SPE 128354

Pre - drill pore pressure prediction from 3-D seismic data in parts of the
Onshore Niger Delta basin.

Opara, A.I.1 and Onuoha, K. M.2

1
Department of Geosciences, Federal University of Technology, PMB 1526, Owerri, Nigeria.
2
Shell Chair, Department of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu state, Nigeria.

Copyright 2009, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

roles in modifying the present day depth to top
rd
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 33 Annual SPE International of overpressures.
Technical Conference and Exhibition in Abuja, Nigeria, August 3-5, 2009.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee

following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the Introduction
author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the
Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). Nigeria is the largest oil producer in
The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at Africa, the eleventh largest producer of crude oil
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage in the world and a member of the Organization
of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of
the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). In
print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not
be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgement of where 2006, total Nigerian oil production, including
and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836,
Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435. lease condensates, natural gas liquids and
refinery gain, averaged 2.45 million bbl/d (of
Abstract which 2.28 million bbl/d was crude oil). Nigeria’s
Geopressured sedimentary formations hopes of increasing its crude oil production to
are common within the more prolific deeper four million bbl/d by 2010 can only be achieved if
hydrocarbon reserves in the Niger Delta basin. deeper potential targets in deepwater offshore
While overpressured zones could serve as tools and possibly beneath currently producing
for hydrocarbon prospectivity evaluation, they intervals onshore should be focused on.
are significant safety concern to the driller. Pre- Exploration interest in the Niger Delta
drill pore pressure prediction using 3-D seismic has therefore moved to mainly deep prospects
data was carried out in the Niger Delta basin to onshore and deep/ultra deep prospects offshore.
predict subsurface pressure regimes and further The deep drilling campaign in the Niger delta
applied in the determination of hydrocarbon has demonstrated the need for a detailed
column, reservoir continuity, fault seal and trap overpressure and trap integrity analysis as an
integrity. Results revealed that overpressures in integral and required step in prospect appraisal.
the area are associated with simple rollover This is because different trapping scenarios can
structures bounded by growth faults, especially occur in which hydrocarbons are entirely lacking
at the hanging walls, while hydrostatic pressures in a structure or are contained as a single or
are often observed in areas with k-faults and multi-phase in the respective hydropressured
collapsed crested structures. The depth to top of and overpressured sections. Similarly, the risk of
mild overpressures(<0.71psi/ft) in the basin dry or gas charged traps increases with depth
ranges from about 6000ftss to about 13000ft and overpressure magnitude. For instance,
subsea. Similarly, the depth to top of hard AGIP has drilled over sixty exploration wells with
overpressures(>0.71psi/ft) ranges from about depths greater than 4500m(13123.36ft),
13000ftss to over 30000ftss(throughout the between 1979-2005 (Nwaufa et al, 2006). Table
Akata Formation).Post-depositional faulting is 1a shows some of the deepest exploration wells
believed to have controlled the configuration of drilled by Nigerian Agip Oil Company between
the overpressure surface and has played later 1970- 2005.Only two out of these deep wells
2 A.I. Opara and K.M. Onuoha SPE 128354

