Module 2 Cog Psy
Module 2 Cog Psy
Module 2 Cog Psy
MODULE II
HUMAN MEMORY
Lesson 1 Encoding Memory
Lesson 2 Storing Memory
Lesson 3 Retaining Memory
Lesson 4 Retrieving Memory
MODULE II
HUMAN MEMORY
The purpose of this module is to develop a working understanding of human
memory and the processes involved in encoding, storing, retaining, and retrieving
information. The study of human memory is considered part of the disciplines of
Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience, and the interdisciplinary link between the
two which is known as Cognitive Neuroscience.
After studying the module, you should be able to:
1. Describe the process of encoding information into some representation;
2. Compare and contrast the process of storing information;
3. Name ways to retain information;
4. Discuss how information is retrieved from stored state.
There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on
these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.
In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the
face-to-face meeting.
Good luck and happy reading!!!
Lesson 1
Memory is the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to
use that information in the present (Tulving, 2000b; Tulving & Craik, 2000). As a
process, memory refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing,
retaining, and retrieving information about past experience (Bjorklund, Schneider, &
Hernández Blasi, 2003; Crowder, 1976). Specifically, cognitive psychologists have
identified three common operations of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval
(Baddeley, 2002; Brebion, 2007; Brown & Craik, 2000). Each operation represents a
stage in memory processing.
• In encoding, you transform sensory data into a form of mental representation.
• In storage, you keep encoded information in memory.
• In retrieval, you pull out or use information stored in memory.
Before information can be stored in memory, it first needs to be encoded for
storage. Even if the information is held in our short-term memory, it is not always
transferred to our long-term memory. So in order to remember events and facts over
a long period of time, we need to encode and subsequently transfer them from
short-term to long-term storage. These are the processes we will explore in the
forthcoming section.
Forms of Encoding
We encode our memories to store them. However, do short-term and long-term
storage use the same kind of code to store information, or do their codes differ? Let
us have a look at some research to answer this question.
1. Short-Term Storage
When you encode information for temporary storage and use, what kind of
code do you use? This is what Conrad and colleagues (1964) set out to discover with
an experiment. Participants were visually presented with several series of six letters
at the rate of 0.75 seconds per letter. The letters used in the various lists were B, C,
F, M, N, P, S, T, V, and X. There were no vowels included in order to ensure that
letter combinations did not result in any words or pronounceable combinations that
could be memorized more easily. Immediately after the letters were presented,
participants were asked to write down each list of six letters in the order given. What
kinds of errors did participants make? Despite the fact that letters were presented
visually, errors tended to be based on acoustic confusability. In other words, instead
of recalling the letters they were supposed to recall, participants substituted letters
that sounded like the correct letters. Thus, they were likely to confuse F for S, B for
V, P for B, and so on.
Another group of participants simply listened to single letters in a setting that
had noise in the background. They then immediately reported each letter as they
heard it. Participants showed the same pattern of confusability in the listening task as
in the visual memory task (Conrad, 1964). Thus, we seem to encode visually presented
letters by how they sound, not by how they look.
The Conrad experiment shows the importance in short-term memory of an
acoustic code rather than a visual code. But the results do not rule out the possibility
that there are other codes. One such code would be a semantic code—one based on
word meaning.
Baddeley (1966) argued that short-term memory relies primarily on an acoustic
rather than a semantic code. He compared recall performance for lists of acoustically
confusable words—such as map, cab, mad, man, and cap—with lists of acoustically
distinct words—such as cow, pit, day, rig, and bun. He found that performance was
much worse for the visual presentation of acoustically similar words. He also
compared performance for lists of semantically similar words—such as big, long, large,
wide, and broad—with performance for lists of semantically dissimilar words—such as
old, foul, late, hot, and strong. There was little difference in recall between the two
lists. If performance for the semantically similar words had been much worse, what
would such a finding have meant? It would have indicated that participants were
confused by the semantic similarities and hence were processing the words
semantically. However, performance for the semantically similar words was only
slightly worse than that for the semantically dissimilar words, meaning that semantics
did not matter much for processing.
