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Hydrostatics
1.1 Hydrostatics
1.1.1 Basic Equation of Fluid Statics
1.1.2 Hydrostatic Buoyancy and Pressure Distribution
1.1.3 Hydraulic Hydrostatic Pressure
1.1.4 Surface Tension

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Fluid Flow – In Transportation Sector

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Environmental Fluid Flows

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Weather and Fluid Flows

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Biological Fluid Flows

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Knowledge of Viscous Fluid Flow for
Design of Artificial Heart Valves

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Flows: Biomedical Application
Example: Assessment of changes in airways (trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles) volume and resistance through functional imaging
using CFD. (Source:: ANSYS)

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Fluid Flow in Sports

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Flows: Natural Flows

Flow over ‘solid’ bodies, in contrast to ‘non-rigid’ or ‘porous/permeable’

bodies.

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Flows: Natural Flows
Landsat 7 image of clouds off the Chilean coast near the Juan
Fernandez Islands (also known as the Robinson Crusoe Islands) on
September 15, 1999.

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Major Flow Systems
• Incompressible – A vector dominated…..
• Compressible – Both vector and scalar ….

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Hydrostatics
1.1.1 Basic Equation
For an element of stationary fluid, under the influence of gravity, the
pressure and body forces are in equilibrium i.e.,
p   g  0

Where,
 p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ 
p   i  j k & g  gkˆ
 x y z 
This implies p
  g
z
Thus, the pressure only varies in the vertical direction

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Hydrostatics
1.1.1 Basic Equations of Fluid Statics
• The net pressure force arises because of the spatial variations of
pressure. A uniform pressure acting all around on an element
does not result in any net force.
• Differential force acting across an element is thus a result of the
gradient in pressure along the element.
 p ˆ p ˆ p ˆ 
dFp  p.d     i  j  k  ( x. y. z )
 x y z 
• Gauge pressures are deviations from the ‘atmospheric’ pressure,
which acts all around a body and hence does not contribute to
the net pressure force.
• Negative values of gauge pressures are often termed as vacuum
pressures.

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Hydrostatics
1.1.2 Hydrostatic Buoyancy and Pressure Distribution
• In stationary fluids, if the variations in density of the fluid can be
neglected, there is a linear pressure distribution with respect to
vertical height- termed as the hydrostatic pressure distribution.
• The pressure increases with depth, hence any object of finite
vertical dimension will experience a finite upward force, acting
in normal direction over the ‘reference’ surface area. This force
is called as buoyancy.
• Though the common expression for buoyancy is written
differently, it can easily be derived from the hydrostatic pressure
difference, i.e., yf xf yf xf

Fb  fl  fu      gz ( x, y)dxdy      gz ( x, y)dxdy
l u
y0 x0 y0 x0

 yf xf yf xf

  g     zl ( x, y )dxdy    zu ( x, y )dxdy    gV
 y0 x0 y0 x0  15
Hydrostatics
1.1.3 Hydraulic Hydrostatic Pressure
• Hydraulic systems can be either hydrodynamic or hydrostatic.
• Forces generated primarily by fluid (liquid) in motion are
hydrodynamic forces, while those generated by primarily
stationary fluid potential energy are hydrostatic forces.
• Water Turbines – Hydrodynamic
• Hydraulic cylinder actuators, hydraulic press, etc.- Hydrostatic
• There are several advantages for using a liquid:
• Liquids conform to the shape of the container.
• Liquids are practically incompressible.
• Liquids apply pressure in all directions.
• In comparison to water, oil has a lower freezing point and higher
boiling point. Therefore, most hydraulic systems use oil. In
addition, oil also lubricates the system.

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Hydrostatics
1.1.3 Hydraulic Hydrostatic Pressure
• Hydraulic fluids may perform any or all of the following
functions:

• The fluid is used to transmit forces and power through

conduits (or lines) to an actuator where work can be done.
• It may be used as a lubricating medium for the hydraulic
components used in the circuit.
• It may be used as a cooling medium, carrying heat away
from the “hot spots” in the hydraulic circuit or components
and discharging it elsewhere.
• The fluid seals clearances between the moving parts of
components to increase efficiencies and reduce the heat
created by excess leakage.

