TCET FE EPC Resource Book (2020-2021)

English for Professional Communication
FE Sem - II
A.Y. 2020-21 (FE SEMESTER I/II)

Choice Based Credit Grading Scheme with Holistic and Multidisciplinary Education (CBCGS - HME 2020)
Under TCET - Autonomy Scheme - 2019
English for Professional Communication
Semester-II
Compiled, reviewed and edited by:
Amol Dapkekar
Nivant Kambale
Tulshiram Kudale
Jyoti Vanawe
Tukaram Patil
Bhaskar Hambarde
Umita Gajjar
Dipak Jadhav
Ananda Pimpale
Anil Ahire
TCET, Mumbai
STUDY MATERIAL FOR FE SEM- II
Under the guidance of Dr. B. K. Mishra, Principal
2nd Edition of revised syllabus, April 2021

© Thakur College of Engineering and Technology, Kandivali, Mumbai.
Published by:
Thakur College of Engineering and Technology
Preface
It gives us immense pleasure to introduce the second edition of the Resource Book for the subject English for
Professional Communication under the TCET’s Autonomy Scheme. This resource book is written to ensure the
structured and guided material to be provided to the students for effective planning of studies as per the lectures. The
resource book emphasizes on the fundamentals of English language which help in enhancing the communication at
the professional front.
It is rightly said by Aristotle, ‘Man is a social animal’. Hence, communication is the basic need of human beings.
Communication is inseparable from and essential to everything that occurs in the personal and professional life of
everybody. In fact, it can be called the life blood of human life. In personal life, we communicate to be in touch with
each other or to be friendly. In official or professional life, the objectives of communication are multifold: information,
advice, order, instruction, persuasion, suggestion, education, motivation, warning, and raising morale.
As the international business language, English is important in both native and non-native English-speaking countries.
The role of English Language in career advancement is undeniable in this era of globalization. Though English Language
proficiency is not the only criterion for career development, its importance in the corporate world is widely recognized.
Communication is a factor that determines the success of the organization. People communicate to plan products and
services, hire, train, and motivate workers; coordinate manufacturing and delivery; persuade customers to buy; and
bill them for the sale. Thus, in today’s corporate world communication is inevitable. A survey of employers has revealed
that some of the skills that are essential for entry level employees include: articulation, competence in reading, writing,
effective listening and oral communication skills. To equip students with these skills this subject is prescribed in the
syllabus.
The resource book has been divided into six modules. Each module is followed by objective questions, short answers
and long answer questions. The content is developed as per the TCET Autonomy Curriculum for the English for
Professional Communication subject.
Module 1 primarily focuses on the communication foundation. This module emphasizes and elaborates the basics of
communication, such as importance, process, levels, barriers and flow of communication. It covers verbal and non-
verbal communication, formal and informal communication networks and the way communication takes place in the
organization.
Module 2 is on Word Formation. The module emphasizes on various methods and concepts associated with forming
a new word. The creation of new words is possible through various means and techniques such as Reduplication,
Clipping, Blending, Conversion, affixation etc. All these concepts are discussed elaborately. In addition, the module
also deals with the roots words, borrowed words from various languages and the formation of abbreviations and
acronyms. This module can be helpful for students to enhance their vocabulary and thereby it will be helpful to them
for competitive examinations for placement and higher studies.
Module 3 deals with the essential skills of language learning: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. These four skills
of language learning are a group of four capabilities that enable a person to grasp, follow, know and comprehend the
desired subject or topic. This module covers the various elements of LSRWs. The human being encounters all these
situations in their day to day life, where they are required to listen, hear, speak, be silent, write or read. One requires
efficiency in all these skills, therefore, this module will help in meeting that requirement. The module also focuses on
basic official correspondence i.e. various types of business letters such as enquiry, reply to enquiry, order, claim,
adjustment and sales letter. It also explains the components of various layouts used in formal letter writing. The
sample letters are also given for the reference.
Module 4 is Written Communication. This module focuses on the basics of structure of English language which begins
with parts of speech, sentence framing, structuring, types of sentences, writing short passages, comprehending it,
summarizing, paraphrasing and various skills and techniques of writing with efficacy. The techniques of reading like
SQ3R, skimming, scanning, etc. are provided for study. The passages for exercises are given to enhance the
summarization and comprehension skills. The module will help students in enhancing writing skills by using the
techniques and structures of sentence, paragraph and article writing. From a competitive examination point of view,
students can enhance their reading and writing skills by using 7Cs of writing skills.
Module 5 is Professional Writing Skills which focuses on the professional and technical aspects of written
communication and familiarizes the students with the various communication tools and technical objects. It covers
framing definitions, writing instructions, explaining process and objects and writing a research paper . This module
caters insight among the students by linking professional writing skills to practical engineering experience which will
enrich learning outcomes and eventually foster the professionalization within this emerging discipline.The practice
exercises will help the students to develop their skills in professional as well as technical writing. This will be like a
torchbearer in order to enhance competence in professional writing skills for the better prospects.
Module 6 is Oral Communication, which is a significant element in human life. To communicate effectively and
sponatneously, oral competence plays a vital role.In addition, While communicating one has to have a sound sense of
acoustic i.e. tone, intonation patterns, pitch, accents, modulations, etc. Through this module students will get an
insight to express ideas or messages clearly and completely either in everyday communication or presenting in
professional context. Moreover, inculcating oral competence will be fruitful for students to tackle personal as well as
professional situations tacitly from a communicative perspective.
We hope students will benefit from the comprehensive information provided and support exciting exercises which are
tuned to their needs to learn the language. Any suggestions for improvement are welcome.
This book is a combined effort of TCET communication skills teachers. However, many influences have gone into its
making. We would especially like to thank TEG management for constant encouragement. Our special thanks to Dr.
B.K.Mishra for being instrumental in planting the idea of this book into our minds. We also thank our FE in charge,
Deputy FE in charge and H & S faculty members for their moral support and encouragement. Lastly, we would like to
thank TCET’s DTP operators for designing and giving the resource book an attractive look.
General Guidelines for Learners:
1. Resource book is a structured and guided teaching learning material and therefore learners
are recommended to carry it along in every lecture of the subject.
2. Teaching learning process would be based on this resource book.
3. Resource book is framed to improve the understanding of subject matter in depth and
therefore the learners are recommended to study and practice all the module contents, home
assignments and exercises seriously.
4. A separate notebook should be maintained for every subject.
5. Lectures should be attended regularly. In case of absence, topics covered in the class should
be studied from the module before attending the next lecture.
6. Motivation, weightage and pre‐requisite of every chapter have been included to maintain
continuity and improve the understanding of the content to clarify topic requirements from
exam point of view.
7. For any other additional point related to the topic, instructions will be given by the subject
teacher from time to time.
Subject Related Guidelines:
1. The subject focuses on improving the four skills of language and foundation of
communication.
2. Questions are expected from all modules and learners are instructed not to leave any
module in option.
3. Weightage for the subject includes In-Semester Examination- 20 marks, Innovative

Examination – 20 marks and End Semester Examination- 60 marks. Importance should be
given to all internal assessment/continuous assessment for improving overall percentage in
examinations.
4. Practice questions should be solved sincerely to enhance confidence level and to excel in
End Semester Examination.
5. Definitions and solved examples should be referred thoroughly from the modules after
lecture session.
Exam Specific Guidelines:
1. All modules have equal weightage; therefore, students need to study these modules
thoroughly.
2. Neat and labelled diagram should be drawn as per the requirement of the question
mentioned in the question paper.
3. The paper is always lengthy so time should be used judicially. Writing letters as answers
usually take less time and so this additional time can be utilized to write answers to long
answer questions.
4. Read the question paper thoroughly first then write the answers. Attempt the one that you
know the best first but do not change the internal sequence of the sub questions.
5. Minimum passing marks in theory paper - 24/60 and in term work 10/25.
6. For further subject clarification/ doubt about the subject, students can contact the subject
teacher.
Guidelines for Writing Quality Answer:
1. Write content as per marks distribution.
2. Highlight the main points.
3. Write necessary content related to the point.
4. Draw neat and labelled diagrams wherever necessary.
5. While writing distinguishing points, write double the number of points as per the marks
given, excluding the example.
Course: FE English for Subject Code HSMC 101 Sem-II
Professional
Communication
TH/PR/TUT PR- 2hrs per week TH- 2hrs per No. of Hours 30
week
Course English is the window to the world. Therefore, it is necessary to develop
Description: English language proficiency for multiple career opportunities in India and
Course Profile: abroad. Along with that, communication is required to ensure the information
is properly delivered and feedback is received. Hence, communication is
considered to be the life and blood of an individual and organization. The
subject English for Professional Communication is prescribed to ensure the
fruitful career development of students in all respects.
Equivalent Credit Course is equivalent to 3 credits under Choice Based Credit and
Grading System-Holistic Multidisciplinary Education (CBCGS-HME).
Course Conduct Course is required to be taught for 30 hrs @ 2 hrs/ weeks out of 30 hrs, to be
spent to cover the syllabus as per AICTE Model curriculum and 2 hrs for
orientation in the beginning of the semester and 4 hrs for revision and
practices at the end of the semester from examination point of view.
Course Performance evaluation of the course will be as per the institute guidelines,
Evaluation: where student will be evaluated for 60 marks theory, 20 marks for In Semester
Examination, 20 marks for Innovative Examination and 20 marks for oral/
practical. The students are evaluated by internal as well as external examiner
and if required the performance is moderated by the external examiner
(moderator) as per the guidelines of Examination.
Skills Modern era has envisaged various skill sets required for career development.
Through this subject, students can work on the foundation of soft skills i.e.
communication. Along with that students will be confident in presenting
himself in front of the large crowd. This will ensure students to be successful
in their career.
Professional The subject will ensure to provide multiple skills which can be the basis for
Opportunities higher studies and placement. This subject will help students to get themselves
ready for the competitive examinations like IELTS, TOEFL, GRE, etc. and
aptitude tests for placement. Professionally they can utilize the skills which
will be enhanced through this subject.
Pre-requisite Students are required to know the basics of English language and its basic
skills like listening, speaking, reading and writing.
POs: PO 1to 12
PSO: PSO 1 to 3
F.E. Semester –II
Choice Based Credit Grading Scheme with Holistic and Multidisciplinary Education
(CBCGS-HME 2020)
B.E. (All Branches) F.E. (SEM: II)
Course Name: English for Professional Communication Course Code: HSMC 101
Teaching Scheme (Program Specific) Examination Scheme (Formative/ Summative)
Modes of Teaching / Learning / Weightage Modes of Continuous Assessment/ Evaluation
Theory Practical/ Term Work
Hours Per Week (100) Oral (00) Total
(25)
Contact
Theory Tutorial Practical Credits ISE IE ESE OR TW
Hours
2 - 2 4 3 20 20 60 - - 100
ISA: In-Semester Examination- Paper Duration – 1 Hours

ESE: End Semester Examination - Paper Duration - 2 Hours
The weightage of marks for continuous evaluation of Term work/ Report: Formative (40%), Timely
completion of practical (40%) and Attendance/Learning Attitude (20%)
Prerequisite- Basic knowledge of English language, Grammar and Vocabulary
Course Objective: The course will be able to develop communication skills with
professional and technical writing skills.
Course Outcomes: Upon completion of the course students will be able to:
Sr. Course Outcomes Cognitive Levels of

No. Attainment as per
Bloom’s Taxonomy
1 Produce appropriate vocabulary and correct words L1, L2, L3
2 Communicate effectively by using structure of English L1, L2, L3

language
3 Write effective and coherent paragraphs professionally L1, L2, L3
4 Enhance professional and technical writing skills L1, L2, L3
5 Understand and apply the communication patterns in L1, L2, L3

organization
6 To improve speaking ability in English both in terms of L1, L2, L3
fluency and comprehensibility
Detailed Syllabus (Total No. of Hours: 30):

Module Topics Hrs. Cognitive Levels of
Bloom’s Taxonomy
1 Communication Foundation 05 L1, L2, L3
1.1 Concept and Meaning: Etymology, Definition and Process of

Communication
1.2 Barriers: Linguistic, Semantic, Personal,
Socio- Psychological, Physical, Environmental, Mechanical,
Cross-Cultural
1.3 Methods of Communication: Verbal Communication
1.4 Methods of Communication: Non- Verbal Communication
1.5 Networks of communications: Understanding Organizational
Communication
2 Word Formation 05 L1, L2, L3
2.1 Concept of Word Formation: Reduplicating; Clipping

2.2 Blending; Acronym and Affixation
2.3 Conversion and Compounding
2.4 Root Words; Affixation; Greek Words; Latin Words
2.5 Contrast of Meaning: Synonyms.
Antonyms; homonyms; homophones; homographs,
Standard Abbreviations and one-word substitution
3 Basic Language Skills 08 L1, L2

3.1 Listening: Types of Listening
3.2 Process of Listening; Hearing and Listening; Exercises on
Listening Skill (Video/ Audio)
3.3 Speaking: Art of Public Speaking;
3.4 Compeering and Activities on Speaking Skill
3.5 Reading: Concept and Types of Reading, Reading Newspaper
articles, Fiction and Non-fiction works; Activities on Reading
3.6 Writing: Principles;
3.7 Business Correspondence: Elements, Types and Formats of Letter
3.8 Note making and taking
4 Written Communication 05 L1, L2, L3

4.1 Phrases and clauses; and Sentence Structures; Basics of
Sentence Patterns
4.2 Parts of Speech; Types of Sentences
4.3 Editing and Proofreading: Techniques for writing precisely,
Redundancies and Cliches
4.4 Common Errors in English and Use of Punctuation
4.5 Comprehension and Summarization, Paraphrasing and Précis
Writing: Exercises
5 Professional Writing Skills 05 L1, L2
5.1 Introduction to Technical Writing: Definition, Importance and
Types of Technical Writing
5.2 Writing Instructions: Tips to Write Instructions; Writing User
Manuals
5.3 Describing: Describing Technical Object
5.4 Description of Product/ Process; Digital Content Development
5.5 Writing Research Paper: Structure of Writing standard technical
research paper: Exercises
6 Oral Communication 02 L1, L2, L3

6.1 Intonation Pattern for effective presentation
Common Everyday Situations: Conversation and Dialogues
6.2 Compeering, Hosting, Anchoring
Presentation on Technical Research Paper (one technical topic)
Suggested List of Practical/ Experiments:
Practical Type of Practical/ Experiment Topic Hrs. RBT

Number Experiment Levels
1 Basic Introduction 2 L1, L2, L3
Experiment
2 s Public Speaking (Practice1) 2 L1, L2, L3
3 Public Speaking (Practice 2) 2 L1, L2, L3
4 Public Speaking (Practice 3) 2 L1, L2, L3
5 Activities based on Basic Language 2 L1, L2, L3

Skills.
6 Writing 2 L1, L2, L3
7 Reading 2 L1, L2, L3
8 Speaking 2 L1, L2, L3
9 Listening 2 L1, L2, L3
10 Practice Sessions in Language Lab 2 L1, L2, L3

(Consonants, Vowels, Diphthongs)
11 Tests on Building Vocabulary 2 L1, L2, L3
12 Practice Tests on Pronunciation 2 L1, L2, L3
13 Watching Videos on Oratory 2 L1, L2, L3
14 Editing 2 L1, L2, L3
15 Proofreading 2 L1, L2, L3
Books and References:
Sr. Name of the Book Name of the Publisher Edition Year of

No Author Publication
1 Practical English Michael Swan OUP 4th Edition 1995

Usage
2 Remedial English F.T. Wood Macmillan 2014 Edition 2007

Grammar
3 On Writing Well William Zinsser Harper 25th 2001

Resource Anniversary
Book Edition
4 Study Writing Liz Hamp- Cambridg 2nd Edition 2006

Lyons and Ben e
Heasly University
Press
5 Communication Sanjay Kumar OUP 1st Edition 2011
Skills and PushpLata
6 Exercises in CIEFL University 1997 Edition 1997

Spoken English Press
Parts. I-III
Online References:
Modules
Sr. No. Website Name URL
Covered
1 Coursera https://www.coursera.org/learn/speak-english-professionall M 1-M 6
y
2 NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/109/106/109106129/ M 1-M 6
3 NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/109/106/109106094/ M 1-M 6
Table of Contents
Sr. No. Name of Module Page No.

1 Communication Foundation 1-31
Introduction to communication, Concept and Meaning:
Etymology, Definition and Process of Communication, Barriers:
Linguistic, Semantic, Personal, Socio- Psychological, Physical,
Environmental, Mechanical, Cross-Cultural, Methods of
Communication: Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
Networks of communications: Understanding Organizational
Communication
2 Word Formation 32-70
Introduction to the Concept of Word Formation: Reduplicating;
Clipping; Blending; Acronym; Conversion; Compounding, Root
Words; Affixation; Greek Words; Latin Words, Contrast of
Meaning: Synonyms; Antonyms; homonyms; homophones;
homographs Standard Abbreviations and one-word substitution
3 Basic Language Skills 70-127
Introduction to the LSRW ,Listening: Types of Listening; Process
of Listening; Hearing and Listening; Exercises on Listening Skill
(Video/ Audio) , Speaking: Art of Public Speaking; Activities on
Speaking Skill ,Reading: Concept and Types of Reading, Reading
Newspaper articles, Fiction and Non-fiction works; Activities on
Reading ,Writing: Principles; Business Correspondence: Elements,
Types and Formats of Letter
4 Written Communication 127-219
Introduction to Parts of Speech; Sentence Structures; Types of
Sentences ,Editing and Proofreading: Common Errors in English
,Comprehension and Summarization ,Paraphrasing and Précis
Writing: Exercises
5 Professional Writing Skills 219-253

Introduction to Technical Writing: Definition, Importance and
Types of Technical Writing ,Writing Instructions: Tips to Write
Instructions; Writing User Manuals, Describing: Describing
Technical Object/ Product/ Process; Digital Content Development
Writing Research Paper: Structure of Writing standard technical
research paper: Exercises
6 Oral Communication 253-274

Introduction to the Intonation Pattern for effective presentation
,Common Everyday Situations: Conversation and Dialogues ,
Compeering, Hosting, Anchoring ,Presentation on Technical
Research Paper (one technical topic)
Module 1 : Communication Theory 1
Module - 1
Communication Theory
Lecture 01
1.1 Communication: Concept, Definition and Meaning, Importance and Objectives of
Communication, Communication cycle, Process of Communication (Components of
Communication): Ideation, Sender, Encoding, Medium, Channel, Decoding, Receiver, Feedback
1.1.1 Motivation
Communication is very essential to a human being to be a part of society. To excel in dealings with
others not only with the family members but also with the society at large, communication skills are
required. Top organizations have a communication process that communicates the knowledge and
information that people need in a way that they understand and can apply to their job.
Communication is a two-way relationship, so establishing an enabling environment for other could
give you the information you need. Using feedback to make certain that communication has become
understanding and consensus. Thus, Communication Theory is prescribed to enhance the
employability of students and help them to become better employees for corporate world. It also
helps them build their career in different fields.
1.1.2 Syllabus: Communication Theory

Lecture Content Duration Self-study
Hours Hours
01 Communication: Concept, Definition and Meaning,
Importance and Objectives of Communication,
Communication cycle, Process of Communication 1 hour
1 hour
(Components of Communication): Ideation, Sender,
Encoding, Medium, Channel, Decoding, Receiver,
Feedback
02 Barriers to Communication
Types of Barriers: Physical and Mechanical, 1 hour
1 hour
Semantic and Linguistic, Personal or Socio-
Psychological, Cross Cultural
03 Methods of Communication:
Verbal Communication: Oral & Written 1 hour 1 hour
04 Methods of Communication:
Non-Verbal Communication: Visual and Audio 1 hour
1 hour
Signs, Body Language: Artifacts, Kinesis, Oculesis,
Proxemics, Paralanguage, Haptics, Chronemics
05 Networks of communication 1 hour
1 hour
(formal and informal)
1.1.3 Weightage: 10 Marks
1.1.4 Learning Objective

Students shall be able to:
Communication Skill 2
1) Define communication, process, barriers, verbal, non-verbal and organizational and corporate
communication and LSRW
2) List the fundamental requirements of effective communication
3) State meaning, importance and different types of feedback
4) Describe and draw flowcharts of different types of organizational communication
5) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of organizational communication
1.1.5 Theoretical Background

Communication is a factor that determines the success of the organization. People communicate to
plan products and services; hire, train, and motivate workers; coordinate manufacturing and
delivery; persuade customers to buy; and bill them for the sale. Thus in today’s corporate world
communication has assumed great importance. The students should have the basic knowledge of
English and should be able to listen to the language with comprehension and speak and write
grammatically correct English.
1.1.6 Abbreviations
CS – Communication Skills
LSRW: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
1.1.7 Formulae
NA
1.1.8 Key Definitions

1. Communication: Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and/ or organizations so that an understanding response results.
2. Sender: The person who initiates the communication process is called Sender or Transmitter.
3. Message: - Message is the encoded idea transmitted by the Sender.
4. Encoding: The process of coding the message in the form of language or non-verbal expression
by the sender is called encoding.
5. Modes of communication: The message has to be delivered to the receiver through some codes
i.e. words or actions: and these are called as modes of communication.
6. Decoding: The process of receivers transforming the coded message to understand it well is
called decoding.
7. Medium/Media: Media are the channels via which a message is delivered to the receiver.
8. Receiver: The person for whom the encoded message is intended.
9. Feedback: The response by the receiver to the sender’s message.
10. Barriers to communication: Anything that blocks or hinders the meaning of communication
11. Mechanical Barrier: Barriers which are caused due to defects in machine.
12. Physical Barrier: Barriers which are caused due to the external environment.
13. Linguistic Barrier: Barriers arising due to the nature of the language being used in
communication.
14. Semantic Barrier: Barriers caused due to the variety of meanings of the words.
15. Personal or socio-psychological Barrier: Barriers that exist in the minds of the persons involved
in communication. Socio-psychological refers to the social and psychological status of the person.
16. Cross-cultural Barrier: Barriers that originate from different nationalities, religious
backgrounds, value systems, languages, customs and traditions and even perceptions of time.
17. Verbal Communication: Communication by using language which can be oral or written
communication.
18. Non-verbal Communication: Communication without using language done through symbols,
signs, colours, body language, etc.
19. Oral Communication: Use of spoken words to communicate.
20. Written Communication: Use of written words for communication through letters, memos,
reports, etc.
21. Kinesics: Science that analyzes individual gestures by considering their component parts.
22. Haptics: Communication through touch.
23. Proxemics: Study of man’s appreciation and use of space to communicate.
24. Chronemics: Study of use of time in non-verbal communication.
25. Vocalics/ Paralanguage: Communication through the use of vocal sounds such as voice, volume,
pitch, pronunciation, stress, and pauses.
26. Oculesics: Study of eye movement as a method of non-verbal communication.
27. Olfactics: Study of the sense of smell as a means of non-verbal communication.
28. Vertical communication: Messages that move up and down in the authority
29. Downward Communication: Messages going from higher authority to lower authority.
30. Upward Communication: Flow of communication from lower level to high level in an
organization.
31. Horizontal communication: Formal communication that moves horizontally across parallel
lines of authority.
32. Grapevine Communication: Kind of informal communication that spreads without any kind of
barrier; has many synonyms viz. report, buzz, gossip, hearing, hearsay, rumor etc.
33. Listening: An act of hearing attentively.
34. Hearing: Natural, unintentional and ongoing process of receiving noise.
35. Speaking: The action of conveying information or expressing one's thoughts and feelings in
spoken language.
36. Reading: Specific abilities which enable a reader to read the written form as a meaningful
language.
37. Writing: Specific abilities which help writers put their thoughts into words in a meaningful
form and to mentally interact with the message.
38. Public speaking: The process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner
intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners
1.1.9 Introduction: Communication

“Man is a social animal”, says Aristotle. Hence, communication is the basic need of human beings.
Communication is inseparable from and essential to everything that occurs in the personal and
professional life of everybody. In fact it can be called the life blood of human life. In personal life, we
communicate to build relations, be in touch with each other or to be friendly. In official or professional
life, the objectives of communication are multifold: information, advice, order, instruction,
persuasion, suggestion, education, motivation, warning, and raising morale.
1. Concept and Meaning:
The English word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin term ‘communis’ or ‘communicare’
which means ‘to make common, to transmit or to import’. All the three meanings are useful but we
have to concentrate on the ideas of ‘making common’, which implies sharing and interaction. When
a message is sent out it becomes communication only when it is understood, acknowledged, reacted
to or replied to by the receiver. If two speakers (communicators) having different languages
communicate this act cannot be called as communication. But if they shake hands (or smile) this act
can be called as communication because shaking hands is a universally recognized gesture of
friendship. It shows that communication can be done with the help of verbal or non-verbal codes. A
few definitions of communication are:
Louis Allen – Communication is the sum of all things which a person does when he wants to create
understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling,
listening and understanding.
Peter Little – Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals
and/or organization so that an understanding response results.
W.H. Newman – Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more
persons.
The American Management Association – Communication is any behavior that results in an
exchange of meaning.
Dr. Heinz Goldmann, Chair, Heinz Goldmann International Foundation for Executive
Communications, Geneva. – Effective communication needs to be built around this simple
foundation and realization: communication is a dialogue, not a monologue. In fact, communication
is more concerned with a dual listening process.
2. Objectives of Communication
Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. It is the vehicle that ensures proper performance
of organizational functions and achievement of organizational goals. Following are the some of the
objectives of Communication:
a. Strong Business Relationships & Enhanced Professional Image

You can shape the impressions you and your company makes on colleagues, employees, supervisors,
investors, and customers in addition to perceiving and responding to the needs of these stakeholders
(the various groups you interact with) without effective communication, people misunderstand each
other and misinterpret information.
b. Provide Advice
Giving advice is based on individual-oriented and work-oriented, advice should not be given to the
person for pinpointing his mistakes rather it should be helpful for his improvement. Effective advice
promotes understanding and it can be a two way process if the subordinate staff given freedom.
c. Provide Order
Order is an authoritative communication pattern and it is directive to somebody always a subordinate
to do something. Orders will be written and oral orders, general and specific orders, procedural and
operational orders, mandatory and discretionary order. Order should be clear and complete,
execution of orders should be possible and it should be given in a friendly way.
d. Suggestion
Suggestion is supposed to be very mild and subtle form of communication. Suggestions are
welcomed for it is not obligatory to accept them, it can be voluntary and anonymous and submitted
through suggestion boxes.
e. Persuasion
Persuasion may be defined as an effort ‘to influence the attitudes, feelings, or beliefs of others, or to
influence actions based on those attitudes, feelings, or beliefs. Persuasion can be done to others if you
are convinced, you do not impose, you are not rigid and you are prepared to meet half-way and you
can look at the situation from the other person’s angle also.
f. Education
Education is a very conscious process of communication, it involves both teaching and learning by
which organizations provide information to their employees in the form of training. Education is
given for management, employees and outside public.
g. Warning
If the employees do not abide by the norms of the organization, warning is a powerful communication
tool and it can be general and specific. Specific warning should be administered in private and after
thorough investigation. The aim of the warning should be the betterment of organization.
h. Raising Morale and Motivation
A pre-requisite of employee motivation is the satisfaction of their financial and non-financial needs.
Financial needs are fulfilled thorough monetary returns. However, in order to satisfy non-financial
needs, management must communicate with employees on a regular basis both formally and
informally. Furthermore, morale stands for mental health and it is a sum of several qualities like
courage, resolution, confidence .High morale and effective performance go hand to hand. Motivation
is a process that account for an individual intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards
attaining a goal.
i. To Give and Receive Information
In order to increase employee efficiency, they should be provided with necessary information and
guidelines. Communication supplies such information and guidelines for them. Apart from this,
managers also need complete, accurate and precise information for planning and execution.
j. To Provide Counseling
Counseling is given to solve employees’ mental stress and improve the employees’ productivity.
k. To Improve Discipline
Finally discipline is the foremost part of any business communication. The various disciplinary codes
are effectively communicated to employees through disciplinary codes.
Source-https://rkmvcbba.wordpress.com/2011/01/17/objectives-of-communication-
communication-process-and-functions-of-communication/
3. Importance of Communication
Communication is a part and parcel of everyone’s life. All individuals need to communicate to share
their knowledge and information with others. However, the degree of its effectiveness depends upon
your personal communication skills. The better are your communication skills, the better a person
understands you.
The purposes of communication could be many but the most important part is to understand how to
communicate effectively. Communication is a two way process and therefore requires complete
understanding among the communicators. This requirement can be fulfilled with effective
communication skills.
The general forms of communication are oral or verbal communication and written communication.
Effective communication skills are now an essential professional requirement and are considered vital
to convert your performance into success. Whether it is your professional life or your personal
discourses, communication plays an indispensable role in all walks of life.
In any form of business, communication is an internal as well as an external affair. The success of
the business rests upon communication. To be a good communicator, you need to be a good speaker
and a patient listener too.
Effective communication skills also boost the morale of the individual and motivate him to work
better. These skills not only make him a good professional but also promise to provide him a
growth oriented career.
Apart from the business requirements, communication skills are also important for people to make
healthy relationships with their office counterparts. If the internal environment of an organization is
healthy, it benefits both, the employees and the organization itself.
Effective communication skills enable a person to understand the mindset of others and grasp the
situation easily. It helps an individual get desired results even in an unfamiliar situation.
A good communicator is a highly motivated individual who always gives importance to his goals
and achieves them in the most efficient manner. He always understands his role and knows how to
convert his efforts integrated with skills into results.
Not only professionally, you also require effective communication skills in relationships to get the
best out of life. And, for the people who wish to achieve success in their life, communication skills
work as the stepping stones.
1.1.10 Cycle of Communication/ Process of Communication/ Elements (Components) of

Communication –
Process is anything that is ongoing, dynamic and which shows continuous change in events,
relationships and time. Communication is not just a momentary event but it is a cumulative process
which gets intensified at a given moment. It starts before the actual communication takes place and
continues long after it has occurred.
The process of communication has different components or elements like – the sender, encoding,
message, receiver and feedback. All these elements are closely interlinked and they play an equally
important role in the process of communication. The following figure shows how all these
components work together to complete communication cycle:
Encodes Modes Decodes

Sender Idea Message Media Idea
Receiver
Decoded Encoded
Feedback Reply
Feedback
1. Sender: The person who initiates the communication process is called sender or transmitter. He
has a thought, an idea or the information which should be understood by the receiver. From his
personal data bank, he selects ideas, encodes and finally transmits them to the receiver. The entire
burden of communication then rests upon the sender. The effectiveness of the sender not only
depends upon the language he uses but also upon his status and reputation. Status relates to
authority, knowledge and prestige, while reputation relates to the kind of person he is known to
be i.e. whether he is co-operative or non-cooperative. For example, a popular boss who is liked
will be appreciated or believed much more than a boss who is not held in very high esteem by the
subordinates.
2. Messages: Message is the encoded idea transmitted by the sender. It can be in the form of verbal
or non-verbal codes. The messages can be a thought, idea, opinion, suggestion, instruction,
request, order, feeling or an emotion. The formulation of message is very important because an
incorrect patterning can turn the receiver hostile or make him lose interest. At this stage, the
sender has to be extremely cautious. He should formulate his message according to the
requirements of the receiver (listener) so that its significance is immediately grasped. The minute
the receiver finds his interests codified in the message, he sits up, listens and responds.
3. Encoding: The method which initiates the message is called encoding a thought. It is the process
wherein the sender converts ideas into symbols viz. particular words, gestures understandable to
the receiver. It could be called as a mental plan of the message done by the sender in a code
understandable to the receiver. It can be stated in a specific form, may be in a letter, telegram,
verbal talk, gestures or some other form of expression. To know the effect of his message, the
sender considers various factors such as the receiver’s knowledge about the subject matter, his
working condition and other background information. Also, at the time of encoding he has to take
into account the understanding of the receiver and his needs. If the message is formulated in
accordance with the expectations of the receiver, the level of acceptance is going to be higher
4. Medium: Another important element of communication is the medium or channel. It could be
oral, written or non-verbal. The message has to be delivered to the receiver through some codes
i.e. words or actions: and these are called as modes of communication. These modes are verbal
and non-verbal. Verbal means the use of words either in written or spoken for and non-verbal
would mean the use of body language or graphic.
Media are the channels via which a message is delivered to the receiver. It could also be called as
the carrier of message. For example, a written message can be transmitted through letters, fax,
and e-mail, etc. and oral message through telephone, mobile, microphone, etc.
5. Decoding: The process of translation and interpretation of the signals is called decoding. The work
of interpretation is concerned with receiver of the message. He accepts the message and tries to
find out its exact meaning by analyzing the sender, his interest, his role, his knowledge,
experience and authority.
6. Receiver: The receiver is important in the communication process. The receiver receives an
encoded message which he attempts to decode. Understanding of message totally depends upon
his opinions, attitudes and relationship with the sender. It also depends on the type of the message
sent, the channel used and the situation under which it is received.
7. Feedback: Feedback plays a vital role in communication process. It is the final link in
communication chain. Feedback is a response by the receiver of the message. One is unsure,
whether the information has been effectively encoded, transmitted decoded and understood until
it is confirmed by feedback. Feedback completes the communication cycle. Immediate feedback
is possible only in oral face to face interaction. Delay in feedback can cause hurdle in
communication.
On the basis of the access of the receiver to the sender, feedback can be classified as direct or
delayed. Direct feedback (Immediate/Instant feedback) is possible when the sender and receiver
are face to face. Its advantage is that it helps the sender to judge the effectiveness of the message
immediately and restructure the message again if required. When the sender and the receiver are
not present in the same place when the message is sent or received, the feedback becomes delayed.
Feedback can also be positive or negative depending on whether it is desired or not. It can be
complete or incomplete. Furthermore no feedback is also feedback. For example, the teacher after
teaching in the class asks questions to the students, some students don’t answer the questions.
This may mean that those students have not understood the topic well.
Let’s check the take away from this Lecture
I. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