Subsequent work investigating how information is encoded in short-term
memory has shown clear evidence, however, of at least some semantic encoding in
short term memory (Shulman, 1970; Wickens, Dalezman, & Eggemeier, 1976). Thus,
encoding in short-term memory appears to be primarily acoustic, but there may be
some secondary semantic encoding as well. In addition, we sometimes temporarily
encode information visually as well (Posner, 1969; Posner et al., 1969; Posner &
Keele, 1967). But visual encoding appears to be even more fleeting (about 1.5
seconds). We are more prone to forgetting visual information than acoustic
information. Thus, initial encoding is primarily acoustic in nature, but other forms of
encoding may be used under some circumstances. For example, when you remember a
telephone number from long ago, you are more likely to remember how it sounds
when you say it to yourself than to remember a visual image of it.
2. Long-Term Storage
As mentioned, information stored temporarily in working memory is encoded
primarily in acoustic form. So, when we make errors in retrieving words from
short-term memory, the errors tend to reflect confusions in sound. How is information
encoded into a form that can be transferred into storage and available for subsequent
retrieval?
Most information stored in long-term memory is primarily semantically
encoded. In other words, it is encoded by the meanings of words. Consider some
relevant evidence.
Participants in a research study learned a list of 41 words (Grossman & Eagle,
1970). Five minutes after learning took place, participants were given a recognition
test. Included in the recognition test were distracters—items that appear to be
legitimate choices but that are not correct alternatives. Nine of the distracters (words
that were not in the list of 41 words) were semantically related to words on the list.
Nine were not. The researchers were interested in “false alarm” responses in which
the participants indicated that they had seen the distracters, even though those
words weren’t even on the list. Participants falsely recognized an average of 1.83 of
the synonyms but only an average of 1.05 of the unrelated words. This result
indicated a greater likelihood of semantic confusion.
Another way to show semantic encoding is to use sets of semantically related
test words, rather than distracters. Participants learned a list of 60 words that
included 15 animals, 15 professions, 15 vegetables, and 15 names of people
(Bousfield, 1953). The words were presented in random order. Thus, members of the
various categories were intermixed thoroughly. After participants heard the words,
they were asked to use free recall to reproduce the list in any order they wished. The
investigator then analyzed the order of output of the recalled words. Did participants
recall successive words from the same category more frequently than would be
expected by chance? Indeed, successive recalls from the same category did occur
much more often than would be expected by chance occurrence. Participants were
remembering words by clustering them into categories.
Levels of processing also influences encoding in long-term memory. When
learning lists of words, participants move more information into long-term memory
when using a semantic encoding strategy than when using a non-semantic strategy.
Interestingly, this advantage is not seen in people with autism. This finding suggests
that, in persons with autism, information may not be encoded semantically, or at
least, not to the same extent as in people who do not have autism (Toichi & Kamio,
2002). When engaged in semantic processing, people with autism show less activation
in Broca’s area than do healthy participants. This finding indicates that Broca’s area
may be related to the semantic deficits autistic patients often exhibit (Harris et al.,
2006).
Encoding of information in long-term memory is not exclusively semantic.
There also is evidence for visual encoding. Participants in a study received 16
drawings of objects, including four items of clothing, four animals, four vehicles, and
four items of furniture (Frost, 1972). The investigator manipulated not only the
semantic category but also the visual category. The drawings differed in visual
orientation. Four were angled to the left, four angled to the right, four horizontal,
and four vertical. Items were presented in random order. Participants were asked to
recall them freely. The order of participants’ responses showed effects of both
semantic and visual categories. These results suggested that participants were
encoding visual as well as semantic information. In fact, people are able to store
thousands of images (Brady et al., 2008).
