary oil-prone source rock sequence in Aroh-
2 well. As a result, three petroleum systems are now < 100
defined for the Niger Delta, new and interesting regional 100 - 250
trends have been recognized and mapped, and a much Recoverable 250 - 500
better understanding of factors controlling the complex Reserves
> 500
(MMBO)
distribution of gas and oil across the delta has been
achieved (Haack and Sundararaman, 1994; Haack et al.,
1997; 1998). In this chapter, we present the following:
Figure 2—Frequency distribution of the size of Niger Delta
• a new model, called a deformation cell, for evolu-
oil fields, measured in millions of barrels of recoverable
tion of the delta; reserves, by play type. Five generalized play types are
• definition of three petroleum systems; and recognized, of which four are structural. The
• new models for Tertiary deltaic source rocks and structural–stratigraphic category includes a variety of
episodic hydrocarbon migration for the Niger different play types that are being actively pursued.
Delta.
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 215

(a) (c)

N
0 200 Km.

0 200 Km.

(b) (d) 0 100 Km.

1 - 2 Kms
>11 Kms
> 200 mmbls

N
0 200 Km.

Figure 3—Regional total intensity magnetic and Bouguer gravity maps. (a) Merged air and marine total intensity magnetic
map. Warm colors represent magnetic highs, cool colors are magnetic lows. Because the Niger Delta lies 16° S of the
geomagnetic equator, positive basement features produce negative total intensity anomalies (lows) and basement deeps
generate positive anomalies (highs), opposite of the gravity response. (b) Merged land and marine Bouguer gravity map.
Warm colors (southwest) represent gravity highs; cool colors are gravity lows. (c) Residual gravity map derived from
several regional gravity trend surfaces. The surface selected to subtract from the Bouguer data captures the greater bulk of
the dynamic range in the gravity data and preserves anomalies of moderate wavelength. Warm colors represent positive
residuals; cool colors are negative residuals. (d) Regional basement structure inferred from gravity and magnetic data.
Large oil fields with >200 million bbl recoverable reserves are shown.

Other important contributions on the geology and

hydrocarbon habitat of the Niger Delta include publica-
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
tions by Hospers (1965), Frankl and Cordry (1967), Short
and Stäuble (1967), Weber and Daukoru (1975), Evamy et Basement Configuration
al. (1978), Knox and Omatsola (1989), Doust and
Omatsola (1990), and Damuth (1994). In addition, key All available gravity and magnetic data for the Niger
contributions on the geochemistry of oils and source Delta Basin and adjacent areas offshore were merged and
rocks include papers by Ekweozor et al. (1979a, b), analyzed for the purpose of mapping basement struc-
Ekweozor and Okoye (1980), Ekweozor and Daukoru tures. Strong northeast to southwest trends dominate the
(1984), Lambert-Aikhionbare and Ibe (1984), Udo (1985), magnetic signal across the delta (Figure 3a). These trends
Nwachukwu and Chukwurah (1986), Ekweozor and are parallel to fracture zone patterns in the deep ocean
Udo (1988), Bustin (1988), and Ekweozor and and are believed to have formed during opening of the
Nwachukwu (1989). Mid-Atlantic Ocean in Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous
216 Haack et al.

0 200 Km.
N

Figure 4—Tertiary structural trends of the Niger Delta. Regional normal fault framework is based on the published map of
Evamy et al. (1978) and the mapping of Chevron earth scientists. Oil fields are shown in black.

time. Parallel structural trends extend through the parallel to trends in the magnetic data, can now be
Anambra Basin and into the Benue Trough northeast of observed. By inferring the structural fabric from the resid-
the Niger Delta. ual gravity map and combining it with depth to basement
Regional patterns expressed in the Bouguer gravity calculations from the magnetic data, a structure map of
data are different from those indicated by magnetic data. the basement was constructed (Figure 3d). This map
A large gravity low, due to the presence of a thick represents an approximation of the structural configura-
Tertiary deltaic sediment load, is present beneath the tion of the Tertiary basin at some point in time prior to
region of the delta. Conversely, there is a large gravity very early development of the Niger Delta. In this map, a
high associated with thinned continental crust offshore series of northeast–southwest trending structural highs
(Figure 3b). Only in the extreme northeastern part of the and lows are present beneath the delta. Structural lows
delta, where the basement is shallower and Cretaceous are deeper than 11 km and, in some areas, probably still
rocks crop out, can structural trends parallel to those influence drainage patterns today. These lows are
observed in the magnetic data be observed. To resolve inferred to represent subbasins and, as discussed later,
these apparent discrepancies and map basement struc- possibly separate hydrocarbon kitchens. There is, in fact,
ture, a regional gravity surface, capturing most of the a relationship between each of the subbasins onshore and
dynamic range in the data and retaining all anomalies of the largest oil fields in the delta, those with more than 200
moderate wavelength, was selected to subtract from the million bbl of recoverable oil.
Bouguer gravity data.
The residual gravity map exhibits a significantly differ- Tertiary Structural Trends
ent but geologically acceptable anomaly pattern (Figure
3c). In the residual gravity map, effects due to thinned Tertiary structural trends are oriented in a general
transitional crust and thick Tertiary basin fill are miti- northwest–southeast direction (Figure 4). These regional
gated. This methodology was applied to the Bouguer structure-building faults, which have been controlling
data to better image structural trends in the basement. deposition of the deltaic growth section since middle–late
Those structural trends extending northeast to southwest, Eocene time, occur at an angle approximately 90° to the
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 217

0 200 Km.