were normally pressured, while nine were over Delta (Akata- Agbada) Petroleum System(see
pressured. Similarly, table 1b shows some of the figure1). The primary source rock is the upper
deepest wells drilled by Shell Petroleum Akata Formation, the marine-shale facies of the
Development Company of Nigeria Limited. All of delta, with possible contribution from
these deep exploration wells drilled by SPDC interbedded marine shale of the lowermost
were overpressured. In most of these cases, the Agbada Formation. Oil is produced from
wells were either abandoned, drilled without sandstone facies within the Agbada Formation,
reaching the objective sequence, or drilling however, turbidite sand in the upper Akata
prolonged unnecessary to sometimes as long as Formation is a potential target in deep water
seven months leading to astronomical rise in offshore and possibly beneath currently
drilling cost. It should be noted that these producing intervals onshore(Turtle,1999).
problems were encountered despite the fact that
the latest drilling practices were applied to most
of the wells (Nwaufa et al,2006).
Safe exploitation of these deep
prospects and plays therefore would largely
depend on our ability to understand the controls
on top seal strength, overpressure generation/
distribution, and trap integrity, and then
confidently incorporating this knowledge into
prospect evaluation and well design. This is very
important considering the current campaign for
deeper wells, as the economic consequences of
exploitation in areas with an unspecified risk of
abnormal pressure profiles may range from
increased drilling costs due to hazards to
unrealized prospect potential. Optimized
planning practices will therefore impact not only Figure1: Regional structural elements of the
on the costs of drilling but also on the quality of Niger Delta basin.
the reservoir evaluation and productivity
assessment.
This work is aimed at predicting pre-drill The Tertiary section of the Niger delta is divided
pore pressures in OML X, Onshore Niger delta into three formations representing prograding
basin using 3-D seismic velocity data. depositional facies that are distinguished mostly
on the basis of sand-shale ratios. Sedimentary
Background geology deposits in the basin have been divided into
The onshore portion of the Niger delta three large-scale lithostratigraphic units: (1) the
province is delineated by the geology of basal Paleocene to Recent pro-delta facies of
southern Nigeria and south-western Cameroon. the Akata Formation, (2) Eocene to Recent,
The northern boundary is the Benin flank - an paralic facies of the Agbada Formation, and (3)
east-northeast trending hinge line south of the Oligocene-Recent, fluvial facies of the Benin
West African basement massif.The northeastern Formation(Evamyetal,1978;ShortandStauble,19
boundary is defined by outcrops of the 67;Whiteman,1982).These formation become
Cretaceous on the Abakaliki High and further progressively younger farther into the basin,
east-southeast by the Calabar flank - a hinge recording the long - term progradation of prog-
line bordering the adjacent Precambrian. The
province covers an area of 300000 km2 and
includes the geologic extent of the Tertiary Niger
3 Pre-Drill Pore Pressure Prediction From 3 – D Seismic Data SPE 128354

Table 1a: shows some of the deepest exploration wells drilled by Nigerian Agip Oil Company
between 1970- 2005 (After Nwaufa et al, 2006)

S/N WELL DEPTH( DURATION OF YEAR DEEP PORE REMARKS

O M) DRILLING (IN SPUDE TARGET PRESSURE
MONTHS) D RESULT GRADIENT
(PSI/FT)
1 A63 4771 1974 Gas/condensat 0.629 Overpressured
¼
4 e
2 B63 4710 1974 Gas/condensat 0.650 Overpressured
3 e
3 F63 4580 1978 Gas/oil 0.507 Normal pressured
2½
4 A62 5445 1980 Hydrocarbon 0.764 Overpressured
½
7 shows
5 B62 5001 1980 Oil/gas 0.890 Overpressured
9
6 G63 5025 1990 Oil/gas 0.511 Normal pressured
¾
4
7 C63 4745 1993 Oil/gas 0.69 Overpressured
5¼
8 D63 4990 1994 Oil 0.833 Overpressured
6
9 E63 5330 2002 Oil 0.807 Overpressured
¼
3
10 H63 4785 2003 Gas/condensat 0.942 Overpressured
¼
4 e

radation of depositional environments of the strata, changed local depositional slopes, and
Niger delta onto the Atlantic Ocean passive complicated sediment transport paths into the
margin. The stratigraphy of the Niger delta is basin.
complicated by the syn-depositional collapse of
the clastic wedge as shales of the Akata Three major depositional cycles have
Formation mobilized under the load of been identified within Tertiary Niger delta
prograding deltaic Agbada and fluvial Benin deposits (Short and Stauble, 1967; Doust and
Formation deposits. A series of large-scale, Omatsola, 1990). The first two, involving mainly
basinward-dipping listric normal faults formed as marine deposition, began with a middle
underlying shales diapired upward. Blocks down Cretaceous marine incursion and ended in a
dropped across these faults filled with growth major Paleocene marine transgression. The
second of these two cycles, starting in late
4 A.I. Opara and K.M. Onuoha SPE 128354