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies have found that the
brain areas that are involved in encoding can be, but do not necessarily have to be,
involved in retrieval. With respect to faces, the anterior medial prefrontal cortex and
the right fusiform face area play an important role both in encoding and retrieval,
whereas the left fusiform face area contributes mostly to encoding processes. Both
encoding and retrieval of places activate the left parahippocampal place area (PPA);
the left PPA is associated with encoding rather than retrieval. In addition, medial
temporal and prefrontal regions are related to memory processes in general, no
matter what kind of stimulus is used (Prince et al., 2009).
In addition to semantic and visual information, acoustic information can be
encoded in long-term memory (Nelson & Rothbart, 1972). Thus, there is considerable
flexibility in the way we store information that we retain for long periods. Those who
seek to know the single correct way we encode information are seeking an answer to
the wrong question. There is no one correct way. A more useful question involves
asking, “In what ways do we encode information in long-term memory?” From a more
psychological perspective, however, the most useful question to ask is, “When do we
encode in which ways?” In other words, under what circumstances do we use one form
of encoding, and under what circumstances do we use another? These questions are
the focus of present and future research.
Lesson 2
Where in the brain are memories stored, and what structures and areas of the
brain are involved in memory processes, such as encoding and retrieval? Many early
attempts at localization of memory were unfruitful. For example, after literally
hundreds of experiments, renowned neuropsychologist Karl Lashley (1950) reluctantly
stated that he could find no specific locations in the brain for specific memories. In
the decades since Lashley’s admission, psychologists have located many cerebral
structures involved in memory. For example, they know of the importance of the
hippocampus and other nearby structures. However, the physiological structure may
not be such that we will find Lashley’s elusive localizations of specific ideas,
thoughts, or events. Even Penfield’s findings regarding links between electrical
stimulation and episodic memory of events have been subject to question.
Some studies show encouraging, although preliminary, findings regarding the
structures that seem to be involved in various aspects of memory. First, specific
sensory properties of a given experience appear to be organized across various areas
of the cerebral cortex (Squire, 1986). For example, the visual, spatial, and olfactory
(odor) features of an experience may be stored discretely in each of the areas of the
cortex responsible for processing each type of sensation. Thus, the cerebral cortex
appears to play an important role in memory in terms of the long-term storage of
information (Zola & Squire, 2000; Zola-Morgan & Squire, 1990).
In addition, the hippocampus and some related nearby cerebral structures
appear to be important for explicit memory of experiences and other declarative
information. The hippocampus also seems to play a key role in the encoding of
declarative information (Manns & Eichenbaum, 2006; Thompson, 2000). Its main
function appears to be in the integration and consolidation of separate sensory
information as well as spatial orientation and memory (Ekstrom et al., 2003;
Moscovitch, 2003; Solstad et al., 2008). Most important, it is involved in the transfer
of newly synthesized information into long-term structures supporting declarative
knowledge. Perhaps such transfer provides a means of cross-referencing information
stored in different parts of the brain (Reber, Knowlton, & Squire, 1996). Additionally,
the hippocampus seems to play a crucial role in complex learning (Gupta et al., 2009;
McCormick & Thompson, 1984). Finally, the hippocampus also has a significant role in
the recollection of information (Gilboa et al., 2006).
In evolutionary terms, the aforementioned cerebral structures (chiefly the
cortex and the hippocampus) are relatively recent acquisitions. Declarative memory
also may be considered a relatively recent phenomenon. At the same time, other
memory structures may be responsible for non-declarative forms of memory. For
example, the basal ganglia seem to be the primary structures controlling procedural
knowledge (Shohamy et al., 2009). But they are not involved in controlling the
priming effect (Heindel, Butters, & Salmon, 1988), which may be influenced by
various other kinds of memory (Schacter, 1989b). Furthermore, the cerebellum also
seems to play a key role in memory for classically conditioned responses and
contributes to many cognitive tasks in general (Thompson & Steinmetz, 2009). Thus,
various forms of non-declarative memory seem to rely on differing cerebral
structures.