N
D
C
Figure 5—Location of four regional dip cross sections, based on seismic and well data, including biostratigraphy, across
the Niger Delta. Oil fields are shown in black.

older pregrowth structures. The resulting Tertiary struc- converted to depth and structurally balanced, demon-
tures are regionally extensive anticlinal features devel- strate that regional structural and stratigraphic patterns
oped on the downthrown side of growth faults, which across the delta are similar (Figure 6). They also docu-
dip in a southerly direction. The southern flanks of these ment higher rates of progradation in the more central
structures generally dip moderately to steeply, and there parts of the delta, where the amount of extension is
is typically stratigraphic expansion into major counterre- greater. All hydrocarbon production in the Niger Delta
gional growth faults as well. In fact, in many cases the occurs in the growth section, which is separated by
amount of growth on counterregional faults greatly regional décollements from the underlying pregrowth
exceeds growth on the regional faults. section (Cretaceous–Paleocene strata). The regional
As illustrated in Figure 4, the regional Tertiary fault décollements pass through the mobile shale.
framework is quite complicated. With this complexity Two styles of deformation are characteristic of the
and northwest–southeast regional structural grain, long- Niger Delta and occur in each of the four cross sections.
distance lateral migration of oil and gas updip to the The domino style, characterized by a series of parallel to
northeast across major faults is unlikely. More likely, subparallel normal faults that pervasively break up hang-
hydrocarbon migration is predominantly vertical and ing-wall strata, occurs in the most landward onshore
restricted to major structural compartments that are parts of the delta. The listric style of deformation contains
controlled by growth faulting and deposition. Stacher relatively intact hanging-wall strata with localized fault-
(1995) has expressed a similar view. ing associated with curvature of the major structure-
building fault. Most faults extending offshore beyond the
Tertiary Structural Model domino zone are listric, and listric faults in deep water are
commonly associated with shale tectonism.
Four regional dip cross sections across the Niger Delta Throughout most of the Niger Delta, the amount of
have been compiled from 2-D and 3-D seismic data, well extension that has occurred through time cannot be
control, and biostratigraphy (Figure 5). The transects, balanced by the amount of compression that can be
218 Haack et al.

Figure 8

Water D
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Late Miocene
Middle Miocene
Early Miocene 0 50 Km.
Oligocene
Eocene and older
Mobile Shale Vertical Scale = Horizontal Scale
Basement

Figure 6—Regional cross sections A, B, C, and D extending across the Niger Delta into deep water. Each section is drawn
at true scale (no vertical exaggeration).

(a)
a) Before Deformation measured in the thrust belt out in front of the delta in
Extensional deep water. To structurally balance rock volume when
Compressional Head constructing cross sections, the concept of a deformation
Toe Transitional Middle
cell was developed. Figure 7 illustrates an idealized cross
section of a cell before and after deformation. A deforma-
tion cell contains a through-going detachment with
extensional faults upslope, a transitional middle detach-
ment with a slope that is approximately parallel to the
surface slope, and a compressional thrust downslope.
Basal Detachment After the cell slips for some distance, the vacated area A,
caused by normal faulting, will be equal to the excess
(b)
b) After Deformation area A' caused by compressional thrusts. This model
A'
links creation of accommodation space for deposition of
A
sediments with structural growth.
Figure 8 illustrates a seismic example of an active
deformation cell from cross section A. The extensional
head, transitional middle, and compressional toe are
labeled. Positive bathymetry above the compressional toe
creates gravitational instability, which results in slippage
and downslope motion of the next younger cell. The
Figure 7—Idealized conceptual model for a deformation compressional toe, offset by a new normal fault, will
cell. (a) Idealized cell before deformation. (b) Idealized cell eventually become decapitated and wind up at the
after deformation, where vacated area A caused by normal bottom of the next younger cell. Older decapitated
faulting equals excess area A' caused by compressional compressional toes have been observed in 3-D seismic
thrust faulting. Vacated area A represents accommodation
space for deposition of sediments.
data in the northwestern part of the delta.
Figure 9 is a schematic diagram that illustrates
progressive evolution of a deformation cell. Progra-
dational sedimentation on an unstable slope drives large-
scale formation of the cell. Figure 9a depicts an unde-
formed basin filled with Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene
shale. Figure 9b shows that the first cycle of sedimenta-
tion produces a series of domino faults upslope and a
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 219

SW NE
5000 4600 4200 S.P. 3800 3400 3000
0 0

5 5
Depth (Km)

10 10

15 15
Compressional Transitional Extensional
Toe Middle Head

20 0 10 Km. 20

True Scale
Figure 8—Seismic data from the distal part of cross section A (see Figure 6 for location), illustrating the key characteristics
of an active deformation cell. The compressional toe creates a positive topographic expression on the sea floor. The result-
ing gravitational instability initiates outboard motion in the next younger deformation cell that develops. Considerable
stratigraphic thinning occurs in the growth section between the red and blue horizons onto the compressional thrust front.

