APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

UNIT IV
18CEO407T

Dr. Karuppasamy Sudalaimuthu

Department of Civil Engineering
SRMIST
 CONTENTS
Spatial data analysis Spatial and non-spatial query
Expert system
Non-spatial data analysis
Digital Elevation Model
Spatial interpolation
Generation – Parameters
Data retrieval – Modelling surface
Reclassification techniques DEM applications
Buffer analysis Digital Terrain Model and
visualization
Vector and Topographical
TIN- generation
overlay analysis
Cost Path analysis
Raster overlay analysis
DEM and DTM merits and
Measurement demerits
 SPATIAL DATA ANALYSIS
The principal objective of spatial data analysis is to
transform and combine data from diverse
sources/disciplines into useful information, to improve one’s
understanding or to satisfy the requirements of objectives
of decision makers.

Spatial analysis is how we understand our world mapping

where things are, how they relate, what it all means, and
what actions to take.
 SPATIAL DATA ANALYSIS
Spatial analysis is the process by which turn raw
data into useful information.
The study of the locations, shapes of geographic
features and the relationships between them.
Spatial analysis generally requires both non-spatial
(attributes) and spatial information (location of
objects).
Spatial data analysis involves the application of
operations to coordinate and relate attribute data.
WHAT WE DO WITH SPATIAL ANALYSIS?
Identify high crime area

Selection of a best location for a new business

Spread of disease

Suitable site determination for garbage

dumping

Identifying the Bus routing (Shortest path)

Flood vulnerable zones identification and etc..

CATEGORIES OF SPATIAL ANALYSIS
Understanding the location

Measuring the size and distribution

Determining the how places are related

Finding the best locations and shortest path

Detecting and quantifying patterns

Making predictions
 BENEFITS OF SPATIAL ANALYSIS
Increase efficiency and productivity

Increase revenue

Support regulatory compliance

Improve customer service

Enhance customer satisfaction

Enhance competitive advantage

 SPATIAL ANALYSIS - CATEGORY

1. Query

2. Reclassification

3. Coverage rebuilding

4. Overlay

5. Connectivity analysis
 QUERY
Retrieval of attribute data without altering the
existing data by means of arithmetic and
logical operations.
 QUERY
Simple Query
Select Employee ID
From Employees
Where Fname = ‘Karuppasamy’ AND Lname = ‘Sudalaimuthu’
Spatial Query
Find all the states from India that border on Pakistan
Select State. Name
From State Name, Country Name
Where Touch (State. Shape, Country. Shape) = 1 AND
Country. Name = “Pakistan”
 QUERY
Non spatial queries:

1. list the names of all students from B.TECH IV th

year

Spatial Queries:

1. List the name of all students with 10 km from

SRM university.
 RECLASSIFICATION
Reclassification of attribute data by dissolving a
part of the boundaries and merging into new
reclassified polygons.

Example: Population densities

classified into classes such as

“Sparsely populated” or “Over crowded”

 COVERAGE REBUILDING
Clip : To identify and preserve features within the boundary of
interest specified by users. It is called cookie cutter.
Erase: To erase features inside the boundary while preserving
features outside the boundary
Update : To replace features within the boundary by cutting out
the current polygons and pasting in the updated polygons.
Split : To create new coverages by clipping geographic features
with divided borders.
Append : To merge the same feature classed of points and lines
from the adjacent coverages.
Map Join: To join the adjacent polygon features into a single
coverage to rebuild to topology. It is called mosaicking.
COVERAGE REBUILDING
 OVERLAY
Overlay that superimposes multiple data sets
together for the purpose of identifying
relationships between them.

An overlay operation combines features and

attributes from the input layers.
 OVERLAY

Overlaying of more than two layers, including

rebuilding topology of the merged points,
lines and polygons and operations on the
merged attributes for suitability study, risk
management and potential evaluation.
 OVERLAY
Steps in overlay operation

1. Take two or more input layers

2. Assume they are georeferenced in the same

system

3. Overlap in study area

The principle is to compare the characteristics of the

same location in superimposed data layers, and to
produce a new output value for each location.
 OVERLAY
Identify the shrimp yield

Inputs required: Salinity, Disease incidence,

Water quality
 CONNECTIVITY ANALYSIS

Analysis of connectivity between points, lines

and polygon in terms of distance, area, travel
time, optimum paths etc.
 CONNECTIVITY ANALYSIS - TYPES

Proximity analysis: Proximity analysis is

measurement of distances from points, lines
and boundaries of polygons.