1. The message sent to Mars is communication because
a. Our technology has progressed like anything
b. Aliens keep on coming on earth
c. Mars is the centre of attraction for scientists
d. None
2. “Silence is more eloquent than words” because
a. Its enigmatic
b. Its dignity
c. It has the ability to shake the world
d. All
3. Words count only 7% in our communication, according to

a. Albert Einstein
b. Newton
c. Albert Mehrabian
d. Daniel Goleman
4. Medium and channel are

a) Complementary to each other
b) Supplementary to each other
c) Two important components of communication
d) None
5. The key to all communication is
a) sender
b) Receiver
c) medium/channel
d) Feedback
6. Identify the sender, receiver, message, medium, channel, and feedback:
i) At a cricket match, after the umpire asks the third umpire for a decision on whether a
batsman is out or not, the video flash says “Out”.
Solved Questions:
Q.i. A notice is put up outside the bank announcing the launch of a new educational loan for
engineering students. That week, the bank has its hands full with applications.
Q.ii. A union member delivers a fiery speech to a huge gathering of workers advising them to strike
work. The next day, the workers attend work as usual.
Q.iii. A shoe manufacturing company reaches out to teenagers through print media and TV
announcing its new range of trendy college footwear. Sales increase by 60% in two months.
Q.iv. “We are watching TV and laughing” find out various components of communication in the
following set of information and arrange it in a proper manner
1. Medium—verbal as well as non verbal,
2. Sender—TV
3. Message—the comedy program
4. Receiver—we
5. Feedback—laughter
6. Channel—Air
a) 134526
b) 124653
c) 231645
d) 654231
Ans : i. s- bank; r- all readers/ engineering students; m/c- written, oral; f- applications
ii. s- union member; r- workers; m/c- oral, verbal; f- attending work
iii. s- shoe manufacturing company; r- teenagers; m/c- Tv, print media; f- increase in sales.
iv. c (231645)
Exercise:
Q.1. Discuss communication as a two way process.
Q.2. What is meant by feedback? What role does it play in the process of communication?
Q.3Define communication and explain the concept of communication.
Q.4 What are the objectives of communication?
Q.5 5State the importance of communication.
Q.6 Discuss the importance of effective communication in an organization.
Q.7. “Feedback is the final link of communication process.” Explain the process of
communication with the help of a block diagram in the light of this statement.
Questions for the practice for the day:
Q. 8. Discuss “No feedback is feedback itself”.
Learning from Communication cycle, Process of Communication (Components of

Communication): Ideation, Sender, Encoding, Medium, Channel, Decoding, Receiver,
Feedback: Student will be able to explain process of communication and identify each element’s
role in effective communication, define communication with its concept and state the objectives
and importance of communication.
Lecture 02
1.11 Barriers to Communication: Types of Barriers: Physical and Mechanical, Semantic and
Linguistic; Personal or Socio-Psychological and Cross Cultural
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to
1. Compare and contrast semantic and linguistic barrier; physical and mechanical barrier;
cross-cultural; personal and socio-psychological barrier.
1.11.1 Barriers to Communication
One of the most important problems cited by an individual singly or collectively is communication
breakdown. Problems can exist in the sender, in the transmission of the message, the message itself,
in the receiver, or in the feedback.
A barrier is an obstacle, a hindrance, an obstruction or an improper gap which blocks the smooth
flow of communication. In other words, a barrier creates difficulties and complications in
communication. Specific communication barriers are discussed below and classified into mechanical
barriers, physical barriers, psychological barriers, sociological barriers and linguistic barriers.
1. Mechanical Barriers/ Physical Barriers
When there is a defect in machine being used, the barrier is called as mechanical barrier. Such barriers
occur due to mechanical problems. Breakdown of typewriter, telephone or printer can hamper
communication flow. Computer breakdown can bring to a halt in communication. Traffic signal
breakdown and various such mechanical barriers can mar communication.
Barriers which are caused due to external environment are called as physical barriers. These are
purely external and not within the control of the person engaged in communication. These would
mainly include noise, time, distance, physical fatigue, etc.
i) Noise – Noise is any such sound which disturbs the normal flow of communication. External
disturbances such as loud sound of music, noise caused by instrument, noise due to traffic, and
honking of vehicles. These factors hamper the smooth flow of communication. The teacher cannot
communicate in a noisy classroom.
ii) Time – Time is an impediment to communication in various ways. For example, if it is a birthday
of a friend who is in the Middle East, you are eager to be the first one to wish. You forget the time
difference. You wish at 12 midnight as per the Indian standard time and time at your friend’s
place is 10 pm, the purpose of wishing first loses its significance, as the greeting comes in advance,
rather than wishing the friend on the proper day of his birthday. Another example of time barrier
is people work in different shifts in a factory are unable to communicate with each other because
of lack of time.
iii) Distance – Because of the distance, there will be a breakdown of communication. For example,
during a seminar in auditorium, the audience sitting on the last benches would not be able to
hear/ listen the speaker due to the distance between them.
iv) Temperature or Humidity – High temperature and humidity can cause environmental stress on
the part of the sender and the receiver of the message. For instance a lecturer may not be able to
communicate a lecture effectively to the students when there is high temperature and humidity
and the students also may find it difficult to listen effectively.
2. Semantic and Linguistic Barrier
These barriers arise due to the nature of the language being used in communication. Semantic
distortion can be accidental or deliberate. Words often evoke different responses. The word 'politics'
to some people may mean corruption and dirty; to others the same word may mean change in
policies, government, and earning money and fame.
Poorly chosen words, lack of coherence, poor organization of ideas, platitudes, unnecessary jargon,
verbose, clichés, overloaded ideas and awkward sentence structure can block the smooth flow of
communication.
In English language, there are a number of words which often confuse us. It does so, because of the
various meanings attached to a particular word. We find words that often confuse us with
pronunciation, meaning, phonemes and word structure. Words similar in spellings and
pronunciation but differ in meaning, cannot be dictated alone. Either, it has to be written or used in
a proper context. For example: bear-bare, sight-site.
Uses of jargons, unfamiliar technology, and specialized words create another type of language
barrier. Code language evolved by certain groups of people can mar communication flow.
Inadequacy of unknown languages can act as a barrier because the receiver does not know the
language. Therefore, he will not understand. If a Chinese does not know English, then he will find
difficulty in communicating and understanding English. In such situations, a translator acts as a
mediator.
3. Personal or Socio-psychological Barrier
Personal or socio-psychological barrier are the barriers that exist in the minds of the persons
involved in communication. Socio-psychological refers to the social and psychological status of
the person. Each person is unique in himself. Each one has one’s own likes and dislikes, thoughts,
feeling and views. When the sender and the receiver have similar likes or interests, the flow
of communication is smooth. But when they have different views, the flow of communication
is blocked. These barriers are more destructive as they diminish others self-esteem. A few examples
of socio-psychological barriers are as follows:
(i) Status barrier: Status is a position or social rank of a person. This barrier is caused due
to the feeling of professional insecurity, status insecurity, status symbols, lack of
assertiveness, etc. Sometimes, it may be possible that the high status employees enjoy more power
and authority in the organization. They contribute to the decision making process. Usually for
a boss it is difficult to listen to any suggestion from the juniors in a positive way. He
feels that he has got the experience of how to run the business. He has superiority complex
which makes him status conscious. On the contrary, the subordinates have inferiority complex
as they compare their own status with their superiors and cannot discuss their problems and
cannot give useful suggestions to their boss. They are afraid that the boss might get
displeasured and it may have some adverse effect upon their career. Besides, as they enter
the manager’s cabin, which is rich in furnishing, they become sadly aware of their own
status. Thus status widens the communication gap among the employees of the
organization.
(ii) Different perception: We view the world in a unique and personal way because perceptions
are unique. The ideas we want to express differ from other people’s ideas. Even when two
people have experienced the same event, their reaction will not be identical. For example,
two friends go for a movie but their appraisal for the movie will be totally different from
each other. Different perceptions occur due to the relationship between the sender and the
receiver, past experiences, different attitudes and values. For example, the concept of live-
in relationship will be understood differently by different people.
(iii) Closed Mind: There are some people who think and believe that they know everything
about a particular topic or subject so they close their mind to the topic being discussed,
even though some new facts may be discussed. So this way they close their mind to the
latest information.
(iv) Halo and Horns effect: The listener or the receiver of the message may develop halo or
horn (trust or distrust) towards the speaker or the sender of the message. Halo effect refers
to the glory bestowed on the famous/ well-learned person. Horn effect is opposite of halo effect.
If the listener has halo effect towards the speaker then he listens to the speaker and
everything the speaker says appears true and vice versa.
(v) Slanting: Slant means to distort. In writing or telling, the receiver may distort the message
especially when he communicates the same to some other person. He may colour the
message as per his own interpretation and prejudice. For example, in a firm the top
managers informed the superiors to tell the workers that lunch break should be strictly adhered
to – the message was slanted and the workers could not eat to their full satisfaction.
(vi) Prejudice: It is pre-conceived notion about the thing. It may be in favour of or against someone
or something. It is one of the major barriers in communication. It is very difficult to overcome
such barriers because it is based on emotions and not on reasons.
4. Cross cultural Barriers
Culture can be understood as the sum total of the ways of living built by a group and transmitted
from one generation to another. Cross-cultural barriers arise because there are significant differences
amongst people.
In today’s corporate world, the people are coming together to work from different countries, colours,
cultures, sects, languages, etc. This may cause a problem to communicate with one another and create
problems to the smooth functioning of organization or halt the progress of the organization. Thus this
becomes the need to know the culture of different countries by which we can communicate them
comfortably.
These differences are reflected in some of the following areas:
(i) Languages: Languages are a direct reflection of culture and every language is unique in its own
way. For example, idioms and phrases of one language can hardly ever be translated in another
language- it is not possible to get an exact translation of ‘Every dog has its day’ in Hindi.
Moreover, even in the same language connotations of words differ from culture to culture- ‘yes’
for an American usually means ‘yes I agree’ , whereas to an Asian, like the Japanese it means ‘yes
I am listening’.
(ii) Concept of time: also varies from culture to culture. Asians have a very relaxed attitude towards
time whereas Europeans and most specially Germans are very particular about time in both their
personal and professional relationships.
(iii) Concept of space: can be understood as the distance between speakers. This concept of space
differs from culture to culture. For example, North Americans view personal space as a right and
therefore one can see them patiently waiting in queues ; on the other hand, in cultures, like
Indians, space belongs to all and thus they jostle for space when boarding trains or entering
theaters or malls.
(iv) Non verbal communication: also differs from culture to culture. Body language, gestures, attire,
connotations of colour etc. have different meanings depending on the culture. For instance, the
‘thumbs up’ sign has a positive connotation in most cultures but in the Arabian country it is an
obscene gesture; white is worn during weddings in European countries whereas in a country like
India it is the colour of mourning.

1. “Silence is more eloquent than words” because
a) Its enigmatic
b) Its dignity
c) It has the ability to shake the world
d) all
Ans : d
2. “I don’t agree with you because I have been in this business for a longer duration as compared
to you” is a
a) Mechanical barrier
b) Self image as psychological barrier
c) Self image as socio psychological barrier
d) Self image as cross- cultural barrier
Ans : b
3. Identify the psychological barrier in following statement
“Amol does his work very sincerely, I won’t listen any complain against him”
a) Self confidence
b) Self assurance
c) Horns effect
d) Halo effect
Ans : d
4. Mechanical Barrier happens when
a) Instrument is faulty
b) Technological failure
c) Both
d) The place is far away
Ans : c
5. You have to spread awareness against AIDS which method of communication you will select
a) Advertisement in newspapers, Internet, TV, Posters, Hoardings
b) Visuals, maps, graphs, charts
c) Histograms, pie charts
d) None
Ans : a
Solved Questions:
Q.1. Identify the barriers-
1. The speaker starts stammering when he sees the huge audience.
2. The music played in the neighbor’s house was so loud that I could hardly study.
3. The girl discontinued dancing as the tape recorder suddenly stopped.
4. The Chief Guest uses technical terms in his speech on the Big Bang experiment. The children
fail to understand.
Ans: 1. Socio-psychological 2. Physical 3. Mechanical 4. Semantic-linguistic.
Exercise:
Q.1. .Explain barriers in communication with suitable examples.
Q.2. Enumerate the barriers to communication that exist in classroom situation. Find out how they
can be overcome?
Q.3. Explain the various means of overcoming organizational communication barriers.
Q.4. Explain Halo effect and Horn effect as communication barriers.
Q.5. Write a note on the importance of language in communication. Explain how language can be
a barrier or an asset to communication.
Learning from the Barriers to Communication: Student will be able to understand different types
of barriers in communication and give real life example for the same.
Lecture 03
1.12 Methods of Communication: Verbal Communication: Oral & Written
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to:
1. Describe different types of verbal communication.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of oral and written communication.
3. Differentiate between verbal and non-verbal communication
4. Explain the hidden meaning of non-verbal communication
1.12.1 Methods of communication
Communication can be done verbally or non-verbally. A communicator has a choice in selecting the
method and mode of communication. Any communication that makes use of language or words can
be said to be verbal communication. Communication without using words done through signs,
symbols, colors, body language etc. is called non-verbal communication.
A. Verbal communication is divided into oral and written communication.
a) Oral communication
In oral communication, spoken words are used for communication. It is the life blood of
our personal and business lives. It can take variety of forms like dialogues, meetings,
conferences, speech, group discussions, interviews, announcements, etc. Great
communication skills help you succeed in the academic and business world. Knowing when
to choose oral communication and polishing your speaking skills can help you at every stage
of your career. Oral communication is the process of verbally transmitting information and
ideas from one individual or group to another. Oral communication can be either formal or
informal. Examples of informal oral communication include: Face-to-face conversations,
Telephone conversations, Discussions that take place at business meetings. More formal
types of oral communication include: Presentations at business meetings, Classroom lectures
and Commencement speeches given at a graduation ceremony.
1. Characteristics:
a. Pronunciation
b. Consideration of the Receiver or Audience
c. Patience
d. Attractive presentation
e. Clarity, conciseness and completeness
f. Vocabulary
g. Self-confidence
h. Variations in the intonation patterns
i. Tone and style
2. Advantages:
a. Time saving
b. Cost savings
c. Immediate feedback
d. More suitable
e. A relationship develops
f. Flexibility
g. Easiness
h. Informal communication
i. Motivation
3. Disadvantages:
a. No record
b. Expensive
c. Distortion
d. Inaccuracy
e. Probability of omitting main subject
f. No legal validity
g. Less important
h. Defective
i. Creates misunderstanding
b) Written communication
Written communication is a form of verbal communication. The common forms of written
communication are letters, memos, reports, proposals, etc.
1. Characteristics
a. Clarity
b. Conciseness
c. Courtesy
d. Completeness
e. Correctness
f. Consideration
g. Credibility
2. Advantages:
a. Easy to preserve
b. Easy presentation of complex matter
c. Permanent record
d. Prevention of wastage of time and money
e. Accurate presentation
f. Longevity
g. Effective communication
h. Less distortion possibility
3. Disadvantages:
a. Expensive
b. Time consuming
c. Useless for illiterate person
d. Difficult to maintain secrecy
e. Lack of flexibility
f. Delay in response
g. Cost in record keeping
A. Difference between Oral and Written Communication

Sr. No. Oral Written
1. It saves times as a person can speak It is time consuming: writing is less faster.
faster. (125 to 150 words per minute). (10 to 25 words in a minute).
2. It can be done without preparation. It requires preparation for consultation,
dictating, typing and posting
3. It is less expensive It is expensive as it involves the cost of
typing, expenditure on stationary and other
equipments such as computer and printer.
4 It gives instant feedback, as it is done inInstant feedback is not possible as sender and
face-to –face situation. receiver may be geographically separated.
5 It is more effective because it involves It is comparatively less effective
the use of body language (or non-verbal communication as it doesn’t involve non-
cues). verbal cues.
6 It can be used by illiterate people as wellIt can be used only by literate people
as by small children.
7 It is not legally accepted It is legally accepted
8 It is not suitable for lengthy official Official message are conveyed properly.
messages
9 It does not follow grammatical rules It is very formal & rigid as it follows all the
very rigidly. rules of grammar.
10 It cannot be kept as record and is short- It can be recorded and used in posterity.
lived.
There are some situations where oral communication is used whereas in some situations written form
of communication is obligatory. The situations like in the time of emergency one has to follow oral
form of communication because it is faster and easier. On the contrary the candidate aspiring for job
needs to follow written form of communication only. Thus the mode of communication becomes
situational.

1. Oral communication is the interchange of _____ between the sender and receiver.
a) written messages
b) verbal messages
c) cues and clues
d) signs and gestures
2. The effectiveness of oral communication depends on the speaker’s ability to use:
a) long sentences
b) simple language
c) complex words
d) foreign words
Solved Questions:
i) Written communication always works because
a) Oral communication does not have proof
b) We can’t keep records especially big reports in oral communication
c) Once we say something we cannot repeat it
d) all
Ans. D
ii) In business, the purpose of writing is mainly to:
a) entertain
b) inform
c) persuade
d) Both inform and persuade
Ans. D
Exercise:
Q.1. Distinguish between oral and written communication.
Q.2. Explain advantages and disadvantages of oral communication.
Q.3. Explain advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face communication.
Q.4.How can oral and written communication be made effective?
Q.5. You are supposed to appear for a viva. Highlight three aspects of oral communication that you
will bear in mind while answering.
Learning from Methods of Communication (Oral and Written Communication): Student will be
able to understand and use oral and written communication effectively.
Lecture 04
1.12 Non-Verbal Communication: Visual and Audio Signs, Body Language: Artifacts, Kinesis,
Oculesis, Proxemics, Paralanguage, Haptics, Chronemics
Learning Objective:
1. Describe different kinds of non-verbal communication.
2. Explain importance of visual and audio signs in communication.
3. Differentiate between verbal and non-verbal communication
4. Explain the hidden meaning of non-verbal communication
1.12.1Non-verbal Communication:
When communication is done without using words or language it is called non-verbal

communication. This can further be classified as visual & audio sounds and body language.
Though verbal and non -verbal means of communication are closely interlinked, experts in this field
have tried to distinguish their importance in terms of the influence of the message. Sometimes, the
speaker may not deliver the message efficiently but yet he succeeds because of the proper use of his
non-verbal abilities. The individual communicates not only through words but his whole personality
- personal appearance, posture, gestures, facial expressions contributes to the success of securing
attention of the audience. Non-verbal communication can further be classified into the following:
(a) Body Language is also called Kinesics. It is the study of body movement as a means of
communication. The receiver usually moves his/her body in a certain way as a response to the
message received. These movements may be deliberate and conscious, used to enhance the meaning
of the verbal message or they may be unconscious. It can be further classified as:
(i) Posture
It refers to the way one sits stands and walks. A speaker should stand tall and at ease with feet
together and hands on the sides. He should sit with a straight back and chin held high. He should
walk with medium strides, straight and head held high at a right angle to the shoulder. The body
movement, the position of hands and legs and other body parts reflect an individual's personality.
Following are the seating and standing postures:
(ii) Gestures
Certain primary and short messages can be communicated through gestures such as "yes", "no", "go",
"come", "silence please", etc. Gestures play an important role in non-verbal communication. Putting
hands in the pockets, shrugging of shoulders, reveals the nervousness of the speaker which robs him
of the effectiveness of his message. Proper and well-timed gestures help in making communication
effective. It adds to the value and impact on the listener. Fig.1 shows aggression and should be
avoided and fig.2 shows the victory sign.
(iii) Facial Expressions

The face is the most significant and the most photographed part of the human body. The face
has been called the organ of emotions because it provides vital cues by reacting in fractions
of second, often unconsciously which reveal attitudes and moods. Researchers have found eight
basic facial emotions surprise, interest, joy, rage, feat, disgust, shame and anguish. The facial
expressions of these emotions are found universally in all cultures. There are 80 muscles in
human face. It is claimed by Richard Denny that the face can create more than 7000
expressions. By observing the facial expressions of the listeners the communicator can receive
constant feedback. Listeners’ facial expressions can communicate whether they are interested
or not. Charles Darwin says that most of the human expressions are instinctive and not learnt
. He further argues that even the born blind children blush from shame. Here are some
common facial expressions: smile on a face- happiness, frown- displeasure, tightening the jaws -
vehement, pale expressions: sparkle in the eyes - victory. Some facial expressions are given below:
(iv) Eye Contact

Oculesics is the study of eye movement as a method of non-verbal communication. Eye contact, an
important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate the flow of communication. And
it signals interest in others. Furthermore, eye contact with audience increases the speaker's credibility.
While speaking, eye contact is necessary to gain feedback and also to know whether the listener is
interested. Looking at the ground or at the ceiling, at the door, outside the window, at the written
material or at one section of the audience is a sign of rudeness and nervousness. If you ignore the
audience, they are also likely to ignore you and what you say. Through eye contact, you can win the
attention of your audience. Studies have shown that better eye contact leads to more effective
communication.
(v) Personal Appearance
The first appearance often creates a lasting impression on the audience. The personal appearance of
the speaker even before he utters the first word creates an impact on the audience. They begin to form
an opinion about him, his personality in terms of his dress, hair style, make-up, etc. In certain
situations such as interviews, convocation, parade, etc. a particular uniform is worn which indicates
the kind of work one does or his status. In terms of seminars, group discussions, workshops,
classroom teaching, etc., the speaker should realize that the large audience watches a single
individual - YOU, therefore the first impression should be the last impression. Figures below show
some corporate dress code:
(vi) Tactile Communication or Haptics is non-verbal communication through touch. When it is

used properly it can create a more direct message which has warmth and trust but when it is used
improperly it can build barriers and cause mistrust. One can easily invade someone's space through
this type of communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used reciprocally, it
tends to indicate differences in status
(vii) Space Distancing
An interesting area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial relationships, or
proxemics, the study of man's appreciation and use of space to communicate. The study of spatial
territory for the purpose of communication uses four categories for informal space: the intimate
distance for embracing or whispering (6-18 inches), the personal distance for conversations among
good friends (1.5-4 feet), social distance for conversations among acquaintances (4-12 feet), and public
distance used for public speaking (12 feet or more). While the use of each of these spatial relationships
can impede or promote the act of communication, the area that humans control and use most often is
their informal space.
(viii) Chronemics is the study of the way we structure and use time to communicate. This usage of
time as a communicative tool varies from culture to culture. For example, most Asians view time as
a circular concept. This means that there is no pressure or anxiety about the future. In such cultures
meetings, parties etc. may start much beyond the time given and nobody takes offence. On the other
hand, in most European countries time is a linier concept. Such cultures are sticklers of time.
Punctuality is considered to be a part of good manners and civility and they view tardiness as a signal
of hostility and indiscipline. A thorough knowledge of the varying concept of time is therefore
mandatory for successful business dealings today.
(ix) Paralinguistic
Communication through the use of vocal sounds or noises is called vocalics or paralanguage. Sub-
vocal constitutes yet another form of non-verbal communication. We say “uh…uh..uh..” when we are
trying to find a word. We say a lot of non-word sounds in order to carry meaning to another person;
we stammer, we hum, grunt, we groan and so on. These sub-vocal noises are not words but they do
carry meaning.
Vocalism or inflection constitutes another form of non-verbal communication. The pitch of the voice
express various forms of emotions like pity, joy, concern, anger, sympathy, aggressiveness,
passiveness, hurt tone, sarcastic tone, etc. Depending on the stress on a particular word, the meaning
changes, for e.g.:
I love ‘poetry. (Not music, not dance)
I ‘love’ poetry. (Insistence on the feeling)
‘I’ love poetry. (Only I, not others)
Fast delivery communicates lack of confidence, too slow shows lack of knowledge, yawning shows
tiredness.
This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as: tone, volume, pitch,
pronunciation, stress, pause, pace and even silence. For maximum effectiveness in communication,
one needs to learn to vary these elements of the voice.
(x) Silence
'Silence speaks louder than words' is a common saying. It is a very powerful method of non-verbal
communication. It can be understood as a deliberate withdrawal or absence of speech which could
be positive or negative. On the basis of the purpose for which it is used, silence can be classified as
comfortable, respectful, hostile, awkward or indifferent. Most misunderstandings arise out of
carelessly spoken words. Uttering falsehoods, scandalizing, fault finding and excessive speech have
been detrimental to the society. Therefore, silence is the language of the realized.
Positive silence occurs when all the faculties of the mind are wide awake and full of light, whereas
negative silence is overpowered by dullness and tranquil.
(xi) Olfactics: The study of the sense of smell as a means of non-verbal communication is called
olfactics. A person’s body odour can have a positive or negative effect on communication. No one
wishes to communicate with someone with bad body odour. In most culture, therefore, a lot of
importance is given to personal hygiene.
(b) Visual & Audio Signs

(i) Colours: Colours are an important form of non-verbal communication. They create a physical and
emotional reaction as they are associated with different moods and also create different psychological
moods. For instance, blue, green, and the neutral white, gray, and silver are examples of cool colours.
These colours are said to have a calming effect for comforting and nurturing. On the other hand,
warm colors convey emotions from simple optimism to strong violence. The warmth of red, yellow,
pink, or orange can create excitement or even anger. Colours are also used very effectively in formal
communication, the best example of this being the traffic signals.
(ii) Pictorial Representation: It has been rightly said that a picture speaks thousands of words.
Difficult thoughts, ideas and concepts can be communicated in a simplified manner by the use of
pictures and photographs. It also makes communication more interesting and lively and can reach
across to a large section of illiterate receivers too. Below is an example of pictorial representation of
Food Pyramid:
(iii) Signs and Signals: Signs are marks which represent something while signals are mechanical
type of communication which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, sirens etc.
They are useful means of non-verbal communication as they convey the message instantaneously and
can be understood by a large section of people. Signs are usually visual but signals can be both visual
& auditory. Some examples of the latter are buzzers, bells, whistles etc.

1. ‘We can’t not communicate” because
a) Even if we do not talk we talk non- verbally
b) Non-verbal communication is very important
c) Intonation has its 55% weightage in total 100% of verbal (oral) communication
d) We love to communicate
2. The term Kinesics stands for

a) Facial expressions
b) Space
c) Body language
d) Time
3. Which one stands for the study of Mannerisms and dress sense?
a) Proxemics
b) Chronemics
c) Artifacts
d) Finesse
4. Which one stands for the study of Proxemics?
a) Space
b) Proximity
c) Space and proximity
d) Distance
Solved Questions:
i) Non-verbal and verbal communication are interconnected in which of the following ways?
a) Non-verbal cues can repeat verbal messages
b) Non-verbal cues can substitute for verbal messages
c) Non-verbal cues can contradict verbal messages
d) all of the above
Ans. b
ii) What do the following gestures suggest?
a) Yawning b) Crossed Arms
c) Clenched Fists d) Nail Biting
Ans : a) boredom b) defensiveness
c) anger d) nervousness
Exercise:
Q1 Distinguish between oral and written communication.
Q.2. Explain advantages and disadvantages of oral communication.
Q.3. Explain advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face communication.
Q.4. What is meant by Non-verbal communication? Write a detail note on any two forms of Non-
verbal communication.
Q.5. What is Body Language? How can it be interpreted?
Q.6. Discuss ‘Action speaks louder than words’.
Q.7. Explain Communication by charts maps and graphs.
Q.8. Write short notes on Kinesics, Proxemics and Oculesics
Learning from Methods of Communication (Non-verbal Communication): Students will be able to

understand and use oral and written communication effectively. And will be able to understand
different types of non-verbal communication and can relate the same with their daily life.
Lecture 05
1.12.3 Networks of Communication

Learning Objective:
1. Describe and draw flowcharts of different types of organizational communication
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of organizational communication
1.12.4 Organizational communication

Communication is a central activity to most organizational activities. It is one of the important topics
of organizational behavior. Effective communication is a prerequisite for implementing
organizational strategies as well as for managing day to day activities through people. Managers
spend more than three fourth of their time in communicating – exchanging information.
Communication is found to make the biggest relative contribution to the effectiveness of managers.
In management texts, Chester Barnard identified communication as an important management
activity and examined its elements and issues. According to him, communication is the major shaping
force in the organization. Communication makes the organization a cooperative system and also links
the organization purpose to the human participants. He brought the communication activity into the
concept of authority and superior-subordinate relations and gave the following guidelines in this
respect:
● The channels of communication should be definitely known.
● There should be a definite formal channel of communication to every member of an organization.
● The line of communication should be as direct and short as possible.
● The complete formal line of communication should normally be used.
● The persons serving as communication centers should be competent.
● The line of communication should not be interrupted while the organization is functioning.
● Every communication should be authenticated.
Organizational Communication
Internal External
Formal Informal Inward Outward
Grapevine
Vertical Horizontal Diagonal
Downward Upward
1.6.1 Vertical communication:
The messages that move up and down in the authority are called vertical communication. In the past,
communication was wholly downward and it was the only line of communication recognized by the
management. However the modern concept of vertical communication has developed and made
formal provision for a flow of upward communication from the lowest strata to the higher levels of
management. It keeps lines of interaction open between employer and employee. Being interactive,
it demands the interchange of roles of sender and receiver. Oral and written communication
supplements the vertical flow of information in an organization. Vertical communication can further
be divided into downward and upward communication.
Chairma
n
D U
O Principal
P
W W
N A
Head of Depts
W R
A D
R
Faculty
D
Clerks, operators, workers
A) Downward Communication:
Messages going from higher authority to lower authority is called as downward communication. In
other words this type of communication occurs in an authoritarian atmosphere. It flows from top
level management to the workers at lower levels, superiors to subordinates in the organizational
hierarchy. It takes place in form of passing up of some documents or some reports, casual
conversation, telephonic conversations, meetings, workshops, job instructions, warning, policy
statements, notices, compliment letters and company publications. The management must observe
the following to have a downward communication in the organization:
● Manager must have clear knowledge of a message before he sends it to subordinates.
● The manager must keep in mind the content of the message which in no way would invite
controversies or criticism.
● A bond of mutual trust is important between manager and worker.
● A well planned communication format must be followed by the manager.
● Communication to the workers must be away from any barrier.
a) Advantages of Downward communication
1. Provide directions: It helps managers to give directions or guidelines to the lower level
employees by sending the right messages down through the formal channels. Proper directions
help the employees to undertake their activities efficiently and effectively.
2. Control of activities: The superiors can also control the activities of their subordinates through a
review of performance; the superiors can come to know the short falls or deviations. With the
help of downward communication the management can take proper control measures to correct
and control the deviations.
3. Motivate employees: Downward communication can be used to motivate the employees to
perform better. The superiors can influence the workers with their motivational talks as well as
actions in coordination with speech.
4. Operational: efficiency: In case of downward communication employees always receive
instruction from the executives, as a result their operational efficiency increased.
5. Discipline: Downward communication follows the official chain of command thus discipline can
be maintained.
6. Relation establishment: In downward communication superiors not only provide instructions
but also provide inspiration to the employees. As a result relationship between top management
and employees improved.
b) Disadvantages of Downward communication
1. Delay: As it flows through the line of authority, it takes time. It starts from the topmost
management level and moves down from one level to another.
2. Distortion: When there is a long chain of communication, the communicator may not inform at
all to the next person in chain, either deliberately or otherwise. There are also a number of areas,
where the original communication is distorted and it conveys altogether different meaning.
3. Under and over communication: Downward communication, many a times, suffers due to the
under and over communication. At times the Supervisors may provide too much information
about the job to the subordinates, and sometimes he might take a few things for granted and
provide too little information.
4. Too authoritative: Dictatorial attitude among the managers may lead to misuse of downward
communication.
5. Not suitable for all kind of communication: All communication cannot be communicated
downward
6. Resentment: Long process, time consuming and lack of feedback creates negative impact on the
morale of employees and they may harbor resentment against seniors
B) Upward Communication:
It is also called as upstream communication. When communication flows from lower level to high
level in an organization is upward communication. It is vital for any organization to survive and
succeed in this competitive business world. The upward communication should be promoted in an
organization with the help of the following ways:
● By using open-door policy, employees can directly meet the higher authorities without bothering
the hierarchy. They can enter the manager’s cabin without hesitation and can freely talk about
their problems.
● By keeping complaint and suggestion box, management can receive suggestions, feedback,
grievances, etc. of the workers.
● With the help of counseling sessions, management can interact with employees and discuss their
problems, and provide solutions.
a) Advantages of Upward communication
1. Feedback: The management can get the feedback from employees about the plans and policies of
the organization. The management can also come to know whether the employees have
understood and followed the directives and instructions issued to them.
2. Sense of belonging: Employees feel that they belong to the organization because their opinions
are highly valued. As they are given importance in the organization, they feel that they are not
isolated from the organization. This will result in maintaining cordial relationship between
management and workers.
3. Suggestion: Employees are close to the job and as such they know the job better than superiors.
Therefore management must encourage suggestions from the employees, so that management
will have various options to take proper decision.
4. Harmony: Opportunity to express own views and participation in the decision making enhance
the level of coordination and brings harmony in the organization.
5. Motivation:
The task of motivation needs two way communications between the concerned parties. Upward
communication enables the executives to extend appropriate motivational measures.
b) Disadvantages of Upward communication
1. Chance of distortion: Intentional distortions are done in upward communication to fulfill vested
interest. Junior may subvert or even delete unpleasant data while reporting to his senior.
2. Reluctance to initiate communication: It is not an easy task for junior to complaint or suggest
higher authorities as they feel that such complaints and suggestions may reflect the inefficient of
higher that ups. They hesitate to convey their grievances as they feel that they will be victimized
by the management.
3. Affects superior–subordinate relations: Upward communication may affect the superior–
subordinate relations, when subordinate directly reports to higher ups. The higher authority feels
that they are neglected by the juniors.
4. Delay: Sometimes lower level employees hesitate to inform a problem upward because doing so
means acceptance of failure. Thus delays may take place to decide whether to inform the top
management or try further to solve the problem.
The following table highlights the significant difference between upward and downward
communication:
Sr. Downward Upward
No.
1. It flows from the top level management to low It is the flow of communication which
level management through the middle level originates from low level
management. management to high level
management through middle level
management
2 It is the means by which goals are transmitted and It is the means by which
influence is exerted on employees managers collect from employees the
data needed to make sound decisions.
3 It provides a channel for directives, instructions, It provides ideas for improving task-
and information to organizational members. related procedures to increase the
quality or efficiency of organization
members.
4 Types of Downward communication includes: Types of upward communication

Job description includes :
* Appraisals or evaluation * Suggestion schemes
* Organizational policy * Feedback forum or survey
* Organizational system * Grievance Procedure
* Employees Manager discussion
5 Downward Communication helps in performing Upward Communication helps in
following managerial functions: performing following managerial
Directing, Motivating, Controlling, coordinatin functions: Reporting, Decision
g making
6 Barriers in Downward Communication: Often Barriers in Upward Communication:
one-way, Delay in decision making
Mistrust, Status anxiety Loss of information.
C) Horizontal communication: Formal communication may sometimes move horizontally across

parallel lines of authority. In every organization messages that flow between persons of equal status
or same level of authority is horizontal or lateral communication. It plays an important role in an
organization as it promotes co-ordination and understanding in various departments.
Decentralization is the modern techniques utilized in modernized enterprises. This requires more
decision which increases horizontal communication. Increase in proper communication leads to more
efficiency and better results oral, face to face, telephonic communications and written communication
are the dominant media used for horizontal communication lack of proper lateral communication can
hamper the efficiency of firm because information flows horizontally more than vertically.
Horizontal communication performs certain functions coordination problem solving, sharing of
information, advice, support, and conference.
a) Advantages of Horizontal communication
1. Horizontal communication improves the understanding and coordination among the various
people of equal status, and consequently improves quality of team work.
2. Horizontal communication eliminates misunderstandings, jealousies, ego, clashes etc among
people of equal status in an organization so they can exchange their thoughts and feelings freely
with each other.
3. It is a time saving device because people of equal status and authority meet, discuss and sort out
problems. Thus the day to day functioning of the organization becomes more effective and
smooth.
b) Disadvantages of Horizontal communication
1. Sometimes there might be a conflict between horizontal and vertical communication tends to
reflect the variety. Too much of lateral communication makes the centre weak.
2. Horizontal communication suffers if the relationship among the people of equal status is
strenuous, jealousy and rivalry being very common among people of the same rank.
3. Horizontal communication may make employees too friendly with each other.
D) Grapevine communication: It is an informal way of communication. It is free from the terms of
formal communication. There are many synonyms to grapevine viz. report, buzz, gossip, hearing,
hearsay, and rumor. The dictionary meaning of the word ‘grapevine’ is secret communication. It also
has a reference to the vine of grapes which speedily grows in any direction. Even the grapevine
communication spreads the news very fast and in any direction in the organization. It is prevalent in
any organization irrespective of strict laws, discipline, complex structure and work culture. The
general principle to bear in mind is “wherever there are people, there are grapevines.” It is informal
because it does not flow according to the line of authority. Unlike formal communication, it is neither
planned nor guided. It is not even documented or recorded. It is not time-bound, topic-bound and
language bound. For example, three friends are discussing on an IPL cricket match, it is not necessary
that they can conclude their conversation on the cricket match. There can be a diversion to other
subjects for discussion like – entertainment, studies, friends, foods, fashion, etc. Successful and
professional authority utilizes this channel of communication significantly.
In modern era, scope of this channel is widening as it gives an ultimate opportunity to express views.
It may harm or become beneficial for an organization. It may result in losing the morale of workers
or may result in redoubling their vigour. The intelligent top management will try to feed the
grapevine with information that is accurate and which will serve as a morale booster. Management
should realize that the grapevine can neither be cut nor controlled; at the most it can be influenced.
Emotional and sentimental employees contribute substantially through grapevine communication.
Grapevine communication also supplements the formal channel. It is faster and interesting because
it deals with speculations and conjunctures. It promotes solidarity, unity and team spirit, if handled
properly. Grapevine is also a popular form to get the real feedback employees about the work culture,
authority, policies, etc.