compressional toe downslope, which creates a new shelf-

slope break. In Figure 9c, the next cycle of sedimentation
forms a new deformation cell containing a megastruc-
(a)
ture. The counterregional fault of the megastructure
probably results from the counterregional bend in the Stage 1
basal detachment. The compressional toe of the first cell
has been decapitated and translated into the deeper part Shale
of the megastructure in the younger cell. This process is (b)
repeated through time, as younger and younger cycles of Shelf Break Compressional Extensional
sedimentation form new cells. Stage 2 Toe Head

PETROLEUM SYSTEMS (c) Shelf Break

Counter-Regional Fault
A petroleum system is the “oil and gas machine” that Stage 3

generates and concentrates hydrocarbons within a basin

over geologic time. It is composed of two subsystems
(Demaison and Huizinga, 1991): (1) a generative subsys-
tem defined by source rocks and oil characteristics, and
(2) a migration–entrapment subsystem defined by timing
of generation, type of drainage (lateral or vertical), and
type of trap. This regional study of the hydrocarbon habi-
tat of the Niger Delta is focused on evaluating the oil Figure 9—Conceptual model for the progressive evolution
of a deformation cell in the Niger Delta. Progradational
machine at the basin scale, that is, at the scale of a petro-
sedimentation on an unstable slope drives the large-scale
leum system. development of the cell. (a) A pristine basin filled with
On the basis of available geochemical data, we recog- Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene shale. (b) The first cycle of
nize three petroleum systems in the Niger Delta, infor- sedimentation produces a series of domino faults upslope
mally named as follows: and a compressional toe downslope. (c) The next cycle of
sedimentation forms a new deformation cell containing a
1. Lower Cretaceous petroleum system, megastructure.
220 Haack et al.

2. Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene petroleum Dahomey Basin could have been derived from Upper
system, and Cretaceous marine shales. Presently, not enough
3. Tertiary petroleum system. geochemical data from the tar sands are available to
confidently determine whether the source is lacustrine or
Lower Cretaceous source rocks are identified from one marine. More sampling and evaluation of the Nigerian
of the rift grabens that occur along the northwestern tar sands are needed.
margin of the delta. Upper Cretaceous–lower Paleocene The source potential for the Upper Cretaceous–lower
source rocks are also recognized from the same area. Paleocene petroleum system, based on the profile for
Tertiary deltaic source rocks, the principal source for oil Epiya-1 well, is estimated to be 10.5 tons HC/m2 rock.
and gas in the Niger Delta, are time transgressive and This would provide a normal hydrocarbon charge for a
occur in regionally extensive outer shelf to slope facies vertically drained basin (Demaison and Huizinga, 1991).
beneath the parallic sequence and in transgressive shelf If, however, richness increases distally, as is likely, source
facies within it. On the regional cross sections in Figure 6, potential could be higher. Conversely, if thickness
source facies occur within growth strata of Eocene– decreases distally, even if richness increases, then source
Pliocene age and in older pregrowth strata. potential might not increase and could even decrease
farther offshore.
Lower Cretaceous Petroleum System Although data are sparse, Upper Cretaceous source
rocks have been identified along the eastern margin of the
One biodegraded seep oil from Nigerian tar sands on Niger Delta in outcrops (Inyang et al., 1995) and in the
the northern flank of the Dahomey Embayment has been subsurface (J. A. Adakomola, personal communication,
correlated to Lower Cretaceous (Neocomian) source 1992). Oil has also been discovered in Cretaceous strata
rocks in Ise-2 well (J. Dahl, personal communication, from the Anambra Basin. Oil produced from Seme field
1990). The lacustrine alga Botryococcus was also identified in the Republic of Benin, west of the Niger Delta, is also
in samples from the source rock interval in that well (A. R. derived from Upper Cretaceous source rocks (J. Dahl,
Daly, personal communication, 1990). The source rock personal communication, 1991).
extract from Ise-2 well and pyrolyzate of the seep sample Upper Cretaceous–lower Tertiary marine Iabe and
have geochemical characteristics similar to oils from the Landana source rocks in the Lower Congo Basin,
Lower Congo Basin that have been derived from Lower Cabinda, consist of type II kerogen derived primarily
Cretaceous lacustrine Bucomazi source rocks (K. E. from marine organic matter (Schöellkopf and Patterson,
Peters, personal communication, 1993). 1997). Although an Upper Cretaceous–lower Tertiary
The approximate aerial extent of the Lower Cretaceous petroleum system is important for generating oil
petroleum system is shown in Figure 10. Lower throughout much of west Africa, no large petroleum
Cretaceous source potential, based on the geochemical accumulations have been identified to date from Upper
profile from Ise-2 well, is estimated to be 5.24 tons Cretaceous–lower Paleocene source rocks in the region of
HC/m2 rock. This would provide a low to moderate the Niger Delta. Nevertheless, this older petroleum
hydrocarbon charge for a vertically drained rift basin system could be a major source for liquid hydrocarbons
(Demaison and Huizinga, 1991). A previous in-house esti- in deep-water areas of the delta. For this system to be
mate of source potential was 12.07 tons HC/m2 rock. This effective in deep water, however, it would require suffi-
estimate, however, is too high because obvious nonsource cient hydrocarbon charge through migration pathways
lithologies were mistakenly included in the calculation. connecting pregrowth source strata to reservoirs in
As in the Dahomey Basin, a Lower Cretaceous petroleum Tertiary traps within the growth section.
system could also be present within the rift sequence of
the Benue Trough northeast of the Niger Delta.
Tertiary Petroleum System
Upper Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene The aerial extent of the Tertiary petroleum system is
Petroleum System shown in Figure 12a, and its source rock richness is repre-
sented by the hydrogen index (HI) versus oxygen index
The inferred regional extent of the Upper Cret- (OI) plot and geochemical profile for Aroh-2 well (Figures
aceous–lower Paleocene petroleum system is illustrated 12b and c). Variation in source richness, as illustrated
in Figure 11 and identified by the geochemical profile for stratigraphically by the profile, from dry gas prone to oil
Epiya-1 well. This system consists of type II and II–III oil- prone, can also be inferred and mapped regionally on the
prone kerogen and includes source rock strata in the basis of geochemical signatures in oils. The predomi-
marine Araromi, Awgu, and Imo shales, which were nance of gas-prone source rocks encountered in most
deposited along the northwestern margin of the delta. wells that have been analyzed from the Niger Delta and
Oils recovered from Paleogene sandstones in Shango-1 implicit variation in source potential have been recog-
well are inferred to be derived from this source (K. E. nized by many workers and discussed thoroughly in the
Peters, personal communication, 1993). Contrary to the literature (Ekweozor and Daukoru, 1994, and references
inferred origin of tar sand bitumen discussed above, therein; Core Laboratories, 1994; Stacher, 1995; Haack and
other geochemists believe bitumen in the tar belt of the Sundararaman, 1994; Haack et al., 1997; 1998). This chap-
 Chapter 16óNiger Delta Petr oleum Systems, Nigeria 221