The amygdala is often associated with emotional events, so a natural question
to ask is whether, in memory tasks, there is involvement of the amygdala in memory
for emotionally charged events. In one study, participants saw two video
presentations presented on separate days (Cahill et al., 1996). Each presentation
involved 12 clippings, half of which had been judged as involving relatively emotional
content and the other half as involving relatively unemotional content. As participants
watched the video clippings, brain activity was assessed by means of PET. After a gap
of 3 weeks, the participants returned to the lab and were asked to recall the clips.
For the relatively emotional clips, amount of activation in the amygdala was
associated with recall; for the relatively unemotional clips, there was no association.
This pattern of results suggests that when memories are emotionally charged, the
level of amygdala activation is associated with recall. In other words, the more
emotionally charged the emotional memory, the greater the probability the memory
will later be retrieved. There also may be a gender difference with regard to recall of
emotional memories. There is some evidence that women recall emotionally charged
pictures better than do men (Canli et al., 2002). The amygdala also appears to play
an important role in memory consolidation, especially where emotional experience is
involved (Cahill & McGaugh, 1996; Roozendaal et al., 2008).
In addition to these preliminary insights regarding the macrolevel structures of
memory, we are beginning to understand the microlevel structure of memory. For
example, we know that repeated stimulation of particular neural pathways tends to
strengthen the likelihood of firing. This is called long-term potentiation (where
potentiation refers to an increase in activity). In particular, at a particular synapse,
there appear to be physiological changes in the dendrites of the receiving neuron.
These changes make the neuron more likely to reach the threshold for firing again.
This finding is very important because it indicates that neurons in the hippocampus
may be able to change their interactions (i.e., that they are plastic).
We also know that some neurotransmitters disrupt memory storage. Others
enhance memory storage. Both serotonin and acetylcholine seem to enhance neural
transmission associated with memory. Norepinephrine also may do so. High
concentrations of acetylcholine have been found in the hippocampus of normal people
(Squire, 1987), but low concentrations are found in people with Alzheimer’s disease.
In fact, Alzheimer’s patients show severe loss of the brain tissue that secretes
acetylcholine.
Serotonin also plays a role in another form of memory dysfunction, Korsakoff
syndrome. Severe or prolonged abuse of alcohol can lead to this devastating form of
anterograde amnesia. Alcohol consumption has been shown to disrupt the activity of
serotonin. It thereby impairs the formation of memories (Weingartner et al., 1983).
This syndrome is often accompanied by at least some retrograde amnesia (Clark et
al., 2007). Korsakoff’s syndrome has been linked to damage in the diencephalon (the
region comprising the thalamus and the hypothalamus) of the brain (Postma et al.,
2008). It also has been linked to dysfunction or damage in other areas, such as in the
frontal and the temporal lobes of the cortex (Jacobson et al., 1990; Kopelman et al.,
2009; Reed et al., 2003).
Other physiological factors also affect memory function. Some of the naturally
occurring hormones stimulate increased availability of glucose in the brain, which
enhances memory function. These hormones are often associated with highly arousing
events. Examples of such events are traumas, achievements, first-time experiences
(e.g., first passionate kiss), crises, or other peak moments (e.g., reaching a major
decision). Hormones may play a role in remembering these events.
Lesson 3
Memory retention is when a person can recall or retain experiences based on
the mental process of recognition or retention of information. The experiment
analyzed the memory retention of students and teachers in a two minute time frame.
It dealt with the number of words that students and teachers could remember from a
selected paragraph. In another experiment found, for instance, Richard E. Mayer
conducted an experiment using students who are viewing a computer screen that had
animations of the process of lightning formation or the operation of a car's braking
system. In the experiment students had to describe the major steps in the car’s
braking process, or we using matching the words in the lighting formation. The
conclusion of the experiment results in those students was that they could relate
pictures more easily than the use of words. In most experiments of memory retention
the results are that pictures or words can be easily relating to other words have close
meaning to the word, people have found that to be helpful in experiments dealing
with memory retention. In this experiment, the experimenters tested the notion that
if noise level is related to memory retention, then the memory retention will be
better in the library. The cafeteria environment is bustling, busy, and loud versus the
quiet environment of the library. The independent variables are the environments in
which the students are placed. The dependent variable in this experiment is the
memory retention of the students. This experiment will prove how much information
the brain can retain in different environments of noise.