Table1b: Some deep exploration wells (“HPHT wells”) drilled by SPDC in the Niger Delta

S/NO WELL OML DEPTH PORE PRESSURE REMARKS

TVD(FT) GRADIENT(PSI/FT)

1 DE5 33 16277.5 0.8700 Overpressured

2 DG5 28 15977.5 0.7180 Overpressured

3 DNI 32 15287.7 0.8397 Overpressured

4 DA60 17 14616 0.8250 Overpressured

5 DO2 16 11550 0.8220 Overpressured

6 DK10 11 12500 0.8470 Overpressured

7 DA1 21 12228 0.8010 Overpressured

8 DK3 72 14090 0.8110 Overpressured

9 DK39 28 14587.926 0.7060 Overpressured

10 DS1 35 17082.639 0.8200 Overpressured

deformed much of the Niger delta clastic wedge

Paleocene to Eocene time, reflects the (Doust and Omatsola,1989). Many of these
progradation of a “true” delta, with an arcuate, faults formed during delta progradation and
wave and tide - dominated coastline. These were syndepositional, affecting sediment
sediments range in age from Eocene in the dispersal. Fault growth was also accompanied
north to Quaternary in the south (Doust and by slope instability along the continental margin.
Omatsola, 1990). Deposits of the last Faults flatten with depth onto a master
depositional cycle have been divided into a detachment plane near the top of the
series of six depobelts (Doust and Omatsola, overpressured marine shales at the base of the
1990) also called depocentres or Niger delta succession. Structural complexity in
megasequences, separated by major syn- local areas reflects the density and style of
sedimentary fault zones. These depobelts faulting. Simple structures, such as flank and
formed when paths of sediment supply were crestal folds, occur along individual faults.
restricted by patterns of structural deformation, Hanging-wall rollover anticlines developed
focusing sediment accumulation into restricted because of listric-fault geometry and differential
areas on the delta. Such depobelts changed loading of deltaic sediments above ductile
position over time as local accommodation was shales. More complex structures, cut by
filled and the locus of deposition shifted basin- swarms of faults with varying amounts of
ward (Doust and Omatsola, 1990).Normal faults throws, included collapsed-crest features with
triggered by the movement of deep-seated, domal shape and strongly opposing fault dips at
overpressured, ductile, marine shale have depth.
5 Pre-Drill Pore Pressure Prediction From 3 – D Seismic Data SPE 128354

Seismic interval velocities were then

Methodology extracted at proposed well locations and
The approach used in this study is calibrated. Detection of possible presence of
inverse overpressure modeling using a seismic velocity anisotropy was carried out by
compaction model. Determining pore pressures plotting seismic velocity data with borehole sonic
from seismic interval velocities is based on the log and checkshot data inverted to sonic
assumption that there is a consistent regional velocities. The trend of the seismic velocity plot
relationship between acoustic velocity and with respect to the borehole sonic was then
effective stress. Offset well data in over twenty- used to detect presence of anisotropy or poor
five wells out of forty (40) wells, which include quality seismic data. Calibration functions (A&B)
exploration wells and sidetracks were used to generated in parts of the Niger Delta basin were
assess the reliability of the link between shale used with the seismic interval velocities
acoustic velocities and pressure, and to corrected for anisotropy to provide reliable pre–
establish appropriate density and overburden drill subsurface pressure estimates using
trends. Specifically, sonic logs, gamma ray and velocity to pressure transform . For this study
density logs were used for calibration while the calibration parameters generated are as
porosity, resistivity, spontaneous potential and follows: A=168.40 bars, B = 0.90, with standard
caliper were used for quality control and deviation (dA)= +/_22.61bars and correlation
lithologic correlation. Pressure data in the form coefficient (CC) = 0.964. Similarly, skempton
of repeat formation test (RFT) and mud weights coefficient or poro - elastic coefficient value of
(Mwt) were also used, together with leak of Test 0.85 was used. The overburden and adjusted
(LOT) data. Other datasets used include model compaction setting were then used to
checkshot data and temperature data. calculate the pressure, overpressure, vertical
Sonic log velocities corrected for cycle effective stress and minimum effective stress at
skipping were used to predict pressures in the the prospect location.
offset wells and to compare with direct pressure
measurements, using the Tau Compaction Application of geopressure studies to
model. The standard model compaction trend hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation
settings were adjusted where necessary to get Seismic attributes such as interval
the most consistent match between predicted velocity provide a means of assessing pressure
pressure for shale acoustic velocity and actual in the subsurface. This approach relies on the
measured pressure from the well. This method fact that seismic velocity is primarily a function of
is purely empirical but has proven a valid the porosity of the sediments, which is itself
approach in the Baram delta, Gulf of Mexico and dependent on the vertical effective stress
the Niger delta basin(Krusi, 1994;Indrelid, 1997). (compaction) that the rocks have undergone.
Firstly, sonic velocities are related to effective There are four main uses of this method which
stress by scaling the interval transit time as include the following(Indrelid,1997) :