1. Grapevine communication is
a. formal communication b. downward communication
c. informal communication d. upward communication
2. Evaluation or Appraisal is a __________ communication
a. formal communication b. downward communication
c. informal communication d. upward communication
Solved Questions:
1) What is internal communication?
Ans. Internal communication is the transmission of information within the organization, across all
levels and organizational units of an organization
2) Who are stakeholders in external communication?
Ans. Clients, contractors, investors and shareholders, employee unions and society in general are
the stake holders in external communication.
Exercise:
Q.1. What do you mean by internal and external communication?
Q.2. What is meant by terms Channels of communication and Lines of communication?
Q.3. Write and analyze a case study for downward communication
Q.4. Mention three disadvantages and advantages of grapevine.
Q.5. How can a manager motivate the employees with the help of grapevine?
Learning from Organizational Communication: Student should be able to

describe and draw flowcharts of different types of organizational communication like vertical,
horizontal and grapevine.
Self-Assessment:
1. Define communication.
2. Communication is the foundation of language skills. Explain.
3. Explain the networks of communication in an organization.
4. Explain barriers to communication.
Self-Evaluation
Name of
the
student
Class
Roll No
Subject
Module
No.
Sr. No. Tick Your Choice
1 Do you understand the concept of Yes

communication?
No
2 Do you understand the importance of Yes

communication in an organization?
No
3 Are you able to differentiate barriers to Yes

communication?
No
4 Will you be able to use verbal and non- Yes

verbal communication effectively while
communicating in day to day life? No
5 Do you understand the importance and Yes, completely

implementation of this module?
Partially
No, not at all

Module - 2
Word Formation
Lecture 6
2.1 Concept of Word Formation: Reduplicating and Clipping
2.1.1 Motivation
One of the distinctive properties of human language is creativity, by which we mean the
ability of speakers to produce and understand new forms in the language. Even though
creativity is the most apparent when it comes to sentence formation, it is also manifested
in our lexical knowledge, where new words are added to our mental lexicon regularly.
To develop vocabulary of any language, there are different grammatical processes that
are required to be followed. There is a natural tendency of human beings to use and
simplify the short word instead of long one for convenience. With time, new things are
made or created to address it in a specific way. The word formation is the process which
helps in this situation. With the course of time, those words are accepted and used by the
speakers of that language. English language is rich in forming new words to meet new
situations following the grammatical rules and processes. At the turn of the 20th century,
new word-formation processes were scrutinized with a highly critical eye. Today,
linguists not merely accept the diachronic development of language as such but view
language evolution and word-formation processes as an indication of a language’s
creativeness and vivacity.
Syllabus:
Duration Hours Self-study
Lecture Content
Hours
6 Concept of Word Formation: Reduplicating, Clipping 1 hour 1 hour
7 Blending; Acronym; Affixation 1 hour 1 hour

8 Conversion; Compounding 1 hour 1 hour
9 Root Words, Prefixes and Suffixes in English 1 hour 1 hour
Greek Words; Latin Words
10 Contrast of Meaning and Standard Abbreviations 1 hour 1 hour
Synonyms; Antonyms; homonyms; homophones

1) Define word formation, reduplicating and clipping.
2) Explain the process of blending, acronym, and affixation.
3) Describe root words with prefixes and suffixes in English.
4) List the standard abbreviations, synonyms, and antonyms.
5) Differentiate between homonyms and homophones.
Word-formation is a relatively new branch of linguistic studies. With the language
constantly changing, it is hard to keep track of new trends and tendencies that influence
it on every-day basis. As language is a flexible system of signs, it is its natural
predisposition to be shaped and influenced by its users who can adopt it according to
their will.
Word formation process (also called morphological process) is a means by which new
words are produced either by modification of existing words or by complete innovation,
which in turn becomes a part of the language.
2.1.5. Key Definitions

Reduplication: Reduplication is a word-formation process in which meaning is
expressed by repeating all or part of a word.
Clipping: Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or
shortened without changing the meaning of the word.
Blending: It is one of the word formation processes to form new words in English. It
refers to joining the beginning of one word and the end of another to make a new word
with a new meaning.
Acronym: Acronym is a pronounceable word which is formed from the first letter (or
first few letters) of each word in a phrase or title. Sometimes, the newly combined letters
create a new word that becomes a part of everyday language.
2.1.6 Introduction: Word formation

In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is
sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's
meaning. Word formation refers to the ways in which new words are made based on
other words or morphemes. It is also called derivational morphology.
● Types of Word Formation Processes
1. Reduplicating
2. Clipping
1. Reduplicating
Reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of
it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change. Reduplicating can
rhyme but is not required to. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more
"expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively,
iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language
groups, though its level of linguistic productivity varies. They likely have a figure of
sound represented in them, as alliteration (repetition of consonants) and assonance
(repetition of vowel sounds) would be common in a word or phrase. In reduplication,
sometimes, the second part of the word is not carrying any meaning.
● Types of Reduplications:
a. Exact:
The two halves of an exact reduplication are exactly the same. Baby words most often fall
into this category, which shows how youngsters learned the language, but other
examples are there as well.
For Example: Bye-Bye, Blah-Blah, bling- bling, Bye-Bye, Goody-Goody, Din-din.
b. Rhyming:
The two halves of the reduplication are not exactly the same but rhyme with each other.
Many times, product names are formed this way, such as Tic Tac, Fruit Loops, Nutter
Butters, Slim Jims etc.
For Example: abra-cadabra chick-flick, teeny-weeny, hocus-pocus, nitty-gritty, mumbo-
jumbo, topsy-turvy, wishy-washy, shilly-shally
Some reduplication is formed to show alternative movements.
For Example: see-saw, ping-pong, flick-flock
c. Ablaut:
Ablaut refers to those words which change the form when a vowel is shifted. These
reduplications suggest a ‘to and fro’ motion, or a changing state from one form to another.
Almost all these words use an 'i' sound in the first part of the word and an 'a' or 'o' sound
in the second part.
For Example: criss-cross, ding-dong- flip-flop, knick-knack, mish mash, tick-tock, tip-top.
d. Clipping
Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or shortened without
changing the meaning of the word. The clipped form of the word is normally considered
informal. This process can also be called shortening. Clipping differs from back-
formation in that the new word retains the meaning of the original word. For example:
○ advertisement – ad
○ alligator – gator
○ examination – exam
○ gasoline – gas
○ gymnasium – gym
○ influenza – flu
○ photograph-photo
○ memorandum-memo
● Types of Clipping:
Clipping comes in four basic varieties:
a. Back Clipping: As we have seen in exam and examination, back clipping is when the
back half of a word is deleted. Another example is memo, the back-clipped form
of memorandum.
Examples:
o ad = advertisement
o cable = cablegram
o doc = doctor
o exam = examination
o fax = facsimile
b. Fore Clipping: The process can be reversed, deleting the beginning of a word, as
in varsity, which is a fore-clipped (and slightly mutated) version of university.
Examples:
o chute = parachute
o plane=aeroplane, airplane
o coon = raccoon
o gator = alligator
o phone = telephone
c. Mid Clipping: There are some words in which the beginning and end of a word is
clipped to form a new word. A good example is flu, clipped out of influenza.
Example:
o flu = influenza
o fridge= refrigerator
d. Compound Clipping: Much rarer, this involves clipping more than one word to form
a new word. The best example can be cablegram, taken from the phrase cable telegram.
Examples:
o cablegram= cable telegram
o op art = optical art
o org-man= organization man
o linocut = linoleum cut
Q.1 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

1. Reduplication is a word-formation process in which meaning is expressed by repeating
all or part of a word.
a. Reduplication b. Clipping c. Compounding d. Blending
2. The word ‘ad for advertisement’ is an example of
a. Back Clipping b. Fore clipping c. Mid clipping
d. Compound Clipping
3. The word ‘ding-dong’ is an example of
a. Blending b. Exact c. Clipping d. ablaut
Exercise:
Q.1 Define word formation process.
Q.2 What is Reduplication in the word formation process?
Q.3 Explain clipping with suitable examples.
Q.4 Discuss the types of reduplication.
Learning from “Concept of Word Formation: Reduplicating and Clipping”: Learners will
be able to define word formation with the process of reduplication and clipping.
Lecture 2
Lecture 7
2.2 Blending; Acronym and Affixation
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to explain the concept of Blending, Acronym and Affixation
2.2.1 Blending
Blending is one of the many ways of forming new words in English. It refers to joining the
beginning of one word and the end of another to make a new word with a new meaning.
Blending (assimilation) is informal but many times its deliberate formation becomes
common in commercial language. For example: The word “travelogue” is formed by the
two words, “travel” and “catalogue.”
Word blends are also known as portmanteau, a French word meaning "trunk" or
"suitcase”. “It’s like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word."
There are different ways of creating word blends. One way is to combine portions of two
other words to make a new one. These word fragments are called morphemes,
the smallest units of meaning in a language. For Example, the word “camcorder”
combines parts of “camera” and “recorder”.” Word blends can also be created by joining
a full word with a portion of another word (called a splinter). For example, the word
"motorcade" combines "motor" plus a portion of "cavalcade."
Word blends can also be formed by overlapping or combining phonemes, which are parts
of two words that sound alike. One example of an overlapping word blend is "Spanglish,"
which is an informal mix of spoken English and Spanish. Blends can also be formed
through the omission of phonemes. Geographers sometimes refer to "Eurasia," the
landmass that combines Europe and Asia. This blend is formed by taking the first syllable
of "Europe" and adding it to the word "Asia."
As new inventions changed the way people lived and worked, the practice of combining
parts of words to make new ones became popular. In the 1920s, as traveling by car became
more common, a new kind of hotel that catered to drivers emerged. These "motor hotels"
quickly proliferated and became known as "motels." In 1994, when a rail tunnel beneath
the English Channel opened, connecting France and Great Britain, it quickly became
known as the "Chunnel," a word blend of "Channel" and "tunnel."
New word blends are being created all the time as cultural and technological trends
emerge. In 2018, Merriam-Webster added the word "mansplaining" to their dictionary.
This blended word, which combines "man" and "explaining," was coined to describe the
habit that some men have of explaining things in a condescending manner.
Examples
Blended word Root word 1 Root word 2
Agitprop Agitation propaganda
Bash Bat mash
Biopic Biography picture
Breathalyzer Breath analyzer
Clash Clap crash
Docudrama Documentary drama
Electrocute Electricity execute
Emoticon Emotion icon
Fanzine Fan magazine
Frenemy Friend enemy
Globish Global English
Infotainment information entertainment
Moped Motor Pedal
Pulsar Pulse quasar
Sitcom situation comedy
Sportscast Sports broadcast
Staycation Stay vacation
Telegenic television photogenic
Workaholic Work alcoholic
2.2.2 Acronym
Acronyms are words formed by the word formation process in which initialism is pronounced
as a word. For example, HIV is initialism for Human Immunodeficiency Virus that is spoken
as the three letters H-I-V. However, AIDS is an acronym for Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome that is spoken as the word aids. Acronyms are related to the word formation
process of abbreviation.
Acronyms are the words which are formed from the initial letters or larger parts of the words
that make up a descriptive phrase or a proper noun. These acronyms are produced, for names
of organizations or groups or specific occupational positions.
For example:
● ASAP – as soon as possible
● AWOL – absent without leave
● COD--- Cash on delivery
● DARE---Drug Abuse Resistance Education
● Laser – light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
● NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration
● NASDAQ – National Association of Securities Dealers Automated
Quotations
● PIN – personal identification number
● radar – radio detection and ranging
● scuba – self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
● TESOL – Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages
● UNICEF---The United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
● WASP – White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
2.2.3 Affixation
In English grammar and morphology, affixation is the process of adding a morpheme
(Morpheme means minimal unit of grammatical structure-they are two in numbers, that is,
Free Morpheme and Bound Morpheme. These morphemes play an important role in word
formation.)—or affix—to a word to create either a different form of that word or a new
word with a different meaning; affixation is the most common way of making new words
in English.
The two primary kinds of affixation are prefixation, the addition of a prefix, and suffixation,
the addition of a suffix, while clusters of affixes can be used to form complex words. There
are two kinds of affixation in English language, that is, prefix and suffix. The prefix is added
before the base or the root of the word while suffix is added after it. A large majority words
of new in the English language today are either a result of blending—mashing two words
or partial words together to form a new one—or affixation.
● Uses of Affixes
An affix is a word element of English grammar used to alter the meaning or form of a word
and comes in the form of either a prefix or a suffix. Prefixes include examples like "un-," "self-
," and "re-," while suffixes come in the form of ending elements like "-hood," "-ing," or "-ed."
While prefixes typically maintain the word class (such as noun, verb, or adjective) of the word
it's modifying, suffixes oftentimes change the form entirely, as is the case with "exploration"
compared to "explore" or "highlighter" compared to "highlight."
● Affixes and roots

Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is common in
academic English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base (like dislike), whereas
suffixes are added to the end of the base (active activate). Prefixes usually do not change
the class of the base word, but suffixes usually do change the class of the word.
The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-
, un-, mis-, out-. The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, -fy. By far the most common
affix in academic English is -ise.
Verbs- e.g. prefix + verb verb
Prefix Meaning Examples
re- again, or back restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance
dis- reverses the meaning of the verb disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue
over- too much overbook, oversleep, overwork
un- reverses the meaning of the verb unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis- badly or wrongly mislead, misinform, misidentify
out- more or better than others outperform, outbid
be- make or cause befriend, belittle
co- Together co-exist, co-operate, co-own
de- do the opposite of devalue, deselect, dehumanize
fore- earlier, before foreclose, foresee
inter- Between interact, intermix, interface
pre- Before pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub- under/below subcontract, subdivide
trans- across, over transform, transcribe, transplant
under- not enough underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdeveloped
Exercise
e.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be".
Suffix Example
-ise stabilize, characterize, symbolize, visualize, specialize
-ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
Exercise
Nouns
The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are: co- and sub-
. The most common suffixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery. By
far the most common noun affix in academic English is -tion.
e.g. prefix + noun noun
Prefix Meaning Examples

anti- against anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
auto- self autobiography, automobile
bi- two bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism
co- joint co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant
counter- against counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal
dis- the converse of discomfort, dislike
ex- former ex-chairman, ex-hunter
hyper- extreme hyperinflation, hypersurface
in- the converse of inattention, incoherence, incompatibility
in- inside inpatient,
inter- between interaction, inter-change, interference
kilo- thousand Kilobyte
mal- bad malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition
mega- million Megabyte
mis- wrong misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement
mini- small mini-publication, mini-theory
mono- one monosyllable, monograph, monogamy
neo- new neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism
out- separate outbuilding,
poly- many polysyllable
pseudo- false pseudo-expert, pseudo-scholar
re- again re-organization, re-assessment, re-examination
semi- half semicircle, semi-darkness
sub- below subset, subdivision
super- more than, above superset, superimposition, superpowers
sur- over and above Surtax, surcharge
tele- distant telecommunications,
tri- three tripartism, tricolour
ultra- beyond Ultrasound, ultraviolet
under- below, too little underpayment, under-development, undergraduate
vice- deputy vice-president, vice-principal
Exercise: Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A) noun
Suffix Meaning Examples

-tion alteration, demonstration, expansion, inclusion, admission
action/instance of V-ing
-sion
person who V-s
-er advertiser, driver, computer, silencer
something used for V-ing
-ment action/instance of V-ing development, punishment, unemployment
-ant
person who V-s assistant, consultant, student
-ent
-age action/result of V breakage, wastage, package
-al action/result of V denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
-ence preference, dependence, interference, attendance, acceptance,
action/result of V
-ance endurance
action/instance of V-ing
-ery/-ry bribery, robbery, misery, refinery, bakery
place of V-ing

-er person concerned with N astronomer, geographer
-ism doctrine of N Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ship state of being N friendship, citizenship, leadership
-age collection of N baggage, plumage

-ity state or quality of being A ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
-ness state or quality of being A darkness, preparedness, consciousness
-cy state or quality of being A urgency, efficiency, frequency
Exercise
Adjectives: Many adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix (e.g. -
less, -ous). Adjectives can also be formed from other adjectives, especially by the negative
prefixes (un-, in- and non-). The most common suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less.
e.g. Suffix added to verbs or nouns adjective
Suffix Example
-al central, political, national, optional, professional
-ent different, dependent, excellent
-ive attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-ous continuous, dangerous, famous
-ful beautiful, peaceful, careful
-less endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-able drinkable, countable, avoidable,
Exercise: negative + adjective adjective
Prefix Examples
un- unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust
im-/in-/ir-/il- immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal
non- non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral
dis- disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest
Exercise
● Mixed
e.g. base with both prefix and suffix
Adjectives: uncomfortable, unavoidable, unimaginative, inactive, semi-circular
Nouns: disappointment, misinformation, reformulation
● Affixation vs. Blending
One form of word alteration and invention that is commonly mistaken for affixation is
the process of blending words to form new ones, most notably present in the example of
the marketing term "cranapple," where people naturally assume the root word "cran-"
from "cranberry" is being applied as an affix.
However, affixes must be able to be universally attached to other morphemes and still
make sense. This is not the case with the "cran-" root, which is only seen attached to
another morpheme in marketing examples of juices that also contain cranberry juice like
"crangrape" and "cranapple." Instead of being a stand-alone morpheme which conveys
"of cranberry," the suffix "cran-" can only make sense when applied to other juices and is
therefore considered a blend of two reduced words (cranberry and apple).
Though some words and prefixes can be both stand-alone morphemes or parts of blended
words, meaning the phrases aren't necessarily mutually exclusive, most often words that
are products of blending do not contain any actual productive affixes.

I. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) on Phrases
1. Some words may have both a ___ and a ___ (e.g. disrespectful) or two ___ (e.g.
foolishness), etc.
a. prefix, suffix, and infix b. prefix c. suffix d. prefix, suffix
and suffixes
2. We have known each other since our ……………………
a. Childhood b. Childlike c. Childish d. Child
3. His hard work ………………. him to pass his examination.
a. Able b. enables c. abled d. enabled
4. The manager asked the board members to …………… his earlier proposal.
a. Reconsider b. consideration c. considerable
d. consider
5. The judgment ……………………. in our favor
a. Go b. went c. gone d. was
Exercise:
Q.1 Define the concept of blending?
Q.2 Explain acronym with suitable examples.
Q.3 Differentiate between blending and affixation
Learning from “Concept of Word Formation: Blending, Acronym and Affixation”:

Learners will be able to define word formation with Blending, Acronym and Affixation.
Lecture 8
2.3 Conversion and Compounding
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to explain the concept of Conversion and Compounding.
2.3.1 Conversion
Conversion is one of the processes of word formation in which word is adopted or
converted to a new word class without changing in spelling or pronunciation.
Conversion is the word formation process in which a word of one grammatical form
becomes a word of another grammatical form without any changes to spelling or
pronunciation. For example: The word email, for instance, can be used as a verb in
Modern English though it was only a noun in the past. Conversion is also referred to
as zero derivation or null derivation with the assumption that the formal change
between words results in the addition of an invisible morpheme.
For example: (i) The army was forced to retreat (verb) after suffering heavy losses.
The army was in full retreat (noun) (ii) The baby is just learning to walk (verb). Let’s
go for a walk (noun).
a. Noun to Verb Conversion
The most productive form of conversion in English is noun to verb conversion. The
following list provides examples of verbs converted from nouns:
Noun – Verb
● access – to access
● bottle – to bottle
● can – to can
● corner—to corner
● closet – to closet
● email – to email
● eye – to eye
● fiddle – to fiddle
● finger—to finger
● skin—to skin
For example:
● My grandmother bottled (verb) the juice and canned (verb) the pickles.
● Don’t butter the bread for me. I prefer jam.
● The doctor eyed (verb) my swollen eye (noun).
b. Verb to Noun Conversion
Another productive form of conversion in English is verb to noun conversion. The

following list provides examples of nouns converted from verbs:
Verb – Noun
● to alert – alert
● to answer--answer
● to attack – attack
● to call – call
● to clone – clone
● to release—release
● to search-search
For example:
● The guard alerted (verb) the general to the attack (noun).
● The enemy attacked (verb) before an alert (noun) could be sounded.
● Sometimes one just needs a good cry (noun).
● The baby cried (verb) all night.
● We need to increase (verb) our productivity to see an increase (noun) in profits.
c. Other Conversions
Conversion also occurs, although less frequently, to and from other grammatical
forms. Even closed system words (Conjunction, preposition, articles, modal
auxiliary) are turned into nouns. This is an informal way of conversion. It is always
possible to turn any word in English into nouns.
For example:
● Adjective to verb: green → to green (to make environmentally friendly)
Empty (Can you empty the bin for me, please?)
Dirty (Don't sit on the floor. You might dirty your dress.)
● Preposition to noun: up, down → the ups and downs of life
● Conjunction to noun: if, and, but → no ifs, ands, or buts
● Interjection to noun: ho hoho → I love the ho ho hos of Christmastime.
● Article to Noun: ‘An’ is an article.
● Modal Auxiliary to noun: It is must for human.
● Adjective to noun: Regular (I am one of the regulars at the pubs in Tsim Sha
Tsui.)
Final (It is obvious that the LA Lakers will enter the NBA
Finals.)
Crazy (Stop shouting and running around like a crazy.)
2.3.2 Compounding
Compounding is the process of word formation which probably characterizes
English the most. In English grammar, compounding is the process of combining two
or more words (free morphemes) to create a new word (commonly a noun, verb,
or adjective). Also called composition, it is from the Latin for "put together".
Compounds are written sometimes as one word (sunglasses), sometimes as
two hyphenated words (life-threatening), and sometimes as two separate words
(football stadium). Compounding is the most common type of word-formation in
English.
● Types of Compounds
Compounding exists in several different forms and parts of speech, including the
following:
i. Compound Adjective
ii. Compound Adverb
iii. Compound Noun
iv. Compound Tense
v. Compound Verb
vi. Exocentric Compound
vii. Rhyming Compound
viii. Root Compound and Synthetic Compound
ix. Suspended Compound
Some of the examples under compound can be seen from the following:
Compound Noun
For examples
● daybreak
● earthquake
● headache
● Sunrise
Compound (Verb + subject)
For examples
● Flash light
● Watch dog
● Playboy
● Pop call
Compound (Verb + object)
For examples
● Push button
● Punch card
● kickball
Verbal Noun
For examples
● Dancing girl
● Washing machine
● Ruling party
● Working party
Verb-less Compound
For examples
● Airbrake
● Catfish
● Eyeball sugarcane
● Football
● Goodnight
Compound (Noun+ Adjective)
For example
● Air tight
● Bottle green
● Duty free
● Tax free
There are three types of compound words.
1. Closed compounds or Solid – bedroom, flowerpot, keyboard, notebook, and
bookstore – mesh two words together.
2. Open compounds – school bus, living room, reading material – are commonly
used together but are written with a space in between.
3.Hyphenated compounds – mother-in-law, merry-go-round, air-brake – not
surprisingly use a hyphen between two or more words, often to prevent
ambiguity.
1. Closed compound
Closed compound words are formed when two fully independent, unique words are
combined to create a new word. These are the most common types of compound
word. For example:
● Notebook
● Superman
● Waistcoat
● Bookstore
● Fireman
The English language is always evolving, and when words become used more
frequently, they are often eventually written as one word. When the Internet first
began, for example, we talked about going on-line. Now that this is a daily experience
for most of us, the spelling online has become commonly accepted.
2. Open compound
Open compound words are formed when two words remain separate on the page but
are used together to create a new idea with a specific meaning. For example:
● attorney general
● peanut butter
● boy scouts
● no one
● ice cream
● real estate
● high school
● living room
● sweet tooth
● hot dog
3. Hyphenated compound
Hyphenated compound words are formed with two separate words are joined together
by a hyphen. For example:
● two-fold
● check-in
● merry-go-round
● father-in-law
● seventy-two
Note that hyphenated compound words are most commonly used when the words
being joined together are combined to form an adjective before a noun. For
example:
● forty-acre farm
● full-time worker
● on-campus housing
● state-of-the-art features
However, these hyphenated compound words become open compounds when
they are placed after the word they describe. For example:
● The farm has forty acres.
● The worker is full time.
● The housing is all on campus for freshman.
● Its features are truly state of the art.
● The business is still family run.
Q.1 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) on Phrases

1. It is one of the processes of word formation in which word is adopted or converted to
a new word class without changing in spelling or pronunciation.
a. Compounding b. Conversion c. Forming d. Blending
2. The word ‘merry-go-round’ is an example of
a. Open compound b. Hyphenated compound c. Blended Compound d.
Closed Compound
3. The baby cried all night. (Find the noun)
a. Baby b. cried c. all d. the
Exercise:
Q.1 What is conversion in word formation?
Q.2 Explain compounding with suitable examples.
Questions for the Practice:
Q.3. Differentiate between compounding and conversion.
Learning from “Concept of Word Formation: Conversion and Compounding”: Learners will
be able to define word formation with conversion and compounding.
Lecture 9
2.4 Root Words, Prefixes and Suffixes in English; Greek Words; Latin Words
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to explain the concept of root words, prefixes, suffixes, Latin words
and Greek words.
2.4.1 Root Words, Prefixes and Suffixes in English

Building vocabulary can be possible in various ways like reading, listening and
speaking. Adding affixes to root words is an easy and interesting way to develop
your vocabulary quickly. Many new words are formed by adding an affix to the
beginning or end of a root word. A root word is a word in its simplest form. A root
word has nothing added to it. Root words are also called base words. For example:
do/ heat/ write/ happy/ pack, etc. If you add an affix to a root or base word, you
change the meaning of the word. For Example: Cook is a base word.
Affixes are word that are added before or after the root word and change the
meaning of a root or base word. Prefixes and Suffixes are both Affixes. Prefixes are
word parts that come at the beginning of the root wood. Suffixes are word parts that
come at the end of the root or base words.
Un+ Cook+ ed = Un Cook Ed
Un —- Prefix / Cook —– Root or Base Word / Ed —– Suffix
Un+Faith+Full+Ness= Un Faith Full Ness
Un—Prefix / Faith—Root or base word / Full—Suffix /Ness--Suffix
Let us look at few more examples to understand root words adding prefixes and
suffixes.
Let us take the letter “A”. By adding “A” as prefix to a word, its meaning changes.
The meaning derived by adding ‘a’ as prefix is “Not or without”. Examples are
Amoral/ Apolitical/ Asocial. What we observe here is by just adding ‘a’ before these
words we mean that they do not have moral standards, they are not interested in
political affairs and they are not social.
Let us take another example where we add “Ab” as prefix we mean “Away from”.
Examples are “Abduction, Abstain, Abnormal. By just adding “ab” before these
words they become negative. They mean to kidnap, to stop from doing something
and someone who does not behave normally.
In a similar way when we add certain words at the end of a root word as a suffix, we
change the meaning of the word. Let us learn through some examples. When we add
“cide” as a suffix to the root word it means “kill (ing). Examples are Suicide,
Pesticide, and Infanticide. By just adding a “cide” at the end of a base word we give
a new meaning to the words. They mean to take your own life, to kill the pests in the
fields and to kill an infant.
The second example we learn is to add “ed” at the end to the root words. By adding
‘”ed” the words it means past tense verbs are formed. Examples are walked, jumped
and bathed. By adding ‘ed’ at the end of the words we can convert them into past
tense.
Let us learn through one more example. Let us add “ing” at the end of the root word
as a suffix. Examples are sleeping, walking, jumping and bathing. By just adding
‘ing’ at the end of the words we can convert them into present participles called as
continuous form.
We can also learn some examples where we have prefix and suffix attached to a root
word:
Uncomfortable == Un – prefix, Comfort – root word, able – suffix.
Irregularly — Ir == prefix, Regular – root word and ‘ ly’ is the suffix
Disorganized – dis – prefix, organize – root word and ‘ed’ is the suffix.
They are all opposite of the words comfortable, regularly and organized.
2.4.2 Greek Words and Latin Words

In applying rules of word formation, we cannot strictly serve the rules to all the
words. These rules are freely acceptable with certain newly created words. The
English language is a known for its rich vocabulary. It is dominated by the Greek
and Latin roots for its word formation since ancient times. Those languages presence
in present day English is quite perceptible. The Greek and Latin roots are used
immensely for creating new words. In the same way Latin words and Greek root
words are formed by adding affixes to it. An example of a Latin word would be
‘cent’ means one hundred. We can form two words by adding cent as a prefix –
century meaning 100 years and suffix — percent meaning out of hundred. A Greek
root would be ‘graph’ means writing. We can form two words by adding graph as
a prefix — graphology meaning the study of handwriting and as a suffix –
autograph meaning a signature of someone you admire.
A. Greek Words:
Many English words have been borrowed from Greek language since ancient times
and they have become integral part of English language. In our everyday lives we use
Greek root words and definitions all the time. The names of the Greek gods live on
through their stories and language. Many English words have Greek roots and a lot of
them come straight from the names of gods and mythological figures.
⮚ English Words from Greek Mythology

The Greek word or name (followed by a description) > the English word derived
from the Greek (followed by a definition).
● Atlas (a Titan who was condemned to carry the heavens upon his shoulders)
> atlas (book of maps)
● Clotho (the youngest of the Three Fates who spun the thread of life) > cloth
(material made by weaving)
● Chronos (god of time) > chronology (events in order of time)
● Erôs (god of love and sexual desire) > erotic (sexual in nature)
● Hypnos (god of sleep) > hypnosis (a sleep-like state of consciousness)
● Hêlios (god of the sun) > heliotrope (plant that turns towards the sun)
● Khaos (the void from which all life sprang) > chaos (confusion, disorder)
● Muses (goddesses of the arts and science) > musical (of or like music)
● Narcissus (a beautiful man who fell in love with his own reflection) >
narcissism (extreme love of self)
● Nectar (drink of the gods) > nectar, nectarine (sweet plant secretion, fruit)
● Ôkeanos (God of the river Oceanus, the source of the Earth's fresh water) >
ocean (large body of water)
● Typhon (known as the storm giant and father of all monsters) > typhoon
(huge rotating tropical storm)
● Zephyrus (god of the west wind) > zephyr (gentle west wind)
⮚ Ancient Greek Words Used in English Today

The Greek word is listed first; the English word is second, followed by meaning:
● Bios > bio - life
● Gigas> gigantic - giant, enormous
● Glossa > gloss - tongue, language
● Logos > logo - thought, word, reason
● Meter > meter - measurement
● Phobos > phobia - fear or dread of something
● Phōnē> phone - voice
● Pseudo > pseudo – false, not genuine, bogus
● Therapeia> therapy - curing, healing
● Thermos > thermal - heat
● Toxikon> toxic – poison
● Zōnē> zone – belt, band
⮚ Common Greek Root Words
There are also host Greek roots used in English as the foundation for further words.
Here are some common Greek roots (and their definitions) we use in English.
● Arche - ruler, ancient, origin, beginning
● Auto - referring to the self
● Bibl - pertaining to a book
● Cosm - order or world or universe
● Cracy - government, authority, rule
● Dec(a) - ten
● Dem - pertaining people
● Derm - referring to the skin
● Ethn - race or nation
● Gastr - pertaining to the stomach
● Geo - pertaining to the earth
● Hydr - pertaining to water
● Hypn - pertaining to sleep
● Iso - equal, alike or identical
● Kilo - thousand
● Lith - referring to stone
● Mania - pertaining to madness
● Mega - large or powerful
● Mono - pertaining to one
● Neuron - pertaining to the nerve
● Nomo - law, arrangement
● Oct - eight
● Pan - pertaining to all or every
● Phon - referring to sound or speaking
● Psych - pertaining to the soul or the mind
● Scop - to spy, watch or see
● Tele - referring to something far off
● Zoon - pertaining to animals
A clue to the meaning of a word can often be found by looking at the meaning of the
root or base of the word. In many English words, these roots are Greek in origin.
⮚ Latin Words in English
Latin language has also been contributed a lot to enrich English language and its
vocabulary as many roots of words are borrowed directly from it. .English is
a Germanic language, with a grammar and a core vocabulary inherited from Proto-
Germanic. However, a significant portion of the English vocabulary comes
from Romance and Latinate sources. A portion of these borrowings come directly
from Latin, or through one of the Romance languages, particularly Anglo-
Norman and French, but some also from Italian, Portuguese, and ; or from other
languages (such as Gothic, Frankishor Greek) into Latin and then into English. The
influence of Latin in English, therefore, is primarily lexical in nature, being confined
mainly to words derived from Latin roots.
⮚ Common Latin Words and Phrases We Use in English

There are many words in English language comes from Latin. Many English words’
root lies in the Latin language. Many English words share Latin roots with the
Romance languages such as Spanish, French, and Italian, so it's often easy to decode
a new word by considering the bits of Latin you know. For example, the Latin
root aud means "to hear," which forms the basis for the English words "auditorium"
and "audience," both of which have to do with listening.
Some Latin comes to English in more than the roots of words. There are many
phrases used at present times from the original Latin. It pays to know these common
Latin words and phrases we use in English as they come up in a variety of situations.
⮚ Common Latin Sayings and Their Meanings
You will often see Latin still used in inscriptions or used as an organization's motto,
but you may also be surprised how often it crops up in day-to-day use.
● Ad nauseam: To the point of sickness