(a)a)
Ana
ambra Basiin

T r Sands

Enugu
Onitsha

Warri

Calabar
PETROLEUM SYSTEM Port Harcourt

(Hypothetical)
Benue Trough ?

0 200 Km.

(b)
b) OI HI TOC S2 S2/S3 TMAX S1 PI
200 100 300 200 2 1 2 5 10 440 1.5 .4
BENIN FM
MIOCENE
MIOCEN
ALEOCENE

SHALE
MO SH
IMO
PA
N

E
ALBIAN

ISE FM

Figure 10—(a) Map showing the Lower Cretaceous petroleum system and the location of the Nigerian tar sands on the
northern flank of the Dahomey Embayment. (b) Geochemical profile for Ise-2 well, representative of the Lower Cretaceous
petroleum system. The source potential in this well, calculated for Neocomian source rock, is 5.24 tons HC/m2 rock. The top
of the oil window is at ~8500 ft (~2590 m).
222 Haack et al.

(a)a)
Anambra Basin

Lagos Tar Sands

Enugu
Onitsha
Seme Field Shango - 1

Epiya - 1 Warri

Calabar
? Port Harcourt

PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Upper Cretaceous
Lower Paleocene
Benue Trough ?

0 200 Km.

(b)b) OI HI TOC S2/S3 TMAX S1 PI

S2
200 100 300 200 2 1 2 5 10 440 1.5 .4
BENIN
PLEISTOCENE
PLIOCENE -

AGBADA
MIOCENE

AKATA

OLIGO

EOCE
PALEOCENE

IMO SHALE
UPPER CRETACEOUS
ARAROMI /
AWGU
ABEOKUTA

Figure 11—(a) Map showing the Upper Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene petroleum system. (b) Geochemical profile for Epiya-1
well, representative of this petroleum system. The source potential in this well is 10.5 tons HC/m2 rock. The top of the oil
window is at ~9000 ft (~2740 m).
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 223

(a)
a) Anambra Basin

Tar Sands

Enugu
Lagos
Aroh -2 Onitsha

Warri

Calabar
? Port Harcourt
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Tertiary Deltaic

(b)b
1000
0 200 Km.
HYDROGEN INDEX (mg HC/g TOC)

I
800 ?
?

600
II
HIGHER HI VALUES FROM
TERRIGENOUS PLANT WAXES
400

200
III
IV
0
0 100 200 300
OXYGEN INDEX (mg CO2/g TOC)

(c)c
OI HI TOC S2 S2/S3 TMAX S1 PI
200 100 300 200 2 1 2 5 10 440 1.5 .4
UPPER EOCENE

AKATA
MIDDLE EOCENE

Figure 12—(a) Map showing the Tertiary (deltaic) petroleum system. (b) HI/OI plot showing the higher HI values characteriz-
ing the richer source rock section that result from the presence of terrigenous plant waxes in the kerogen. (c) Geochemical
profile for Aroh-2 well, representative of this petroleum system. Source potential for the analyzed middle Eocene interval is
27 tons HC/m2 rock, and for the more liquid-prone source rock sequence at 10,500–12,400 ft (3200–3780 m) is 15 tons
HC/m2 rock. All samples were preextracted to remove Petrofree. As a result, S1 values are minimum values. (Preextraction
does not alter or enhance other pyrolysis or TOC results.) The top of the oil window is at ~10,500 ft (~3200 m).
224 Haack et al.