a) Reservoir continuity
Then tau is related to effective stress by
Reservoir continuity can be assessed by
the relationship.
considering the variation in overpressure. This is
………… (2)
because for a continuous aquifer in a given
where = initial travel time, =vertical
pressure cell, the pressures at different locations
effective stress, = tau, A and B are parameters are expected to lie along a hydrostatic gradient
determined from the behaviour of the sonic log from one another, and are hence equally
data in the normally pressured zone where overpressured. Thus, if a horizon exhibits a
effective stresses are known and, are lithology constant overpressure, this generally indicates a
dependent. hydraulically continuous unit such as a
connected reservoir. In contrast, a horizon which
6 A.I. Opara and K.M. Onuoha SPE 128354

exhibits large changes in overpressure laterally of the hydrocarbon column can be calculated
is expected to be shaly. from the predicted aquifer pressure. This
requires an estimate of the hydrocarbon
b) Maximum hydrocarbon column pressure gradient (i.e. hydrocarbon density), and
the depths of the top structure and spill point for
The height of a possible hydrocarbon column is each reservoir level. The hydrocarbon column
most commonly determined by the depth pressure should leave the predicted aquifer
difference between the top structure and the spill pressure curve and follow the hydrocarbon
point (spill point is the lowest closing contour on gradient up to the spill point. If the pressure at
a hydrocarbon trap capable of holding spill point is less than the minimum horizontal
hydrocarbons under gravitational equilibrium if stress (MHS) trend (taking into account the error
the formation is permeable). Figure3 shows the bars on the determination of the stress trend)
standard procedure for estimating maximum then the trap integrity is expected to be OK. If
hydrocarbon column from pressure depth plot. the hydrocarbon column pressure crosses or
However, in some overpressured areas, the comes very close to (within a couple of hundred
extra pressure at the top of a hydrocarbon psi or 20bar) the MHS trend, there is a very high
column is enough to exceed the fracture trap integrity risk.
strength of the top seal, and cause breaching
and leakage from the trap. Hydrofracturing of the d) Fault Sealing
top seal also has important implications for Analysis of interpreted faults in terms of
supply of hydrocarbons to the shallower pressure is best carried out using vertical
reservoirs in some areas in the Niger delta effective stress (VES) or overpressure plots
basin. Similarly, added pressure from the (where changes in pressure across a fault will
hydrocarbon column may leave a very small be more obvious).It is only possible to suggest
drilling margin. that a fault is sealing if there is a change in
pressure across the fault: a fault in a
hydrostatically pressured area will exhibit the
same pressure on either side of the fault,
whether or not it is sealing. In interpreting
sealing faults, it is important to bear in mind the
sealing mechanism. If the fault seals by
juxtaposition of sands against shales, then the
pressure difference should be correct. But a
cataclastic or clay smear fault seal can only
withstand a certain pressure difference – thus
not all faults which are associated with a change
in the pressure predicted from seismic are
necessarily sealing.