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Hydrostatics
1.1.3 Hydraulic Hydrostatic Pressure
• Pressure created by applied force is transmitted throughout the
fluid, and it influences all adjacent areas with equal magnitude.
Thus a larger area will be subjected to a higher combined force.
F1 F2
p 
A1 A2

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Hydrostatics
1.1.3 Hydraulic Hydrostatic Pressure
• Simplified hydraulic circuit

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Hydrostatics
1.1.3 Hydraulic Hydrostatic Pressure
A complete hydraulic system consists of:
• A reservoir of fluid,
• A hydraulic pump driven by an internal combustion (IC)
engine or an electric motor,
• A system of valves to control and direct the output flow of
the pump
• Actuators that apply the forces to conduct the work being
performed

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Hydrostatics
1.1.3 Hydraulic Hydrostatic Pressure
• A positive displacement pump will discharge a specified amount
of fluid during each revolution or stroke, almost regardless of the
restriction on the outlet side. They are nearly always the pump of
choice in hydraulic systems.

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Surface Tension (In terms of Forces)
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules are
responsible for phenomenon of surface tension. In
the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled
equally in every direction by neighboring liquid
molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The
molecules at the surface do not have other molecules
on all sides of them and therefore are pulled
inwards. This creates some internal pressure and
forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal
area.
Surface tension is a property of the surface of a
liquid that allows it to resist an external force. It is
revealed in floating of some objects on the surface
of water, even though they are denser than water, in
the ability of some insects (e.g. water striders) to run
on the water surface.

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Surface Tension (In terms of Forces)
1.1.4 Surface Tension
• For a section dl over the interface, a
pair of opposite forces acting parallel
to the surface results, each with a
magnitude of σdl, where σ is the
surface tension. And so for a circular
surface,

 2 R 2
p  
R 2
R

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Surface Tension (In terms of Energy)
Another way to view it is in terms of
energy. A molecule in contact with a
neighbor is in a lower state of energy than
if it were alone (not in contact with a
neighbor). The interior molecules have as
many neighbors as they can possibly
have, but the boundary molecules are
missing neighbors (compared to interior
molecules) and therefore have a higher Water beading on a leaf
energy. For the liquid to minimize its
energy state, the number of higher energy
boundary molecules must be minimized.
The minimized quantity of boundary
molecules results in a minimized surface.

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Surface Tension

Surface tensions for some liquids in contact with air.

Liquid Surface Tension Temperature ⁰C
Water 58.9 mN.m-1 100
66.2 mN.m-1 60
72.8 mN.m-1 20
75.6 mN.m-1 0
Mercury 465 mN.m-1 20
Silver 800 mN.m-1 970
Oxygen 15.7 mN.m-1 -193
Ethyl Alcohol 22.3 mN.m-1 20
Olive Oil 32.0 mN.m-1 20
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Surface Tension

Balance during wetting Principle of pull test for a wire bond

corresponding to Youngs' interconnection
equation
Surface energy of solids and surface tension of liquids can be measured
using a so-called contact angle measurement system.

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Capillary Action
Capillary action is the result of
adhesion and surface tension.
Adhesion of water to the walls of
a vessel will cause an upward
force on the liquid at the edges
and result in a meniscus which
turns upward. The surface tension
acts to hold the surface intact, so
instead of just the edges moving
upward, the whole liquid surface
is dragged upward.

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Cohesion and Adhesion
Molecules liquid state experience
strong intermolecular attractive
forces. When those forces are
between like molecules, they are
referred to as cohesive forces.
When the attractive forces are
between unlike molecules, they
are said to be adhesive forces.
The adhesive forces between
water molecules and the walls of
a glass tube are stronger than the Forces at contact point shown for
cohesive forces lead to an contact angle greater than 90°
upward turning meniscus at the (left) and less than 90° (right)
walls of the vessel and contribute
to capillary action.

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Take Away Question…

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