Dominated by Terrigenous Organic Matter Figure 13 presents a conceptual model for Tertiary
- waxy oils deltaic source rocks in the Niger Delta encompassing the
- considerable gas complete range of source potential observed, from dry
Gas-prone Source
gas prone to oil prone. Depending on where you are in
Uniform Composition the delta, source rocks range in age from middle Eocene
to Pliocene and they contain predominantly terrigenous
Oxic Depositional Environment organic matter. These source rocks generate light waxy
Poor Organic Matter Preservation
oils or gas. The more gas-prone end-member of the
organic facies spectrum was deposited in an oxic deposi-
Oil-prone Source
Variable Organic Facies tional environment in which organic matter was poorly
preserved. Oil-prone organic facies, however, were
Sub-oxic Depositional Environment
Enhanced Organic Matter Preservation deposited in suboxic depositional environments in which
enhanced preservation of terrigenous organic matter was
Figure 13—Schematic diagram of the Niger Delta source possible. Different oil-prone source facies have been
rock model. Niger Delta source rocks, dominated by recognized and mapped across the delta. The differences
terrigenous organic matter, generate considerable gas undoubtedly result from variation in the composition of
and waxy oils. Oil-prone source rocks were deposited in
organic matter components, which contribute to kerogen
suboxic depositional environments where hydrogenicity
was preserved. Gas-prone source facies are composition- of the richer source facies.
ally more uniform due to degradation of organic matter in Regional variation in oil-prone source facies, inferred
oxic environments. on the basis of biomarker and carbon isotope data, is illus-
trated in Figure 14a. This map, summarizing the results
from cluster analysis, illustrates the distribution of differ-
ent subfamilies of oils across the delta. This discrimina-
ter documents the evidence for Tertiary oil-prone source tion of subfamilies is based on source-related geochemi-
rocks in the Niger Delta and provides a new understand- cal parameters, which are known to be significant from
ing of the Tertiary petroleum system. analyses of about 250 oils from the Niger Delta. [Note: in
In Aroh-2 well, thermally mature oil- and gas-prone Nigeria, accepted petroleum industry nomenclature and
middle Eocene source strata occur upthrown to a normal practice makes use of the red color to indicate oil and
fault. The richer source facies, consisting of type II oil- green to indicate gas (Nigerian Committee on Standard-
prone kerogen, progressively increase in abundance with isation of Geological Nomenclature and Symbols, 1984).
depth in the lower part of the well. Extracts from these These conventions are followed here.]
source rocks correlate to oils recovered from nearby wells.
Results from pyrolysis gas chromatography of one of the
richer samples from this source sequence indicate that the
oil-prone deltaic source facies generate primarily light to A MORE DETAILED LOOK AT THE
normal oils, some wet gas, and very little dry gas. These
results correspond well to the chemical composition of TERTIARY (DELTAIC) PETROLEUM
liquid hydrocarbons characteristic of Niger Delta oil SYSTEM
fields. Source potential for this 4200-ft (1280-m) interval is
27 tons HC/m2 rock, indicative of a supercharged petro- Results from regional geochemical investigations indi-
leum system. Although this value is slightly inflated by cate that kerogen derived from terrigenous Tertiary
the thick gas-prone section overlying the richer source organic matter deposited in marine shales is the principal
rocks, more than 55% of the source potential is due to the source for hydrocarbons in the Niger Delta. There
more liquid-prone source rock section at 10,500–12,400 ft appears to be a minor unquantified contribution from
(3200–3780 m). marine organic matter to the kerogen, based on carbon
Based on foraminifera biostratigraphy, the deeper, isotope and biomarker data, but the primary source is
richer source rocks in Aroh-2 well are inferred to have organic matter derived from Tertiary land plants.
been deposited in an outer neritic to bathyal paleoenvi- Variability in preservation of terrigenous organic matter
ronment. The relatively high concentration of C29 ster- due to changes in redox potential through time caused
anes derived from land plants in this source facies considerable regional variation in deltaic organic facies.
(42–57%) implies that abundant terrigenous organic These laterally and temporally varying source facies,
matter was being deposited and preserved in deep water. coupled with differences in maturity resulting from
Perhaps a zone of lower oxygen content began to develop regional variability in geothermal gradient and burial, are
in the water column impinging on the shelf–slope break the two principal factors that have controlled the complex
during middle–late Eocene time. Although there is no distribution of oil and gas across the delta.
evidence for anoxia in any of the biomarker data from oils More than 35 years of drilling experience in the Niger
and source rock extracts, something happened during the Delta has demonstrated that oil-prone source rocks are
middle–late Eocene to enhance preservation of terrige- rarely, if ever, encountered in wells. Because the richer
nous organic matter in the vicinity of the upper slope in source rocks are deeper than strata normally penetrated
the northwestern part of the delta. by wells, regional trends in oil-prone source facies must
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 225