Subjects
There were sixty subjects; thirty from the media center and thirty from
cafeteria. They were all female and ranged in age from approximately thirteen to
eighteen. The subjects were chosen at random. The subjects were from every grade,
seated at different areas of the media center or cafeteria. Subjects from different
hours were given the experiment. When approached subjects were doing different
things. When approached the subjects were both in groups and alone. The controlled
group was the subjects in the cafeteria and the experimental group were the subjects
from the media center.
Apparatus
They used blue and black pens, pencils, loose leaf paper, and six copies of the
paragraph each subject would read. They also used the media center, silent study,
and cafeteria at Mercy High school, Farmington Hills. The Cafeteria was loud and
chaotic. The media center was quieter than the cafeteria and the silent study was
very quiet.
Procedure
The subjects were approached, and asked if they would participate in the
psychology experiment. If the subject was willing to participate, they were told they
would have two minutes to read the paragraph given to them, and should read until
told their two minutes was up. Subjects in the Media center were then walked to the
silent study and handed the paragraph. Subjects in the Cafeteria were handed the
Paragraph and stayed seated where they were. Subjects were not told what they
would be doing after reading. After two minutes the paragraph was taken from the
subjects and handed a piece of loose leaf paper and pen. The subjects were told to
write down everything they could remember, word for word. After the subjects wrote
down everything they could remember they were thanked and dismissed.
The graphs on the "Graphs/Data" tab represent the data and information
collected throughout the experiment. There were 145 words in the paragraph. The
“Number of Words” column was determined by counting the correct number of words
in each student’s response. The “Percent Right” column was determined by taking
their correct number of words, dividing it by 145, and multiplying the number by 100.
The first graph labeled “Library” shows the number of words and percent right for
each student experimented in the library. It is organized by grade level and words
correct in ascending order. The “Cafeteria” graph is set up the same way. The
“Average” graph represents all the information on a smaller, easier scale. It shows
the grade level averages in the library and cafeteria. Additionally, this graph
compares the average number of words and average percent of words in the cafeteria
and library. The students in the library averaged 16% words correct, whereas the
students in the cafeteria averaged 9% words correct.
Based on the data, the experimenters’ results support the hypothesis. The
hypothesis stated that if noise level is related to memory retention, then the memory
retention will be better in the library. In the cafeteria, students sat socializing
amongst their friends. There were conversations going on all over the cafeteria
making it harder to focus. In the library, the students experienced a quieter
environment, easier to concentrate. Based on the graphs, the students in the library
averaged 16% words correct, whereas the students in the cafeteria averaged 9% words
correct. This proves the hypothesis correct. Additionally, the seniors averaged
surpassed the lower grades in both the cafeteria and library. The average in the
library was 32%, 19% higher than the next highest grade. In the library, the seniors
also surpassed the lower grades with an average of 11% words remembered. There
was a significant difference in all of the grade levels except sophomores. In the other
grades, the memory retention in the library exceeded those in the cafeteria. The
range of memory retention in the library ranged from 1% to 65%. In the cafeteria, the
range was 1% to 25%. That is a whopping 40% higher retention rate in the library than
in the cafeteria. This experiment proved a negative correlation: as noise increased,
memory retention decreased. This proves that the mind retains more information in a
quieter environment versus a louder, social environment. A conclusion that can be
drawn from this is that the brain processes more information in a quieter
environment. More words were retained when students weren’t affected by lots of
noise. The experimenters place lots of confidence in their results. The average
percentages and number of words retained reassure their affirmation. One thing that
the experimenters could have done better is planning how many freshman,
sophomores, juniors, and seniors they evaluated. Instead of grabbing random
students, they should have developed a set number of each class because the
freshmen have the most numbers of both graphs. One strength of the experiment was
the decision not to tell the students what they would be writing after. Like tests and
real-life experiences, people never know what to expect. Thus, people should always
try to retain as much as possible instead of particular things. The findings to this
experiment can be generalized to the general population. The experimenters chose
students by random instead of favoring one group of people. Thus, the higher the
noise level, the less likely the mind is to retain that information.