Buffering is type of proximity analysis, by

which buffer can be generated around a
point, line and area with a given distance.
 BUFFER
A buffer is a zone with a width created around a spatial
feature and is measured in units of distance from the
feature.

Buffering is used for neighborhood analysis which aims to

evaluate the characteristics of the area surrounding the
spatial feature.

Common examples of buffering include the identification of

properties within a certain distance of an object,
delineation of areas around natural features where human
activities are restricted, determination of areas affected by
location etc.
BUFFERING - POINT
BUFFERING – AREA (FLOODING)
 CONNECTIVITY ANALYSIS - TYPES

Network analysis: Network analysis includes

determination of optimum paths using
specified decision rules.

The decision rules are based on minimum

distance or time and maximum correlation
occurrence.
 INTERPOLATION
Interpolation is the process of computing
intermediate values between two related and
known values.
 SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
Spatial interpolation refers to the process of using points with
known values to estimate values at other points.

Through spatial interpolation, we can estimate the precipitation

value at a location with no recorded data by using known
precipitation readings at nearby weather stations. Also called
gridding, spatial interpolation creates a grid (a raster) with
estimates made for all cells. Spatial interpolation is therefore a
means of creating surface data from sample points so that the
surface data can be displayed as a 3-D surface or an Isoline map
and used for analysis and modeling.
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
 TYPES OF SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
Spatial interpolation methods can be categorized in several ways. First,
they can be grouped into global and local methods. A global
interpolation method uses every known point available to estimate an
unknown value.

A local interpolation method, on the other hand, uses a sample of known

points to estimate an unknown value. Since the difference between the
two groups lies in the number of control points used in estimation, one
may view the scale from global to local as a continuum.

Global method Local method

Deterministic Stochastic Deterministic Stochastic

Trend surface Regression Thiessen polygons, Kriging

Density estimation
Inverse Distance
Weighted, Splines
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
 SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
Interpolation predicts values for cells in a raster
form a limited number of sample data points. It
can be used to predict unknown values for any
geographic point data.

Example : Rainfall, Chemical concentrations,

noise levels and so on.
 SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
Spatial interpolation is the procedure of
estimating the value of properties at un-sampled
sites within the area covered by existing
observations.

Spatial interpolation is important because it is

used to calculate some property of the surface
at a given point.
ELEMENTS OF SPATIAL INTERPOLATION

A basic assumption in spatial interpolation is that the value to

be estimated at a point is more influenced by nearby known
points than those farther away. To be effective for estimation,
control points should be well distributed within the study area.
But this ideal situation is rare in real-world applications
because a study area often contains data-poor areas.
ELEMENTS OF SPATIAL INTERPOLATION

Spatial interpolation requires two basic inputs: known points

and an interpolation method. In most cases, known points are
actual points such as weather stations or survey sites.

Control points:

Control Points are points with known values. Also called known
points, sample points, or observations, control points provide
the data necessary for developing an interpolator (e.g., a
mathematical equation) for spatial interpolation. The number
and distribution of control points can greatly influence the
accuracy of spatial interpolation.
TYPES OF SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
Global Interpolation : A global interpolation
method uses every known point available to
estimate an unknown value.
1. It is used to capture the general trend of the
surface
2. It is taking longer time to process
3. Generate noise
Types of global Interpolation : 1. Trend surface and
2. Regression methods
TYPES OF SPATIAL INTERPOLATION

Local Interpolation : A local interpolation

method, on the other hand, uses a sample of
known points to estimate an unknown value.

1. To capture the local or short range

variations.
 TYPES OF SPATIAL INTERPLOATION
DEPENDS ON

1. What type of surface model you want to

produce

2. What data are available

- Point, Line or area

- Continuous or discrete
 DATA RETRIEVAL –
RECLASSIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Data retrieval: 1. Locating, 2. Selecting by attributes 3. Buffering 4,
Map overlay 5. Map algebra.

Data retrieval is done by applying the rules of Boolean logic to

operate on the attributes.

Boolean algebra uses the operators AND, OR, XOR and NOT to
see whether a particular condition is true or not.

Ex. Type = Asphalt and Length = 4000 and Lanes = 4

Simple Boolean logic is often portrayed visually in the form of

Venn diagrams.
 DATA RETRIEVAL

Data retrieval is the process of identifying and

extracting data from database.