be inferred on the basis of geochemical characteristics preservation of organic matter in the depositional envi-
from produced oils (Peters and Moldowan, 1993). This ronment—the homohopane index (HHI). Better preser-
methodology works well as long as migration pathways vation of organic matter results in more hydrogen-rich
are predominantly vertical and source-related geochemi- kerogen, higher Rock-Eval HI values, and more liquid-
cal signatures are not significantly altered during migra- prone source rocks. This source rock signal is detected in
tion. Because of extensive normal faulting, long-distance oils generated from those richer source rocks as a higher
lateral migration of hydrocarbons across major bounding value for the HHI (Peters and Moldowan, 1993). This
faults is unlikely in the Niger Delta. Furthermore, in approach works well in the Niger Delta. One caveat,
many areas of the delta, the common association of seis- however, is that the HHI is affected by maturity and
mic amplitudes from 3-D data and normal faults indi- biodegradation. In this study, all data were screened for
cates that normal faulting does play a key role in hydro- those effects before mapping.
carbon migration. Such an association supports earlier The contour map in Figure 14c of the HHI, or in other
assessments of the Niger Delta as a classic example of a words, the degree of preservation of organic matter, illus-
vertically drained petroleum system (Weber and trates some interesting patterns. There is a general corre-
Daukoru, 1975; Evamy et. al., 1978; Demaison and spondence between deltaic lobes, inferred on the basis of
Huizinga, 1991). The results and discussion that follow C29 sterane content, and areas where HHI values are low.
are based on the methodology of inferring regional These green areas in Figure 14c represent more highly
source facies trends from biomarkers in oils and pertain oxygenated parts of the Niger Delta during source rock
to the richer oil-prone source facies of the delta. deposition and consist of more gas-prone source facies
than do the more oil-prone red areas. This map, in fact,
now effectively discriminates a more gas-prone source
Regional Source Rock Trends Inferred facies in the central offshore part of the delta from the
from Oils more oil-rich areas in the northwest and southeast.
Furthermore, the dark red areas delimit the arcuate band
Regional variability in organic matter input, deter- of major oil fields so characteristic of the delta. There are
mined from the contour map in Figure 14b of relative other more subtle trends recognized offshore in the north-
abundance of C29 steranes, effectively demonstrates how western part of the delta that are also consistent with
source facies change across the Niger Delta. Sample trends in this map.
control for this map is shown in Figure 14a. The areas in
In the map of Figure 14c, there is a close correspon-
green in Figure 14b have the highest relative abundance of
dence between oil reserves and the red areas, which are
C29 steranes (>50%), indicating the highest organic matter
inferred to be more liquid prone and characterized by
contribution from land plants, and represent proximity to
higher HHI values. Almost 75% of Chevron Nigeria
paleodrainage systems during source rock deposition.
Limited joint venture reserves are from the areas colored
The areas in blue have the lowest relative abundance of
in red on this map, and Chevron’s operated production
C29 steranes (about 40% or less) and hence the lowest land
from these areas is more than twice as liquid rich as
plant contribution, which suggests source rock deposition
production from green areas is. There is a similar delta-
under more marine-influenced conditions. The easily wide correlation between total reserves and inferred
recognized deltaic lobes on this map correspond closely to source rock richness (unpublished Petroconsultant data,
paleodrainage systems identified by Weber and Daukoru 1994). Although not surprising, these relationships
(1975). The more proximal lobate patterns occur outboard indicate that source rock facies control to some extent
of the Anambra Basin (Cretaceous delta) in an area where where oil accumulations are large, and conversely,
the early Tertiary delta began to develop. Those lobes
where the gas–oil ratio (GOR) is high. The correlation,
undoubtedly represent paleodrainage systems, which however, is not perfect, and other factors such as matu-
supplied sediments to the early pre-Miocene Niger Delta. rity, reservoir distribution, migration timing, and traps
The two more distal lobes in the eastern and western parts
are also important.
of the delta represent later drainage systems, which began
to develop during the Miocene.
In the map of Figure 14b, there is close correspondence Relationship Between Oil Families and
between the more marine-influenced areas (blue) and oil Basement Structure
reserves. About 75% of Chevron Nigeria Limited joint
venture reserves occur in areas where source facies contain In Figure 14d, the distribution of different oil subfami-
less terrigenous organic matter. The same relationship lies is superimposed onto the structure map of the base-
holds true for total reserves from all operators across the ment, revealing interesting relationships between some of
entire delta (unpublished Petroconsultant data, 1994). the subbasins and subfamilies of oils. These subbasins, in
One difficulty with the map in Figure 14b is that it does fact, could represent separate hydrocarbon kitchens for
not discriminate the oil-rich northwestern and southeast- the Niger Delta. The correspondence is not perfect, but
ernmost parts of the delta from the more gas-rich central there is enough overlap in the data to suggest possible
offshore part. This anomaly was resolved by mapping genetic relationships among subbasins, different source
another biomarker parameter sensitive to the degree of facies, and oil generation.
226 Haack et al.

a)
(a)
Oil Sub-Families
0 100 Km.
Less Terrigenous Dominated
Group I
Group II
More Terrigenous Dominated
Group III
Group IV
Outliers
Group V

(b)
b)

Oil Reserves
NNPC/CHEVRON JOINT VENTURE

208 MMB
40 Km.
t
Lant Inpu

40 Mi.
1306 MMB Cum. Prod. Bbls. Res./Expl. Well
% Expl. Wells HIGHER CONTRIBUTION
(MMBO) (MMBO) FROM LAND PLANTS
nd P

3472 MMB
2.2 31 9 LOWER CONTRIBUTION
La

FROM LAND PLANTS

746.6 14 131
ng

i
e as 1836.9 55 87 OIL FIELD
Incr

Figure 14—Regional geochemical maps of the Tertiary deltaic petroleum system based on selected biomarker parameters.
(a) Four subfamilies of oils are recognized based on results from multivariate cluster analysis. (b) Contour map of relative
abundance of C29 steranes (Peters and Moldowan, 1993, p. 182) demonstrates regional variation in abundance and distri-
bution of terrigenous organic matter in source rocks of this petroleum system. Green areas represent highest relative abun-
dance (C29 steranes > 50%), blue areas are lowest relative abundance (C29 steranes ≤ 40%).
(Figure 14 continues on next page.)
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 227

(c)c
3

3
3

4
2
4

Oil Reserves
NNPC/CHEVRON JOINT VENTURE
2
3
535 MMB 3
40 Km.
1399 MMB 4
-Prone

Cum. Prod. Bbls. Liq./MMCFG Bbls. Res./Expl. Well 40 Mi.