e) Pressure prediction
Pore pressure prediction is important
Figure2: Diagram for estimation of the for both the exploration and exploitation of
maximum hydrocarbon column from hydrocarbons. In exploration for hydrocarbons,
pressure-depth plot (after Indrelid, 1997). knowledge of the pressure distribution is of vital
importance for the development of fluid
c) Trap Integrity migration models, to study the effectiveness of
To assess the risk of trap breaching and seals and also to rank prospects. Similarly,
hydrocarbon leakage, and also the likely during drilling, pressure prediction allows the
pressure on drilling into the reservoir, the effect planning of the well in real time to control
7 Pre-Drill Pore Pressure Prediction From 3 – D Seismic Data SPE 128354

potentially dangerous abnormal pressures.

Pressure prediction from seismic requires two
main inputs: (a) the interval velocity field (b) the
relationship between velocity and pressure,
which can be calibrated using well log and
pressure data. As well as providing a pressure
prediction at a proposed well location, the
pressure field can be interpreted in terms of
pressure continuity and implications for trap risk.
In some cases, the pressure field may call into
question previous assumption for example,
extent of reservoirs, selection of rig etc.
Results Figure4:Cross-plot for the derivation of an
The fluid pressures in offset wells used appropriate density – velocity trend.
in the calibration process were predicted using
the calibration parameters A and B. This The seismic data used in this work is the
process was repeated in the wells not used in DMO velocity data shown in figure 5.
the calibration process for the purpose of
validation. The accuracy of this prediction is
noticed in the correlation of the predicted
pressures with the measured RFT data;see
figure 3.The sonic and density data in offset
wells were cross-plotted as shown in figure 4 to
obtain the relationship between the two and to
determine the approximate density-velocity
trend. This trend was used in the velocity to
pressure transformation process of the seismic
data to calculate the overburden pressure.
Figure5: Seismic section of the study area
showing intense faulting and structural
deformation

Figure6: Velocity analysis using medium

Figure 3: Shows pore pressure prediction smoothing showing velocity reversals in
in off-set wells using sonic velocities. overpressured sections
8 A.I. Opara and K.M. Onuoha SPE 128354