Lesson 4
Once we have encoded and stored information in short-term memory, how do
we retrieve it? If we have problems retrieving information, was the information even
stored in the first place?
1. Retrieval from Short-Term Memory
In one study on memory scanning, Saul Sternberg presented participants with a
short list including from one to six digits (Sternberg, 1966). They were expected to
hold the list in short-term memory. After a brief pause, a test digit was flashed on a
screen. Participants had to say whether this digit appeared in the set that they had
been asked to memorize. Thus, if the list comprised the digits 4, 1, 9, 3, and the digit
9 flashed on the screen, the correct response would be “yes.” If, instead, the test
digit was 7, the correct response would be “no.” The digits that were presented are
termed the positive set. Those that were not presented are termed the negative set.
Are items retrieved all at once (parallel processing) or sequentially (serial
processing)? If retrieved serially, the question then arises: Are all items retrieved,
regardless of the task (exhaustive retrieval), or does retrieval stop as soon as an item
seems to accomplish the task (self-terminating retrieval)? In the next sections, we
examine parallel and serial processing, and then exhaustive and self-terminating
retrieval.
Parallel processing refers to the simultaneous handling of multiple operations.
As applied to short-term memory, the items stored in short-term memory would be
retrieved all at once, not one at a time. Response times should be the same,
regardless of the size of the positive set. This is because all comparisons would be
done at once.
Serial processing refers to operations being done one after another. In other
words, on the digit-recall task, the digits would be retrieved in succession, rather
than all at once (as in the parallel model).
If information processing were serial, there would be two ways in which to gain
access to the stimuli: exhaustive or self-terminating processing. Exhaustive serial
processing implies that the participant always checks the test digit against all digits in
the positive set, even if a match were found partway through the list.
Exhaustive processing would predict the pattern of data. Note that positive
responses all would take the same amount of time, regardless of the serial position of
a positive test probe. In other words, in an exhaustive search, you would take the
same amount of time to find any digit. Where in the list it was located would not
matter.
2. Retrieval from Long-Term Memory
Its difficult to separate storage from retrieval phenomena. Participants in one
study were tested on their memory for lists of categorized words (Tulving &
Pearlstone, 1966). Participants would hear words within a category together in the
list. They even would be given the name of the category before the items within it
were presented. For example, the participants might hear the category “article of
clothing” followed by the words, “shirt, socks, pants, belt.” Participants then were
tested for their recall.
The recall test was done in one of two ways. In the free recall condition,
participants merely recalled as many words as they could in any order they chose. In a
cued recall condition, however, participants were tested category by category. They
were given each category label as a cue. They then were asked to recall as many
words as they could from that category. The critical result was that cued recall was
far better, on average, than free recall. Had the researchers tested only free recall,
they might have concluded that participants had not stored quite so many words.
However, the comparison to the cued recall condition demonstrated that apparent
memory failures were largely a result of retrieval, rather than storage failures.
Categorization dramatically can affect retrieval. Investigators had participants
learn lists of categorized words (Bower et al., 1969). Either the words were presented
in random order or they were presented in the form of a hierarchical tree that
showed the organization of the words. For example, the category “minerals” might be
at the top, followed by the categories of “metals and stones,” and so on. Participants
given hierarchical presentation recalled 65% of the words. In contrast, recall was just
19% by participants given the words in random order.