Data retrieval is feasible and easy if there is no

ambiguity in the data and it should be
presented in standard structure.
DATA RETRIEVAL – BASED ON PURPOSE
 DATA RETRIEVAL
What is the source for data retrieval?

What are the outcomes for data retrieval?

How do retrieve data?

DATA RETRIEVAL – SOURCES (Example)

Digital Library (Books, Journals)

Web Search engine (Flight ticket, Movie,

Education)

USGS Data Library (Satellite image – Free of

cost)

NRSC Data Center ( Purchasing Indian satellite)

Etc..
 HOW DO RETRIEVE DATA?
Query

What is Query : ?. A query is request for data or

information from a database.

You use queries to view, change, and analyze

data in different ways.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Clip : is used to subset a point, line or polygon theme using another
polygon theme as the boundary of the area of interest.

In the illustration above, the input, point feature shows the location of
drinking water wells in three villages.
To know how many wells fall in village 1, the input features class is
clipped using the boundary of the village1. The output feature class
shows that five wells are present in village 1.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Split : Causes the input features to form subset of multiple output feature classes. The
split field’s unique values form the names of the output feature classes.

In the illustration above, a point theme of wells is split using the polygon theme of
watershed boundaries. The output of this operation contains multiple feature classes
which are named on the unique value of watershed boundaries ( in this case, the
unique value is the watershed number WS1, WS2 etc).
Each output class represents the number of wells present in a particular watershed
i.e WS1 or Watershed 1 has three wells. Similarly WS2, WS3 and WS4 have 3, 2 and 2
wells respectively.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Union : union creates a new theme by overlapping two polygon themes. It is same as or
Boolean operator. The output theme contains the combined polygons and attributes of
both themes. Only polygon themes can be combined using union.

Let’s say we are interested in knowing no potential zone for urban development. It is
clear that no construction can be done on a water body or land covered by agriculture
or forest. So, we can say union of areas under water, agriculture and forest would
present us the area having no potential for urban development.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Intersect : Intersect creates a new theme by overlapping a point, line or polygon theme
with an intersecting polygon theme. It is same as “and” Boolean operator. The output
theme contains only the feature inside the intersecting polygons.

To identify the area having potential for urban development, we need to intersect the
polygon themes to get a common area which is not under water, agriculture or forest.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Identity: Identity creates a new theme by
overlapping a point, line or polygon theme with
an intersecting polygon theme. The output
theme contains all the original point, line or
polygons as well as the attributes transferred by
the intersecting polygon theme.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Erase: Erase removes polygons in a theme from
the area covered by polygons of another theme.
The output feature class only contains those
features of the input polygon theme that fall
outside the polygons of the second theme.
 OVERLAY

It is important technique to integrate data

derived from various sources.

It is useful to interrelate thematic overlaid

layers.
 VECTOR OVERLAY

Involves combining point, line, polygon

geometry and associated attribute.

Large attribute tables may result if overlay

operations combine many layers

Duplicate attribute field may also exist

 TYPES OF VECTOR OVERLAY

Point in polygon

Line on polygon

Polygon on polygon
 POINT IN POLYGON OVERLAY
Points are overlaid on polygon. Topology of
point in polygon is “ contained in” relationship.

Point topology in the new data layer is a new

attribute of polygon for each point.
“IS CONTAINED IN”
POINT IN POLYGON OVERLAY

ID Name
ID Name
1 Chennai
1 Sam
2 Kancheepuram
2 Ram
3 Vilupuram
3 Raja

4 Pooja ID Name

5 Riya
 LINE – ON – POLYGON OVERLAY

Line – on – polygon algorithm overlays line

objects on area objects and compute “ is
contained in” relationship.

Lines are broken at each area object

boundary to form line segments and new
attributes created for each output line
specifying the area it belongs to.
POLYGON-ON-POLYGON OVERLAY

Two layers of area objectives are overlaid. The

number of new polygons is usually larger than
that of the original polygons.