This is used to say that someone or something is repeated too much - to the
point that you're getting sick of it. For example, "the radio station played the
number one song ad nauseam."
● Bona fide: In good faith
This adjective originally described someone bargaining or working in good
faith, meaning they could be trusted. Today it's used to describe anything real
or authentic, as in "this painting is a bona fide Picasso."
● Carpe diem: Seize the day
This philosophy was originally coined by the Roman poet Horace to encourage
people to live life to the fullest. The original YOLO (you only live once), it was
later made popular in England by 17th century poet Robert Herrick.
● Caveat emptor: Let the buyer beware
This warning is so important that it's common to hear it in both English and
Latin. It encourages people to think before they buy something, because they
will inherit any problems or expenses with their purchase.
● Cum laude: With honor
This is often added to diplomas to indicate that a graduate has earned honors
by getting good grades along the way. "Summa cum laude" is even better, with
the highest honors.
● De facto: In fact
This term is used to describe someone who does a job despite not being officially
in that position. A de facto manager might be a regular worker who has stepped
up to keep the business running after a boss quit and wasn't replaced.
● E pluribus unum: Out of many, one
This is the motto of the United States and is seen printed on its currency. It refers
to the fact that many states were brought together under one government with
the country's constitution.
● Et cetera: And the rest of such things
Commonly abbreviated to "etc." and used at the end of a list to show that there
are more items, but they are too similar or numerous to name them all.
● Ipso facto: By the fact itself
This often-misused term denotes when something is true by its very nature, or
a direct result of an action. For example, if you didn't stop your friend from
stealing you are ipso facto an accomplice.
● Mea culpa: Through my own fault
This is Latin for "my bad," a short phrase to accept blame and apologize for
something going wrong.
● Per diem: For each day
This phrase is used in legal and accounting business to refer to payment
rendered on a daily basis rather than as an annual salary or hourly rate. For
example, if a nurse works on a per diem basis, she is paid by the day and does
not have a long-term contract.
● Pro bono: For the good
This phrase is actually a shortened version of "pro bono publico," which means
"for the greater good." It's a legal term that refers to doing work without pay as
a donation of services. When a lawyer works "pro bono," it's for free because he
or she believes in the cause.
● Pro forma: As a matter of form
This phrase refers to doing things in the proper way, typically by following all
the steps - even when these steps may not be necessary. It's a fancy way of
saying you'll go through the motions.
● Rigor mortis: The stiffness of death
This is a medical term that describes what happens to a body several hours after
death - it stiffens to the point of being unable to move. Muscles harden due to a
build-up of substances in the body as decay sets in.
● Vice versa: The position being reversed
Vice versa is used after a sentence or phrase to show that it also makes sense if
you swap the two parts for each other. For example, "She loves her husband and
vice versa" is a faster way of switching the sentence to say that her husband
loves her, too.
The above numerous Latin words and phrases are still used in the English language.
Many are legal terms, but you'll find others in everyday use, too. Keep your eyes
open, and you're sure to notice that Latin is all around you, even though it's not
spoken on a daily basis any more. If you're interested in learning more Latin words,
the following examples will serve the purpose.
⮚ English Words Derived from Latin

Here, we are going to study some examples of English words which are derived from
Latin.
Latin Word Definition English Derivatives
villa villa, house villa, village, villager
alta tall, high, deep altitude, altimeter, alto
antiqua antique, old antique, antiquity, ancient
longa long longitude, longevity, long
magna large, great magnify, magnificent, magnitude
pictura picture picture, picturesque, pictorial
nova new novice, novel, novelty, nova, Nova Scotia
terra land, earth terrier, terrace, terrestrial, terrain
prima first prime, primary, primitive, primeval
sub under subway, subterranean, suburban
corna horn cornucopia, cornet, clavicorn
est is estate, establish, essence
habere have have, habit, habitual
casa small house Casino
via street Via
parva small parval, parvanimity
lata wide, broad latitude, lateral, latitudinal
bona good bonus, bonanza, bona fide
copia plenty copious, cornucopia, copiously
fama fame fame, famous, infamous
provincia province province, provincial, provincialism
multa many multitude, multiple, multiplex
nominare to name nominate, nominal, name, nominative
postea later postlude, postgraduate, posthumous
non not nonfction, nonmetal, nonexistent
in in In
aqua water aquatics, aquarium, aqueduct, aqueous
agricola farmer Agriculture
bestia beast bestial, bestiality
figura figure, shape figure, figurine, figment, figurative
flamma flame flame, flamboyant, flambeau
herba herb herb, herbivorous, herbage
insula island insular, insulate, insularity
lingua language language, lingual, linguistics
nauta sailor nautical, nautilus
pirata pirate pirate, piratical
schola school scholar, school, scholastic
alba white albino, albinism albumen
amica friendly amicable, amicability, amity
beata happy beatific, beatify, beatitude
maritima sea Maritime
mea me me, my
mira strange miracle, miraculous, mirage
nota noted noted, note, notice, notable, noticeable
obscura dark obscure, obscured, obscurity
periculosa dangerous perilous, peril
propinqua near to Propinquity
pulchra beautiful Pulchritude
quieta quiet quiet, quietude, disquiet
circum around circumstance, circumnavigate, circumspect
filia daughter filly, filial

Q. 1. Multiple choice questions:
1. The word dictionary is derived from the medieval ----word dictonarium.
a. Greek b. Latin c. German d. French
2. Which is not an alternate name of dictionary?
a. Glossary b. Lexicon c. Thesaurus d. Vocabulary
e. None of the above
3. The word glossary originates from the ----word glossarium meaning a collection of
words peculiar to a field of knowledge.
4. Lexicon is derived from a ---- word lexicon meaning dictionary.
5. The name vocabulary originates from a medieval ----word vocabularium.

Exercise:
Q.1 What is the reason of adopting Greek or Latin words in English language?
Q.2 Find out the ancient languages adopted in English language.
Q.3 Collect and use some foreign words which are commonly used in English language.
Learning from “Root words, prefixes, suffixes, Latin words and Greek”: Learners
will be able to define word formation with process of reduplication and clipping.
Lecture 10
2.5 Contrast of Meaning and Standard Abbreviations: Synonyms; Antonyms;
Homonyms; Homophones; Homographs
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to explain the concept of Standard Abbreviations, Synonyms;
Antonyms; Homonyms; Homophones
2.5.1 Contrast of Meaning: Synonyms; Antonyms; Homonyms; Homophones;
Homographs
A. Synonyms
A synonym is a word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word
or a phrase. Antonyms are words which have the opposite (or nearly opposite)
meaning. For example: new and old. Words that are synonyms are referred to as
being synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The words
which are similar in meaning is called synonyms. Utilizing synonyms is an elegant
and frequently applied method to make a text more pleasant to read. If the same
word is used very often in several sentences, it might very well be the case, that this
same word should describe something different in each of the sentences. If the same
word is used in several sentences, it loses the lustre and freshness and becomes stale
either in writing or speaking. Instead of that, the synonyms of the word should be
used which appeals more to the reader or listener. Since synonyms are usually
nuanced variations with slightly different meanings, their use will emphasize
special characteristics, and thus the text will be more precise.
⮚ List of Synonyms:
● Action
o Come — advance, approach, arrive, near, reach
o Go — depart, disappear, fade, move, proceed, recede, travel
o Run — dash, escape, elope, flee, hasten, hurry, race, rush, speed, sprint
o Hurry — rush, run, speed, race, hasten, urge, accelerate, bustle
o Hide — conceal, cover, mask, cloak, camouflage, screen, shroud, veil
o Move — plod, go, creep, crawl, inch, poke, drag, toddle, shuffle, trot, dawdle,
walk, traipse, mosey, jog, plug, trudge, slump, lumber, trail, lag, run, sprint,
trip, bound, hotfoot, high-tail, streak, stride, tear, breeze, whisk, rush, dash,
dart, bolt, fling, scamper, scurry, skedaddle, scoot, scuttle, scramble, race, chase,
hasten, hurry, hump, gallop, lope, accelerate, stir, budge, travel, wander, roam,
journey, trek, ride, spin, slip, glide, slide, slither, coast, flow, sail, saunter,
hobble, amble, stagger, paddle, slouch, prance, straggle, meander, perambulate,
waddle, wobble, pace, swagger, promenade, lunge
o Do — execute, enact, carry out, finish, conclude, effect, accomplish, achieve,
attain
o Have — hold, possess, own, contain, acquire, gain, maintain, believe, bear,
beget, occupy, absorb, fill, enjoy
o Use — employ, utilize, exhaust, spend, expend, consume, exercise
o Get — acquire, obtain, secure, procure, gain, fetch, find, score, accumulate, win,
earn, rep, catch, net, bag, derive, collect, gather, glean, pick up, accept, come by,
regain, salvage
o Keep — hold, retain, withhold, preserve, maintain, sustain, support
o Put — place, set, attach, establish, assign, keep, save, set aside, effect, achieve,
do, build
o Take — hold, catch, seize, grasp, win, capture, acquire, pick, choose, select,
prefer, remove, steal, lift, rob, engage, bewitch, purchase, buy, retract, recall,
assume, occupy, consume
o Make — create, originate, invent, beget, form, construct, design, fabricate,
manufacture, produce, build, develop, do, effect, execute, compose, perform,
accomplish, earn, gain, obtain, acquire, get
o Break — fracture, rupture, shatter, smash, wreck, crash, demolish, atomize
o Destroy — ruin, demolish, raze, waste, kill, slay, end, extinguish
o Kill — slay, execute, assassinate, murder, destroy, cancel, abolish
o Cut — gash, slash, prick, nick, sever, slice, carve, cleave, slit, chop, crop, lop,
reduce
o Fall — drop, descend, plunge, topple, tumble
o Fly — soar, hover, flit, wing, flee, waft, glide, coast, skim, sail, cruise
o Decide — determine, settle, choose, resolve
o Help — aid, assist, support, encourage, back, wait on, attend, serve, relieve,
succor, benefit, befriend, abet
o Mark — label, tag, price, ticket, impress, effect, trace, imprint, stamp, brand,
sign, note, heed, notice, designate
o Plan — plot, scheme, design, draw, map, diagram, procedure, arrangement,
intention, device, contrivance, method, way, blueprint
o Show — display, exhibit, present, note, point to, indicate, explain, reveal, prove,
demonstrate, expose
● Descriptive
o Describe — portray, characterize, picture, narrate, relate, recount, represent,
report, record
o Difference — disagreement, inequity, contrast, dissimilarity, incompatibility
o Explain — elaborate, clarify, define, interpret, justify, account for
o Idea — thought, concept, conception, notion, understanding, opinion, plan,
view, belief
o Look — gaze, see, glance, watch, survey, study, seek, search for, peek, peep,
glimpse, stare, contemplate, examine, gape, ogle, scrutinize, inspect, leer,
behold, observe, view, witness, perceive, spy, sight, discover, notice, recognize,
peer, eye, gawk, peruse, explore
o Story — tale, myth, legend, fable, yarn, account, narrative, chronicle, epic, sage,
anecdote, record, memoir
o Tell — disclose, reveal, show, expose, uncover, relate, narrate, inform, advise,
explain, divulge, declare, command, order, bid, recount, repeat
o Think — judge, deem, assume, believe, consider, contemplate, reflect, mediate
● Feelings
o Anger — enrage, infuriate, arouse, nettle, exasperate, inflame, madden
o Angry — mad, furious, enraged, excited, wrathful, indignant, exasperated,
aroused, inflamed
o Calm — quiet, peaceful, still, tranquil, mild, serene, smooth, composed,
collected, unruffled, level-headed, unexcited, detached, aloof
o Eager — keen, fervent, enthusiastic, involved, interested, alive to
o Fear — fright, dread, terror, alarm, dismay, anxiety, scare, awe, horror, panic,
apprehension
o Happy — pleased, contented, satisfied, delighted, elated, joyful, cheerful,
ecstatic, jubilant, gay, tickled, gratified, glad, blissful, overjoyed
o Hate — despise, loathe, detest, abhor, disfavor, dislike, disapprove, abominate
o Love — like, admire, esteem, fancy, care for, cherish, adore, treasure, worship,
appreciate, savor
o Moody — temperamental, changeable, short-tempered, glum, morose, sullen,
mopish, irritable, testy, peevish, fretful, spiteful, sulky, touchy
o Sad — miserable, uncomfortable, wretched, heart-broken, unfortunate, poor,
downhearted, sorrowful, depressed, dejected, melancholy, glum, gloomy,
dismal, discouraged, unhappy
o Scared — afraid, frightened, alarmed, terrified, panicked, fearful, unnerved,
insecure, timid, shy, skittish, jumpy, disquieted, worried, vexed, troubled,
disturbed, horrified, terrorized, shocked, petrified, haunted, timorous,
shrinking, tremulous, stupefied, paralyzed, stunned, apprehensive
● Negative
o Awful — dreadful, terrible, abominable, bad, poor, unpleasant
o Bad — evil, immoral, wicked, corrupt, sinful, depraved, rotten, contaminated,
spoiled, tainted, harmful, injurious, unfavorable, defective, inferior, imperfect,
substandard, faulty, improper, inappropriate, unsuitable, disagreeable,
unpleasant, cross, nasty, unfriendly, irascible, horrible, atrocious, outrageous,
scandalous, infamous, wrong, noxious, sinister, putrid, snide, deplorable,
dismal, gross, heinous, nefarious, base, obnoxious, detestable, despicable,
contemptible, foul, rank, ghastly, execrable
o Crooked — bent, twisted, curved, hooked, zigzag
o Dangerous — perilous, hazardous, risky, uncertain, unsafe
o Dark — shadowy, unlit, murky, gloomy, dim, dusky, shaded, sunless, black,
dismal, sad
o Dull — boring, tiring,, tiresome, uninteresting, slow, dumb, stupid,
unimaginative, lifeless, dead, insensible, tedious, wearisome, listless,
expressionless, plain, monotonous, humdrum, dreary
o Fat — stout, corpulent, fleshy, beefy, paunchy, plump, full, rotund, tubby,
pudgy, chubby, chunky, burly, bulky, elephantine
o Gross — improper, rude, coarse, indecent, crude, vulgar, outrageous, extreme,
grievous, shameful, uncouth, obscene, low
o Hurt — damage, harm, injure, wound, distress, afflict, pain
o Lazy — indolent, slothful, idle, inactive, sluggish
o Predicament — quandary, dilemma, pickle, problem, plight, spot, scrape, jam
o Trouble — distress, anguish, anxiety, worry, wretchedness, pain, danger, peril,
disaster, grief, misfortune, difficulty, concern, pains, inconvenience, exertion,
effort
o Ugly — hideous, frightful, frightening, shocking, horrible, unpleasant,
monstrous, terrifying, gross, grisly, ghastly, horrid, unsightly, plain, homely,
evil, repulsive, repugnant, gruesome
B. Antonyms
Antonyms are the words that have contrasting or opposite in meanings. Like many
other words in English which are taken from the Greek language, the word
“antonym” is also derived from the same source. The Greek word anti means
opposite, while onym means name. Opposite name - that makes sense!
⮚ Types of Antonyms
One may be interested to know that there are three different kinds of antonyms.
Let's take a look at each one:
a. Complementary: Complementary antonyms have no middle ground.
Examples: boy - girl, off - on, night - day, entrance - exit, exterior - interior, true -
false, dead - alive, push - pull, pass - fail
b. Relational: These are like the complementary antonyms, except that both must
exist for them to be antonyms of each other.
Examples: above - below, doctor - patient, husband - wife, servant - master,
borrow - lend, give - receive, predator - prey, buy - sell, instructor - pupil
c. Graded: These antonyms deal with levels of comparison and they can be two
words on a scale. Many are relative terms, which can be interpreted differently
by different people.
Examples: young - elderly, hard - easy, happy - wistful, wise - foolish, fat - slim,
warm - cool, early - late, fast - slow, dark - pale
o Add a Prefix to Create an Antonym
Sometimes, one does not need to search for another word entirely. It is possible to
create an antonym simply by adding a prefix to the word.
Some examples of antonyms created by adding the prefix ‘dis-’ are:
o Agree → disagree
o Appear → disappear
o Belief → disbelief
o Honest → dishonest
Adding the prefix ‘in-’ can make the following opposites:
o Tolerant → intolerant
o Decent → indecent
o Discreet → indiscreet
o Excusable → inexcusable
Using the prefix ‘mis-’ create antonyms like:
o Behave → misbehave
o Interpret → misinterpret
o Lead → mislead
o Trust → mistrust
Examples of antonyms made by adding the prefix ‘un-’ are:
o Likely → unlikely
o Able → unable
o Fortunate → unfortunate
o Forgiving → unforgiving
By adding the prefix ‘non-’ you can make these antonyms:
o Entity → nonentity
o Conformist → nonconformist
o Payment → nonpayment
o Sense → nonsense
Antonyms List
A B C
Above – below back – front calm - windy, troubled
absent – present backward - forward can - cannot, can't
abundant – scarce bad – good capable - incapable
accept - decline, refuse backward - forward captive – free
accident – intent beautiful – ugly capture – release
accomplishment - failure before – after careful – careless
accurate – inaccurate begin – end cause – effect
achieve – fail below – above cautious – careless
add – subtract bent – straight centre - edge
adjacent – distant best – worst cheap – dear, expensive
admire – detest better - worse, worst cheerful - sad, discouraged, dreary
admit – deny, reject big - little, small child – adult
adore – hate birth – death chilly – warm
advance – retreat bitter – sweet clean - dirty
advantage – disadvantage black – white clear – vague, cloudy, opaque
affirm – deny blame – praise clever – stupid
afraid – confident bless – curse clockwise – anti-clockwise
after – before bitter – sweet close – distant, open
C. Homonyms
In English, homonym is a word that sounds the same as another word but differs in
meaning.
Homonyms can refer to both homophones and homographs.
Words that sound the same but have different meaning and are spelled differently
(homophones)
▪ Weak — Week
▪ Sun — Son
▪ See — Sea
▪ Plane — Plain
▪ Meet — Meat
▪ Write--right
D. Homophone
In English, a homophone is a word that is pronounced exactly or nearly the same as
another word but differs in meaning and is spelled differently. Homophones are the
most confusing words in the English language.
Examples:
● Ate- Eight
● Bit-Beat
● Hear-Here
● Dear- Deer
● Fair-Fare
● Rode — Road
● Sauce — Source
● Scene — Seen
● See — Sea
● Side — Sighed
● Soar — Sore
● Sole — Soul
● Some — Sum
● Sort — Sought
● Stare — Stair
● Stationary — Stationery
● Steal — Steel
● Stile — Style
● Sun — Son
● Tail — Tale
E. Homograph
In English, homographs are words with the same spelling but having more than one
meaning.
▪ Back-back
▪ Capital – capital
▪ Drop – drop
▪ Invite – invite
▪ Lead – lead
Homonyms Homophones Homographs

accept - take in except - other than
ad - advertisement add - join, combine
advice - guidance advise - recommend
aid - assist, assistance aide - one who gives assistance
ail - to suffer poor health ale - a beverage
air - atmosphere ere - before
accept - take in except - other than
ad - advertisement add - join, combine
advice - guidance advise - recommend
aid - assist, assistance aide - one who gives assistance
ail - to suffer poor health ale - a beverage
air - atmosphere ere – before (Repeated) heir - one who inherits
property
aisle - a passage I'll - contraction of I will isle - island
allusion - an indirect reference illusion - false appearance
altar - table in a church alter - to change
ate - past tense of eat eight - the number 8
bail - to clear water bail - release of a prisoner bale - a large bundle
band - a ring, something that binds band - a group banned - prohibited
bare - uncovered bear - large animal bear - support, yield
bases - starting points bases - four stations on a baseball basis - a basic principle
field
beat - to strike, overcome beat - exhausted beet - a plant with red
roots
blew - past tense of blow blue - the color
bread - baked food item bred - produced
buy - purchase by - near, through bye - goodbye
capital - punishable by death capital - chief city capitol - building where
legislature meets
ceiling - top of a room sealing - setting, fastening
cell - compartment sell - vend
cent - penny coin scent - an odor sent - past tense of send
cereal - breakfast food serial - sequential
chews - gnaws with teeth choose - to select
Chile- country in South America chili - bean stew chilly - frosty
chord - musical tone cord - rope
cite - quote site - location sight - view
close - opposite of open clothes - clothing
coarse - rough course - path, procedure
complement – enhance; go compliment - praise
together
conduct - behavior conduct - to lead

council - committee counsel - guidance
creak - squeak creek - stream of water
crews - gangs cruise - ride on a boat
days - plural of day daze - stun
dear - darling deer- woodland animal
desert - to abandon desert - dry land dessert - after-dinner
treat
dew - morning mist do - operate due - payable
die - cease to exist dye - color
discreet - tactful discrete - distinct
doe - female dear dough - uncooked bread
dual - double duel - battle
elicit - draw out illicit - illegal
eminent - distinguished imminent - soon
ewe - female sheep you - second-person personal
pronoun
eye - sight organ I - first-person personal pronoun
facts - true things fax - a document transmitted via
telephone
fair - equal fare - price
fairy - elflike creature with wings ferry - boat
faze - impact phase - stage
feat - achievement feet - plural of foot
find - to discover fined - charged a penalty
fir - type of tree fur - animal hair
flea - small biting insect flee - run
flew - did fly flu - illness
flour - powdery, ground up grain flower - blooming plant
for - on behalf of fore - front four - three plus one
forth - onward fourth - number four
foreword - introduction to a book forward - advancing
gene - a chromosome jean - fabric; pants
gorilla - big ape guerrilla - warrior
grease - fat Greece - country in Europe
groan - moan grown - form of grow
hair - head covering hare - rabbit-like animal
hall - passageway haul - tow
halve - cut in two parts have - possess
hay - animal food hey - interjection to get attention
heal - mend heel - back of foot
hear - to listen here - at this place
hi – hello high - up far
hoarse - croaky horse - riding animal
hole - opening whole - entire
holey - full of holes holy - divine wholly - entirely
hoarse - rough voice horse - animal hoarse - rough voice
hour - sixty minutes our - belonging to us hour - sixty minutes
knead - massage need - desire knead - massage
knew - did know new - not old knew - did know
knight - feudal horseman night - evening knight - feudal horseman
knot - tied rope not - negative knot - tied rope
know - have knowledge no - opposite of yes know - have knowledge
lead - metal led - was the leader lead - metal
leased - past tense of lease least - the minimum leased - past tense of lease
lessen - make smaller lesson - class lessen - make smaller
loan - lend lone - solitary loan - lend
made - did make maid - servant made - did make
mail - postage male - opposite of female mail - postage
marry - to wed merry - very happy marry - to wed
material materiel material

meat - animal protein meet - encounter meat - animal protein
mince - to chop finely mints - type of sweet mince - to chop finely
morning - a.m. mourning - remember the dead morning - a.m.
none - not any nun - woman who takes special none - not any
vows
oar - boat paddle or - otherwise oar - boat paddle
oh - expression of surprise or awe owe - be obligated oh - expression of surprise
or awe
one - single won - did win one - single
overdo - do too much overdue - past due date overdo - do too much
pail - bucket pale - not bright pail - bucket
pain - hurt pane - window glass pain - hurt
peace - calm piece - segment peace - calm
peak – highest point peek - glance peak – highest point
patience - being willing to wait patients - person treated in a patience - being willing to
hospital or by a doctor wait
pear - a type of fruit pair - two (usually matching) pear - a type of fruit
plain - ordinary plane - flight machine plane; flat plain - ordinary
surface
pole - post poll - survey pole - post
poor - not rich pour - make flow poor - not rich
pray - implore God prey - quarry pray - implore God
principal - most important principle - belief principal - most
important
rain – water from sky rein - bridle rain – water from sky
rap – tap wrap - drape around rap - tap
right - correct; not left write - scribble
ring - encircle wring - squeeze
road - street rode - past tense of ride
role – function roll - rotate
rose – flower rows - lines
2.5.2 Standard Abbreviations

An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or
phrase, by any method. Abbreviations may be used to save space and time, to avoid
repetition of long words and phrases, or simply to conform to conventional usage.
The styling of abbreviations is inconsistent and arbitrary and includes many
possible variations. Some abbreviations are formed by omitting all but the first few
letters of a word; such abbreviations usually end in a period: Oct. for October, univ.
for university, and cont. for continued. Other abbreviations are formed by omitting
letters from the middle of the word and usually also end in a period: govt. for
government, Dr. for Doctor, and atty. for attorney. Abbreviations for the names of
states in the U.S. are two capitalized letters, e.g., AR for Arkansas, ME for Maine,
and TX for Texas. Linguist David Crystal notes that abbreviations are "a major
component of the English writing system, not a marginal feature. The
largest dictionaries of abbreviations contain well over half a million entries, and
their number is increasing all the time".
⮚ Types of Abbreviations:
1. Initialism
2. Acronym
3. Shortening
4. Contraction
1. Initialism
Initialism is formed from the first letters of a group of words. We pronounce each letter
individually. It is also called as alphabetism.
● FBI – Federal Bureau of Investigation

● ASAP – as soon as possible
● CD – compact disc
● CEO – Chief Executive Officer
● FAQ – frequently asked questions
● PLC – public limited company
● UFO – unidentified flying object
● USA – United States of America
● VAT – value added tax
⮚ Rules for capital letters

If the first letters of the full form are capital letters, then we always write the
abbreviation with capital letters: For example, in the full form, we always write
“Federal Bureau of Investigation” with capital letters for the first letter of each word
because it is the name of an official organization. Therefore, we have no choice. We
must also write the abbreviated form in capitals: FBI and not fbi
For the others (the full form is not in capital letters), both forms are acceptable. It is
a style choice: “frequently asked questions” – The full form is not in capital letters,
therefore we can choose: FAQ or faq
⮚ Rules for full stops (periods)
The use of full stop while writing Initialism is accepted in American English but it is not
considered the right one in British English.
In British English, we do not usually use full stops between each letter for initialisms.
FBI and not F.B.I.
In American English, it is a question of style. Using full stops is more common in
American English. FBI or F.B.I.
2. Acronym
An acronym is formed from the first letters of a group of words. We pronounce the
acronym as a word.
Examples:
● NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
● AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
● OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries)
● SPA (Society of Professional Accountants)
● WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant)
● ASAP (as soon as possible)
● Radar (radio detecting and ranging)
● Scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)
● RAM – random access memory (computer memory)
● SIM – subscriber identification module (card for mobile phone)
● VAT – value added tax (sales tax in the UK)
● ZIP – zone improvement plan (post code in the USA)
VAT (value added tax) is a special case. It can be 2 types of abbreviation:

It can be an acronym and we pronounce it as one word /væt/ (rhymes with cat)
It can also be treated as an initialism and we pronounce each letter separately “v”,
“a”, “t”
This is the same rules as for the initialisms. If the first letters of the full form are
capital letters, then we always write the acronym with capital letters: Example, It is
always written as “North American Treaty Organization” with capital first letters
because it is the name of an official organization. Therefore, we also write the
acronym in all capitals: NATO and not nato.
For the others (the full form is not in capital letters), both forms are acceptable. It is
a style choice. “personal identification number” – The full form is not in capital
letters, therefore we can choose: PIN or pin
It is required to NOT use full stops after each letter of an acronym. This is because
we treat acronyms as words and pronounce them as words. We never write full
stops in the middle of words.
Example for “personal identification number”: The PIN for my credit card is
1234 and NOT
The P.I.N. for my credit card is 1234.
3. Shortenings
A shortening is an abbreviation in which the beginning or end of the word has been
omitted. There are 2 types:
● Type 1 shortenings (treated as real words)
ad – advertisement (to promote a product or service)

app – application (software)
flu – influenza (an illness)
blog – weblog (a type of website)
rhino – rhinoceros (wild animal)
We use type 1 shortenings like real words. We write them and say them as one
word.

The first letter is a capital letter only if the full word starts with a capital letter:
Example: full form is “Briton” (with a capital first letter) therefore the shortening
also must start with a capital letter: “Brit”
Example sentence: There are lots of Brits living in Spain.
We do NOT use a full stop after type 1 shortenings:
I placed an ad in the newspaper. AND NOT
I placed an ad. in the newspaper.
● Type 2 shortenings (not treated as real words)
Feb. – February
Sat. – Saturday
etc. – et cetera (Latin for “and the rest”)
Type 2 shortenings are only used in writing. But when we say or read them, we say
the full version of the word. Writing: “Please send me the Feb accounts. And while
Speaking: “Please send me the February accounts.”
The first letter of a type 2 shortening is a capital letter only if the full word starts
with a capital letter.
We have the choice to use full stops (periods) at the end of the abbreviation.
Example:
Full form: February for which, Feb. and Feb are accepted.
4. Contractions
Contractions are abbreviations in which we omit letters from the middle of a word.
We do NOT write a full stop at the end of a contraction. The first letter is a capital
letter only if the full word starts with a capital letter.
● Type 1 contractions (missing letters from 1 word)
Dr – Doctor
Govt – Government
St – Saint
Mr – Mister
● Type 2 contractions (missing letters from more than 1 word)
We use an apostrophe to represent the missing letters:

he’s – he is
they‘d – they would
I‘ve – I have
Let’s—Let us
We’re—We are

1. _____________ are my car keys.
A) Their B) They're C) There
2. Do you ___________me?
A) hear B) here C) there
3. There, there and they are called...
A) synonyms B) antonyms C) homophones
4. Pretty and beautiful are __________________.
A) antonyms B) homophones C)
synonyms
5. The words terrific and wonderful are
A) antonyms B) synonyms C) homonyms
6. How are we going to get ___________?
A) there B) they're C) them
7. The words plethora and a lot are _______________.
A) synonyms B) homophones C)
antonyms
8. We _________ the basketball game last night.
A) fast B) one C) won
9. bad and good are ______________________
A) antonyms B) synonyms C) homophones
10. The words write and right are_______________.
A) antonyms B) synonyms C) homophones
Exercise:
Q.1 Define the concept of homophones, homonyms, and homographs?
Q.2 Explain antonyms and synonyms with its importance.
Q.3 Differentiate between abbreviations and acronyms.
Q.4. Explain shortenings and contradictions in detail.
Learning from “Contrast of Meaning and Standard Abbreviations: Synonyms; Antonyms;

Homonyms; Homophones; Homographs”: Learners will be able to explain the concepts of
contrast of meaning: Synonyms; Antonyms; Homonyms; Homophones; Homographs
2.6 Objective Questions

1. He became a rich man after he was ____ a great deal of money by his aunt whom he had
never seen before.
a. inherited b. willed c. inhabited d. inquired e. bequeathed
2. He just cannot sleep. He spent ________ lying awake in the bed.
a. all of the night b. all night c. hole night d. whole night
3. Some famous writers had to ________ school because of poverty.
a. Quit b. fire c. sack d. dismiss
4. Change the noun into verb: Application
a. Applicant b. Appliance c. Apply d. Applicable
5. Give the verb form of: ‘Familiar’.
a. Familiarize b. Family C. Familiarly d. Familiarty
6. A miser expires but ________ for more till his end.
a. Aspires b. espires c. inspires d. desires
7. The ________ to the estate was a mere child.
a. Hair b. Harec. Heir d. Here
8. Choose the correct possessive and fill in the blank.
a. children park b. children’s park c. childrens park d. None of these
9. A cap seller moved from village to village and sold caps on a ________ summer.
a. Heated b. hotter c. hottest d. hot
10. Infotainment is an example of
a. Compounding b. Blending c. Clipping d. Coinage
11. HTML is
a. Acronym b. Clipping c. Coinage d. Derivative
12. BRUNCH is an example of
a. Blending b. Clipping c. Conversion d. Compounding
13. Movie is an example of
a. Clipping b. Hypocorism c. Borrowing d. Acronym
14. The process where syllables rather than morphemes is omitted.
a. Acronym b. Compounding c. Blending d. Clipping
15. The process of forming new words by adding affixes.
a. Borrowing b. Backformation c. Compounding d. Derivation
2.7 Short Answer Questions
1. Define affixation with its types in detail.
2. Explain the concepts of acronym, clipping with suitable examples.
3. Describe compounding with its types.
4. Explain the concept reduplicating with suitable examples.
5. Differentiate between affixation and blending with examples.
6. Explain the concept of conversion.
7. Describe types of clipping.
8. What is homograph? Give appropriate examples.
2.8 Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the concepts of Blending, acronym and affixation with their types and
suitable example.
2. Describe the concepts of clipping, conversion and compounding with appropriate
examples.
Self-Assessment:
1. Define clipping, blending, reduplicating.
2. Affixation is useful to create new words with new meanings. Explain.
3. Describe homograph, homonym and homophones.
4. Word formation enhances vocabulary. Explain.
Self-Evaluation
Name of
the
student
Class
Roll No
Subject
Module
No.
1 Do you understand the concept of Yes

blending, reduplicating and conversion?
No
2 Do you understand various ways of Yes

forming new words?
No
3 Are you able to differentiate between Yes

abbreviation, acronym, homophones and
homonyms? No
4 Will you be able to frame new words by Yes

using various techniques?
No

Partially
No, not at all

Module 3
Basic Language Skills
Lecture 11
3.1 Listening Skills
3.1.1 Motivation
To learn any language, there is a structure naturally followed by human beings. Starting from
birth of a child till the death, communication is very essential to human beings and language is
one of the ways to communicate effectively. Language is a system of signs that allow people to
communicate. Language is the only distinguishing feature of human beings which is used
effectively and presented to express the feelings and views. Language skills will help in
enhancing the effectiveness of communication and therefore, it is essential to learn the basic skills
of language.
3.1.2 Syllabus: Basic Language Skills

11 Listening
Types of Listening; Process of Listening; Hearing and 1 lecture 2 hr
Listening; Exercises on Listening Skill (Video/ Audio)
13 Speaking
Art of Public Speaking; Compering; Activities on Speaking 1 lecture 2 hr
Skill
15 Reading
Story-based Reading; Reading Newspaper articles, Fiction
1 lecture 1 hr
and Non-fiction works; Activities on Reading
9 Writing
1 lecture 1 hr
Business Correspondence
10 Making and taking notes; Content Development; Story-
1 lecture 1 hr
based Writing
3.1.3 Weightage: 15-20 Marks

● Define listening, speaking, reading and writing skills
● Compare and contrast listening and hearing, semantic and linguistic barriers, etc.
● Understand the nuances of effective listening, speaking, reading and writing
● List the fundamental requirements of effective communication
● Adapt to the class environment for effective communication
● Interact and be compatible with classmates
Language is absolutely central to the learning: without it, one cannot make sense or communicate
one’s understanding of a subject. Language helps in communicating clearly without any gaps in
understanding. To learn any language, four major skills and steps are required to be followed
such as listening, speaking, reading and writing skills.
3.1.6 Abbreviations
CS – Communication Skills
LSRW: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
3.1.7 Formulae
NA
3.1.8 Key Definitions

1. Listening: An act of hearing attentively.
2. Hearing: Natural, unintentional and ongoing process of receiving noise.
3. Speaking: The action of conveying information or expressing one's thoughts and
feelings in spoken language.
4. Reading: Specific abilities which enable a reader to read the written form as a
meaningful language.
5. Writing: Specific abilities which help writers put their thoughts into words in a
meaningful form and to mentally interact with the message.
6. Public speaking: The process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate
manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners
3.1.9 Introduction:
To improve communication in any language you need to master the four core skills of being able
to listen, read, write and speak that particular language. Today English is the language of
business. A command over this language opens up a world of opportunities for the speaker. One
therefore needs to develop the skills of active and empathetic listening through constant effort.
Reading can be improved through different techniques like the SQ3R method and eye training.
General writing and speaking skills can be improved by answering the questions of why, for
whom, what and how. Special care needs to be taken to grasp phonetics in English in order to
become a more effective speaker. Since we are living in the world of technological revolution, our
success in our personal as well as professional life is greatly dependent on our ability to use and
follow the required etiquette of the modern technologies of communication like the internet and
video conferencing.
A. Listening Skills
Listening is the process of receiving, interpreting, and reacting to a message received from the
speaker. People need to practice and acquire skills to be good listeners, because while we speak
at the rate of 100 to 175 words per minute (WPM), we can listen intelligently at up to 300 words
per minute. Since only a part of our mind is paying attention, it is easy to go into mind drift -
thinking about other things while listening to someone.
Listening is an important aid to communication. It is one of the major skills for mastering a
language other than the three being speaking, reading and writing. Listening with
understanding is not merely hearing with ears but really in the mind. But hearing is an
activity in which one doesn’t have to put efforts to hear, ears will do their job of hearing
sounds unless they are closed or defective; it is natural and effortless activity. On the
other hand, listening involves efforts and attention. It is a conscious effort by the receiver to
perceive and understand , given meaning to those sounds and words.
A1. Types of Listening:
Listening can be classified as Comprehensive, Informational, Appreciative, Critical,

Discriminative, Empathetic etc.
a) Comprehensive Listening
Comprehensive listening is the interpretation of words and ideas. comprehensive listening
involves understanding the thoughts, ideas and message. comprehensive listening builds on
discriminative learning.
When your favorite celebrity chef is making a recipe you have been dying to try, you are probably
all ears. You hang on every step, trying hard not to miss one second of the demonstration. This is
comprehensive listening, and we do this when we are listening to instructions, directions or
anything that represents a process.
b) Informational Listening
Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engrossed in informational listening. This is
true in many day-to-day situations, in education and at work, when you listen to the news, watch
a documentary, when a friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked-through a technical
problem with a computer – there are many other examples of informational listening too.
Although all types of listening are ‘active’ – they require concentration and a conscious effort to
understand. Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of listening. When
we’re listening to learn or be instructed we are taking in new information and facts, we are not
criticizing or analyzing. Informational listening, especially in formal settings like in work
meetings or while in education, is often accompanied by note taking – a way of recording key
information so that it can be reviewed later.
Find more at: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/listening-types.html#ixzz3qPLOVo1f
c) Appreciative Listening
Appreciative Listening is where the listener gains pleasure/satisfaction from listening to a certain
type of music for example. Appreciative sources might also include particular charismatic
speakers or entertainers. These are personal preferences and may have been shaped through our
experiences and expectations.
d) Critical Listening
Critical listening is listening to evaluate the content of the message. Where the listener may be
trying to weigh up whether the speaker is credible, whether the message being given is logical
and whether they are being duped or manipulated by the speaker. This is the type of listening
that we may adopt when faced with an offer or sales pitch that requires a decision from us.
e) Discriminative Listening
Where the listener is able to identify and distinguish inferences or emotions through the speaker’s
change in voice tone, their use of pause, etc. Some people are extremely sensitive in this way,
while others are less able to pick up these subtle cues. Where the listener may recognize and
pinpoint a specific engine fault, a familiar laugh from a crowded theatre or their own child’s cry
in a noisy playground. This ability may be affected by hearing impairment.
f) Empathetic Listening
Where the listener tends to listen rather than talk. Their non-verbal behavior indicates that the
listener is attending to what is being said. The emphasis is on understanding the speaker’s
feelings and being supportive and patient. The remaining exercise and paired activities are
designed to demonstrate the advantages of empathic listening and to highlight a range of
obstructions that may prevent us from being effective listeners.
G) Therapeutic Listening
Therapeutic listening is a skill often used by Scrum masters to help aid the team. Therapeutic
listening is a form of active listening in which the listener helps the speaker to draw out and
understand their feelings and emotions. it does not mean the Scrum Masters as therapists, but
leaders often use therapeutic listening to facilitate the resolution of people's problems rather than
using more authoritarian techniques.