An interesting study by Khader and colleagues (2005) demonstrated that
material that is processed in certain cortical areas during perception also activates
those same areas again during long-term memory recall. Participants learned abstract
words that were connected either with one or two faces or with one or two spatial
positions. A few days later in a cued recall task, they were presented with two words
and were asked to decide whether those two words were connected by a common
face or position, with their performance recorded by fMRI. Recall of spatial positions
activated areas such as the parietal and precentral cortex, and faces activated areas
such as the left prefrontal temporal cortex and the posterior cingulated cortex. Blood
oxygen levels increased with the number of associations to be recalled.
Another problem that arises when studying memory is figuring out why we
sometimes have trouble retrieving information. Cognitive psychologists often have
difficulty finding a way to distinguish between availability and accessibility of items.
Availability is the presence of information stored in long-term memory. Accessibility is
the degree to which we can gain access to the available information. Memory
performance depends on the accessibility of the information to be remembered.
Ideally, memory researchers would like to assess the availability of information in
memory. Unfortunately, they must settle for assessing the accessibility of such
information.
Memory Distortions
People have tendencies to distort their memories (Aminoff et al., 2008;
Roediger & McDermott, 2000; Schacter & Curran, 2000; Schnider, 2008). For example,
just saying something has happened to you makes you more likely to think it really
happened. This is true whether the event happened or not (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1998).
These distortions tend to occur in seven specific ways, which Schacter (2001) refers to
as the “seven sins of memory.” Here are Schacter’s “seven sins”:
1. Transience. Memory fades quickly. For example, although most people know
that O. J. Simpson was acquitted of criminal charges in the murder of his wife,
they do not remember how they found out about his acquittal. At one time
they could have said, but they no longer can.
2. Absent-mindedness. People sometimes brush their teeth after already having
brushed them or enter a room looking for something only to discover that they
have forgotten what they were seeking.
3. Blocking. People sometimes have something that they know they should
remember, but they can’t. It’s as though the information is on the tip of their
tongue, but they cannot retrieve it. For example, people may see someone
they know, but the person’s name escapes them; or they may try to think of a
synonym for a word, knowing that there is an obvious synonym, but are unable
to recall it.
4. Misattribution. People often cannot remember where they heard what they
heard or read what they read. Sometimes people think they saw things they did
not see or heard things they did not hear. For example, eyewitness testimony is
sometimes clouded by what we think we should have seen, rather than what
we actually saw.
5. Suggestibility. People are susceptible to suggestion, so if it is suggested to
them that they saw something, they may think they remember seeing it. For
example, in one study, when asked whether they had seen a television film of a
plane crashing into an apartment building, many people said they had seen it.
There was no such film.
6. Bias. People often are biased in their recall. For example, people who
currently are experiencing chronic pain in their lives are more likely to
remember pain in the past, whether or not they actually experienced it. People
who are not experiencing such pain are less likely to recall pain in the past,
again with little regard to their actual past experience.
7. Persistence. People sometimes remember things as consequential that, in a
broad context, are inconsequential. For example, someone with many
successes but one notable failure may remember the single failure better than
the many successes.
Alzheimer’s Disease
Although amnesia is the syndrome most associated with memory loss, it is often
less devastating than a disease that includes memory loss as one of many symptoms.
Alzheimer’s disease is a disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as
progressive memory loss (Kensinger & Corkin, 2003). Dementia is a loss of intellectual
function that is severe enough to impair one’s everyday life. The memory loss in
Alzheimer’s disease can be seen in comparative brain scans of individuals with and
without Alzheimer’s disease. Note in Figure 5.10 that as the disease advances, there
is diminishing cognitive activity in the areas of the brain associated with memory
function.