SOIL LANDUSE
 RASTER OVERLAY
Raster overlay can be performed by using map
algebra or mathematics. Using map algebra,
input layers may be added, subtracted,
multiplied or divided to produce an output
value.
 RASTER OVERLAY
Raster (Arithmetic) overlay: Raster overlay superimposes
at least two input raster layers to produce an output
layer. Each cell in the output layer is calculated from the
corresponding pixels in the input layers.
To do this, the layers must line up perfectly, they must
have the same pixel resolution and spatial extent.
Raster overlay is flexible, efficient, quick, and offers
more overlay possibilities than vector overlay.
 RASTER OVERLAY
Raster overlay, frequently called map algebra, is
based on calculations which include arithmetic
expressions, Boolean algebraic operators to
process input layers to create an output layer.

The most common operators are addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division, but
other popular operator includes maximum,
minimum, average, AND, OR and NOT.
 RASTER OVERLAY
Raster overlay simply uses
arithmetic operators to compute
the corresponding cells of two or
more input layers together, uses
Boolean algebra like AND or OR to
find the pixels that fit a particular
query statement, or executes
statistical tests like correlation and
regression on the input layers.
RASTER- WEIGHTED OVERLAY ANALYSIS

Assigning a weight to each raster in the

overlay process allows you to control the
influence of different criteria in the suitability
model.
RASTER-WEIGHTED OVERLAY ANALYSIS

Steps: 1. Each raster layer is assigned a weight in the

suitability analysis.
2. Values in the rasters are reclassified to a common
suitability scale.
3. Raster layers are overlaid, multiplying each raster
cell’s suitability value by its layer weight and totaling
the values to derive a suitability value.
4. These values are written to new cells in an output
layer.
RASTER - WEIGHTED OVERLAY ANALYSIS
 WEIGHTING BY RANKING

Weighting the criteria by ranks in either

ascending or descending order.

Ascending means that the most important

criterion is given rank 1, the second criterion
rank 2 etc.

When ranking in descending order, rank 1 is

given to the least important criterion etc.
 TYPES OF QUERIES
Navigational search queries

Informational search queries

Transactional search queries

EXPERT SYSTEM
 EXPERT SYSTEM- HUMAN EXPRTS

A considerable knowledge about their areas

of expertise.

Can learn from their experience

Can explain the solution

Can do reasoning
 WHAT IS AN EXPERT SYSTEM(ES)
An expert system is software that attempts to
reproduce the performance of one or more
experts, typically in a specific problem domain.

Expert System employs human knowledge

represented in a computer to solve problems
that ordinarily require human expertise.

ES imitate the expert’s reasoning processes to

solve specific problems.
 WHAT IS AN EXPERT SYSTEM(ES)

Expert systems (ES) are computer systems that

advise on or help solve real-world problems
which would normally require a human
expert’s interpretation.
 WHY SHOULD WE USE EXPERT SYSTEM
Capture and preserve irreplaceable human
expertise.
Provide expertise needed at a number of locations
at the same time or in a hostile environment that is
dangerous to human health.
Provide unemotional objective solutions faster than
human experts.
Share human expertise with a large number of
people.
ORGANIZATION OF EXPERT SYSTEMS
Expert system differ from conventional
computer programs in their organization.
Ordinary computer programs organize
knowledge on two levels. 1. data 2. Program

Most expert systems organize knowledge in

three levels 1. fact 2. rules 3. inference.
ORGANIZATION OF EXPERT SYSTEMS
Many systems having this organization are referred
to as knowledge-based systems.
In the Knowledge base there is declarative
knowledge (i.e., facts and rules) about a particular
problem being solved.
Rules represent knowledge specific to solving a
particular problem and are used to reason about
the problem, while the “inference engine” controls
when and how specific problem-solving knowledge
is used.
 CONSTRUCTING EXPERT SYSTEMS
Generally speaking, when one builds an expert
system one goes through a number of stages
that closely resemble classical system analysis.

These include identification, conceptualization,

prototyping, creating user interfaces, testing and
redefinition, and knowledge–base
maintenance.
COMPONENTS OF EXPERT SYSTEM

1. User interface

- ask question to the expert system

2. Knowledge Base

- Stores knowledge (facts and rules)

