Electric Resistance – The Physics Hypertextbook https://physics.

info/electric-resistance/

Electric Resistance

Discussion

introduction

Yech! What a mess this is.

Conduction: S. Gray, 1729 — Resistance: Georg Simon Ohm, 1827.

Regular version…

I∝V

V V
I =  ⇒ V = IR ⇒ R = 
R I

Variableogy…

quantity: resistance R
unit: ohm [Ω] Georg Ohm (1787–1854) Germany

Fancy version (the magnetohydrodynamic version?)…

J∝E

1
J = σE ⇐ ρ =  ⇒ E = ρ J
σ

Welcome to symbol hell…

Electrical properties

quantity symbol unit symbol property of…

resistance R ohm Ω
objects
conductance G siemens S

resistivity ρ ohm meter Ωm

materials
conductivity σ siemens per meter S/m

Ohm's law isn't a serious law. It's the jaywalking of physics. Sensible materials and devices obey it, but there are
plenty of rogues out there that don't.

resistors

Bad booze rots our young guts but vodka goes well.

Better build roof over your garage before van gets wet.

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Marking codes for resistors and capacitors

color digit multiplier tolerance tcr (10−6/K)

none ±20%

pink 10−3

silver 10−2 ±10%

gold 10−1 ±5%

black 0 100 ±250

brown 1 101 ±1% ±100

red 2 102 ±2% ±50

orange 3 103 ±0.05% ±15

yellow 4 104 ±0.02% ±25

green 5 105 ±0.50% ±20

6
blue 6 10 ±0.25% ±10

violet 7 ±0.10% ±5

gray 8 ±0.01% ±1

white 9

materials

Resistance and resistivity. Factors affecting resistance in a conducting wire.

ρℓ
R = 
A

Conductors vs. insulators

Best electrical conductors: silver, copper, gold, aluminum, calcium, beryllium, tungsten

Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocals.

Conductivity in metals is a statistical/thermodynamic quantity.

Resistivity is determined by the scattering of electrons. The more scattering, the higher the resistance.

ne2ℓ
σ = 
mevrms

where…

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σ = electrical conductivity [S/m]

n = density of free electrons [e/m3]
e = charge of an electron (1.60 × 10−19 C)
me = mass of an electron (9.11 × 10−31 kg)
vrms = root-mean-square speed of electrons [m/s]
ℓ = mean free path length [m]

Graphite

Where does this idea belong? Nichrome was invented in 1906, which made electric toasters possible.

Conducting polymers.

Resistivity of selected materials (~300 K)

(Note the difference in units between metals and nonmetals.)

metals ρ (nΩ m) nonmetals ρ (Ω m)

aluminum 26.5 aluminum oxide (14 °C) 1 × 1014

brass 64 aluminum oxide (300 °C) 3 × 1011

chromium 126 aluminum oxide (800 °C) 4 × 106

copper 17.1 carbon, amorphous 0.35

gold 22.1 carbon, diamond 2.7

iron 96.1 carbon, graphite 650 × 10−9

lead 208 indium tin oxide, thin film 2000 × 10−9

lithium 92.8 germanium 0.46

mercury (0 °C) 941 pyrex 7740 40,000

manganese 1440 quartz 75 × 1016

nichrome 1500 silicon 640

nickel 69.3 silicon dioxide (20 °C) 1 × 1013

palladium 105.4 silicon dioxide (600 °C) 70,000

platinum 105 silicon dioxide (1300 °C) 0.004

plutonium 1414 water, liquid (0 °C) 861,900

silver 15.9 water, liquid (25 °C) 181,800

solder 150 water, liquid (100 °C) 12,740

steel, plain 180

steel, stainless 720

tantalum 131

tin (0 °C) 115

titanium (0 °C) 390

tungsten 52.8

uranium (0 °C) 280

zinc 59

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temperature

The general rule is resistivity increases with increasing temperature in conductors and decreases with increasing
temperature in insulators. Unfortunately there is no simple mathematical function to describe these relationships.

The temperature dependence of resistivity (or its reciprocal, conductivity) can only be understood with quantum
mechanics. In the same way that matter is an assembly of microscopic particles called atoms and a beam of light is a
stream of microscopic particles called photons, thermal vibrations in a solid are a swarm of microscopic particles
called phonons. The electrons are trying to drift toward the positive terminal of the battery, but the phonons keep
crashing into them. The random direction of these collisions disturbs the attempted organized motion of the electrons
against the electric field. The deflection or scattering of electrons with phonons is one source of resistance. As
temperature rises, the number of phonons increases and with it the likelihood that the electrons and phonons will
collide. Thus when temperature goes up, resistance goes up.

For some materials, resistivity is a linear function of temperature.

ρ = ρ0(1 + α(T − T0))

resistivity of copper (nΩ·m)

60

40
physics.info

ρ = ρ0(1 + α (T - T0))
ρ[nΩ·m] = 15.4(1 + 0.00451 (T[K] - 273))

20

0
0 200 400 600 800
temperature (K)

The resistivity of a conductor increases with temperature. In the case of copper, the relationship between resistivity
and temperature is approximately linear over a wide range of temperatures.

For other materials, a power relationship works better.

ρ = ρ0(T/T0)μ

resistivity of tungsten (nΩ·m)

1200

1000

800

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800

physics.info
ρ = ρ0 (T ÷ T0)μ
600
ρ[nΩ·m] = 0.06052 (T[K] ÷ 1)1.203

400

200

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
temperature (K)

The resistivity of a conductor increases with temperature. In the case of tungsten, the relationship between resistivity
and temperature is best described by a power relationship.

see also: superconductivity

miscellaneous

magnetoresistance

photoconductivity

liquids

electrolytes

gases

dielectric breakdown

plasmas

microphones

A carbon microphone is a backward nothing

Microphones and how they work

sounds produce which cause which result in

type
changes in… changes in… changes in…

carbon granule density resistance voltage

condenser plate separation capacitance voltage

dynamic coil location flux voltage

piezoelectric compression polarization voltage

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