More G

(MMBO) (Reserves) (MMBO)

3019 MMB
MORE
106.1 60 LESS
uid

58% 531
as

3 HHI VALUE
Liq

1406.5 75
-P

on re OIL FIELD
r

e Mo 1074.0
42% 242
93
0 4 CONTOUR INTERVAL=1

(d)
d
0 100 Km.

1 - 2 Kms
>11 Kms

(Figure 14 continued) (c) Contour map of variation in HHI (C35 HHI × 100) (Peters and Moldowan, 1993, p. 147), which indi-
cates degree of variation in preservation of organic matter across the delta. Red areas represent better preservation of
organic matter, hence more liquid prone, and green areas are poorer preservation, hence more gas prone. (d) Map showing
the relationship between basement structure and oil subfamilies for the Tertiary petroleum system defined from cluster
analysis. Patterns suggest that subbasins are charged by hydrocarbons from different end-members of source rock
systems.
228 Haack et al.

Oil-Prone Source Rock Model (a) Aroh-2

-2
We propose a conceptual oil-prone source rock model 7.
0
for the Niger Delta which is based on detailed geologic Benin
River -26.0
and geochemical investigation in the northwestern part Makaraba NW Delta
of the delta (Figure 15a) and which builds on under- Meren
-26.0
Sub-Basin
standing achieved from regional work. Oil fields within
the northwest delta subbasin received hydrocarbon Okan
charge from Eocene source rocks. Large oil fields occur in -27.0 -2
8.
0
the center of this subbasin, which directly overlies the Sonam
deepest part of the hydrocarbon kitchen. Hydrocarbon -28 -27.0
.0
charge southwest of the regional fault system, bounding
the trend which includes Meren and Okan fields, is from 0 20 Km.
a younger source rock sequence. Oil-prone source rocks
from the delta contain both terrigenous and marine (b)
organic matter. The presence of marine organic matter is
based on geochemical data and could not be verified OM Composition
microscopically because marine precursors could not be Marine
positively identified in available samples. Terrigenous
The relationships between organic facies and key
geochemical signatures, including pristane/phytane
ratio, HHI, C29 sterane content, and saturate carbon Increasing
isotope value, are illustrated in Figure 15b. The oil-prone
source rocks recovered from Aroh-2 well provide docu- δ13Carbon (saturate)
Decreasing Homohopane Index
mentation for the terrigenous-dominated end-member
on the left side of Figure 15b. The well occurs in the north-
eastern part of the northwest delta subbasin (shown in C Steranes
Figure 15a). Source rock samples from the more marine- 29
Pr/Ph
influenced end-member on the right side of Figure 15b
have not been recovered, but sufficient data from oils
confirm its presence. For example, the change in organic Figure 15—Oil-prone source rock model for the Niger
facies recognized in the northwestern part of the delta, on Delta. (a) Contour map of saturate carbon isotope distribu-
the basis of C29 sterane content (Figure 14b), saturate tion from the northwestern part of the delta. Isotope
values measured in oils from fields (sampled oil fields are
carbon isotope values (Figure 15a), and results from clus- dark gray; unsampled oil fields are light gray) vary from
ter analysis (Figure 14a), strongly support the model of –29.3 to –24.0‰, which represents natural source facies
source facies variation proposed here. In addition, a variation characteristic of the Tertiary petroleum system.
corresponding change in organic facies can also be recog- Values are heaviest (less negative) toward the center of
nized on the shelf in the southeastern part of the delta the subbasin, where more marine organic matter is
(Figures 14a–d). preserved. (b) Schematic diagram showing variation in
source rock facies. Oil-prone source rocks from Aroh-2
well document one end-member (left side). Source rocks
Regional Maturity Trends Inferred representing the more marine-influenced end-member
from Oils (right side) have not been recovered.

Biomarker data were also used to map regional trends

in thermal maturity (Figure 16). The sterane isomeriza-
tion parameter 20S/20S + 20R was selected for mapping.
As expected, higher maturity is observed in the more
proximal parts of the Niger Delta where geothermal Hydrocarbon Generation–Migration
gradients are higher. Furthermore, within each depobelt, Model
defined by the regional faults in Figure 16, maturity
decreases away from each major bounding fault. This We propose a simple episodic hydrocarbon migration
pattern, repeated within all of the depobelts, implies that model based on insights gained from regional study of
the major bounding faults do act as migration pathways the Niger Delta and focused on trying to understand
for hydrocarbon withdrawal from deep within the underlying causes for the complex distribution of gas and
source rock sequence. Because major faults have the oil regionally and within fields. As already demonstrated,
deepest penetration into source rocks, they provide variation in source facies, from gas prone to oil prone, is
conduits for more mature hydrocarbons to migrate verti- one of the important controls of regional trends in GOR.
cally and accumulate in structures formed by the major We now discuss additional controls implied by the
bounding faults. proposed migration model.
 Chapter 16—Niger Delta Petroleum Systems, Nigeria 229