3. Inference engine

- derive new knowledge from existing knowledge

 EXPERT SYSTEMS IN GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEM
There are a number of areas where GIS are
expected to benefit from the application of Expert
system technology.
1. Geographic Data Input is one area where
expert systems can be used to extract features
from imagery, exploit the potential of automatic
scanning of manuscript data are being captured,
and assess the quality of data being entered into
the system.
 EXPERT SYSTEMS IN GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEM
2. Expert systems may be used to exploit knowledge
about a user query and the GIS itself in order to
speed the search through very large spatial
databases.
3. Development of intelligent user interfaces will
make GIS responsive to user needs because the
user will no longer have to become an expert in the
use of GIS in addition to their own field of
specialization (e.g forest management or urban
planning).
 EXPERT SYSTEMS IN GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEM
4. Cartographic expert systems could be used
to produce high quality maps which would
effectively communicate information derived
from a GIS.
5. Cartographic expert system should not only
be able to make excellent maps, but also
explain why specific decisions were made
(e.g., in regard to fonts, line weights)
 EXPERT SYSTEMS IN GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEM
AUTONAP expert system is successful name
placement expert system. This system
emulates an expert cartographer in the task of
placing features name on a map.

The approach taken by AUTONAP is that area

features are annotated first, then point
features, and finally line features.
EXPERT SYSTEM APPLICATION AREAS

Application area include classification, diagnosis,

monitoring, process control, design, scheduling
and planning, and generation of options.

Classification : identify an object based on stated

characteristics

Diagnosis systems : Infer malfunction or disease

from observable data
 EXPERT SYSTEM APPLICATION
Monitoring: Compare data from a continuously
observed system to prescribe behavior

Process control: Control a physical process

based on monitoring

Design – Configure a system according to

specifications.

Generation of options – generate alternative

solution to a problem.
 LIMITATION OF EXPERT SYSTEMS
Limited to relatively narrow problems
Cannot readily deal with mixed knowledge
Errors may occur in the knowledge base
Cannot refine own knowledge base or learn from
experience.
Lack common sense
Cannot make creative responses as human
expert.
 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL (DEM)
DEM is a digital representation of 3- dimensional
information (X, Y, Z) of the continuous topography
of the bare earth surface in a particular reference
coordinate system.

A digital elevation model is a digital

representation of ground surface topography or
terrain.
 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL
A DEM is digital representation of topographic
surface with the elevation or ground height above
any geodetic datum. Following are widely used
DEM in GIS.
TYPES OF DEM
 TYPES OF DEM

DEMs are generated by using the elevation

information from several points spaced at regular
or irregular intervals.
The elevation information may be obtained from
different sources like field survey, topographic
contours etc. DEMs use different structures to
acquire or store the elevation information from
various sources.
 TYPES OF DEM

Three main type of structures used are the

following.

a) Regular square grids

b) Triangulated irregular networks (TIN)

c) Contours
 TYPES OF DEM

Grid DEM : The result is a matrix whose indices

are the coordinates and values are the
elevation value at each point ( raster
representation)

From this sample representation it is possible

to get a representation of the relief.
 REPRESENTATION OF DEM

Grid DEM: They are based on the values of the

elevation at the sampling points- one height
per pixel (grid cell).

The grid representation is the consequence of

sampling elevation values in regular intervals
of latitude and longitude.
 DEM - PARAMETERS
A DEM (Digital Terrain Model) is digital representation of terrain
features including elevation, slope, aspect, drainage and other
terrain attributes.
Usually a DTM is derived from a DEM or elevation data.
Several terrain features including the following DTMs.
1. Slope and Aspect
2. Drainage network
3. Catchment area
4. Shading
5. Shadow
6. Slope stability
PARAMETERS DERIVED FROM DEM
Slope – Displays the grade of steepness
expressed in degrees or as percent slope. This
image can reveal structural lineaments, fault
scarps, fluvial terrace scarps, etc.

2. Aspect – Identifies the down-slope direction.

Aspect images may enhance landforms such as
fluvial networks, alluvial fans, faceted fault
related scarps, etc.
 PARAMETERS DERIVED FROM DEM
3. Shaded topographic relief or hill-shading – This
image depicts relief by simulating the effect of the
sun's illumination on the terrain.
The direction and the altitude of the illumination can
be changed in order to emphasize faults, lineaments,
etc.
This image is probably the most useful to display
geological data related to landforms in terrains that
show a close correlation between geology and
topography.
 PARAMETERS DERIVED FROM DEM
4. Flow direction – Shows the direction of flow by
finding the direction of the steepest descent or
maximum drop. This DEM derived surface depicts
the drainage.

5. Basin – Function that uses a grid of flow

direction (output of flow direction) to determine
the contributing area.
 DEM PARAMETERS

Drainage basins : Drainage basin, also called

Catchment Area, or Watershed, area from
which all precipitation flows to a single stream
or set of streams.