1. Listening is the first step of learning __________.
a. language b. literature c. hearing d. understanding
2. Empathetic listening means
a. keeping yourself attentive b. keeping oneself in others’ shoes
c. making others understand your intention d. making yourself understand
3. Comprehensive listening is
a. understanding b. comprehending
c. the interpretation of words and ideas d. listening
Exercise:
Q.1. Define listening and explain the types of listening.
Q.2. Listening is a psychological process. Explain with suitable examples.
Q.3. Empathetic listening is one of the important types of listening to develop human
relations. Explain.
Learning from Listening Skills: Students will be able to understand the nuances of effective
listening and understand the types of listening.
Lecture 12
3.2 Process of Listening
For listening to be effective and meaningful, the process of listening should involve the following
steps.
Hearing- Filtering- Comprehending- Remembering- Responding
Hearing: Hearing is the first essential step in the listening process and relates to the sensory
perception of sound. The listener further processes the perceived sound. For learning to be
effective, hearing needs to be done with attention and concentration.
Filtering: The next step involves sensing and filtering of heard sounds. The heard message is
categorized as wanted or unwanted, useful or useless. The unwanted message is discarded. In
this step, the sense of judgment of the individual comes into play, that is, the filtering process is
subjective and a person chooses to retain what makes sense to him.
Comprehending: The next level of listening consists of comprehending or understanding. The

listener understands or interprets what the speaker has tried to convey. This activity can be
described as absorbing, grasping or assimilating. In order to grasp the meaning of the message,
the listener uses his knowledge, experience, perception and cognitive power. The verbal and
auditory message is coupled with non-verbal communication to understand it.
Remembering: Remembering relates to a process whereby the assimilated message is stored in

memory to facilitate future recall. Remembering assumes significance because many times
messages received are meant not for immediate consideration but for future use.
Responding: For listening to be complete, a response is important. Responding to a message may

take place at the end of the communication, immediately after or later. When it is stored for future
use, the response may take place later. However, if there is a need to seek clarification or to
empathize with the listener, it may take place earlier. Responding may also take the form of
prodding or prompting in order to show that the message is being received and comprehended.
A3: Difference between listening and hearing:
Listening Hearing
Listening is intentional, systematic and specific Hearing is natural , unintentional and Ongoing
which never stops
It requires serious efforts and attention Hearer does not require efforts to hear
sound, noise etc.
It involves reception, recognition, understanding and It receives only sound signals through ears.
comprehension of the message
It is both biological as well as psychological process It is considered as a biological phenomenon
It is comprehension of what is said and it should It is sound wave entering the ear
result in mental reactions
Listening skills need to be taught systematically and It comes naturally and automatically
methodically
Listening aims at bringing behavioral changes in the It receives only sounds
person who is listening
➢ Enhancing Listening Skills:

Listening is a skill that can be learned. Listening is related to understanding which needs effort.
To improve listening skill, the listener should stop talking, put the speaker at ease; give him the
impression that you want to listen, and remove distractions, empathize with the speaker, be
patient, go easy on arguments and criticism, and ask questions.
The art of listening plays a very important role in communication. In our daily life, we are often
listening to conversations, lectures, seminars, lessons, news, announcements, dictation,
dialogues, instructions etc. In this process, we either pay more attention to the speaker or less
attention.
In English language, the phonemes or sounds differentiate the words from each other. Listening
to such sounds is vital to understand and comprehend. Stress and intonation play an important
role in understanding any word that is uttered. Another aspect which requires attention is the
meaning of words one is not aware of. On the basis of the circumstantial meaning, one can infer
the meaning of new words.
Meaning cannot just be transmitted as a tangible substance by the speaker. It must also be
stimulated or aroused in the receiver. The receiver must therefore be an active listener for the
cycle of communication to be complete.
Exercises for listening:
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills/listening/upper-intermediate-b2/a-talk-about-motivation
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills/listening/upper-intermediate-b2/a-business-interview

1. Active listening involves responding in what three ways?
a. emotionally, mentally, and verbally b. content, feelings, and thoughts
c. mentally, verbally, and non-verbally d. emotionally, mentally, and spiritually
2. ________________ involves reception, recognition, understanding and comprehension
of the message.
a) Listening b) Speaking c) Reading d) Writing
Exercise:
Q.1. Discuss ‘Listening requires more efforts than hearing’.
Q.2. Write short note on “The features of listening and hearing”
Q.3. Lack of effective listening skills results in loss of time, lowering of productivity
and missed opportunities. Do you agree with the statement? If yes, substantiate you
answer with appropriate examples.
Q.4. Effective listening is a rather daunting task. Do you think so? If yes, why? Give
suitable examples.
listening and develop effective listening skills.
Lecture 13
3.3 Speaking
Learning Objective:
1) Use effective words in language to enhance clarity in communication
2) Develop an art of public speaking with confidence
In today’s world, the art of speaking has assumed great importance. This is because having this
ability brings greater opportunities as most companies rank speaking skills and other related
communication skills as one of the most desired qualities in their prospective employees.
Speaking skills are required to present one effectively in placement group discussions and
personal interviews. The reason why institutes and companies put you through a group
discussion and an interview, after testing your technical and conceptual skills in an exam, is to
get to know you as a person and gauge how well you will fit in their institute. The group
discussion tests how you function as a part of a team. As a manager, you will always be working
in teams, as a member or as a leader. Therefore how you interact in a team becomes an important
criterion for your selection. Managers have to work in a team and get best results out of
teamwork. That is the reason why management institutes and companies include GD as a
component of the selection procedure.
To master the skill of speaking effectively there are a few basic things that can be kept in mind to
ensure that the verbal messages are understood, appreciated and remembered. These are:
understanding the purpose of the presentation, keeping the message clear and concise, being
thoroughly prepared and finally being vivid when delivering the message.
Today in all business communication the motto is to ‘Keep it Simple’. The presentation too must
be worded in such a manner that the audience understands the content without too much effort.
When it comes to wording your message, less is more. The audience needs to be given headlines
and an overall view of the topic and are usually not expecting to become experts on the subject
as a result of hearing a talk.
Preparation is one of the most important factors in determining communication’s success. When
possible, presentations must be prepared well in advance, thus allowing the speaker enough time
to pay close attention to each stage of the communication process- source, encoding, channel,
decoding, receiver, feedback and context thereby ensuring that the communication will be more
effective and better understood.
The delivery is the final stage in this process. Your delivery of your speech or presentation will
make or break it, no matter how well you have prepared. Some useful tips for keeping your
presentation vivid include:
● Use examples to bring your points to life
● Keep your body language calm, relaxed and natural.
● Don't talk too fast. Pauses are effective.
● Use a variety of tones of voice
● Use visual aids.
a) Phonetics
Written and spoken English are two different things. While the former consists of characters on
paper which make no noise and are taken in by the eyes, the latter consists of spoken words in an
organized sound and is taken in by the ear. The study of the production and perception of such
speech sounds is called phonetics. Phonetics therefore is the study of the articulatory and acoustic
properties of the sounds of human language, how these sounds are articulated and how the
hearer perceives them. In the English language there are 26 alphabets but 44 basic sounds or
phonemes.
Phonetics by itself is a vast subject but for our context, it is sufficient to gain an understanding of
the basic sound system in the English language and to learn to ‘read’ pronunciation from a
standard dictionary.
Language thus starts with the ear. A baby learns to speak his mother tongue by listening to and
then imitating sounds. Adults however have greater difficulty in mastering a foreign language
because of the influence of the native language. Thus to improve spoken English one needs to
hear and gain perfection in spoken English.
3.2.1 Art of Public Speaking
Great public speakers need more than just natural talent to be successful. The Art of Public
Speaking is a skill and be learned: If you have ever listened to a great public speaker before, then
you know that there is something truly inspiring and uplifting about sitting in front of a poised
and polished speaker. Public speaking is not just an act — it is an art. It is an art that you too can
learn and master if you are willing to take the time to work at it. If you aren’t committed to
practicing and working on honing your skill, you will never be able to master the art of public
speaking. However, if you want to put in the time and the effort of following some public
speaking tips, you can grow your skill and become a true master of public speaking — no matter
how shy, nervous, or apprehensive you may be about the subject. Want to know the secrets? Here
are a few public speaking tips (but we’ll refer to them as “secrets,” because they kind of are) that
can lead you towards the path of finally mastering the unique art form of speaking in public.
Secret 1: Everyone is Afraid of Public Speaking
one of the biggest secrets to mastering the art of public speaking is recognizing the fact that most
people are afraid of public speaking in their own way — even if they are professional speakers.
Don’t be so worried about being nervous when you speak. It is completely natural, so know that
the individuals you are speaking in front of likely know your pain and understand the nerves. In
fact, out of all of the phobias in the world, public speaking is considered the most common— 3
out of 4 people suffer from speech anxiety and people fear public speaking more than spiders,
heights, or even death.
Once you are able to stop singling yourself out for your fear of public speaking or thinking that
you are alone in your fear, standing up and speaking in front of others won’t be as overwhelming.
There is a certain level of comfort knowing that everyone else in the room has the same fear that
you do.
Secret 2: Get on Your Audience’s Side and Everything Becomes Easier
Public speaking isn’t about you; it is all about your audience. If you can get on your audience’s
side and connect to them, you’ll feel more comfortable and everything about your speech will
become easier.
When you are standing in front of a large group and see people nodding, smiling, and connecting
with you, this is a sign that you’ve really mastered the art of public speaking. Think about
delivering a message that your audience would want to hear, but don’t try to generalize things
too much.
Remember, your audience is a group of individuals and not everyone in the crowd is going to
think, feel, or act the same way. You don’t want to alienate anyone in your audience, because if
you do, then you are going to lose them.
Unless it is the absolute reason you are speaking, don’t touch on sensitive topics like religion and
politics, or be overly opinionated. Try to stay neutral on topics. You should also make sure you
are looking to the crowd for general cues, so you can get a feel for the room and stick with things
that are working (or change things that aren’t while you speak).
Secret 3: Tell Your Audience Something— But Not Everything
Sometimes, public speakers (especially novice public speakers), will get up in front of a room and
try to prove how much they know. Some speakers are just excited to share their wealth, some feel
they have something to prove, others may use it as a mechanism because they are afraid of
speaking in general. The best public speakers in the world are the ones that aren’t going to go up
and tell you everything that they know. People want to learn something, but they don’t want to
learn everything. If you overload them with knowledge, they are going to feel overwhelmed and
they won’t remember the majority of what you told them.
Audiences love to learn little unknown facts, bits of information they can re-tell others or secrets
and insider knowledge that only the pros know. You may know a lot about your field or topic,
but the key is not dumping too much information on your audience. You need to give them just
enough that they remember without making their brains hurt. Here’s a great way to make sure
you are delivering the right amount of knowledge: Tell a familiar tale, whether it is about a
famous person or a historically significant event in history. It just needs to be something that most
people know. As you tell that tale, start adding additional facts that most people don’t know into
the story. It’s a great way to give people that little bit of extra knowledge they crave from a speech
without making them feel like they just sat through a lecture.
Secret 4: Don’t Overdo the Passion
When you think of someone who has truly mastered public speaking, chances are you think of
something that speaks with passion and that delivers memorable, quotable and inspiring
speeches to their audiences. Passionate speaking is great, but it requires boundaries.
Passion is important, but it isn’t everything. You need to know when to use those moments of
passion in order to make your message really stick. If you want to deliver a speech that your
audience will actually resonate with, you need to create a balance between moments of passion
and moments of calm.
This is the only way to get your really passionate points and passionate moments to hit hard and
to leave an impact. If you are at a 10/10 the whole time you speak and trying to make every
sentence as fiery and passionate as possible, it’s not going to pop. Your speech should have ebbs
and flows between calm and passion to really make an impact. This is one of the more important
public speaking tips.
Secret 5: Generosity Goes a Long Way
It’s not something that most people think of when they are preparing to give a speech, but
generosity can actually be a great “secret weapon” when it comes to mastering the art of public
speaking. Being generous, in general, is a good thing, but it also helps you connect with your
audience in ways that you may have never thought were possible. This doesn’t have to be a big
grand gesture either, it can be a small act of generosity to help you seem more personable and
kind and to remind your audience that you are a real person talking to them — not just a face
behind a podium spewing out information. These small acts of generosity include complimenting
your competition, offering free help or consultations to others, sharing the spotlight with
someone else, or giving sincere thanks and credit to those who helped you.
You can also give something away whether it is a prize, a book, or even cash. There is one popular
social media speaker who actually throws golden eggs filled with $100 bills in them out to the
audience during his speech. It’s a grand gesture, but it’s one that has an impact.
No matter how you choose to showcase your generosity, highlighting this part of your
personality can go a really long way in connecting with your audience as you start to learn how
to master the art of speaking in public.
1. Speaking skill can be learnt

a. From practice b. From observation
c. From continuous speaking d. All of the above

2. When your turn comes to speak in public, following is the most important to follow.
a. Deep breathing b. Prepare well c. Look at the people d. Speak directly
Exercise:
Q.1 Speaking is the most important skill to impress the people. Explain
Q.2 Public speaking can be improved through practice. Explain.
Q.3 How to overcome fear to speak confidently in public?
Q.4 Write steps to follow to be confident and impressive speaker.
Learning from Speaking Skills: Students will be able to understand the nuances of effective
speaking and develop effective speaking skills.
Lecture 14
3.4 Compering:
Compering is an art where the speaker is required to be enthusiastic and keep the audience
engaged in whatever the information is provided. There are a few tips to develop the compering
skills which will help the speaker to prepare and impress the audience.
A. Tips to Compeer:
1. Believe You Can!
Think of the opportunity to compete as joy. Never believe the lie that you can’t do it. Of course,
there will always be people who might be able to do better than you; but you still can leave a
mark. The confidence that you can definitely do it is going to make a huge impact in your
performance on stage as far as compering is concerned. So believe the best about yourself and
step confidently on stage.
2. Write a Compeer-Script
As no one will attempt to construct a building without having a plan or blueprint with them; no
one should attempt to do compering without preparing a script. Whether you read from the script
or not is a question of lesser importance. Write down everything. The actual introduction, the
lines inviting the speakers, the thank you notes in between, and so on you plan to use during
compering. Leave nothing to chance. Also remember to leave blank spaces in between as well as
in the margins to jot down last minute changes in the programme. A person who attempts to do
compering without a script is yet again like a soldier going to war without weapons!
3. Be Enthusiastic
The joy of fielding was once made known to the world by a former cricket player from South
Africa, Jonty Rhodes. He made what was a routine part of the game into a highly developed art.
Similarly, you can raise the level of comparing to great heights by your great enthusiasm as Jonty
Rhodes did with fielding. The way you walk on stage, your gestures, your voice; and in short
everything you do should pulsate with enthusiasm. Then the crowd will surely catch the fire of
your enthusiasm when you compete.
4. Maintain Good Eye Contact
The eyes can communicate a whole range of emotions and can reflect the inner state of a person
quite sharply too. That is why Jesus Christ said, “Your eye is the lamp of your body. When your
eyes are good, your whole body also is full of light.” So use your eyes to communicate an
exuberant mood while compering. Let your eyes scan the entire audience. Do not get stuck up
looking at the imagined balcony or looking at blank walls. Instead make everybody feel included
with your eyes with a wide sweep across the audience.
5. Vary Your Voice
Some people tell. Others shout. Some others are full of big-sounding words. Some others whisper
on stage. The point is not whether one method is correct or not; the point is that there should be
a rich variety in your voice. When inviting the chief guest to inaugurate the Seminar your voice
should communicate that seriousness; while announcing a popular rocking song or dance in a
Reality Show your voice should communicate excitement and the upbeat mood to create
anticipation. Whatever be the situation, clarity of words is a must.
6. Make Them Feel Good
A comperer' role is not to highlight how intelligent, knowledgeable or a wizard of words he or

she is. Anyone who sets out to do so is inviting the wrath of the audience. The comperer is
someone who draws least attention to himself or herself. Instead his or her role is to turn the
spotlight on someone else all the time. Your words, gestures, and other actions on stage should
all help in magnifying the person or group you are talking about. It is then that the audience
learns to better appreciate those people or the action that is happening on stage.
7. Smile All the Way
It is not your fabulous dress or make-up or ornaments that are going to win the day for you.
Neither are the words that you use going to help much; though words are needed. The greatest
asset for a comperer is his or her smile. These days’ people are fed up with cosmetic smiles that
are artificial. Be genuine with the crowds. Then the smile from your heart will light up the entire
world for you while you are compering!
● Activities on Speaking Skills:
https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/12-fun-speaking-games-language-learners
https://www.teachstarter.com/au/blog/10-activities-for-speaking-and-listening/

1. What is meant by the phrase: Study your Audience?
a) Allow scope for feedback from audience b) Have thorough knowledge of audience
c) No audience feedback d) Ask questions to audience
2. Which of these is not an element of the speaking technique?
a) Voice quality b) Word stress
c) Appearance d) Correct tones
3. Which of these should be avoided while speaking?
a) Fluency b) Jargon
c) Clear voice d) Abstract words
Exercise:
Q.1 ‘Public Speaking is as much about non-verbal communication as it is about its verbal aspects.’
Elucidate the statement with proper examples.
Q.2 Explain public speaking is an art.
Q.3 Explain the basic steps to present you as an anchor.
Q.4 ‘Speeches are not just meant to be spoken; they also are required to be made interesting and
entertaining to the audience.’ What are the strategies that can make a speech interesting and
entertaining to the audience? Discuss and substantiate the appropriate examples.
Learning from Speaking Skills: Students will be able to understand the nuances of speaking
skills and develop effective & impressive public speaking skills.
Lecture 15
Learning Objective:
1) Understand various types of reading and master them
2) Develop effective and quick reading habits
3.5 Reading Skills
According to Edward Fry, there are three reading speeds:

1. Study reading speed
2. Average reading speed
3. Skimming speed.
Study reading speed is useful for reading material which needs total concentration and retention
of its meaning. A good reader at this speed normally reads 200-300 words per minute and
comprehends 80% to 90% of what he has read. Exam preparation needs study reading speed so
that the students can comprehend what has been read. The average reading speed comprises 250-
500 words per minute. Such speed is used for everyday reading of newspapers, magazines,
novels, etc. Skimming is the fastest reading speed. A good reader while skimming through
material reads 800 words per minute. Often some parts of the reading material are left unread.
There are various techniques that can be used to improve one’s reading speed. One of them is
called the SQ3R Technique. Here SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. It
is a proven technique to sharpen textbook reading skills. The SQ3R technique is primarily used
to train the mind. There is yet another technique which helps train the eyes to increase the speed
of reading.
This training of the eyes involves developing three core skills:
1) Increasing the eye -span which means increasing the number of words that one can grasp in
a glance.
2) Reducing the number of times that the eyes need to re-read or go back to the written text.
3) Developing a rhythmical and regular movement of the eyes while reading.
3.5.1 Story-based Reading
It has been a general assumption that the most essential language skill to possess is speaking.
Commonly, individuals think that by having speaking skill, they can show their language skills,
particularly in public contexts. However, this notion is quite natural as everyone can utter some
words even talk about ideas because of knowledge owned. The knowledge is absolutely
reconstructed through many ways of input, for instance, reading, listening, observing, and many
more.
Story-based reading can stimulate the oral response. Reading as one of the factors constructing
the knowledge should be experienced well by readers in order to build the other language skills.
It is clear that reading adds the vocabulary and by acquiring the vocabulary, the core element in
learning, the readers can improve their language competence. Story-based reading enhances
readers’ fluency in oral responding. This helps in reducing speaking anxiety and their speech
rates. In line with Levelt’s proposition that speech production involves three phases:
conceptualization, formulation, and articulation. After reading, the readers were able to make a
simple speech, they can add their personal responses, regarding the problem their friends faced,
in which it was passing three phases as what Levelt conceptualized. Competent speakers express
their ideas clearly and appropriately dealing with the context. They can organize what they have
spoken effectively and also articulate the sounds produced while having a spoken activity
intelligibly.
The story of personal experiences usually grabs readers’ attention. They become interested in not
only what the story is about, but how it relates to them personally. It may give them a better
opportunity to connect to a more personal kind of learning; it can be a fundamental way of
making discussions more meaningful; and it may aid in helping readers feel more confident in
their understanding of the subject matter. Hence, it is expected that after the readers read the
stories of personal experiences, they are stimulated to respond to the text orally, share related life
experience, and discuss it. Through all the activities mentioned, their fluency and confidence in
responding orally are improved gradually.
Story-based reading is a means to cultivate readers’ oral response which is not instantly obtained
from an effortless process. It needs a method that encourages readers to think openly but
critically. This learning method is known as think aloud. Think aloud helps to enhance readers’
thinking process and to understand what they comprehend; it allows readers to connect
meanings and understanding with the text. Thus, think aloud is involved to make the readers
respond orally.
3.5.2 Fiction and Non-fiction Works
“Fiction” refers to literature created from the imagination. Mysteries, science fiction, romance,
fantasy, chick lit, crime thrillers are all fiction genres. Examples of classic fiction include To Kill a
Mockingbird by Harper Lee, A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens, 1984 by George Orwell
and Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. Our Fiction Department also has a large selection of
popular movies and television shows on DVD.
“Nonfiction” refers to literature based in fact. It is the broadest category of literature. The
Nonfiction Department has books and videos in many categories including biography, business,
cooking, health and fitness, pets, crafts, home decorating, languages, travel, home improvement,
religion, art and music, history, self-help, true crime, science and humor. We also have a section
of popular and award-winning documentary DVDs.
In simple terms, fiction is something imaginary and non-fiction is something that’s true. In non-
fiction writing, real people and real places are involved. On the other hand, in fiction stories,
everything is from the writer’s imagination. Here are some major differences between the two
types of writing.
Fiction stories are all made up. All the characters and places come from the authors’ imagination.
Non-fiction writing, on the other hand, is fact-based and informative. Fiction books are written
for entertaining readers and the non-fiction books are written to give more knowledge to the
readers. Examples of fiction are novels, short stories, etc. History books, autobiography, etc. are
non-fictions.
In fiction, the writer can go along with his or her imagination without any limit. They can
elaborate on a plot or character as far as their imagination goes. In non-fiction, the writer has to
be straight forward. There is no scope for any imagination. It is actually a reallocation of facts.
The story that is written by a fictional writer can be interpreted in various ways by the audience.
But non-fiction writings are simple and direct. They can have only one interpretation.
In non-fiction writing, you may need to give references for your writing and include quotes to
the story. This is needed to make your story or writing more credible. But in fiction writing, no
such references are required.
These are the differences between fiction and non-fiction writing that you must remember. You
should simply remember that fiction is imaginative and non-fiction is true. Fiction writing is fun
to read and non-fiction writing is informative.
3.5.3 Reading Newspaper Articles:
Newspapers are the most important part of our lives. Still, many of us don’t think so for a number
of excuses such as: lack of motivation, feeling fatigue, not making enough time or not finding it
interesting enough or thinking that the news we get on our device is adequate, but actually, it
isn’t. Newspaper reading as a habit can be a tricky activity for those who don’t know how to read.
While thinking to learn a new language, there’s no other better option than to take help of a
newspaper as it comes in different languages in different cities according to the mother tongue of
the people living there. Reading newspaper daily is really a good habit that provides a great sense
of educational value. It carries a lot of information about the happenings in the world, what all is
going on in the country, town & nearby areas. In fact, we get all necessary-related information
through the means of the newspaper.
Developing a habit of reading a newspaper will really help you in many ways which are describe
here:
1. Perks of reading the newspaper
The biggest advantage of reading a newspaper is that it adds value to you and your personality.
It improves your English or any other language in which you are reading it in; it enhances your
confidence and it actually makes lives easier as you are updated with the current issues,
achievements, facts, discoveries, research, laws, events, ideologies, politics, movements, historical
facts and what not? It also improves your memory to a certain extent, increases your reading
skills and indirectly writing skills, as well. The perks are immense and it doesn’t cost more than
a rupee.
2. Strengthens reading & writing skills.
These are the best source of providing good reading ability as it makes readers active
learners. Reading newspaper is a healthy activity for every individual & especially for students.
As the time passes, they get full command on reading and vocabulary. Newspaper reading also
improves writing & reading skills of an individual as many difficult words come while reading a
passage that might confuse a reader. Making a habit of reading the newspaper daily increases the
chances of better reading with good vocabulary.
1. Provides entertainment & sports news.

A number of sporting events are organized from time to time in the country & across the nations.
One can get all information about the list of players, which game is going on currently, medals
tally, players ranking, who won which medal, the winners & the competitors, etc. News about
the economic condition of a country, games & sports, trade, commerce & entertainment can be
gained from newspapers. In short, newspaper gives us worldwide information.
2. Best source of General knowledge.
Knowledge coupled with a good expression sets a stage of success in any examination or
competition in life. Students easily get course related information through newspapers about
recent discoveries & latest inventions. These are a treasure love of information for students at the
time of preparation of competitions, contests & quiz shows. With these, they can get unique ideas
about what is going on at present & what is in trend nowadays.
3. Get up-to-date with politics.
Man is a social animal. In order to live peacefully & comfortably in society, he needs to remain
updated about what all is going on across the globe while sitting at a corner of house. Reading
newspaper enables us to remain well-informed about anything. It will be easy for those who are
ready daily to their extent. Newspapers carry information about politics, sports, general affairs &
lot more.
4. Useful ideas about researches & projects.
In schools & colleges, students have to undergo a lot of research & to deal with their school
projects. And for this, they need to search for various ideas, creations & a better design. Thus, a
newspaper is a handy source of getting multiple topics as almost recent searches are discussed in
it. Not only ideas but news about many discoveries, launches & establishments are also published
in newspapers there are really helpful in covering up projects.
5. Improves Vocabulary Skills.
At one page of newspaper, there comes a section where so many useful games like Sudoku,
puzzles, riddles, tongue twisters, etc are published. These types of mind games help in improving
the vocabulary skills of children. Daily reading of newspapers enhances the vocabulary of
students as they learn different words from there. They can note them down with their meanings.
As good vocabulary helps in writing good essays & assignments in examinations.
6. Makes them a Good Speaker.
Students get information about various topics with the help of newspapers. They become a good
orator which further helps in taking active part in debates, speeches & discussions. When a
student possesses knowledge about different topics, he/ she can be able to speak without any
hesitation in front of others. This ultimately increases his/ her level of confidence. Therefore,
these are the benefits of newspaper reading for students. One should make a habit of reading
newspaper daily in the morning while having a cup of tea or coffee.
➢ What to do to make it a habit?
Making something your habit is not that difficult if you see but maintaining that habit is actually
what takes a lot of effort, time, energy and enthusiasm. You need to understand that a newspaper
is full of vital information and updates which are important for you, no matter what you are
doing, wherever you live; it’s actually immaterial in comparison with what a newspaper can
provide you. It can be your best friend at times and your biggest enemy. “Make something your
addiction which adds to your self-growth” and yes, a newspaper does add to your self-growth.
Try to make it a habit and see the transformation in your personality, confidence, knowledge,
mental health, and it will definitely help you in giving an edge to whatever you are currently
pursuing in life or going to pursue.
➢ 21-days Magic:
There’s a little secret that if you want to make a habit of something then try it daily for 21 days
only with no gap and with no single doubt in your mind. If you want to get rid of any habit, don’t
do that thing for 21 days and then see the magic.
Conditions:
● Do it consecutively for 21 days with no gap.
● Do it with no single doubt in your mind that you’ll accomplish your desired goal.
● Try to keep that particular work better day-by-day by indulging yourself more and
focusing on that particular moment when you are doing that thing.
3.5.4 Activities on Reading:
Read any one story, fiction and non-fiction and present the same in brief in front of audience and
write the gist of the same.

1. Reading helps in developing ______
a) vocabulary b) activities
c) fictional writing d) goal setting
Exercise:
Q.1 What is 21 days of magic?
Q.2 What are various benefits of reading newspaper articles?
Q.3 Write a short note on reading fiction and non-fiction.
Q.4 Explain the types of reading with the help of suitable examples.
Learning from Reading Skills: Students will be able to understand the nuances of reading skills
and develop the habit of comprehensive reading.
Lecture 16
Learning Objective:
1) Understand various principles of writing skills
2) Develop effective official writing
3.6 Writing Skills

People all around the world are intimidated by writing but there are times when writing is the
best way to communicate, and often the only way to get your message across. Mostly, this fear
arises from the fact that once something is in written form, it cannot be taken back.
Communicating this way is more concrete than verbal communications, with less room for error
and even less room for mistakes. This presents written communicators with additional
challenges, including spelling, grammar, punctuation, even writing style and actual wording.
Furthermore, writing is the major means of communication within an organization; some
estimate that up to 30% of work-time is engaged in written communication. Thus it is absolutely
vital for any professional today, as their success and career growth depends on it.
Today the emphasis on all kinds of organizational writing is on simplicity and understandability.
Although the required writing skills will vary a little from one document to another, there are
certain common pointers which apply to all kinds of business correspondences. These could be
listed as:
1) Understanding the purpose or ‘why’ of writing: Every document that needs to be written
has a specific purpose. To be successful the writer needs to have a very clear idea about the
aim of his/her writing.
2) Considering the audience or for ‘whom’ the document is being written: All documents are
written for a particular reader. In order to be able to convey the intended message, the writer
must have a thorough awareness about the readers- their professional background,
knowledge level and expectations.
3) Planning the structure or ‘how’ of the document: The next stage in the writing process is to
choose appropriate organization for the matter that needs to be written down. The entire
matter has to be divided and subdivided into smaller units and then appropriately put in
separate paragraphs, tables or diagrams as per the requirement.
4) Drafting, editing and revising the document: This is the final stage of the writing process
where the writer puts down the content and then checks its usefulness and efficiency. While
drafting the document, care should be taken to have a strong yet simple layout for the written
matter. Use of bullets, white spaces, variety in font size and different fonts and use of titles
are some methods which help to make the layout pleasing, readable and attractive.
There is a difference in the way we write, therefore some aspects we need to take care of while
writing any document.
The style of writing used too emphasizes simplicity, precision and mathematical plainness.
Punctuation is used to clarify meaning and to highlight structure. It can also remove ambiguity
and leads to elegance and easy interpretation. The next aspect of writing that should be taken
care of is spelling. Incorrect spelling distracts the reader and makes the author lose credibility.
Computer spell-checking programs provide great assistance, especially when supported by a
good dictionary.
The choice of words also plays an important role in achieving good writing skills. Wordiness and
verbosity, for example using ‘terminate’ instead of ‘end’, makes the writing difficult to
comprehend and distracts the reader from the actual content. Jargons or use of technical words
should be avoided if the document is meant for different kinds of readers. Simple and functional
words should be used to achieve clarity in writing.
If the sentence is too long, we tend to lose the information. Care should thus be taken to keep
sentence length short which would keep the attention of the reader and, by doing so, reinforce
the original message with greater clarity and simplicity.
Every paragraph in the written matter should justify itself and must serve a purpose. A paragraph
should convey a single idea which should then be developed and explained.
Use of visual aids like diagrams, charts illustrations etc. in the written documents makes the
matter more understandable and therefore they should be used wherever possible.
Finally, the writer must make sure that their written communications are easy to read and contain
the necessary information, using facts where needed and avoiding information that is not
relevant. Good writing skills are essential for effective communication but one must remember
that learning to write well takes time and practice.
Technical writing is a method of researching and creating information about technical processes
or products. That information can then be distributed to users as printed manuals or online
guides so they can perform tasks. Examples of technical writing include car repair manuals, help
text for database software and FAQs for troubleshooting cameras. Writing definitions, instruction
manuals and explanation of technical processes are some more examples of technical writing.
Technical writing is simply a form of writing for one to get technical information across to others.
Many technical personnel tend to think and speak in highly specialized language that is specific
to their certain field. One of the basics to technical writing would be to learn the ability to translate
these technical terms into the language that will be simple for the general audience to
comprehend. It is highly advisable for engineering students who aspire to go into a specific
technological field to at least take a course, learning the basics to technical writing and thus it has
been included in engineering curriculum.