The 3-D seismic velocity data were across a fault indicates a higher risk of fault seal
picked down to 6seconds at an average of 250 breakdown. Note that there are no visible
millisecond interval on a grid of about 24m x changes across the faults in the normally
24m.The seismic section revealed dense pressured section. Similarly, In figure 9d, the
faulting and structural deformation. Structural predicted MES at prospect A and B have the
interpretation of the seismic data of the area same value of 9523- 11428psi while prospect C
revealed that the structural style is dominated by has an MES of 3809– 5238psi (27.5 – 37.4Mpa).
growth faulted rollover anticlines with footwall This shows that prospects A and B have a much
and hanging wall closures and collapsed crest lower risk of trap breaching than prospect C.
faults, associated with shale diapirs. The root Similarly, this risk in prospect C is increased
mean square (RMS) velocity data was converted even more by considering the effects of a
to interval velocity using appropriate (medium) potential hydrocarbon column. The structures of
smoothing parameters as shown in figure 6 prospects A and B are low and hence a
below. Note that the interval velocities are not relatively short hydrocarbon column (hence
erratic but some significant velocity variations small hydrocarbon buoyancy pressure) is
can be observed. There is a major reversal in expected in contrast to prospect C which has a
velocity associated with top of overpressures higher relief. Filling the prospect with
resulting from the influence of shale diapirs hydrocarbons would result in an even smaller
below 2.5seconds. The analyzed seismic minimum effective stress, and in all likelihood a
velocity data which has been depth converted blown trap. Hence, prospect B is ranked highest
were extracted at proposed well locations and followed by A, while prospect C has the least
compared with the checkshot and sonic ranking.
velocities of offset wells for the purposes of Fluid pressures predicted from the
identifying the presence of anisotropy and bad seismic velocity cube and extracted at well
seismic data(Figure 7).However, it appears that locations are shown in figure 10 below. In Ah-
the data quality is good enough since no field (figure 10a), +500psi above hydrostatic
considerable anisotropy effect was noticed. The pressure (overpressure) is at about 6000ftss and
calibration parameters (A&B which relates the is taken to be the top of overpressure in the
vertical effective stress at any depth to the area. The top of overpressure can be seen to
porosity and density at the same depth) together vary from 8000ftss in Oo-field, to 9000ftss at Og-
with the seismic velocities corrected for field and then 1100ftss at Is-field.
anisotropy were used to predict the pore Finally, maximum hydrocarbon column
pressure field of the area. Figures 8 shows the estimated from the predicted pressure depth
pore pressure cubes of the study area plots in figure 10 vary between 35ft to 350ft with
generated from seismic data giving a 3-D an average column of 55ft. This relatively short
visualization of the pressure field. hydrocarbon column is associated with the fact
The predicted pressure cubes were then that most of the reservoirs in the study area are
interpreted as a backdrop to seismic data as not filled to their synclinal spill points.
shown in figure 9 below. The purpose of this is
to predict the effects of trap integrity, reservoir Interpretation and discussion
continuity, sealing faults and maximum Pore pressure prediction and
hydrocarbon column. Figures 9a-9d all exhibited interpretation in OML X, Onshore Niger delta
a very wide variation in predicted pressure basin revealed that the onset of mild
below 2.5seconds which indicates absence of overpressure(<0.71psi/ft) in the area to be about
connected reservoirs in the overpressured 6000ftss in Oo -field, 8000ftss around Ah -field,
sections. Similarly, figure 9c showed distinct 9000ftss in Og-field and about 11000ftss at Is -
changes across the faults in overpressured field. Analysis of seismic data revealed that very
section. This shows that the faults are sealing. A high (hard overpressures nearing lithostatic
bigger difference in the predicted pressure
9 Pre-Drill Pore Pressure Prediction From 3 – D Seismic Data SPE 128354

pressures) ) are expected at deeper intervals

between 14000ft to over 30000ftss.

Figure 7: Seismic velocity data at well locations calibrated with checkshot and sonic velocity data

Figure 8a:3 –D Pore Pressure Cube Generated Figure 8b:3 -D Vertical Effective Stress Cube
Using Conventional Velocities Generated From Seismic Data Using DMO
Velocity

Figure 8d:3 – D Overpressure Cube Of The Study

Figure 8c:3 –D Minimum Horizontal Stress Area Generated From Seismic Velocity Data
(Trap Integrity) Cube Generated From Seismic
Data

Figure 8: Pore pressure cubes from seismic data generated using velocity to pressure transform.
10 A.I. Opara and K.M. Onuoha SPE 128354

Figure 9b:Predicted VES from seismic velocities overlaying

Figure 9a:Predicted fluid pressures overlaying the seismic
the seismic section of the study area showing sealing/non
section in the study area
sealing faults.

Figure 9d:Predicted minimum effective stress volume

Figure 9c:Predicted overpressure from seismic velocities
superimposed on the section section showing
overlaying the seismic section of the study area showing
integrity
sealing/non sealing faults.

Figure 9: Seismic generated pressure cubes interpreted as back-drop to seismic data for
interpreting reservoir continuity, maximum hydrocarbon column, sealing faults and trap integrity

Figure 10a:Fluid pressures predicted from Oo -

Figure 10b : Seismic predicted fluid pressure –
field from seismic velocity data
depth plot in Ah field.

Figure 10c : Seismic predicted fluid pressure depth plot in

Figure 10d: Seismic predicted fluid pressure – depth plot in
Og field.
Is field from averaged Seismic interval transit times data.