Channel networks :
 APPLICATION OF DEM

Landslide probability

Estimation of the volume of proposed reservoir

Flood prone area mapping

Hazard monitoring

Natural resources exploration

Agricultural management
 APPLICATIONS OF DEM – INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS
About 60% of all DEM sales in Europe are to the
telecommunication industry. Topographic data
are used for

1. Macro cell planning (area grid cells ranging

from 3-5 km with elevated base transceiver
stations)

2. Micro cell planning ( Mainly applied in

central part of large cities)
 APPLICATIONS OF DEM – INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS
Typically the databases of 100m grid elevation data are
used for macro cell planning while detailed 5-10 m
elevation data are used for micro cell panning.
Tools are developed for modeling Multi-transmitter
communication networks and for aid in positioning of radio
towers.
Such tools strongly rely on the availability of recent DEMs
and land use information supplied by value adding
companies.
Actual DEM are required for determining optical locations for
transmitting masts for all forms of terrestrial signal radio
propagation.
 APPLICATIONS OF DEM – TOURISM
INDUSTRY
A great potential exist in the areas of tourist and
leisure maps, digital color-coded satellite maps
and DEM.

An example is the CDrom “Opplev Norge” provide

by the Norwegian Mapping Authority. Although still
only using 2D maps. It should be combined with a
DEM combined with a fly-through software that
enables the user to virtually cruise over the terrain
surface of Norway.
 MODELING SURFACE
Surface is denoted here Earth’s surface, Moon or
asteroid created by using terrain’s elevation data.

Surface can be modeled by using

DTM : Digital Terrain Model

DEM: Digital Elevation Model

DSM: Digital Surface Model

 DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL
A Digital Terrain Model is a topographic model of
the bare-earth terrain relief, that can be
manipulated by computer programs.

The data files contain the spatial elevation data of

the terrain in a digital format which usually
presented as a rectangular grid.

Vegetation, buildings and other man-made

(artificial) features are removed digitally- leaving
just the underlying terrain.
 DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL
DTM model is mostly related as raster data type,
stored usually as a rectangular equal-spaced
grid, with space of between 50 and 500 meters
mostly presented in Geographic coordinate
system.
 DIGITAL SURFACE MODEL
DSM : Surface model which captures the natural
and built features on the Earth’s surface.
DSM’s measure the height values of the first surface
on the ground. This includes terrain features,
buildings, vegetation and power lines etc. DSM’s
therefore provide a topographic model of the
earth’s surface. DSM’s can be used to create 3D
fly-through, support location-based systems and
augmented simulated environments.
 DIGITAL SURFACE MODEL
DSM is generated using LIDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) system, which sends pulses of light to the ground
and when the pulse of light bounces off/back its target
and returns to the sensor, it gives the range of the Earth.
LIDAR delivers a massive point cloud filled of varying
elevation values (Height can come from the top of
buildings, tree canopy, power lines, other built and natural
features).
DSM is useful in 3D modeling for telecommunications,
urban planning and aviation ( objects extrude from the
earth, particularly useful in these application to identify
obstructions).
SHORTEST PATH
 COST PATH ANALYSIS

Cost Path analysis is a procedure in GIS for

finding an optimal route between two points
through continuous space that minimizes
costs.

Costs can be a function of time, distance,

monetary expenditure in construction, and
other criteria that is defined by the user.
 COST PATH ANALYSIS
Determining an optimal cost path typically
requires three steps,

1. Cost surface

2. Cost distance

3. Least Cost Path

 COST SURFACE
Cost surface or cost grid, is a raster grid in which
the value in each cell is the cost that a particular
activity or object would be in that cell.
 COST DISTANCE

Cost distance gives the distance to the

nearest source for each cell in the raster,
based on the least-accumulative cost over a
cost surface.
LEAST CAST PATH
 LEAST COST PATH
When using least cost path in GIS, the
eight neighbors of a raster cell are
evaluated and the generated path
moves to the cell with the smallest
accumulated or cost value.
This process is repeated multiple times
until the source and destination are
connected. The completed path is the
smallest sum of raster cell values
between the 2 points and it has the
lowest cost.
 LEAST COST PATH ANALYSIS -
APPLICATIONS
Traffic, Information transmission, Fire fighting,
Disaster relief and rescuing.

Information transmission – find the route with

smallest cost.