The disease was first identified by Alois Alzheimer in 1907. It is typically
recognized on the basis of loss of intellectual function in daily life. Formally, a
definitive diagnosis is possible only after death. Alzheimer’s disease leads to an
atrophy (decrease in size) of the brain; especially in the hippocampus and frontal and
temporal brain regions (Jack et al., 2002). The brains of people with the disease show
plaques and tangles that are not found in normal brains. Plaques are dense protein
deposits found outside the nerve cells of the brain (Mirochnic et al., 2009). Tangles
are pairs of filaments that become twisted around each other. They are found in the
cell body and dendrites of neurons and often are shaped like a flame (Kensinger &
Corkin, 2003). Alzheimer’s disease is diagnosed when memory is impaired and there is
at least one other area of dysfunction in the domains of language, motor, attention,
executive function, personality, or object recognition. The symptoms are of gradual
onset, and the progression is continuous and irreversible.
Although the progression of disease is irreversible, it can be slowed somewhat.
The main drug currently being used for this purpose is Donepezil (Aricept). Research
evidence is mixed (Fischman, 2004). It suggests that, at best, Aricept may slightly
slow progression of the disease, but that it cannot reverse it. A more recent drug,
memantine (sold as Namenda or Ebixa), can supplement Aricept and slow progression
of the disease somewhat more. The two drugs have different mechanisms. Aricept
slows destruction of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the brain. Memantine
inhibits a chemical that overexcites brain cells and leads to cell damage and death
(Fischman, 2004).
The incidence of Alzheimer’s increases exponentially with age (Kensinger &
Corkin, 2003). About 1% of people between 70 to 75 years of age experience an onset
of Alzheimers. But between ages 80 and 85, the incidence is more than 6% a year.
A special kind of Alzheimer’s disease is familial, known as early-onset Alzheimer’s
disease. It has been linked to a genetic mutation. People with the genetic mutation
always develop the disease. It results in the disease exhibiting itself early, often
before even 50 years of age and sometimes as early as the 20s (Kensinger & Corkin,
2003). Late-onset Alzheimer’s, in contrast, appears to be complexly determined and
related to a variety of possible genetic and environmental influences, none of which
have been conclusively identified.
The earliest signs of Alzheimer’s disease typically include impairment of episodic
memory. People have trouble remembering things that were learned in a temporal or
spatial context. As the disease progresses, semantic memory also begins to go.
Whereas people without the disease tend to remember emotionally charged
information better than they remember non-emotionally charged information, people
with the disease show no difference in the two kinds of memory (Kensinger et al.,
2002). Most forms of non-declarative memory are spared in Alzheimer’s disease until
near the very end of its course. The end is inevitably death, unless the individual dies
first of other causes.
Memory tests may be given to assess whether an individual has Alzheimer’s disease.
However, definitive diagnosis is possible only through analysis of brain tissue, which,
as mentioned earlier, shows plaques and tangles in cases of disease. In one test,
individuals see a sheet of paper containing four words (Buschke et al., 1999). Each
word belongs to a different category. The examiner says the category name for one of
the words. The individual must point to the appropriate word. For example, if the
category is animal, the individual might point to a picture of a cow. A few minutes
after the words have been presented, individuals make an attempt to recall all the
words they saw. If they cannot recall a word, they are given the category to which
the word belongs. Some individuals cannot remember the words, even when prompted
with the categories. Alzheimer’s patients score much worse on this test than do other
individuals.
● Information can be stored into the short-term and long-term memory.
● The brain and its parts have specific roles in storing information.
● There are factors that affect how we retain information.
● Information can be retrieved depending on the availability, accessibility,
and the degree of impact these experiences have.
Congratulations! You have just studied Module II. Now you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!
Instruction: Identify what is asked for in the following statements: 10 pts.
1. It is the process of storing, retaining, and retrieving material from previous
experiences.
2. The first step in recalling
3. The number of codes involved in short-term memory
4. Items included in a test that seem valid answers but are not the correct
choices.
5. The term used to identify the area of the brain where memory is located.
6. The other term for declarative memory
7. The part of the brain where memory of previous emotionally charged
experiences are operating
8. The independent variable in Mayer’s experiment
9. Also known as mental twisting or altering of events
10.The cause of Alzheimer’s Disease