1. What is the approximate estimated time is engaged in writing in the office?
a. 30% b. 40% c. 50% d. 10%
2. While writing, what is the first and most important aspect from the following?
a. Creation of content
b. Creation of document
c. Creation of thought
d. Creation of understanding in the mind of the reader
Exercise:
Q.1 Explain writing as a skill.
Q.2 Explain the importance of drafting and editing in a document.
Q.3 Explain steps to follow while drafting a document.
Learning from Writing Skills: Students will be able to understand the nuances of writing skills
and develop the habit of writing professionally.
Lecture 17
Learning Objective:
1) Understand various ways of writing letter
2) Develop effective letter writing
3.7 Business Correspondence
Business letters are often the first form of communication that is seen by those you come in contact
with or with whom you want to conduct business. A poorly written business letter may cause
someone to have a negative idea of your business. Thus a fundamental prerequisite for this
module is the basic knowledge of English language, specially, correct spelling, grammar,
punctuation and tone.
The most common form of written communication is the letter which is written on personal and
professional level. Basically, letters are categorized into formal and informal. In the informal
category, personal letters written to friends, relatives and near and dear ones are identified. A
letter is a dialogue (one way) by post. In formal type of letters, there are business letters, job
application letters, letters to the editor, etc. A formal letter reveals the writers' personality and
character without revealing identity. In the professional world, one has to write dozens of letters
every day. This routine work makes the writing monotonous. Therefore, certain principles and
creativity will make the letter appealing to the reader.
Moreover in business correspondence, you will be writing letters to other firms, companies,
organizations, government offices, agencies, suppliers, customers, etc. Most of these will be
written to those persons whom you have never met before or perhaps never hope to meet.
Business letters are written to provide information on a particular product, to make enquiry, to
sell a product or an idea, to seek information or advice, to complain about the mistakes and to
mend them.
Every formal letter has a set of principles needed to write successful letters. These principles have
been discussed in the next section.
A. Principles of Basic Official Correspondence

A business letter should evoke the same response from the reader which you have in mind. While
writing the letter, the best way of doing it is placing oneself in the position of the reader. A poorly
composed letter will cause embarrassment, rudeness and anger or even break a cordial
relationship. In the professional world, we deal with varied levels of the human mind, therefore
a discerning eye and an ability to anticipate the receivers' reaction is required.
A good letter will cater to its layout, appearance, its purpose, effective style, right tone, proper
selection of words and phrases and the reader. Here are some of the basic principles which can
help you write effective business letters:
(a) Courtesy:
Courtesy is the basic principle of social relationship which helps to win friends. In a society,
regard for the feelings of others is necessary and being courteous creates goodwill and reduces
the tension of unpleasant and rude sense of writing. In business, it is necessary to win friends and
make life smooth and create a favorable working atmosphere. Even if you receive a rude letter,
try to reply back in a courteous way, creating goodwill which will be an asset for the firm. Avoid
writing discourteous letters which may cost you dearly. For example avoid using phrases such
as: You are absolutely wrong in saying .., we find it difficult to accept… Rather use: Many thanks
for ..., We appreciate ....etc.
(b) Consideration:
Consideration for the reader's interests, needs and desires is important in the business world. The
principle is also referred to as the ‘you attitude’. Simply it means to keep the self-interest of the
reader in mind and address him/her as an individual and not as a crowd. Such an approach will
ensure the transmission of the message quickly and evoke the desired response needed by the
sender. ‘You attitude’ should, however, not mean undue praise and artificial cordiality but
sincerity and personal feeling towards the reader. For example instead of writing ‘The book has
been dispatched to the office…’ it is more effective to write ‘The books you had ordered are
dispatched to the office…’
(c) Conciseness:
Besides being courteous and considerate, conciseness is useful in business correspondence. This
principle differentiates personal and professional letters. Length of words in personal letters is
unlimited but in business letters it is limited. It is so because people in the professional world are
busy and have less time to read the written text. Therefore, brief and concise matter is necessary.
For example instead of using a verbose phrase like ‘By reason of the fact that…’ use ‘because’ or
instead of ‘In the event that…’ use ‘if’.
(d) Clarity:
Simplicity and clarity in thoughts and words are the two important virtues of effective writing.
A simple thought conveyed in clear and plain style of words will make the information
understandable to the reader. One should bear in mind that all what you want to convey should
be clear in words in the letter. The reader should not ask for an explanation of any information
from the letter of the sender. For example, use simple words like ‘end’ instead of 'terminate’;
avoid outdated words like ‘herewith’, ‘kind perusal’ etc.
(e) Correctness:
The information presented in the letter should be factual and correct. Whatever data is provided
to the reader, it must contain those facts which have proof. Superfluous words and irrelevant
matters can mar communication. Aptness and proper information will be effective. This principle
ensures that the content, grammar, spelling and presentation are correct. This will make business
correspondence effective. For example the date, address and other parts of the letter should be
written correctly; spelling mistakes can cause confusion like writing ‘fiend’ instead of ‘friend’.
(f) Concreteness:
You have a choice in your writing to use concrete (specific) or abstract (vague) words. They both
have a place in business writing. However, concrete terms are typically more accurate and, in
some cases, more believable. Business communication therefore must be more concrete than
abstract. Concreteness can be achieved by giving specific references of actions and persons and
by avoiding general references. Yet another method is to use active rather than passive voice. For
example ‘Let this document be photocopied’ is not as clear saying ‘Get photocopies of this
document.’
(g) Completeness:
Any business correspondence has to be complete and a unified whole. Incomplete messages can
lead to irritation, embarrassment, taking the wrong action and thus may prove to be a waste of
time and money. It can also lead to loss of goodwill and sales.
To find out whether any communication is complete you need to answer the core questions of
why, what, where, for whom and when. If you have given clear answers to these questions then
the document is likely to be complete. Otherwise certain additions need to be made.
For example if you are writing a reply to an enquiry letter additional information related to the
enquiry could be added so that the receiver can take a decision more quickly rather than
continuing with the communication.
B. A.I.D.A. Principle of letter writing:

AIDA is an acronym for attention, interest, desire and action. While writing a letter, one must try
to attract the attention of the readers towards what is being conveyed. This can be done using
attention catching strategies like the headings, subheadings, italic fonts, font sizes, catchy
language, etc. Then, create an interest by pointing out incentives, motivational policies,
competitive prices, schemes, etc. Courteous language can also be helpful to create an interest in
the mind of the reader. The next step is to generate the desire to accept communication. After
creating desire, one must try to enforce the reader to take action as per writer’s guidelines. Thus,
we can get the desired response from the reader.
3.4.2 Language and Style in official letters:

The writer needs to incorporate simple and common words which are easy to understand.
Appropriate words should be used to organize the ideas. Use short sentences and short
paragraphs. Avoid grammatical mistakes, spelling errors and unnecessary repetitions. Short
forms such as I'm, he'll, you can't, they won't, etc., are not welcome in formal letter writing. Active
voice is more apt than passive. Simple conversational language will definitely be more lively and
reader-friendly.
In business correspondence, one should use terse and precise language. One should avoid
jargons, ambiguity, clichés, slangs, and sexiest language. Use correct words at proper places.
Talking about punctuation styles, a properly punctuated letter will send across your thoughts in
words precisely to the reader. An open punctuation omits unnecessary commas and full stops.
Only the body of the letter is punctuated, whereas no commas and full stops are used in the other
parts of the letter. In mixed punctuation, a comma is put after the date, the house number, the
salutation, and the complimentary close. A full stop follows the last line of the inside address.
The conventional style of punctuation used in business letters is closed punctuation. In it all the
parts of the letter are punctuated.
3.4.3 Structure of business letter:
‘First impression is often the last impression is a good old adage.’ Therefore, the physical appearance
of a letter reveals a lot about the writer's personality and the organization. Importance should be
given not only to the text but also to typing and stationery. The structure, the layout, the form
and the content will give a letter the right look.
The structure of a business letter has a number of elements which normally appear in any formal
letter. These elements are:
(i) Heading
(ii) Date
(iii) Reference Number
(iv) Inside Address
(v) Salutation
(vi) Subject
(vii) Body
(viii) Complimentary close
(ix) Signature.
Each of these compulsory elements is briefly discussed below:
(i) Heading: The Heading contains the logo, the name of the organization, the address, the
telephone number, the fax number, e-mail ID and website address. Normally, all these parts
are printed on a letter as letter-head in many organizations. For example:
1) Our college heading:
2) General:
BOOK WORD LIMITED
Registered Office: Falcon Building, 102 / Block A, First Floor, Chunam Lane, Wadala (W),
Mumbai.Phone : (022)24118671,24124333
Fax : 022 – 24137342 E-mail : [email protected]
Website: www.bowld.com
(ii) Date: 12 January 2020 mentions the day, the month and the year. It is not required to label
it as date because it is superfluous. It is necessary to write the name of the month and the
year in full and no suffix such as st, th, or rd is added to the day. Full name for the months
should be written rather than short forms such as Jan, Dec, etc
(iii) Inside Address:'To' can be skipped because it is not necessary to use 'to' when you use
your letterhead. A letterhead mentions the address on top which is of the sender and the
one below that of the recipient.
Inside Address contains the full address of the person or the organization you are
addressing. Therefore, care should be taken not to misspell which can give a bad impression
about you.
It is advisable to address a person by name as it signals a hint of equality. Whenever
possible, avoid using Dear Sirs as the firm will have employees of both genders. It is
therefore safe to use Ladies and Gentleman. This style is gaining ground because firms consist
of men and women. It is also better to use Ms rather than Mrs. / Miss. This is widely accepted
as a title for both married and unmarried women.
(iv) Salutation: Although business correspondence is between firms, it is done by individuals
and hence salutation is important. Dear Sir or Dear Madam is the safest salutation. However
an ill - chosen salutation could mar the effectiveness of a letter. In sales and circular letters,
the receiver is addressed as Dear customer, Dear Member, Dear Reader, etc. Presently, Sir is
used instead of Dear Sir as it shows a formal attitude to a person of high status or position.
(v) Subject: Subject should be a line and not a paragraph. It is useful for a busy executive who
reads the letter. Therefore, it should be precise and short to save time. For example: Subject:
Delay in supply.
(vi) Body: The basic rule of effective business letter writing is to Keep It Short and Simple - KISS.
Lengthy letters bore the reader.
To make letters short, it is necessary to plan it well. In a business letter, along with words,
the structure too is vital. Clarity and brevity is necessary to bring out the main objective.
In the body of the letter, the first paragraph, sometimes mentions the reference number of
any correspondence which has already taken place. Also it mentions the main reason for
the correspondence. The second paragraph contains further details about the main subject.
The closing paragraph calls for action. It also states your expectations and intentions.
(vii) Complimentary Close: It is a courteous leave taking which must agree with the salutation
given in the business letter. Often, Yours faithfully and Yours sincerely is written to end the
letter. The difference between the two is in the approach. The former has a formal approach
whereas the latter is less formal. When the business letter is informal and you are on first
name terms with your reader, you can end you letter with Yours cordially or even Yours
sincerely. With Dear Sir or Dear Madam appropriate complimentary close is Yours
sincerely.Yours cordially matches salutations such as Dear Mr. Gupta, Dear Mrs. Sen, and Dear
Professor Borkar.
The salutation and the complimentary close indicate the tone and the level of familiarity
with the reader.
The following exhibit shows the acceptability of salutation with complimentary close:
Salutation Complimentary Close
Sir / Madam
Yours faithfully / Yours truly
Dear Sir / Dear Madam
Dear Mr Rao
Dear Ms Bhalerao Yours sincerely
Dear Narang
Dear Professor Mehta
Dear Sonali
Yours cordially/ Yours sincerely
Dear Sunil
(viii) Signature: The signature is the signed name of the writer which tells the reader a great
deal about the writer. Along with the signed name, your first name and surname should be
revealed along with your designation. These convey your identity to the reader.
Besides compulsory elements, there are a few optional elements which are briefly discussed
below:
(i) Attention Line (ii) Identification Marks (iii) Enclosure (iv) Reference
(i) Attention Line: A letter is addressed to an organization but it is directed to a particular
person. An attention line is written to indicate that the correspondence is for that
individual. For example: Attention: The Finance Manager, Attention: Mr. Deepak Rao
(ii) Identification Marks: These marks identify the typist of the letter. Usually, the initials of the
officer who dictated the letter are put first and then the initials of the typist, for example SMT
/AN.
(iii) Enclosure: Enclosure includes the details or documents attached to the letter. Only the
number of documents sent can be mentioned or if the documents are important, then they
can be specified. For example:
Enclosure: 2
or
Enclosure: 1. Cheque No. 374992 dated 13 January, 2020 drawn on
Bank of India, Dadar Branch.
2. Brochure.
(iv) Reference: A reference number is mentioned in a business letter for proper filing and quick
retrieval of information. Occasionally, business letters mention the reference number of the
correspondence in the body of the letter such as "We are delighted to receive your assurance
of September 12, 2004, letter No : 289 / PNO / 2004."
Some letters contain two lines of reference: Your Reference:
Our Reference:
3.4.4 Layout of a Business Letter:

Following diagrammatic structure of a business letter shows the compulsory and the optional
elements of a business letter:
--------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------- ------ --------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------(Heading)
------------------- (Date)
----------------(Your Reference)
----------------(Our Reference)
-------------------------
--------------------------
-------------------------(Inside Address)
--------------------------(Attention)-
-------------------------------------------------------------------(Subject)
------------------------(Salutation)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.(Body)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------.
------------------- (Complimentary Close)
------------------- (Signature)
-------------------------(Enclosure)
--------------------- (Identification Marks)
3.4.5 Formats of business letter:

There are various formats of presentation used in business letters. It depends on each individual
preferences and the organization to adopt any style of business letters. These formats can be
classified as following:
(i) The Hanging-indented Style
(ii) The Indented Style
(iii) The Semi- block Style
(iv) The Modified-block Style
(v) The Complete-block Style
The last 3 are used mostly these days and hence have been discussed in detail:
(i) The Semi - block Style: In this style the date, complimentary close and the signature is
aligned to the right. The rest of the elements are aligned with the left margin. In this style,
mixed punctuation is used. This format has been illustrated below:
TOP &TOWN TRADERS
45-B,Side Street, Ahemadabad
Fax : 022 – 22222222 E-mail :[email protected]

Website : www.toptown.com
31 January, 2020
The Manager
East India Co.
Oxford Street, London
Sub: Enquiry letter for Fax machine
Dear Sir,
We came across your advertisement dated 12 January 2015 in ‘Times of India’,
regarding the electronic fax machine. We are importers of these machines and have been
importing them from other Asian countries, for the past five years. Ours is an established
trading company dealing with various types of electronic machines.
We would be grateful if you would kindly send us your detailed catalogue and price list.
Let us know your terms and conditions for an order of about two hundred machines. Future
orders are assured if you offer competitive rates.
Hoping to hear from you soon.
Yours faithfully,
Abhishek Mittial
(Proprietor)
(ii) The Modified - block Style: The following illustration shows the specimen of this style in
which the date, the complimentary close and the signature are aligned to the right. The other
elements are aligned with the left margin. There is no indentation in any elements of the
structure of the letter. Generally, mixed punctuation is used in this style.
Shubham Traders
Chunam Nagar, Pipe Road Dadar (E), Mumbai - 400 027
Fax : 022 – 22222222 E-mail :[email protected]

Website : www.shubham.com
17 January, 2020
The Commerical Attach
American Embassy
Malcha Marg
New Delhi.
Dear Sir:
Sub: Enquiry regarding electronic and computer hardware
We are desirous of adding to our stock- Standard electronic components and computer
hardware.
We shall be glad if you send us a list of indigenous manufactures who would be able to supply
us with Integrated circuits, Electronic cards, inverts, Calculators, Microprocessors, modems etc.
The detailed list and specifications are attached herewith.
Kindly let us know whether you will be able to supply us with the information. Hoping to hear
from you soon.
Yours faithfully,
S.S.Rao,
(Shubham Traders)
(iii) The Complete Block Style: This style is different from the other styles of business letters.
All the parts of the letter, except the heading on the letterhead are aligned with the left margin.
There is no indentation in any element of the structure. Generally, open punctuation is
followed in this style. All the features are shown in the specimen letter:
Union Carbide India Ltd.
Exide House, 12 Lajpat Nagar
New Delhi-400012
Fax : 011 – 22222222 E-mail : [email protected]
Website : www.unioncarbide.com
21 March 2020
Sharma Radios
12 Laxminagar Market
New Delhi-1100
Dear Mr. Sharma
Sub: Replacement of damage batteries
We are sorry to learn from your letter that the four 12 volts 200 watts batteries of Exide make have
been received in damaged condition by you.
A close scrutiny has revealed that the items were mishandled by the road transportation company
which carried the batteries from us to you. We had recently given a contract of transportation to
this company for the first time. We feel that they may not have the know-how to deal with delicate
equipment.
We are sending four new batteries through our original transporters so that you are not
inconvenienced. We shall separately prefer a claim on the transportation company for our loss.
We are deeply sorry for the inconvenience caused to you due to delay.
Yours faithfully
MangatRam
Manager Sales
3.4.6 Types of Letters:

The various types of correspondence are enquiry letters, claim and adjustment letters and credit
and collection letters.
(i) Enquiry Letters:
Letters of enquiry are written to organizations and institutions inquiring about information,
advice, names, directions, quotations, orders, tenders for material for the company or firms'
requirement. Such types of letters seek information on simple matters such as the availability of
certain tools or large amounts of merchandise. In enquiry letters the nature of enquiry is essential
as it is the main subject of the letter. It is up to the organization to state the purpose for the enquiry.
Often, the writer clearly states the reason for the enquiry and what information he is seeking.
Letters of enquiry are of two types: Solicited and unsolicited.
Solicited letters are written when a business or agency advertises its products or services. For
example, letters written in response to advertisements.
The letter of inquiry is unsolicited if the recipient has done nothing to prompt inquiry. For
example, when some take an initiative to write on their own.
An enquiry letter invites quotations from many sellers, which allows the buyer to make a choice
regarding material or information needed. Such type of inviting quotation letters should be
planned so that your requirements are fulfilled at the first attempt. An illustration is given below:
Techno Scientific Company

Shivaji Nagar, Borivali, Mumbai
Email: [email protected] website:www.tsc.com Mobile: 993005678
22 April 2020
Mr Manish Dubey
General Manager
SGTP company
Borivali (w)
Dear Sir
Sub: Enquiry letter for Aplab and Oscilloscope
We wish to buy the following items .Kindly send us your quotation for the items along with the
particulars and details. The number of pieces we require are mentioned alongside each item.
Sr. Mode Delivery

Description Qty.
No. l No. (in weeks)
1 3936 Aplab 100 MHz 2 Channel, 6 Trac Oscilloscope 6 One
2 309 Aplab 10:1 Switchable 250 MHz Oscilloscope probe 12 One
3 3937R 100 MHz 2 Channel, 4 CRT Readout Oscilloscope 4 One
We need the items within one week to fulfill an advance order. Please let us know whether you
would be able to arrange the supply within the given time period
We would look forward to hearing from you soon. Kindly send the quotation letter urgently.
Yours faithfully
Principal
(ii) Sending Quotations:
Quotation letter is a reply to a letter inviting quotations. The sender should send all the required
information needed by the receiver. Also, an important aspect should be noted that there are
many other firms who will send the same information. Therefore, along with the same
requirements, the lower rates and other incentives such as free servicing for one year, free
installation and if the order is in bulk then some discount can be offered.
An example of sending quotation letter is as follows in Complete Block Format:
● Write a letter from Ashoka Tools Ltd., giving Quotation for the supply of electrical pump
sets. Emphasize in your letter the installation service,after sale service and replacement
facilities provided to your customer.
M/S Ashoka Tools Ltd.

ShivajiNagar,Borivali, Mumbai
Phone No:022223444 Website: www.ash.com
Mob:9988009890 Email:[email protected]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
22 March 2020
M/S Veer Electricals Ltd.

Dal Bazaar,shop no.33
Borivali( W)
Dear Mr.Mital
Sub: Quotation for electrical pump sets
We were gratified to learn from your letter dated 28 February 2015 that you are interested in our
electrical pumpsets.We are sending you the quotations and detailed catalogue.
Sr. Code. Description Price

No No.
.
1 P.S 1 Pumpsets of 20K W 4100
2 P.S2 Industrial use set 32002
3 P.S34 Domestic use set 1900
4 P.S 12 Set of 10 KW 1100
Our electrical pump sets are highly reputed and in great demand.
We hope you will place bulk orders with us and rest assured you will not regret.
We will provide you free and efficient installation service and quick after sales service. In case of
any customer complaint, We will attend to the problem immediately and to the utmost
satisfaction of the customer. We provide guarantee period service as well as immediate
replacement facilities to the customers. Customers are our priority and therefore, we always make
sure to keep them happy and contented.
We hope you will send us your order soon. we look forward to hearing from you soon.
Yours faithfully
Ankur Agrawal
Manager
● Given is the list of the most used terms in offers and quotations
1. Carriage Forward- Transport charges to be borne by the buyers
2. C.I.F- Cost, Insurance, Freight
3. Cash-with –Delivery (C.W.O)- Cash to be sent along with the order as advance
4. Cash- on- Delivery (C.O.D)- Payment to be made on delivery of goods
5 .E .and O.E- Errors and omissions Excepted
(iii) Order Letters:

The next step taken is to place an order of the equipment mentioned in any one of the quotation
letter received which is most suitable and affordable.
Usually the contents of the enquiry letter and the order letter remain the same. The nature of the
quotation letter can change some of the contents mentioned in it. Due to the incentives offered,
the quotation can vary.
It is required to mention the same details in the same form of all the requirements in the order
letter. Except the quantity, the rest of the specifications should not differ from those in the inviting
quotation letter.
Packaging cost and transport charges are included in the cost in the quotation letter. In case, if
the terms and conditions are unfavorable, then communicate with the supplier your intentions
so that the deal is clear before transportation of the goods.
The following is an example of an order letter in Modified Block Format.
Modern Dealers
Sector 05,Airoli, Navi Mumbai – 400110
www.moderndealers.com Phone : 022-1122121
March 10, 2020

Mr. Jayendra Pande
Blue Chip Productions
L.D. Road
Thane (E) – 400601
Dear Sir
Sub: Order letter for stationary items
Thank you for your letter dated 9 February 2016 and the samples. We find your quotation for the
stationary items quite reasonable.
We are opening our new branch of office in a prime location of the city Airoli. We wish to place
an order with you on the terms and conditions agreed upon. We would be grateful if you could
arrange to deliver the following items at our office address within a fortnight.
Sr. No. Particulars Quantity
1 Permanent marker pens 50
2 Marker pens 100
3 Box files 110
4 Punch Machine 30
5 Office files 200
We shall make the payment by crossed cheque as desired by you soon after the arrival and
inspection of the items.
Yours faithfully
UdayChawla
Purchase officer
(iv) Claim Letters and Complaint Letters:

A company maintains their customers' goodwill which is an essential ingredient in business. The
best way of earning their goodwill is to protect their interests which directly protect your
interests. When the company fails in this aspect, maintaining their relationship is difficult in the
long run. Tact is required to break bad news to the customer. When the supplier lets you down,
anger is a natural response but the customer should be careful with words while displaying his
reaction on paper.
Claim or complaints letters are written by buyers, to bring to the supplier’s notice any mistakes
made during their transaction. Their primary purpose is to claim compensation for the faculty
transaction. The fault could be defective goods, shortage of goods, and goods damage in transit
etc. By writing a complaint letter and asking for replacement or compensation, the buyer suggests
ways of resolving the problem in an amicable manner.
Claim and complaint letters should start on a positive note. Positive attitude appeals to the
company’s self respect and persuades them to send better quality product. Avoid threatening the
supplier which may not solve your purpose.
The contents of the claim or complaint letter should be clear. Full information on the product
purchase - the date of exact purchase, the arrival, the model number, the reference number, the
description, the amount paid and the fault or defect will supply the supplier the complete
information. Mention your professional reputation with the supplier which can act as a motivator
to solve the problem. Lastly, it is necessary to mention the fair adjustment you would consider to
rectify the complaint.
If the complaint is valid, the company will sooner rectify the problem.
On the other hand, letter of complaint should be taken seriously and responded to invariably. All
the complaints need not be accepted otherwise there may be a flood of frivolous complaints which
may not be your fault. Complaints that mention the dissatisfaction of the products and services
should be accepted. Such complaints may have aroused because the company has failed to satisfy
the customer.
The supplier’s feedback opens up the certain flaws in the products and services and identifies the
defect of products. The valuable feedback needs to be appreciated. The simple word ‘sorry’ can
change the attitude of the customer. Acknowledge the disappointment behind a complaint letter
by making necessary adjustments. Therefore, a reply to a complaint letter is an adjustment letter.
A good adjustment letter should not be delayed. It shows the customer how important he is to
the supplier. The supplier should accept the fault as genuine, convince him that such a mistake
can be incidental and restore his confidence in your services.
Example of the letter is given below in Semi Block Format:
R.D. Engineering company
Aasha Road, New Delhi-1100
Phone No:01125252525
Website:www.rdengg.org
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
21 April, 2020
The Sales executive
M.K. System Ltd.
G.B.Nagar
New Delhi -01.
Sub: Replacement of damaged Scanner and Printer
Dear Sir,
Thank you for promptly delivering 20 scanners and 10 printers in response to my order
no SP/332 on 15 March, 2015. But we are sorry to state that after checking the
consignment, we found only 15 scanners and 2 of the 10 printers were in damaged
condition.
We have been your regular customer for years together. We placed this order on an urgent
basis as our old printers and scanners are not working properly. To carry out our daily
activities we badly need Printers and scanners. Therefore, I request you to send us 5
more scanners and to replace 2 printers which are damaged. I hope you will understand
our problem and will look into the matter with concern. The damaged products will be
sent back to you within two days at your cost by transport or receipt of the confirmations
about replacement.
Kindly send us the replacement within two days of receipt of the letter and oblige.
We hope to receive a prompt response in setting the complaint right.

Yours faithfully,
Manager
As the head of an institution of Technology and Science write a letter of complaint to a supplier
in Mumbai demanding the replacement of the consignment of goods not supplied in
conformity with the samples approved by you.(Full block format)
National Science and Technology institute

Pritampura Estate
New Delhi
Phone: o1134768
E-mail- [email protected]
15 February 2020
M/S Patels and Sons

Goregaon
Mumbai
Our ref: order no.2CB/M/D dated 10 september2015
Dear Sir
Sub: Replacement of consignment goods
The consignment of electronic gadgets supplied by you has put us in a great difficult position.
We have always held you in great regard and have never found any reason to fault your products
in so many years. However, this time on checking the consignment we found that-
(a) The batteries of the calculators are either old or expired.

(b) The outer cover of the typewriters are damaged and their polish chipped.
(c) One of the printers is not working properly.
We would like you to replace the defective material promptly since our college lectures are
suffering .We have dispatched you faulty goods kindly do the needful.
Yours faithfully
Anna Kapoor
Director (purchase)
National Science and Technology institue.
(V) Sales Letter
In order to promote or sell your products and services, you can consider writing and posting the
sales letters. Such letters fall under the category of a business letter. You can generate good
business by writing a sales letter. The sales letter can also serve the purpose of an announcement
letter because it can allow you to successfully bring out new products or services in the market.
Starting your business promotion by means of writing a sales letter is considered to be the good
marketing strategy. If your budget does not permit you to advertise your business on a higher
scale, then in such scenarios you can consider writing a sales letter. The businesses that operate
specifically via emails can make use of such letters successfully. Such letters are also used by
many companies to inform their loyal customers about the latest discount offers.
In order to communicate via such letters, you can make use of an electronic mail or an ordinary
mail. The letter in the form of an electronic mail will be more graphical in comparison with the
ordinary mail letter. Make use of the business letter format to draft such a letter.

1. Match the following:
1. Complete block format a. reader’s point of view
2. Seek compensation b. asking for quotation
3. You attitude c. emblem
4. Enquiry d. no punctuation
5. Letter head e. semi-block format
A1. 1d, 2e, 3a, 4b, 5c
2. The five C’s of business correspondence are
a) Courtesy, clarity, conformity, crosschecking, consciousness
b) Clarity, concreteness, conformity, consideration, courtesy
c) Courtesy, Clarity, Correctness, Completeness, Conciseness
d) Concreteness, Conformity, Consideration, Courtesy, Crosschecking
e) None
Exercise:
Q.1 Explain principles of business correspondence.
Q.2 Describe various types of official letters.
Q.3 Draft an enquiry quotation letter to the Manager of Vastu Center about the items needed to
open up a new Communication Centre.
Q.4 Draft a letter to the educational institutions promoting the Sale of computers to their
computer laboratory.
Learning from Writing Skills: Students will be able to understand the principles of writing and
write various types of letters.
Lecture 18
Learning Objective:
1) Understand various ways of writing skills
2) Develop note making and note taking skills
3) Develop content for technical and non-technical requirements
3.8 Making and Taking Notes
Note making is not just about writing down everything you hear or read. It is a process of
reviewing, connecting and synthesizing ideas from your lectures or reading.
a) Making notes helps you to:

● stay active and engaged during your lectures, reading and revision
● understand what you are learning and clarify your thinking
● be selective and identify key ideas
● remember the material
● organize your ideas and make connections
● plan and structure written assignments
● review and revise before exams.
b) All good notes should contain:
● source information (title, author, date etc)
● headings to help you identify the key topics
● key points, examples, names, new ideas
● triggers to make your notes more memorable – such as mnemonics, colour or drawings
● further reading and ideas to follow up later.
c) Three stages of note making:
Note making doesn’t only happen when you are reading or attending lectures. There are three
stages to making effective notes: before, during, and after.
1. Before: Prepare by finding out what you need to know and what the purpose of the
reading or lecture is.
2. During: Note down main ideas and keywords. Find techniques that work for you.
3. After: Reflect and review and then organize your notes.
➢ Note Making and Note Taking:
Note-taking is a passive process which is done at lectures whereas note-making is a more active
and focused activity where you assimilate all information and make sense of it for yourself.
Taking notes is an important process. It allows you to have a written record of the lecture which
may not be in your textbook. It also ensures that you become an active and involved listener and
learner.
A more important reason for taking notes is that there is a direct relationship between what
happens in lectures and what comes up in the exam. If the lecturer does not personally set the
exam, it is likely that he/she will still submit a number of questions.
When thinking about note-taking it is important to consider the lecturing style adopted by
different lecturers. Some will prefer dictating, others will provide printed notes. The following
areas are covered below:
a. Setting the stage

b. Listening actively
c. Formatting and structuring notes
d. General note-taking tips
e. If the lecturer talks too fast
f. Note-taking abbreviations
g. The note-making process
a. Setting the stage
● Complete outside assignments: Lecturers assume that students have completed

assignments or done the recommended reading and will construct their lecture
accordingly. The more familiar you are with the topic, the better your note-taking will be
and the more active the process will be. It is also a good idea to reiew your
assignments/readings just before the lecture.
● Bring the right materials:
o Always have an adequate supply of A4 note paper /exam pads, pens, pencils and
highlighters.
o Use paper that can be filed easily. It is probably a good idea to only use one side
of a sheet of paper - this allows you to review your notes by spreading them side
to side - usually the benefit outweighs the cost of the paper.
o Keep a spare pen don t use pencil to write as this tends to fade with time.
o Use colour for emphasis; to highlight and to separate different sections or ideas.
o Sit front and centre - sit in a position where you can hear and see clearly without
straining.
b. Listening actively
This involves actively concentrating and paying attention to what is being said and how it is being
said. Listen beyond words to the lecturer's body language.
1. Listening for repetition: When a lecturer repeats a phrase or idea, this is a signal that it is
important and you should take note of it.
2. Watch the board or overhead projector: If the lecturer takes time to write something down,
consider that as another sign that the material is important.
3. Listen for introductory, concluding and transition words and phrases. For example:
a. "The following three factors"

b. "In conclusion"
c. "The most important consideration"
d. "In addition to"
Highlight obvious clues: Often your lecturer will blatantly point out what information is likely to
appear in the exam - make a note of this - don't rely on memory.
Notice the lecturer's interest level: When the lecturer seems excited about something, make a note
as it is more likely to appear in the exam.
Use pictures and diagrams - This makes the notes more visual and assists in recall. What you
need to do is try to find a note-taking format and system that works for you.
c. Home Truths about Lecturers:
● Establish lecturer's interests: Try to establish what topics of research or advanced study
your lecturers are part of, especially if these also relate to your syllabus. Also be aware of
any articles or books written by your lecturers and their areas of specialization.
● Attend All Lectures: Try to attend all lectures - apart from the obvious academic
advantage; it also creates an impression of you as a diligent student which may be to your
advantage at some point in the course.
● The Last Lecture: Make a special effort not to miss the last lecture of every course -
information about the format of the exam is usually covered and the lecturer may also
provide information about sections of the syllabus that need special attention or sections
that can be excluded.
d. Formatting and Structuring Notes:
Some methods will work better for some individuals than others. See what works best for
you.
i. General note-taking tips
1. Give yourself plenty of space.