Figure10: Seismic predicted fluid pressure- depth plots in the study area.
11 Pre-Drill Pore Pressure Prediction From 3 – D Seismic Data SPE 128354

Distribution of overpressures shows a well-defined the Akata Formation. However, previous studies
trend with depth to top of overpressures increasing by Ichara and Avbovbo(1985); Obah(1989) and
towards the central part of the basin at a maximum Weber and Daukoru,1975,have shown that
depth of about 13000ft (3940m). This variation in overpressures in the Niger delta often occur at
the depth of top of overpressures within the area is depths shallower than Akata Formation.
believed to be related to faulting and shale Explaining this phenomenon, Weber and Daukoru
diapirism with top of overpressure becoming (1975), revealed that overpressures are
shallower with shale diapirism and deep with encountered in the Tertiary Niger delta as a result
sedimentation. Similarly, data acquired in deep of rapid loading of the undercompacted shales of
wells from across the concessions in the Niger the Akata Formation by the sandy Agbada and
delta show no macro-structural trend.Rather, Benin Formations. The Akata Formation is in
overpressures were observed in areas with simple contact with the sandy paralic Agbada sediment in
rollovers, especially at the hanging walls, while three different ways. In the first place, there is the
normal formation pressures were observed in vertical transition from continuous marine shale
areas with k-faulting pattern and collapsed crest into paralic sediments. Secondly, there are lateral
structures. It is most likely that these fault patterns facies transitions and interfingering of sand and
have effect on the formation pressure, providing clay and thirdly Akata shale is in many places in
relief to a potential pressure build-up (Nwaufa, et juxtaposition with Agbada paralic sediments
al, 2006).Hanging wall fault closures are most across faults. In each of these cases, fluids
often sealing and therefore retains significant expelled from the overpressured Akata shales
columns of hydrocarbons often leading to high may inflate (charge) the pressures in the adjacent
minimum effective stress and fluid charging. sands. Similarly, most of the mild overpressures
Similarly, late hydrocarbon generation and shale within the Agbada Formation in the Niger delta are
diagenesis often leads to overpressures within as the result of undercompaction (possibly
upthrown shales(Evamy,etal,1978).The chemical compaction disequilibrium) of the
subsurface of the Niger delta basin is extensively interbedded marine shales of the lowermost
deformed by growth fault structures and roll over Agbada Formation. Consequently, overpressures
anticlines (Weber and Daukoru, 1975; Evamy etal, are often encountered before the Akata shale is
1978; Merki, 1972 Xiao and Suppe, 1992). reached.
Hanging wall rollover anticlines developed
because of listric-fault geometry and differential Conclusion
loading of deltaic sediments above ductile shales. Finally, overpressures observed in rocks
These growth faults are characterized by thicker within the Niger Delta owe its distribution not only
deposits in the downthrown (hanging wall) block to the mechanisms but also to the re-distribution of
relative to the upthrown block. Here, fluids during and after the generation of
sedimentation is rapid on the hanging wall with overpressures, as a result of structure and
respect to the footwall leading to a thicker stratigraphy. Changes in formation relief, geometry
sediment pile at the hanging wall. This rapid and faulting play major roles in pressure
sedimentation often leads to overpressuring distribution and re-distribution within the basin.
effects. Overpressure in the Niger delta is not caused by
In addition, it was revealed that majority of mechanisms associated with undercompaction
the overpressure situations occur between the alone; there are other dominant mechanisms
depth intervals of 6000ft to 13000ft(1820 and especially thermal expansion mechanism (where
3940m) falling largely within the Agbada fluids charging resulting from aquathermal,
Formation. In the Niger delta basin, the hydrocarbon generation and clay diagenesis all
occurrence of overpressures is largely believed to working together) occurs. These mechanisms
be associated with the undercompacted shales of seem to correlate with high pressures at great
12 A.I. Opara and K.M. Onuoha SPE 128354

depth. There seems to be a relationship between 200:NAOC Experience, NAPE Conference