.50
.45
.50 .45
.4
5

.4
0
.40
.3
0

.35

.35
.30

.35
.3
5

.35
.40
.35

0 200 Km. N

CONTOUR INTERVAL = 0.05

Figure 16—Contour map of regional thermal maturity across the Niger Delta inferred on the basis of sterane isomerization
biomarker parameter 20S/20S + 20R in oils (Peters and Moldowan, 1993, p. 237). Major regional bounding faults shown in
green define regional maturity compartments. Maturity contours are shown in red. Contour interval is 0.05.

The model illustrated in Figure 17 depicts burial of a

Model Predicts Episodic HC
typical source rock sequence in the Niger Delta: oil-prone Migration
source rocks overlain by gas-prone source rocks (e.g., Gas
Aroh-2 well). Oil is generated from oil-prone source rocks Prone Increasing
Burial
as they mature. With deeper burial, the oil-prone source,
no longer capable of generating oil, begins to generate
lighter hydrocarbon products. At the same time, shal- Top Oil
lower gas-prone source rocks are also likely to enter the oil gas Generation
generative window. These source rocks, which are not Oil
Prone
capable of generating oil, provide a second source for gas.
Traps, migration pathways, and connectivity of sand-
Top Gas
stone beds across faults progressively change through light oil Generation
time concurrent with increasing burial and source rock gas
maturation within each deformation cell. This dynamic
evolution of the plumbing system, through which Figure 17—Conceptual generation–migration model for
expelled hydrocarbons migrate, results in different traps the Niger Delta. This model predicts that episodic hydro-
and migration pathways being available to migrating carbon migration should be common for the Niger Delta.
hydrocarbons at different times. Because the composition The principal assumption built into the model is that
of generated hydrocarbons also changes through time, as richer, oil-prone source rocks in the Akata are overlain by
predicted by the model, older traps are likely to receive more gas-prone source rocks in the Agbada. All available
more liquid-rich accumulations than younger traps. source rock data are consistent with this assumption.
230 Haack et al.

Even with this simple episodic migration model, A simple episodic hydrocarbon migration model
understanding the present-day distribution of gas and oil provides a new framework for studying the complex
in the Niger Delta is much more complicated because GOR distribution in the Niger Delta on a subregional
secondary processes, such as biodegradation and remi- scale and within fields. The model predicts changes in the
gration, tend to alter the original composition of trapped composition of generated hydrocarbons through time,
hydrocarbons. Furthermore, gas solubility varies consid- which occur within the geologic framework of an evolv-
erably within fields and across the delta due to varying ing and dynamic petroleum system, including hydrocar-
hydrocarbon compositions and pressure-volume-temp- bon generation, migration pathways, reservoirs, and
erature relationships. Nevertheless, the proposed model traps. Secondary processes and variable gas solubility,
does provide a new framework for studying the complex beyond the scope of this model, also play an important
GOR distributions across the Niger Delta within the role in understanding the distribution of gas and oil in the
context of an evolving and dynamic petroleum system. Niger Delta.
Within this context, the timing of generation-migration-
entrapment becomes a focal point for further investiga-
tion.
Acknowledgments—This work would not have been possible
without support from the management of Chevron Nigeria
Limited and our joint venture partner Nigerian National
CONCLUSIONS Petroleum Corporation. Their approval for publication of this
work is appreciated. In addition, many thanks to colleagues
Structural lows are inferred to be deeper than 11 km, from Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria
based on gravity and magnetic data, and might provide Limited, especially Daniel Trümpy, for permitting data trades.
separate hydrocarbon kitchens for hydrocarbon genera- Those data provided us with a regional perspective that other-
tion in the Niger Delta. Different subfamilies of oils, wise would be difficult to achieve. A special thanks to many
inferred to be derived from subtly different source rock Chevron colleagues and former Chevron colleagues, who over
facies, are associated with separate subbasins onshore. In the years have inspired, supported, and critically reviewed
addition, there is correspondence between subbasins and many of the ideas presented in this paper, including Alan
the largest oil fields in the delta (>200 million bbl). Nunns, Tom Heidrick, Mark Koelmel, Peter Berry, Brad
The concept of a deformation cell is proposed to Huizinga, Jeremy Dahl, and Mike Moldowan. There are others,
provide a better understanding of how to balance rock of course, with whom we have worked over the years; we thank
volume structurally in an extensional deltaic setting. The them too. We also thank Barry Katz, Mike Hoffman, and Ed
process–response model links creation of accommoda- Colling for reviewing and editing this paper. Their comments
tion space for deposition of sediments to extensional have greatly improved its quality. All of the figures were drafted
growth faults and compressional thrust fronts. by Rob Haitsma in the Chevron Drafting Department in San
Three petroleum systems are defined for the Niger Ramon.
Delta, and oils are correlated to each. The Lower
Cretaceous petroleum system, characterized by lacustrine
source rocks, occurs in the northwestern part of the delta
and might also be present in the Benue Trough. The
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