Rescuing (disaster) – Find the route with the least

time cost.
 REQUIREMENTS FOR LEAST COST PATH
ANALYSIS
Source raster

Cost raster

Cost distance algorithm

 SOURCE RASTER
A source raster is a raster that defines the source
to which the least-cost path from each cell is
calculated.

Source raster is the raster that defines where the

least cost path is going and the source cell is the
end of that path.

In the source raster, only the source cell has a

value and all other are given a “no data” value.
 COST RASTER
The cost raster is the raster that defines the cost or other
impedance (defined by the user) to move through each raster
cell.
A cost raster characteristics
1. The cost of each cell is the sum of the different costs.
2. Cost factors can be weighted depending on the importance
of each factor.
Example : if Travel time is considered more importance factor
than the monetary cost, it can be weighted more in the
analysis.
 COST DISTANCE ALGORITHM
The goal to identify the lowest cost cell.
The identified lowest cost cell is to be assigned
quickly to the output cost-distance raster.
The condition to join in the output-cost distance
raster is cell must have the next least-cost path to a
source.
Cost distance algorithm is an iterative process till
find the optimum path between 2 points.
Example : Dijkstra’s algorithm
 COST PATH ANALYSIS
Least-cost path analysis and shortest path
analysis share some common terms and
concepts. But they differ in data format and data
analysis environment.
Least-cost path analysis uses raster data to locate
a “virtual” least cost path. In contrast, shortest
path analysis finds the shortest path between
stops on an existing network.
 COST PATH ANALYSIS
A least-cost path analysis requires a source raster, a cost raster, cost
distance measures, and an algorithm for deriving the least accumulative
cost path.

Source raster:

A source raster defines the source cell(s). Only the source cell has a cell
value in the source raster; all other cells are assigned no data. Similar to
physical distance measure operations, cost distance measures spread from
the source cell. But in the context of least-cost path analysis, one can
consider the source cell as an end point of a path, either the origin or the
destination.

The analysis derives for a cell the least accumulated cost path to the source
cell or to the closest source cell if two or more source cells are present.
 COST PATH ANALYSIS
Cost raster:

A cost raster defines the cost or impedance to move through each cell. A
cost raster has three characteristics. First, the cost for each cell is usually
the sum of different costs.

Second, the cost may represent the actual or relative cost. Relative costs
are expressed in ranked values.

Third, the cost factors may be weighted by the relative importance of

each factor.

To put together a cost raster, we start by compiling and evaluating a list of

cost factors. We then make a raster for each cost factor, multiply each
cost factor by its weight, and use a local operation to sum the individual
cost rasters. The local sum is the total cost necessary to traverse each
cell.
Cost distance measures:
The cost distance measure in a path analysis is based on the
node-link cell representation . A node represents the center of a
cell, and a link— either a lateral link or a diagonal line—connects
the node to its adjacent cells.
A lateral link connects a cell to one of its four immediate
neighbours, and a diagonal link connects the cell to one of the
corner neighbours. The distance is 1.0 cell for a lateral link and
1.414 cells for a diagonal link. The cost distance to travel from one
cell to another through a lateral link is 1.0 cell times the average
of the two cost values:
DTM VS DEM
 DIGITAL TERRAIN VISUALIZATION

Five principles necessary for a accomplished

land scape visualization:

1. Representative Character : Visualizations

should represent typical or important aspects
or conditions of the landscape.
DIGITAL TERRAIN VISUALIZATION
 TERRAIN VISUALIZATION

Five principles necessary for accomplished

landscape visualization.
Representative Character : Visualizations should
represent typical or important aspects or
conditions of the landscape
Exactness : Visualizations should simulate the
factual or expected appearance of the
landscape.
 TERRAIN VISUALIZATION

Optical Clarity: Details, components and content of

the visualization should be clearly identifiable.

Interest : The visualization should arouse the interest

of the viewer and hold their attention for as long as
possible.

Legitimacy: The visualization should be justifiable

and its level of exactness should be verifiable.
 TERRAIN VISUALIZATION

The foundation of the visualization of geo data is

the digital terrain model. Further terms for Digital
Terrain Models are “Digital landscape model”
and “digital elevation model”.

A Digital Terrain Model consists of pure

geometric information to describe the surface
of the terrain. A Digital Terrain Model is also
sometime simply called a terrain model.
DEM AND DTM – MERITS AND DEMERITS