2. Label, number and date all your notes.
3. Develop your own system of shorthand and abbreviations
4. Use colour, pictures or diagrams to make notes more visual.
5. Keep your own thoughts separate - this ensures that you don t mistake your own idea for
that of the lecturer's.
6. Use a lost signal - when you find yourself lost in a lecture, make a note of it using a specific
symbol and leave space to fill in this later.
7. Write legibly: Many people feel that they have no control over their handwriting and
resign themselves to writing illegibly for the rest of their lives. However, if you put your
mind to it and make it a point to write more legibly, your handwriting will improve. This
has implications not only for note-taking but for writing exams as well.
ii. Mind-Maps
This can be used in conjunction with the Cornell system of note-taking or you might want to use
mind maps exclusively.
Advantages: Visual; contains lists and sequences and shows causes, is often easier to recall; uses
both left and right brain functioning; helps one think from general to specific and puts subjects in
perspective.
iii. The Outline System
You can use a standard Roman numeral outline or free-form, indented outline to organise the
information from a lecture. The outline form illustrates major points and supporting ideas. It has
the major advantage of being an active process of organising incoming information.
iv. The Cornell Format
On each page of your notes, draw a vertical line, top to bottom, 5cm from the left side of the paper.
Write your notes on the right of this line and leave the area to the left of the line for key word
clues and sample questions.
e. If the lecturer talks too fast
1. Try to be extra prepared for the lecture before class: Familiarity with the subject makes it
easier to pick out key points.
2. Exchange notes with classmates
3. Leave large empty spaces in your notes - for filling in information you missed.
4. See the lecturer after the lecture and show the lecturer what you missed.
5. Consider using a voice/sound recorder.
6. Go to the lecture again - if it is offered at a different time.
7. Use your shorthand.
8. Ask questions.
9. Ask the lecturer to slow down.
10. Remember, you don t have to take down everything the lecturer says verbatim.
f. Note-taking abbreviations
Thus / Therefore ∴ Between betw

Because ∵ or /
Equals/same as = Definition def
Does not equal / not the same as ≠ Conclusion conc
Greater than / more than > Regarding / with regard to re
Less than < As against / contrast with vs
And & Before B4
Important / importance of NB Especially esp
Example / for example eg Namely / that is to say ie
However but -ment (e.g. agreement becomes agreem't) m't
Compare/contrast with cf It is/ that is ie
Without w/o Transfer t/f
-ion (e.g. proposition becomes proposit'n) 'n
Usually usu
g. The Note-Making Process
Once you have taken down notes in lectures, the learning process is not complete. The next step
is the note-making process.
a) Reviewing lecture notes:
Your lecture notes form the basis of your final consolidated notes and your entire examination
preparation is based on these. The following should be done on a daily basis:
1. Read through your lecture notes.

2. Underline headings and subheadings.
3. Correct spelling mistakes and rewrite illegible portions.
4. Fill in any gaps.
5. Underline or highlight important sentences or paragraphs.
6. Make sure you understand the concepts.
7. If you use the Cornell system, fill in the key words in the left-hand column.
b) Integrating lecture notes and readings
1. The main aim is to integrate your lecture notes with reading from articles, prescribed and
recommended books or tutorials.
2. It is best to use your lecture notes as the basis of your integration and not rewrite these
unless your handwriting is extremely poor.
3. Mind-map summaries can be made to give you an overall picture of the topic.
3.5.1 Content Development
Content development is the process of creating “content” for a website/ blog/ any general
content from start to finish. Content development includes strategizing, writing, optimizing,
publishing, and promoting. The term is interchangeable with content marketing. Web content
can be anything from blog posts to infographics to videos. Some agencies and online content
producers only handle one or two steps of the content marketing process. For instance, they’ll
manage the writing, but don’t strategize or publish or promote. However, an effective content
development strategy is much more than just writing or just SEO.
Good content can only get you so far – without the right strategy, or with the wrong promotion
methods, no one is going to see the webpage you spent weeks developing. At Junto, we provide
a turn-key content development solution focused on long-form blog content designed to increase
search traffic. It’s hard work, but the benefits of content marketing are undeniable. There are a
few step processes to develop content:
1. Gather Information
The first step in content development is always to collect as much information as possible. When
we’re working with companies, we compile information on target demographics, key
competitors, past site performance, site goals, and more.
Data, stats, Google Analytics, Search Console are great tools for looking at on-site data and other
related information is required to be collected and studied to get the market scenario and
expectations.
2. Analyze
Once we’ve gathered as much information as possible, it’s time to break it down into actionable
information. One of the most useful pieces of information to look at is competitor performance.
We look at what pages on a competitor’s site drive the most organic traffic. We’ll look at the back
link profile, length, and quality of those pages and determine if we can outrank the competition.
3. Strategize
During the strategize phase of content marketing, we build out the content strategy and editorial
calendar. Typically, it is required to plan out two or more articles in the 1,000-word range per
month, accompanied by “power pages” which are twice as long every few months. The reason
for this is so we can target low-hanging fruit with shorter articles and more competitive, higher-
value keywords with longer pieces.
4. Write
The writing stage is pretty self-explanatory. Try not to focus on keywords or other ranking
signifiers during the writing stage. Remember, you want people to read and enjoy the content
first and foremost. Put yourself in the reader’s shoes. Think about why they would search for a
topic, and what they would want to read in response to that search query.
5. Optimize & Publish
Once the writing phase is complete, we move on to search engine optimization and publishing.
It’s here where we consider things like readability, word count, related keywords, and more to
make the content more attractive to search engines (and people!).
6. Promote
After publishing, it’s time to promote. There are hundreds of ways to promote quality content,
but the most obvious is social media. You can also consider republishing platforms, and don’t
forget about good ol’ email outreach.
7. Review & Repeat
Content development is never “done,” it is a continuous process that starts as soon as it ends.
That’s why we review our content marketing efforts for every website on a monthly basis. If our
efforts are working, we’ll continue down the same path for future content. If we do not see results,
it’s time to pivot to a new content development strategy.
3.5.2 Story-based Writing:

A story is basically a narrating of real or imaginary events, involving real or imaginary people. A
story needs to be represented in words necessarily. Even images or moving pictures (movies) can
narrate a story. A story is generally designed to entertain, and/or send a message across.
Story based writing can also be used in technical writing which helps in understanding the
readers quite clearly and without losing interest. This helps readers in intuitively feeling that the
text is good to read. The best story based texts just flow and it doesn't matter if it is on rocket
science.
Bombarding readers with facts and numbers is a poor way of data delivery, as this causes readers
to become bored. It is assumed that technical writers are generally not good at delivering
information because they have a different mindset. Technical writers should have the concern for
not only data, but about readers, too. So, being able to foresee how a text will be received and
understood by the target audience, looking at the texts through their eyes, that's a tech writer's
job. With such an approach, the readers won't be bored, they will be immersed in the text with
facts tailored and organized specifically for them.
Therefore, to make a text a good read one needs to focus on the interest of the readers and prepare
the document using proper structure, connecting sentences and paragraphs, consistent writing
style and the right choice of lexical units.
Creating great texts is what a good writer (technical or not) does. Even if you are merely giving
instructions, you are still telling a story, leaving bread crumbs for a wanderer. You can't turn all
technical writing into something emotionally engaging, but you will be able to show the reader
that you care about their journey through your careful word choice, slow and steady pace of
information flow, granting a sense of security. The readers will feel that you got their back as you
keep showing them relevant use cases and placing warnings exactly where they are required,
being proactive about possible failures. That's how you make your tech writing story authentic
and plausible, and, as far as emotions go - when you help users solve their problem, they will
definitely feel gratitude. Stories can make or break a project, especially a highly technical one.
Therefore, to make a good story, they should be:
4) Independent (can be built separately to other stories)
5) Negotiable (requirements can be adapted)
6) Valuable (provides benefit to the end-user)
7) Estimable (to reasonable accuracy)
8) Small (can be built within one iteration)
9) Testable (can be verified by QA)
1. The following are test preparation strategies except
a. attend school everyday and be on time
b. use a written planner or iCalendar to keep up with when tests are scheduled
c. study for no more than one hour before you go to bed
d. read your notes out loud
Exercise:
Q.1 Explain the steps involved in developing content
Q.2 Explain the process of note making.
Q.3 Explain various types of note making.
Q.4 Make notes of the present lecture.
Learning from Writing Skills: Students will be able to prepare notes and develop content as per
the requirement.
3.6 Learning Outcomes:

Know: Student should be able to
1. Define Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing skills
2. List the fundamental elements of process of listening
3. State meaning, importance and different types listening, speaking, reading and writing
Comprehend: Student should be able to
4. Describe different types of listening, reading and writing
5. Explain various traits required for public speaking
6. Compare and contrast listening and hearing, note taking and note making
7. Understand the nuances of effective listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Apply, Analyze and synthesize: Student should be able to
8. Adapt to the class environment for effective communication
9. Learn new language with the basics of language skills
10. Interact and be compatible with the classmates
1. Hearing is not different from listening.
a. True b. False
2. Listening is _______ process, whereas hearing is ______ process.

a. Natural, general b. Psychological, natural c. Natural, psychological d.
General, natural
3. Pronunciation matters in communication because
a. It gives clarity in understanding b. It gives speaker an impression
c. It will create long term impact d. Understanding is not possible without

that
4. Speaking is one of the important skills for effective communication because
a. It will create clear understanding among the speaker and listener
b. It will create good friendship
c. It will mushroom relationship
d. All of the above
5. Following is not the technique of reading
a. Skimming b. Scanning c. Average reading speed d. SQ3R

6. The five C’s of business correspondence are
a) Courtesy, clarity, conformity, crosschecking, consciousness
b) Clarity, concreteness, conformity, consideration, courtesy
c) Courtesy, Clarity, Correctness, Completeness, Conciseness
d) Concreteness, Conformity, Consideration, Courtesy, Crosschecking
1. Differentiate between listening and hearing.
2. Listening is one of the important skills which is neglected in schooling. Explain this
statement.
3. Explain the skills required for effective Public speaking.
4. Pronunciation is an important element while speaking. Explain this statement.
5. Explain reading skills and the ways to enhance the reading skills.
6. Explain writing as a skill.
7. Describe three formats of letter with its structure and characteristics.

8. Draft a compeering script for a national seminar conducting at your college.
9. Write a complaint letter as you received a damaged phone from e-commerce website.
1. Write a short note on 7Cs of writing skill.
2. Explain various types of reading skill.
3. What are various ways of enhancing speaking skill?
4. Explain the process of listening.
5. Write an enquiry letter for furniture to the dealer. Mention the details of furniture
which are required for newly opened firm.
6. Explain 21 days magic habit in detail.
7. Explain the steps involved in developing content and write technical content for
research article.
8. Explain structure of a business letter giving details of mandatory elements with

suitable examples.
9. ‘Speeches are not just meant to be spoken; they also are required to be made
interesting and entertaining to the audience.’ What are the strategies that can make a
speech interesting and entertaining to the audience? Discuss and substantiate the
appropriate examples.
Self-Assessment:
1. Define listening and hearing. Explain major difference between these two.
2. Reading is a passive skill but requires lot of patience. Explain.
3. Speaking is easy but having effectiveness requires practice. Explain.
4. Writing requires practice as it creates great and long-term impact. Explain.
Self-Evaluation
Name of
the
student
Class
Roll No
Subject
Module
No.
1 Do you understand the concept of Listening, Yes

speaking, reading, and writing?
No
2 Do you understand various types of listening, Yes

speaking, reading, and writing?
No
3 Are you able to differentiate between reading Yes

and listening; and speaking and writing?
No
4 Will you be able to write professional letters? Yes
No

implementation of module in your life?
Partially
No, not at all

Module - 4
Written Communication
Lecture19
4.1 Phrases: Definition, Types, Example, Clauses; Sentence Structures, Basics of Sentence
Patterns
4.1.1 Motivation
Communication is one of the important aspects of human life. For a long-term survival and
success of an organization depends on the way communication takes place. For effective
communication and success of an organization is totally dependent on the communication.
Written communication has been an integral part of an organization to carry out the business of
any organization. Therefore, written communication is always looked upon an additional
advantage of an organization. Employees in an organization should be effective in written
communication for the growth and development of an organization.
4.1.2 Syllabus: Written Communication

No. Hours Hours
19 Phrases and Clauses and
Sentence Structures, Basics of Sentence Patterns 1 hour 1 hour
20 Parts of Speech; Types of Sentences 1 hour

1 hour
21 Editing and Proofreading: Techniques for Writing

Precisely; Redundancies; Clichés 1 hour 1 hour
22 Common Errors in English and 1 hour

1 hour
Use of Punctuation
23 Comprehension Summarization and 1 hour
1 hour
Paraphrasing and Précis Writing: Exercises

1) Define concept of phrases and types of phrases.
2) List the types of clauses and its role in sentences.
3) State the parts of speech and types of sentences.
4) Describe the common errors in English.
5) Explain Comprehension, Summarization, Paraphrasing and Précis Writing.

Written communication is one of the important aspects for an engineer to learn as they might
encounter various situations, where they are required to write mails, reports, proposals, etc. to
carry out the business of an organization. Writing skills should have been an important aspect to
communicate effectively with the clients externally and with the employees internally within
organization. Therefore, written communication should have the clarity in making the readers
understand the intention of the writer. Phrases, clauses, sentence creation, comprehension and
summarization are some of the important elements of written communication which will be dealt
in this module.
4.1.6 Key Definitions:
Phrase: A phrase is a group of words that express a concept and is used as a unit within a
sentence. A phrase is not a sentence or a clause, because it does not have a subject and a verb; and
does not express a complete idea.
Clause: A clause consists of a subject and a verb and is the grammatical unit that expresses a
thought. A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words
that does not contain a subject-verb relationship.
A. Phrases
Phrases are considered as the second level of classification as they tend to be larger than
individual words but are smaller than sentences. We refer to the central element in a phrase as
the head of the phrase. If the head is a noun, then the phrase is called a noun phrase. There are
nine generally accepted classifications for phrases. These classifications are generally based on
the headword or construction of the phrase. The headword can usually stand alone as a one-word
phrase. It is the only part that cannot be omitted from the phrase.
Definition: A phrase is a group of words that express a concept and is used as a unit within a
sentence. A phrase is not a sentence or a clause, because it does not have a subject and a verb; and
does not express a complete idea. It can act as a noun, an adjective, a preposition or an adverb.
The function of a phrase depends upon its construction and place in a sentence.
Depending upon its function in a sentence, there are 9 different types of phrases:
1. Noun Phrase
2. Prepositional Phrase
3. Adjective Phrase
4. Adverb Phrase
5. Verb Phrase
6. Infinitive Phrase
7. Gerund Phrase
8. Participle Phrase
9. Absolute Phrase.
1. NOUN PHRASE
A phrase which acts like a noun in a sentence is called a noun phrase and contains a noun
and other words like determiners and modifiers. Noun phrases can also work in a
sentence as adjectives, participles, infinitives, and prepositional or absolute phrases. A
noun phrase can be used wherever nouns are used in a sentence, such as the subject, or
the object of a verb:
Examples:
● A brown dog bit me. (a brown dog = noun phrase subject)
● I saw a brown dog. (a brown dog = object of a verb)
● I like to swing the bat hard when I am at the crease. (An object)
● Reading novels is a good habit. (A subject)
● The probability of happening that match is not much. (A subject)
2. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
If a phrase acts like a preposition, and contains a preposition, then it is called a
prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases have a noun or pronoun which is called the
object of preposition. A prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition and
connects nouns.
Examples:
● He sacrificed his life for the sake of his country.
● In the end, we all have to die.
● He is on the way.
● By working aimlessly, you will not get success.
● In spite of working hard, he was insulted by his boss.
● The dog sat on the mat.
3. ADJECTIVE PHRASE
A phrase that acts likes an adjective in a sentence is called ADJECTIVE PHRASE.
Adjective phrases can be used like single adjectives to describe nouns and pronouns. Most
adjective phrases come after the word they describe. Look at these examples.
Examples:
● Alex is a well-behaved man.
● He is a man of friendly nature.
● Julie is a woman of gorgeous style.
● She leads a very interesting life.
● A lot of people do not eat at night.
● She bought a beautiful pink dress.
● Who is the girl with long hair?
● My friend lives in the house across the street.
● Mr. John is tall and slim.
● This is the road to New York.
● The boy in the bookshop is a friend of mine.
4. ADVERB PHRASE
A phrase that acts like an adverb in a sentence is called an ADVERB PHRASE. Adverb
phrases are groups of words that functions as single adverbs to describe the action of the
verb. Like an adverb, it gives information about a verb, another adverb or an adjective,
and it contains an adverb.
Examples:
● He spoke to me in a respectful way.
● The horse runs at a good speed.
● I was in a hurry then.
● I ran as fast as possible.
● He works very slowly.
● Are you sitting in a comfortable chair?
● Mr. Dickson always dresses in fashionable clothes.
● He draws cartoons like a real cartoonist.
● The train arrived on time.
5. VERB PHRASE
A verb phrase is the group of main verbs and helping-verbs (auxiliaries) within a
sentence: There are various functions of verb phrases to perform. Sometimes they serve
as phrase heads, as predicates, modifiers, compliments, and objects too.
Examples:
● He was waiting for the rain to stop.
● She was upset when it didn't boil.
● You have been sleeping for a long time.
● You might enjoy a massage.
● He was eager to eat dinner.
● They are writing postcards.
6. INFINITIVE PHRASE
An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase that begins with an infinitive verb.
Examples:
● I want to eat an apple.
● I made a plan to help people.
● I played to win the match.
● To make lemonade, you have to start with lemons.
● I tried to see the stage, but I was too short.
● She organized a boycott to make a statement.
● The ability to give to others is an important character trait.
(Noun phrase as a "to-infinitive")
● Our decision to get married was celebrated by all our friends.
(Noun phrase as a "to-infinitive")
7. GERUND PHRASE
A gerund is a verb form that ends in -ing. A gerund phrase includes the gerund, plus any
modifiers and complements. Gerunds and gerund phrases always function as nouns.
They can act as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, or objects
of a preposition in a sentence.
Examples:
● I hate eating fish. (gerund phrase)
● Riding a roller coaster scares my little brother.
● In the summer, Ritesh prefers swimming.
● As part of his exercise regimen, Jack made walking every day a priority.
● Shreya’s main interest is working with computers
8. PARTICIPLE PHRASE
Participle phrases contain a present participle, which is (verb+ing), and a past participle,
modifiers, or other associated words. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas. A participle phrases act as an adjective within a sentence.
Examples:
● Washed with my clothes, my cell phone no longer worked.
● Knowing what I know now, I wish I had never come here.
● I am really excited, considering all the people that will be there.
● We are looking forward to the movie, having seen the trailer last week.
● Grinning from ear to ear, she accepted her award.
● Painted a brilliant white, the small room appeared bigger.
● Having been a police officer, he knew how to defend himself.
(Noun phrase as a participle)
9. ABSOLUTE PHRASE
An ABSOLUTE PHRASE, which is also called a NOMINATIVE PHRASE consists of a
noun or a pronoun and a participle. It looks like a clause but doesn't have a finite verb. It
is always separated by commas.
Examples:
● Joe, having some free time, went to the library.
● The tail between its legs, the dog walked out the door.
● Picnic basket in hand, she set off for her date.
● The guys attacked the pile of nachos, their fingers getting the last bit of cheese off
the plate.
● Their heads hanging down, the whole group apologized.
● Her face red with embarrassment, she took her seat beside the man she had tripped.
(Noun phrase as an absolute phrase to the subject "she")
● They walked into the sunset, their laughter carrying on the breeze.
(Noun phrase as an absolute phrase to the subject "they")
B. Clauses
Definition: A clause consists of a subject and a verb and is the grammatical unit that expresses a
thought. A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words
that does not contain a subject-verb relationship.
What is a Clause in a Sentence?
In its simplest form, a clause in grammar is a subject plus a verb. The subject is the entity “doing”
the action of the sentence and the verb is the action that subject completes. A clause creates a
complete thought (an idea or a statement that can stand alone).
Types:
1. Independent Clause [or main]
2. Subordinate Clause [or dependent]
3. Adjective Clause [or Relative]
4. Noun Clause
5. Adverb Clause
1. Independent Clause or Main Clause

An independent clause can stand alone in a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb in
its smallest form. A clause may also include modifiers and a verb predicate. It is a
complete thought and the smallest unit of grammar that is syntactically accurate. In a
sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor,
for*, yet.
Every main clause will follow this pattern:
Subject + Verb = Complete Thought.
Examples:
● Lazy students whine.
Students = subject; whine = verb.
● Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.
Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.
● My dog loves pizza crusts.
Dog = subject; loves = verb.
● I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses)
The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main
clause.
2. Subordinate Clause or Dependent Clause
Dependent clauses contain a subject and verb. However, they cannot stand alone as an
independent thought. They must be joined with an independent clause to be
grammatically correct. Dependent clauses help the independent clauses complete the
sentence. A dependent clause alone cannot form a complete sentence.
A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:
Subordinate Conjunction + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
● Whenever lazy students whine
Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb.
● As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter
As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.
● Because my dog loves pizza crusts
Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb.
The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand
alone as complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate
clause to a main clause.
Generally, the punctuation looks like this:
Main Clause +, + Subordinate Clause.
Subordinate Clause +, + Main Clause.
Revisions to the subordinate clauses above:
● Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads.
● Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the
counter.
● Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.
3. Adjective Clause or Relative Clause
An adjective clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as an adjective in the sentence.
An adjective clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand
alone as a complete thought.
A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which,
or that] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why].
The patterns look like these:
Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
Examples:
● Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk erase?
Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.
● Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm
Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs.
● That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter
That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs
● Who loves pizza crusts?
Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb.
Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You
must connect them to main clauses to finish the thought.
Look at these revisions of the relative clauses above:
● The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon
learned to keep their complaints to themselves.
● My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he it
chews and drools with great enthusiasm.
4. Noun Clause
A noun clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as a noun in the sentence. A noun
clause will always contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a
complete thought. Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause.
Examples:
● I remember what you said yesterday.
● You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.
5. Adverb Clause
An adverb clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as an adverb in the sentence. It
modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb in another clause. An adverb clause will also
contain a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a complete thought or
sentence.
Examples:
● I will do it when I think fit.
● We may sit wherever we like.
● They ran fast so that they could catch the local train.
4.1.6 Sentence Structure, Basics of Sentence Patterns and Types of Sentence Structures
A. English Sentence Structure
English sentence structure is the basic arrangement of words in sentences. Every sentence
includes a subject and a predicate. (It may include more than one.)The subject tells who or what
the sentence is about. Then the verb and the rest of the predicate give information about what the
subject does or is.
Subject/predicate: All sentences are about something or someone.
● John often comes late to class.

● My friend and I both have a dog named Spot.
● Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by the tsunami in 2004.
● The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to make way for
a new supermarket.
● Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue
tail feathers.
● On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock.
● Before giving a test, the teacher should make sure that the students are well-
prepared.
❖ The predicate contains information about someone or something that is the subject. The
example sentences above are shown again, this time with the predicate marked in Bold
● John often comes late to class.

● My friend and I both have a dog named Spot.
● Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in 2004.
● The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to make way
for a new supermarket.
● Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with long blue
tail feathers.
● On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock.
● Before giving a test, the teacher should make sure that the students are well-
prepared.
B. Basics of Sentence Patterns

A sentence pattern is an arrangement of words. This arrangement needs to be in a grammatically
correct structure. It means the placement of verbs and nouns should be correct to form a
meaningful sentence. Without the correct placement of words, you cannot express your thoughts
properly while speaking. Same way, without proper use of punctuations, you can’t express your
thoughts effectively in writing.
Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement

Sentence Patterns
⮚ Sentence Pattern 1: Subject / Verb
The basic Subject/Verb sentence pattern consists of a subject and a verb. In its simplest
form, a sentence has two parts: a subject and a verb. They express a complete thought
when they are together. Remember a sentence is like a bike…
Subject: Answers who/ what is doing the action?
Options: noun or pronoun
Predicate: Shows an action or a state of being

Options: action verb, linking verb, or verb phrase (helping verb + main
verb)
Examples:
I. Anthony left early.
II. The ancient plumbing leaked badly.
III. The noisy frog in the pond croaked throughout the night.
⮚ Sentence Pattern 2: Subject/Verb/Direct Object

Some verbs require a direct object, which is a noun or pronoun that receives the action
of the verb.
Subject: Who or What?
Noun or pronoun
Verb: Action verb OR verb phrase (helping verb + action verb)
Direct Object: Receives the action of the verb
Ask yourself: [verb] what?
Examples:
I. Jenny made a cake
II. The New York Giants won the game.
III. She loves her job.
⮚ Sentence Pattern 3: Subject/Verb/Indirect Object/Direct Object

This third pattern is similar to the Subject/Verb/Direct Object pattern but with an
addition. In the Subject/Verb/Indirect Object/Direct Object pattern, you go one step
beyond asking whom or what? after the verb. The indirect object answers the question
to whom or what? or for whom or what? and always appears between the verb and the
direct object.
Subject: Who or What? (Noun or pronoun)

Verb: Action verb OR verb phrase ((helping verb + action verb)
Indirect Object: Identifies to or for whom or what the action of the verb is performed.
(Ask yourself: [verb] to/ for whom/ what?)
Direct Object: Receives the action of the verb Ask yourself: [verb] what?
Examples:
I. Jenny made Dad a cake.
II. The teacher gave her students A's.
III. Grandfather will leave the dogs his money.
⮚ Sentence Pattern 4: Subject/Verb/Direct Object/Object Complement
This pattern contains the subject, verb, and direct object, but it adds another word, the
object complement. An object complement always follows the direct object and either
renames or describes the direct object.
Examples:
I. She named the baby Bruce.
II. I painted my nails green.
III. The doctor considered the patient’s feelings important.
⮚ Sentence Pattern 5: Subject/Linking Verb/Subject Complement

The verbs examined so far have been action verbs. You have learned that some action
verbs are intransitive verbs, that is, verbs that do not take a direct object. Remem- ber
Fido? Fido barks. Other action verbs are transitive verbs, which do take a direct object.
Remember John and his car? John drove the car, so car is the direct object.
Not all verbs show action, however. Linking verbs have a special purpose—to link the
subject to a word in the predicate in order to explain or enhance the subject’s meaning.
A linking verb LINKS the subject of the sentence to its subject complement; therefore,
this pattern only works with linking verbs.
Linking Verb: “To be” verbs like am, is, are, was, were, etc.
Sensory verbs like appear, feel, grow, look etc
Subject Complement: The adjective OR noun that follows a linking verb.
Complement = completes the subject
Examples:
I. Brandon is a gifted athlete.
II. He becomes embarrassed when people compliment his skill
III. The sea is beautiful even in winter.
C. 4 Types of Sentence Structure
1. A simple sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound – Complex Sentence
1. A simple sentence
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and
modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause. (An independent clause
contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)
Structure: Independent clause
Examples:
● My ESL teacher speaks a little Russian.
● The young girl with the long black hair fell from her bike yesterday in heavy rain.
● At the back of the line in the cafeteria yesterday was a large brown dog with a yellow
collar around its neck!
● My friend and I are going on holiday together this year.
● Your mother or your father must come to the meeting.
2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent
clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, but, or,
for, nor, yet, so) or with a semicolon.
Structure: Independent Clause Subordinating Conjunction Independent Clause
Examples:
● She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
● He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
● They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much to
learn.
● Mary went to work but John went to the party.
● Our car broke down; we came last.
3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since,
while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause. If a sentence begins
with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the
sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two
clauses.
Structure: Independent Clause Subordinating Conjunction Dependent Clause
Examples:
● Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section.
(Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.)
● Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
(Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause)
● They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
(Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent
clause)
● I’m happy even though I don’t make much money.
● After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night.
4. Compound-Complex Sentence Structure
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at
least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Structure:
Independent Clause Subordinating Conjunction Dependent Clause Coordinating
Conjunction Independent Clause
Examples:
● She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her methods
section even though she finished her methods course last semester.
● Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
● With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they
decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective.
● I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money, but my kids are always
complaining since we can’t afford to buy the newest toys.
● After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night, while
my sister stayed home and studied.
●
Q1. Which of the following is an adjective phrase?

a) A girl is smarter than me b) As the cat watched
c) Under the sea d) She wants to be a dancer
Q2. Which of the following is a noun phrase?
a) The movie was boring b) Across many rivers
c) Around the sun d) The choreographer was happy
Q3. Which of the following is a prepositional phrase?
a) John might eat the pizza b) Like a beautiful swan
c) My home is near the mountains d) To understand better
Q4. Which of the following is a verb phrase?
a) The cake is very yummy b) For making cookies
c) Words were spoken d) The glittering bells of the church
Q5. Which of the following is an adverb phrase?
a) The exams were extremely tough b) After the sunset
c) Her eyes were mesmerizing d) He loves to walk in the park
Q.6. Identify the following sentence as simple, compound, or complex: We can wait here until
Carlo calls us.
a) Simple b) Compound c) Complex d) Mixed
Q.7. Identify the following sentence as simple, compound, or complex: Either the engine starts,
or we will remain here all night.
a) Simple b) Compound c) Complex d) Mixed
Q.8. Choose the sentence pattern for the following sentence: The restaurant served 3 kinds of
barbeque.
a) Subject + verb b) Subject + verb + direct object
c) Subject + linking verb + complement d) Subject + linking verb
Q.9. Boys are playing on the ground
a) SVO b) SVA c) SVC d) SVOO
Q.10. Jennifer baked for weeks before the holidays.
a) VS b) SVDO c) SV d) SVOO
Exercise:
● Q1. What is a Clause in a Sentence?
● Q2. What is an Independent Clause?
● Q3. What is an Adjective Clause? (Also called Relative Clause)
● Q4. What are the structures of sentences explain in brief.
● Q5. What is complex sentence?
● Q6. Give two examples of SVDO sentence pattern
Q1. What are the different types of phrases?
Q2. What are the basic sentences patterns explain with example?
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to define Phrases and Clauses with its concept
and types with its examples. Learners will be able to explain various patterns of sentences,
structure of sentence with examples
Lecture-20
4.2 Parts of Speech, Types of Sentences

Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to explain parts of speech and types of sentences
4.2.1 Parts of Speech

Parts of speech are the classification of words categorized by their roles and functions within the
structure of the language. Parts of speech encompass everything a language has in itself. There
are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions
in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as
more than one part of speech when used in different circumstances.
1) Noun 2) Pronoun 3) Verb 4) Adjective

5) Adverb 6) Preposition 7) Conjunction 8) Interjection
1. Noun
Words that name people, places and things are called nouns.
⮚ Categories of Nouns
There are several categories of nouns, and there can be an overlap across the categories.
For example, there are common and proper nouns, and concrete and abstract nouns, yet
some nouns are both concrete and common, or concrete and proper.
i. Common noun
Common nouns are the words that refer to most general things: country, evening,
laughter, puppy, umbrella etc.
Examples:
● Cathy loves the weekends in the country.
● We enjoy swimming after breakfast.
● The cup fell and broke.
ii. Proper noun

Proper nouns are the name that identifies someone or something, a person or a place.
Proper nouns are capitalized. John is a proper noun, since the word John represents a
particular, single example of a thing, John. Proper noun examples: Mary, Jimmy, Aunt
Audrey, Honda, Philadelphia.
Examples:
● Emily loved spending time with her Aunt Nancy in Paris.
● Buick and Jeep are two important carmakers.
● We visited Lake Erie, which separates the United States and Canada.
iii. Concrete noun

Concrete nouns represent a thing that is real and tangible: pig, person, rock, smell, air,
soup, Larry is all concrete nouns. Concrete noun examples: cup, computer, diamond,
rollercoaster, shampoo, Debby
Examples:
● The person threw the rock across the yard.

● My dog, Oreo, jumped in the air and caught the ball!
● Can you smell the soup, John?
iv. Abstract noun

An abstract noun represents a thing that is more like a concept or idea: love, integrity,
democracy, friendship, beauty, knowledge are examples of abstract nouns.
Examples:
● Love and friendship are equally important.
● Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
● Your mind can know a million things.
v. Collective noun
Collective nouns refer to a group of people or things: audience, team, bunch, family, class.
Collective noun examples: government, jury, team, bunch, school, class, and room (the
people in the room or building)
Examples:
● The team threw confetti when it was over.
● Steve buys the band some sandwiches.
● Meredith told the class she was getting married.
⮚ Nouns can also be categorized as countable or uncountable.

I. Countable Noun
A countable noun is a thing can be numbered or counted: airplane, sock, bowl, noodle,
teacher, as in two airplanes, three socks, 1000 noodles.
Countable noun examples: peach, horse, shirt, telescope.
Examples:
● There are five dogs in the street.
● I bought three tons of coal.
● Margaret has six pairs of blue sandals.
II. Uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns can have a quantity or amount but cannot be actually counted: water,
music, clothes, understanding. In the second example above, tons are a countable noun,
but coal is not. Coal is referred to as an uncountable noun.
Uncountable noun examples: hate, confidence, attractiveness, wisdom.
Examples:
● Love is in the air.
● The four elements are air, earth, fire and water.
● Her humor knows no bounds.
2. Pronoun
A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that is used as a substitution for a noun or noun
phrase, which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns are short words and can
do everything that nouns can do and are one of the building blocks of a sentence. Without
pronouns, we’d constantly have to repeat nouns, and that would make our speech and
writing repetitive. Using pronouns helps the flow of sentences and makes them more
interesting.
⮚ Types of Pronoun:
i. Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to demonstrate (or indicate). Demonstrative pronouns

used to point to something specific within a sentence. There are only four demonstrative
pronouns – this, that, these, those
Examples:
● I prefer this.
● These are beautiful, but those belong to Danny.
● Did you see that?
ii. Indefinite Pronouns
Unlike demonstrative pronouns, which point out specific items, indefinite pronouns are used
for non-specific things. This is the largest group pronouns. It usually does not have a definite
or specific antecedent as a personal pronoun does.
Indefinite pronoun examples: Anyone, Somebody, Whichever, Whoever, Other, Something,
Nobody, All, Each, More
Examples:
● Would anyone like a coffee?