high overpressures and thermal (fluid) expansion Proceedings , August 2006,pp.5- 14.
mechanisms and in particular shale diagenesis Obah, B.,1989. Overpressure – A drilling hazard
and hydrocarbon generation in the Niger delta in the Niger Delta; Erdol undkohle, Erdgas
Basin (Opara, 2008). Petrochemie; vol. 41, nos.9; pp 340 -343.
Opara,A.I.,2008.Overpressure and trap integrity
Acknowledgements studies in parts of the Onshore Niger Delta
The authors are grateful to Shell basin:Implications for hydrocarbon exploitation
Petroleum Development Company Limited and prospectivity; Unpublished Ph.D thesis,
Portharcourt.The technical input and support of University of Nigeria, Nsukka;240pp.
Igbokwe Smart,Yakub Adepoju, Anowai Sayers, C.M., Johnson, G.M., and G. Denyer.,
Charles,Gbenga Ogummekan, all of SPDC, 2002.Pre -drill pore pressure prediction using
Portharcort are deeply appreciated. seismic data; Geophysics, vol. 67; pp 1286 -1292.
Shaker,S.S., 2002. Causes of disparity between
References predicted and measured pore pressure; The
Leading Edge; vol. 50 ; pp 756 -760.
Evamy , B.D., Harembourne,J., Kamerling,P., Short, K.C, and Stauble, A,J.,1967.Outline of the
Knaap, W.A., Molley, F.A. and Rowlands, P.H., geology of Niger Delta, AAPG Bulletin, vol.51
1978. Hydrocarbon habitat of the Tertiary Niger pp.761 –779.
Delta; AAPG bulletin; vol.62; pp 1 –39. Swarbrick,R.E.,andOsborne,M.J.,1998.Mechanis
Doust, H., 1989.The Niger Delta hydrocarbon ms that generate abnormal pressures: An
potential, a major Tertiary Niger Delta Province; overview, in B.E.Law, G.F.Ulmishek, and V. Slain,
Proceedings of KNGMG Sympossium, Coastal eds.,Abnormal pressures in hydrocarbon
Lowstands, Geology and Geotechnology,The environments; AAPG Memoir 70; pp.13 - 34
Hague, Kluvier Acad. Publ., Dordrecht; pp.22-25. Tuttle,M.L.W.,Charpentier,R.RandBrownfield,
Doust, H. and Omatsola, E., 1990.Niger Delta, in M.E.,1999.The Niger Delta Basin Petroleum
Edwards, J.D, and Santogrossi, P.A.,eds; System:Niger Delta Province, Nigeria, Cameroon,
Divergent/passive Margin basins; AAPG Memoir and Equatorial Guinea, Africa; Open- File Report
45; pp 239 –248. 99-50-H,United States Geological Survey World
Energy Report, 4
Ichara, M.J., and A.A. Avbovbo, 1985.How to
handle abnormal pressures in Nigeria’s Niger Weakly, R.R., 1991. Use of surface seismic data
Delta area; Journal of Petroleum Technology, to predict formation pore pressure Worldwide;
vol.83, no.10;pp.122 –124 SPE. 21752.
Indrelid, S.L., 1997. A guide to the prediction of Weber, K.J, and Daukoru, E.M., 1975. Petroleum
pressures from seismic velocities;SIEP-97- geology of the Niger Delta, World Petroleum
5790,Unpublished Report; 166pp. Congress Proceedings,vol.2;pp.209 – 221.
Krusi, H.R.,1994.Overpressure prediction; A Weber, K.J., G. Mandl. W.F Pillar., F. Lechner
contribution towards safer drilling;Nigeria and R.G. Precious., 1978. The role of faults in
Association of Petroleum Explorationists Bulletin, hydrocarbon migration and trapping in Nigerian
vol.9; pp.86 –91. growth fault structures; proceedings of the 10th
Lupa,J., P.B. Flemings and S.Tennant., 2002.
Pressure and trap integrity in the deepwater Gulf
of Mexico;The Leading Edge; vol.21; pp 184- 187.
Merki, P.I., 1972.Structural geology of Cenozoic
Niger Delta, in First African Regional Geological
Conference 1970;Proceedings;Ibadan University
press; pp.251 –266.
Nwaufa,W.A.,Horsfall, D.E. and Ojo,C.A.,2005.
Advances in deep drilling in the Niger delta, 1970-