● Take whatever you like. Jamie took one cookie and Ben took the other.
● Whoever owns this is in big trouble! I want someone to move this now.
iii. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are used as a substitute for a person's name. There are two kinds:
subjective and objective pronouns. That is, they either act as the subject of the sentence or the
object of the sentence.
As the subject of a sentence, they are:

● I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Examples:
● They went to the store.
● I don't want to leave.
● He runs a great shop in town.
● You can't leave, either.
As the object of the sentence, they are:
● Me, you, her, him, it, us, them
Example:
● Please don't sit beside me.
● Go talk to her.
● Mary put the gift under it.
● Don't look at them.
iv. Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession of a noun. They are:

● my, our, your, his, her, its (note there is no apostrophe), their
Examples:
● Is that my book?
● No, that's his book.
● I'd like to see their bookshelves.
However, there are also independent possessive pronouns. These pronouns refer to a previously
named or understood noun. They stand alone and aren't followed by any other noun. They are:
● mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs
Examples:
● That's mine.
● Wrong. It's ours.
● So, I suppose those clothes are yours?
● No, it's theirs.
v. Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a word which is used in relation to a noun and modifies (gives more
information about) the same noun. Relative pronouns are those pronouns that join relative
clauses and the relative sentences.
They are: which, who, that, whom, whose etc.
For example:
● She is the girl, who sings songs.
The word ‘who’ in above example is a relative pronoun that modifies (tell more about) the noun
(girl). The same pronoun joins the sentence ‘she is the girl’ to a clause ‘sings songs’.
Examples:
● Dr Adam, who lectured at Cambridge for more than 12 years, should have known
the difference.
● The car that crashed into the wall was blue.
● This is the woman, whose key you found.
vi. Reflexive pronouns
The reflexive pronoun expresses a noun when the subject’s action affects the subject itself.
A reflexive pronoun ends ...self or ...selves and refers to another noun or pronoun in the
sentence (usually the subject of the sentence).
Person Subjects Relative Pronouns
1st Person I My self

Singular 2nd Person You Yourself
3rd Person He, She, It Himself, Herself, Itself
Plural 1st Person We Ourselves
2nd Person You Yourselves
3rd Person They Themselves
Examples:
● John bakes all the bread himself.
● The cat opened the door itself.
● Annie only had herself to blame.
● Peter and Paul had baked themselves cakes.
vii. Reciprocal pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one another.
There are just two reciprocal pronouns in English: one another and each other. They are
mainly used to stop unnecessary repetition in a sentence, but also to reinforce the idea that
collective and reciprocal actions are happening to more than one person or thing. John and
Mary gave each other gifts. Using each other allows us the sentence to be more efficient than:
John gave Mary a gift and Mary gave a gift to John. The countries worked with one another
on national security. In this example, one another works to suggest that the action of working
is being reciprocated back and forth by more than one country.
Examples:
● The boxers punched each other.
● The couple love one another deeply.
viii. Intensive pronouns
An intensive pronoun (sometimes called an emphatic pronoun) refers back to another noun
or pronoun in the sentence to emphasize it (e.g., to emphasize that it is the thing carrying out
the action). These are almost identical to reflexive pronouns, but rather than just referring
back to the subject of the sentence they work to reinforce the action. In many cases, the
sentence would still make sense without the intensive pronoun.
Examples:
● John bakes all the bread himself.
(In this example, the intensive pronoun himself refers back to the noun John.)
● The cat opened the door itself.
● I will do it myself.
● We made this pie ourselves.
● A nation speaks for itself through elections.
ix. Interrogative pronouns
The main interrogative pronouns are what, which, who, whom, and whose. Interrogative
pronouns are used to ask questions. The other, less common interrogative pronouns are the
same as the ones above but with the suffix – ever or so ever e.g. Whatever, Whichever,
Whatsoever.
Examples:
● Who told you to do that?
● Which dog won the race?
● What do you need?
● Whose clothes are on the floor?
● Whom did you tell?
3. Verbs
Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing. Along with
nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story about what is taking place.
In fact, without a verb, full thoughts can’t be properly conveyed, and even the simplest sentences,
such as Maria sings, have one. Actually, a verb can be a sentence by itself, with the subject, in
most case you, implied, such as, Sing! and Drive!
A verb can express:
⮚ A physical action (e.g., to swim, to write, to climb).

⮚ A mental action (e.g., to think, to guess, to consider).
⮚ A state of being (e.g., to be, to exist, to appear).
Verbs Can Express Physical Actions

Here are some sentences with verbs that express physical actions. (In each example, the verb is
highlighted.)
Examples:
● She sells pegs and lucky heather.

(In this example, the word sells is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to sell.)
● The doctor wrote the prescription.
(In this example, the word wrote is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to
write.)
● Alison bought a ticket.
(The word bought is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to buy.)
Verbs Can Express Mental Actions

While many verbs express physical actions (e.g., to jump, to dance, to sing), verbs can also express
mental actions.
Examples:
● She considers the job done.
(The word considers is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to consider.)
● Peter guessed the right number.
(The word guessed is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to guess.)
● I thought the same thing.
(The word thought is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to think.)
Verbs Can Express a State of Being

A small but extremely important group of verbs do not express any activity at all. The most
important verb in this group (arguably of all) is the verb to be.
Here is the verb to be in the different tenses:
Subject Verb to be
Past tense Present tense Future tense
I Was am will be
You Were are will be
He / She / It Was is will be
We Were are will be
You Were are will be
They Were are will be
Examples:
● Edwina is the largest elephant in this area. (The word is is a verb from the
verb to be.)
● It was a joke. (The word was is a verb from the verb to be.)
● I am. (The word am is a verb from the verb to be.) (Point of interest: I am is the
shortest sentence in English.)
● Types of Verbs
As we've covered, a verb can be categorized as a physical verb (e.g., to run), a mental verb (e.g.,
to think), or a state-of-being verb (e.g., to be). However, a verb will often be further categorized
as one of the following:
a) Main Verbs (or Action Verbs)
b) Auxiliary verbs (Helping Verbs)
c) Linking Verbs
d) Transitive Verbs
e) Intransitive Verbs
a) Main Verbs (or Action Verbs)
Main verbs or action verbs are used to express action; something that an animal, a person or a
Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs can make the
listener/reader feel emotions, see scenes more vividly and accurately.
Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb demands something/someone to be
acted upon.
Examples:
● I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be painted)
● She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the question “what is she reading?”
– the answer is the object)
Intransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be followed by an adjective, adverb,
preposition, or another part of speech.
Examples:
● She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since the action of ‘smiling’ does
not fall upon anything/anyone)
● I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)
b) Auxiliary verbs (Helping Verbs)
Auxiliary verbs are also known as helping verbs and are used together with a main verb to show
the verb’s tense or to form a question or negative. The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs, have, and do.
They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect tenses. Linking verbs work as main
verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main verbs.
Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express negation, to provide emphasis,
and more.
Auxiliary verb examples:
● Would, Should, Do, Can, Did, Could, May
Examples:
● Alex is going to school.
● They are walking in the park.
● I have seen a movie.
● Do you drink tea?
● Don’t waste your time.
● Please, do submit your assignments.
● I may dance with you later.
● We did consider Bryan’s feelings.
● Jenny has spoken her final words
c) Linking Verbs
A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In its simplest form, it connects
the subject and the complement — that is, the words that follow the linking verb. It creates
a link between them instead of showing action. Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’
verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were. However, there are some other verbs which can work
as linking verbs. Those verbs are: Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow,
look, prove, stay, taste, turn.
Examples:
● William is excited about his promotion.
● She appears upset about the announcement.
● The eggs smell rotten.
● He went red after tripping on the rug.
● Your plans for the wedding sound nice.
● You look exhausted after studying all night.
Words That Are True Linking Verbs
Some words are always linking verbs. These are considered "true." They do not describe
the action, but always connect the subject to additional information. The most common
true linking verbs are forms of "to be," "to become" and "to seem."
Forms of "to be"

● Am, Is, Are, Was, Were, Be, Been, Being
Forms of "to become"
● Become
● Becomes
● Became
● Has become
● Have become
● Had become
● Will become
● Will have become
Forms of "to seem"
● Seemed
● Seeming
● Seems
● Has seemed
● Have seemed
● Had seemed
● Will seem
Any time you see these words in a sentence, you know they are performing a linking or
connective function in showing a relationship or describing a state.
For example:
● "I am glad it is Friday." Here the linking verb "am" connects the subject (I) to the state
of being glad.
● "Laura is excited about her new bike." Here "is" links the subject Laura to the
emotional state of excitement.
● "My birds are hungry." The word "are" identifies that the birds currently exist in a
physical state of hunger.
d) Transitive Verbs
A transitive verb expresses an action directed towards a person, place or thing. The action
expressed by a transitive verb passes from the doer or the subject to the receiver of the
action. Words that receive the action of a transitive verb are called objects. A transitive verb
has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity
like kick, want, paint, write, eat, clean, etc. Second, it must have a direct object, something
or someone who receives the action of the verb.
Examples:
● Sylvia kicked Juan under the table.
Kicked = transitive verb; Juan = direct object.
● Joshua wants a smile from Leodine, his beautiful but serious lab partner.
Wants = transitive verb; smile = direct object.
● Cornelius painted the canvas in Jackson Pollock fashion, dribbling bright colors from
a heavily soaked brush.
Painted = transitive verb; canvas = direct object.
● Alicia wrote a love poem on a restaurant napkin.
Wrote = transitive verb; poem = direct object.
● Antonio eats lima beans drenched in brown gravy.
Eats = transitive verb; lima beans = direct object.
● Pinky the poodle cleans the dirty supper dishes with his tongue before
Grandma loads the "prewashed" items into dishwasher.
● Cleans, loads = transitive verbs; dishes, items = direct objects.
e) Intransitive Verbs
A verb which does not need an object to make complete sense is called an intransitive verb.
An intransitive verb expresses action (or tells something about the subject) without the
action passing to a receiver or object. It can stand alone in the predicate because its meaning
is complete. An intransitive verb is simply defined as a verb that does not take a direct
object. That means there's no word in the sentence that tells who or what received the action
of the verb.
While there may be a word or phrase following an intransitive verb, such words and
phrases typically answer the question "how?” Intransitive verbs are complete without a
direct object, as you will see in the examples below.
Examples:
● Mr. Becker jogs every day.
● The wicked hunter was hiding.
● Anne looks very beautiful.
● Mr. John speaks loudly.
● The ship sank rapidly.
● The department store opens at six o'clock.
● Intransitive Verbs and Prepositions
Intransitive verbs can be followed by a prepositional phrase or an adverb to add to the

thought being expressed, but they can never be followed by a noun, which would act as the
object of the sentence.
Examples of intransitive verbs followed by prepositions include:
● She grew up on a ranch.

● She grew up to be a farmer.
"On a ranch" is a prepositional phrase, not a direct object. The word "on" is a preposition that
introduces the prepositional phrase. The same can be said of "to be a farmer", which is
another such phrase.
● It rained across the state.

● It rained before lunch.
"Across the state" is a prepositional phrase adding to the sentence's meaning by answering the
question "where did it rain?". "Before lunch" is a prepositional phrase telling you when it rained.
● Common Intransitive Verbs
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on usage. The sentences "she read
a book" and "she read for hours," for example, use the transitive and intransitive forms of the verb
"read." However, many verbs occur most often in English in an intransitive form, such as:
● Appear
● Arrive
● Breathe
● Continue
● Cry
● Die
● Happen
● Occur
● Seem
● Smile
All these verbs tend to appear in an intransitive form. In fact, the phrase "appear in an intransitive
form" is a perfect example of an intransitive verb followed by a prepositional phrase!
Facts about Verbs
To determine if a verb is transitive, ask yourself 'Who?' or 'What?' after the verb. If you
can find an answer in the sentence, the verb is transitive. Some verbs are always
intransitive, such as:
to snore or to fall. It is incorrect to say: She snores her nose.
For example: She snores a lot. In this example 'a lot' is not an object but an adverb. It
doesn't represent what the person snores but rather how or how much she snores. Some
verbs are always transitive, such as, to recognize or to merit. It is somewhat incorrect to
say: "Ah, yes, I recognize" or “she certainly does merit.”
4. Adjective
Adjectives are words that describe or modify other words, making your writing and speaking
much more specific, and a whole lot more interesting. Words like small, blue, and sharp are
descriptive, and they are all examples of adjectives. Because adjectives are used to identify or
quantify individual, people and unique things, they are usually positioned before
the noun or pronoun that they modify. Some sentences contain multiple adjectives.
Types of Adjectives
i. Coordinate Adjectives
Coordinate adjectives are separated with commas or the word and, and appear one after
another to modify the same noun. The adjectives in the phrase bright, sunny day
and long and dark night are coordinate adjectives. In phrases with more than two
coordinate adjectives, the word and always appears before the last one; for example: The
sign had big, bold, and bright letters. Coordinate adjectives are small groups of adjectives
that band together to modify the same noun. They're separated by the word "and" or with
commas. Here are some examples:
Examples:
● She wore a pink and yellow top yesterday.
● It was a bright, sunny, and glorious morning along Tybee Beach.
● Their murder was a sad, sorry, gruesome affair.
ii. Demonstrative Adjectives
A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone A demonstrative
pronoun works alone and does not precede a noun, but a demonstrative adjective always
comes before the word it modifies. Demonstrative adjectives point to "which" noun or
pronoun you're speaking about. These four words will help you spot demonstrative
adjectives:
● this
● that
● these
● those
Typically - although not always - adjectives come before the noun they're modifying. With
demonstrative adjectives, it's a sure bet. They'll stand right in front of the noun they're
working with.
Examples:
● Would you like this bicycle?
● That car used to be mine.
● I don't want these accolades.
● That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‘That’ refers to a singular noun far from
the speaker)
● Those flowers are heavenly.
iii. Descriptive Adjectives
The most common of the adjectives are descriptive adjectives. They're generally what we
envision when we imagine a word modifying a noun. They give the noun a quality or
attribute. This takes us from "the brother" to "the evil brother." Or, we learn more as we
progress from "the daisy" to "the perky daisy."
Examples:
● The silly dog rolled around in the filthy mud for hours.
● She's such a nice cashier.
● He hurt her feelings when he labeled her an annoying sister.
● I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of the car)
● I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about the subject)
iv. Distributive Adjectives

Distributive adjectives point out specific entities. Distributive adjectives describe
specific members out of a group. These adjectives are used to single out one or more
individual items or people. Some of the most common distributive adjectives include:
● Each — Every single one of a group (used to speak about group members
individually).
● Every — Every single one of a group (used to make generalizations).
● Either — One between a choice of two.
● Neither — Not one or the other between a choice of two.
● Any — One or some things out of any number of choices. This is also used when the
choice is irrelevant, like: “it doesn’t matter, I’ll take any of them.”
Examples:
● I don't like any liars.
● Don't touch either plant.
● She bought every handbag in that store.
v. Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective describes or modifies a noun unspecifically. They provide
indefinite/unspecific information about the noun. The common indefinite adjectives
are few, many, much, most, all, any, each, every, either, nobody, several, some, etc.
Examples:
● I gave some candy to her.
● I want a few moments alone.
● Several writers wrote about the recent incidents.
● Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow.
vi. Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives interrogate, meaning that they ask a question. These adjectives
are always followed by a noun or a pronoun, and are used to form questions. The
interrogative adjectives are:
Which — Asks to make a choice between options.
What — Asks to make a choice (in general).
Whose — Asks who something belongs to.
Other question words, like “who” or “how,” aren’t adjectives since they don’t modify
nouns. For example, you can say “whose coat is this?” but you can’t say “who coat?”
Which, what and whose are only considered adjectives if they’re immediately followed
by a noun. The word ‘which’ is an adjective in this sentence: “Which color is your
favorite?” But not in this one: “Which is your favorite color?”
Examples:
● Which phone do you use?
● What game do you want to play?
● Whose car is this?
● What pet do you want to get?
● Whose child is this?”
vii. Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It suggests the belongingness
of something to someone/something. They describe to whom a thing belongs. Some of
the most common possessive adjectives include:
● My — Belonging to me
● His — Belonging to him
● Her — Belonging to her
● Their — Belonging to them
● Your — Belonging to you
● Our — Belonging to us
All these adjectives, except the word his, can only be used before a noun. You can’t just
say “That’s my,” you have to say “That’s my pen.” When you want to leave off the noun
or pronoun being modified, use these possessive adjectives instead:
● Mine
● His
● Hers
● Theirs
● Yours
● Ours
Examples:
● Is that their Ferrari?
● Don't touch our Bugatti.
● I'm sorry; I didn't know this was your Lamborghini.
5. Adverb
Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, determiner, clause, preposition, or
sentence. Adverbs can tell you how something is done, for example, speak nicely or
work hard. Adverbs can also tell you how much or how many of something you have.
Types of Adverb
i. Adverbs of time
ii. Adverbs of manner
iii. Adverbs of degree
iv. Adverbs of place
v. Adverbs of frequency
i. Adverb of time
An adverb of time provides more information about when a verb takes place. Adverbs of
time are usually placed at the beginning or end of a sentence. When it is of particular
importance to express the moment, something happened we’ll put it at the start of a
sentence.
Examples of adverbs of time: never, lately, just, always, recently, during, yet, soon, sometimes,
usually, so far
Examples:
● So far, we have found twelve grammar mistakes.
● I haven’t been going to the gym lately.
● We recently bought a new car.
ii. Adverb of Place
Adverbs of place illustrate where the verb is happening. It’s usually placed after the main
verb or object, or at the end of the sentence.
Examples of adverbs of place: here, there, nowhere, everywhere, out, in, above, below,
inside, outside, into
Examples:
● We went into the cave, and there were bats everywhere!
● One day when my dad wasn’t paying attention to where he was going, he walked into a wall.
● There aren’t any Pokémon here, let’s look somewhere else.
iii. Adverb of Manner
Adverbs of manner provide more information about how a verb is done. Adverbs of
manner are probably the most common of all adverbs. They’re easy to spot too. Most of
them will end in –ly.
Examples of adverbs of manner: neatly, slowly, quickly, sadly, calmly, politely, loudly,
kindly, lazily
Examples:
● The young soldier folded his clothes neatly in a pile at the end of his bunk.
● I politely opened the door for my grandmother as she stepped out of the car.
● A fat orange and white cat rested lazily on the sofa.
iv. Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of degree explain the level or intensity of a verb, adjective, or even another
adverb.
Examples:
● I come to the movies too?
● Aren’t you hungry? You’ve hardly touched your dinner.
● I’m so excited to see the new James Bond movie!
v. Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency explain how often the verb occurs. They’re often placed directly
before the main verb of a sentence.
Examples of adverbs of frequency: never, always, rarely, sometimes, normally, seldom,
usually, again
Examples:
● I rarely eat fast food these days.
● Tom usually takes his dog for a walk before breakfast.
● They always go to the same restaurant every Friday.
6. Preposition
A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the other words
of a sentence. They act to connect the people, objects, time and locations of a
sentence. Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in
front of nouns. In some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.
Prepositions are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to the
language. We use a fixed set of prepositions. Prepositions do not have any other form. They
cannot be plural, possessive, inflection, or anything else. Sometimes a preposition works as
nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words.
Prepositions with two or more words are called phrasal prepositions.
Types of Preposition
i. Prepositions of Time
ii. Prepositions of Place and Direction
iii. Prepositions of Agents or Things
iv. Phrasal Prepositions
i. Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts
of a sentence. On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common
preposition of time.
Examples:
● I was born on July 4th, 1982.
● I was born in 1982.
● I was born at exactly 2am.
● I was born two minutes before my twin brother.
● I was born after the Great War ended.
ii. Prepositions of Place and Direction:
Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the other parts
of a sentence.: On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among,
through, in front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common
prepositions of place/direction.
Examples:
● He is at home.
● He came from England.
● The police broke into the house.
● The cat is under the table.
● Put the sandwich over there.
iii. Prepositions of Agents or Things:
Prepositions of agents or things indicate a casual relationship between nouns and other
parts of the sentence. Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common
prepositions of agents or things.
Examples:
● This article is about smart phones.
● Most of the guests have already left.
● I will always be here for you.
● He is playing with his brothers.
iv. Phrasal Prepositions:
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of two or
more words which functions as a preposition.
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, contrary to, in spite of,
on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard
to, etc. are the most common phrasal prepositions.
Examples:
● They along with their children went to Atlanta.
● According to the new rules, you are not right.
● In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
● I’m going out of the city.
7. Conjunction
Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for constructing
sentences. Conjunctions make a link between/among words or groups of words to other parts
of the sentence and show a relationship between/among them.
Types of Conjunctions
i. Coordinating Conjunctions
ii. Subordinating Conjunctions
iii. Correlative Conjunctions
i. Coordinating Conjunctions
Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common one. The main
function of coordinating conjunctions is to join words, phrases, and clauses together,
which are usually grammatically equal. Aside from that, this type of conjunctions is
placed in between the words or groups of words that it links together, and not at the
beginning or at the end.
Examples:
● We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.
● Do you want an ice cream or chocolate?
● Go away and never come back.
ii. Subordinating Conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction joins element of an unparallel sentence structure. These
elements are usually a dependent clause and an independent clause.
Most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:
After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though, which, as much as,
inasmuch as, unless, while, because, provided, until, who/whom, before, since, what,
whoever/whomever.
Examples:
● Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.
● Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.
● When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
● Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.
iii. Correlative Conjunctions:
A correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to show a
contrast or to compare the equal parts of a sentence. The words of correlative conjunctions
have a special connection between them.
The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor, both - and, not - but,
whether - or.
Examples:
● Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.
● I want both ice cream and chocolate
● He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.
8. Interjections
Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They are included
in a sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust, joy,
excitement, or enthusiasm. An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of
the sentence.
Common Interjections:
● Ahem - The sound of someone clearing their throat in an attempt to get your
attention
● Aah - Used as a call for help or when someone is scared
● Boo - Used to scare someone or to voice disapproval
● Eh - Used when you didn't hear or understand what someone said
● Eww - Conveys dislike or disgust
● Hmm - Can mean you're thinking or hesitating
● Jeez - Could indicate you can't believe something or you're exasperated
● Ooh-la-la - A slightly comical way to refer to something as fancy or special
● Oops - An exclamation people use when they do something by accident
● Phew - Expressing relief or gladness something is over
● Whoa - Can show surprise or amazement
● Yahoo - Expresses joy or happiness
● Yeah - Demonstrates a very strong affirmation or approval
Examples:
● Hey! Get off that floor!
● Oh, that is a surprise.
● Good! Now we can move on.
● Ahh, that feels wonderful.
● Alas! I'm lost in the wilderness.
● Bah! That was a total waste of time.
● Bless you! I couldn't have done it without you.
4.2.2 Types of sentences

In writing and speaking, there are four basic types of sentences that we use for different
purposes:
1. Declarative sentence
2. Interrogative sentence
3. Imperative sentence
4. Exclamatory sentence
1. Declarative sentence
A declarative sentence is the most basic type of sentence. Its purpose is to relay information,
and it is punctuated with a period. A declarative sentence simply makes a statement or
expresses an opinion. In other words, it makes a declaration.
Examples:
● The boy walked home.
● I love honey.
● He wants to eat cookies, but he doesn't know how to make them.
● “I want to be a good writer.” (makes a statement)
● “My friend is a really good writer.”
2. An interrogative sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question. This type of sentence often begins with who, what,
where, when, why, how, or do, and it ends with a question mark.
Examples:
● Why does the sun shine?
● Whose dog is that?
● Will Sherri get to keep all her lottery winnings?
● When do you get off work?
● Who do you trust the most in the world?
3. Imperative sentence
Imperative sentences do not simply state a fact but rather tell someone to do something.
These can be in the form of friendly advice, basic instructions or more forceful commands.
They end with a full-stop/period (.) or exclamation mark/point (!).
Examples:
● “Please sit down.”
● Please shut the door to keep out the bugs.
● Turn left at the bridge.
● Stop bothering me!
● Please get out of the room!
4. Exclamatory sentence
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses great emotion such as excitement,
surprise, happiness and anger, and ends with an exclamation mark.
Examples:
● “It is too dangerous to climb that mountain!”
● I said I wanted tacos instead of pizza!
● How well he sings!
● Wow, he just won a gold medal!
● What an exciting movie it was!

1. It will take all of your energy and will to be able to walk again. (identify the noun in the
sentence)
a. Take b. All c. Your d. Energy
2. The works of many great poets have been placed on reserve. (identify the noun in the
sentence)
a. Many b. Great c. Placed d. Reserve
3. Does wood sink in water? (Which word is a material noun?)
a. Sink b. does c. water d. wood
4. Which is objective pronoun in sentence “All of you come to science lab??"
a. To b. the c. you d. of
5. Which is demonstrative pronoun in sentence “Those items should be kept carefully?"
a. Be b. should c. kept d. those
6. ---- two rings here on my little finger belonged to ---- grandmother.
a. These/ my b. That/ mine c. Those/ me d. The/ myself
7. Which is distributive pronoun in sentence "Neither of those two were passed."
a. Of b. those c. neither d. was
Answers: 1(d) 2(d) 3(d) 4(c) 5(d) 6(a) 7(c)
Exercise:
● Q1. What are the different types of verb?
Q2. What are Coordinating Conjunctions?
Q3. Give two examples of Possessive Adjectives.
Q1. What are the types of sentences?
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to explain parts of speech and types of sentences.
Lecture 21
4.3. Editing and Proofreading: Techniques for Writing Precisely; Redundancies; Clichés
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to explain the structure of sentence and types of sentences
4.3.1 Editing and Proofreading

A. Editing
Editing is a stage of the writing process in which a writer or editor strives to improve a draft by
correcting errors and making words and sentences clearer, more precise, and as effective as
possible. The process of editing involves adding, deleting, and rearranging words to cut the
clutter and streamline overall structure. Editing is the process of revising the content,
organization, grammar and presentation of a piece of writing.
⮚ The objectives of editing:
(1) Detection and removal of factual, grammatical, and typographical errors.

(2) Clarification of obscure passages.
(3) Elimination of parts not suitable for the targeted audience.
(4) Proper sequencing to achieve a smooth, unbroken flow of narrative.
⮚ The Importance of Editing
Whether you're working toward completing an assignment or hoping to get something

published, tightening your writing and fixing mistakes can actually be a remarkably creative
activity. Thoughtful revision of a work can lead to clarification of ideas, a reimagining
of images, and sometimes, even a radical rethinking of the way you've approached your topic.
⮚ Types of Editing
I. COPY EDITING
Copy editing is a process that ensures that text is correct in terms
of spelling, grammar, jargon, punctuation, terminology, semantics and formatting. Copy
editing also ensures that the idea the writer wishes to portray is clear and easy to understand.
They make sure any factual data in the text is accurate and that any potential legal issues are
brought to the publisher’s attention.
● What do copy editors do?
Copy editors will check a piece of writing to see how it flows and make sure it is sensible and
fair. They will also change the length of the text to make it acceptable to the publisher’s house-
style of formatting. Copy editors may also be responsible for adding headers, headlines,
footnotes and photo-captions.
The text will be passed to a proofreader for the final checking once the copy editing process
has been completed.
● Skills a copy editor needs
Copy editors require a number of skills, including an excellent command of the language, an
ability to identify factual errors, an eye for detail and critical thinking skills that allow them
to see inconsistencies in the work. They also need excellent interpersonal skills so that they
can communicate effectively with publishers and other editors.
II. LINE EDITING
People often use this term synonymously with copy editing, but they’re not exactly the
same. To clarify: line editing focuses specifically on the content and flow of your prose.
It’s also called stylistic editing, since it concentrates on style rather than mechanics. Line
edit ensures that your book's content is consistent while its language is creative and
concise.
In other words, it still falls under the umbrella of copy editing, but it’s more precise. While
a full copy edit looks at all of the elements, a line edit would only take word usage,
POV/tense, and descriptive inconsistencies into account, and provide more detailed
suggestions as to how to strengthen the prose itself.
Obviously, spelling, grammar, and other mechanical elements are critical, but a line edit
would not attend to these so much as to creative content. If you feel incredibly confident
about the mechanics of your prose but less so about its flow and style, you might request
that your copy editor focuses their energy on line editing alone. After all, a proofreader
can always catch any minor errors that slip through the cracks.
III. MECHANICAL EDITING
Mechanical editing refers to the application of a particular style, such as The Chicago
Manual of Style or Associated Press (AP) Style. The editor looks at punctuation,
capitalization, spelling, abbreviations, and any other style rules. Mechanical editing is
sometimes included in copyediting.
IV. SUBSTANTIVE EDITING

Substantive editing considers a work’s organization and presentation. It involves
tightening and clarifying at a chapter, scene, paragraph, and sentence level. Unlike
developmental editing, which covers the big-picture issues and deep-level restructuring,
substantive editing deals with the actual prose. Substantive editing is sometimes referred
to as line editing and can also be confused with developmental editing. Always check
with your editor and put in writing what his or her services cover, regardless of the term
used.
V. DEVELOPMENTAL EDITING
The developmental editor looks deeply at the organization and strength of a book. Think
big picture. The editor considers everything from pacing to characters, point of view,
tense, plot, subplots, and dialogue. Weak links are exposed and questioned. The editor
scrutinizes order, flow, and consistency. He asks questions such as: Is this the right
number of chapters? Are the chapters and paragraphs in the right order? Are there any
places in the book where the pacing lags? Is there a hole in the information or story
presented? Are the characters likable? Developmental editing considers all the aspects of
a manuscript that make the book readable and enjoyable. Because of the extensive nature
of this form of editing, it is more time intensive and costly. However, it is worth the
investment if you are serious about succeeding as an author.
B. Proofreading
Proofreading is a critical part of the writing process that involves English experts
scrutinizing a written document in order to identify and rectify grammar, punctuation,
and spelling and vocabulary errors. Proofreading focuses on correlating surface errors in
writing and detects anomalies (different language sets, faulty assumptions about sentence
structures, grammar etc) and also quality assurance. Good writing always involves
modification and revision, and proofreading is a fundamental part of this process. People
need proofreaders in order to be sure that their work does not contain any mistakes.
Proofreading is essential for any text that will be shared with an audience, whether it’s an
academic paper, a job application, an online article, or a print flyer. Depending on your
skills and budget, you can choose to proofread the text yourself or to hire a professional.
Proofreaders generally have one main objective: to ensure that a written document is
absolutely perfect in terms of grammar and vocabulary. In order to do this, they verify
accuracy in the following areas:
● Sentence structure
● Grammar
● Punctuation
● Spelling
● Capitalization
● Consistency
● Numbers
● Formatting
Proofreading is the very last step in the writing process. However, just because it comes last, does
not mean that it is the least important. Proofreading ensures that the document is completely free
of errors and polished to a high standard. Professional proofreaders take their roles very seriously
and many of them will complete several “passes” through a paper in order to ensure that they
have found and corrected all typographical errors, incorrect punctuation, spelling mistakes and
inaccurate words.
⮚ Proofreading tips and tricks
Basic proofreading skills are important for anyone who writes. For everyday texts, such as
business reports, blogs, or college papers, there are some techniques you can use to proofread
efficiently and effectively before sharing your work.
● Edit your writing first
Before you get to the final stage of proofreading, make sure you’ve thoroughly revised and edited
your work. There’s no point spending time fixing minor errors if you might later remove whole
sections or rewrite paragraphs. Only proofread once you’ve got a completed final draft that
you’re happy with.
● Take a break from the text
When you’ve been reading and rereading the same words for hours or days, it becomes much
harder to notice mistakes. Before proofreading, set your work aside for a while so that you can
look at it with fresh eyes. Ideally you should wait at least a day or two before final proofreading,
but if you’re on a tight deadline, even a half hour break can help.
● Proofread a printout
Seeing your words on a printed page is another useful strategy for noticing things that might
have escaped your attention on the screen. If the final version will be printed, this is also a good
chance to check your formatting is correct and consistent on the page.
● Use digital shortcuts
While reading from print can help you spot errors, word processing software can help you fix
them efficiently. Most obviously, run a spell check – but don’t rely on the computer to catch every
mistake. If you notice that you’ve repeatedly misspelled a particular word,
inconsistently capitalized a term, or switched between UK and US English, you can use the Find
and Replace function to fix the same mistake throughout the document.
Be careful, though, and don’t use “replace all”. Click through and check every replacement to
avoid accidentally adding more errors!
● Learn from your mistakes
Pay attention to the errors that keep recurring in the text. This can help you avoid them in future.
Knowing what to look out for is the most challenging part of proofreading. You’ll probably notice
obvious typos, but subtle mistakes in grammar and punctuation can be harder to recognize. The
table below shows some of the most common errors to look out for.
C. Difference between Proofreading and Editing
Proofreading Editing
1 Performed on the final draft of the Performed on the first draft of the document and
document continues till the draft is finalized
2 Addresses surface-level issues Addresses the core features of writing
3 Universally accepted, consistent Definition varies according to the scope of
definition editing. Editage, for example, offers three
different editing services.
4 Eliminates misspellings, grammatical Enhances the language by making changes for
and punctuation errors, inconsistencies, clarity, readability, and smooth narration.
formatting errors, etc.
5 Does not include word count reduction Includes word reduction, if required
6 Includes word reduction, if required Overall quality of writing is improved
make it already good writing error-free
7 Does not require much collaboration Collaborative as it requires the editor to work
with the author with the author
⮚ When to choose a proofreading service?

You should opt for a proofreading service when
1. You are confident of the language and structure of your document and only require basic
grammar check to eliminate misspellings, typographical errors, and punctuation errors.
2. Your document has been edited and now needs to undergo a final check before submission.
⮚ When to choose an editing service?
You should hire an editing service when
2. Your document needs substantial revisions for clarity, readability, and flow.
3. You want to collaborate extensively with the editor to polish and refine your writing.
4.3.2 Techniques for Writing Precisely; Redundancies
A. What is a Precise?
A precise is like a miniature portrait of the passage: it retains the absolute essential points
accompanied with the mood and tone of the author of the passage. A précis writing is supposed
to convey the summary of the passage in concern with the use of minimal words. It should in a
whole, communicate all the important points of the passage in a much simpler and easier way.
The motive of précis writing is to introduce the reader with the idea of the passage by
disseminating the information in a short form.
The one aspect one must be careful about is that one should not add one’s subjective
interpretation or comments to the précis and should try to retain the original author’s voice and
opinions. As far as the writing style is concerned, one must ensure that one should write clear
and effective sentences (no rambling) and one’s diction is flawless. Ultimately, it is the coherence
of the views that you presented in the précis that matter, and this can be achieved by making sure
that one is precise and to the point in one’s approach. Unnecessarily long sentences or rambling
thoughts are not required in précis writing, and one should make sure that one shift from one
point to another in a smooth matter. At the end of the day, the précis should make sense and be
logical in its presentation.
⮚ Features of a Good Précis:
A good Précis:
● Is marked by clarity, brevity and precision.
● Is not just lifting of the sentences from the original. It should be written in the précis
writer's own words.
● Is a miniature version of the original passage?
● Must have a logical order and be well-knit and well connected.
● Must have coherence; must use linking devices such as; so, therefore, and, because, further
etc. and must follow:
● Order of ideas of the original.
● Must have a title.
● Written in reported speech.
● Must not contain any details not found in the original.
⮚ Techniques for more Precise Writing

1. Use Active Voice
When a sentence includes be or any other copulative verb, such as is or are, recast the
sentence to omit the verb.
Before: “The meeting was seen by us as a ploy to delay the project.”
After: “We saw the meeting as a ploy to delay the project.”
2. Avoid Vague Nouns
Phrases formed around general nouns such as aspect, degree, and situation clutter
sentences.
Before: “She is an expert in the area of international relations.”
After: “She is an expert in international relations.”
3. Use Words, Not Their Definitions
Replace explanatory phrases with a single word that encapsulates that explanation.
Before: “The crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell
any yields that exceeded what they personally required.”
After: “The crops also needed to be marketable so that families would be able to sell
any surplus.”
4. Avoid Noun Strings
Reorganize sentences to eliminate series of nouns used as adjectives.

Before: “The lack of a secure transfer may hamper computer security incident
response efforts.”
After: “The lack of a secure transfer may hamper responses to computer-security
incidents.”
5. Convert Nouns to Verbs
When a sentence includes a noun ending in -tion, change the noun to a verb to simplify
the sentence.
Before: “They will collaborate in the creation of new guidelines.”
After: “They will collaborate to create new guidelines.”
6. Reduce Verb Phrases to Simple Verbs
Identify the verb buried in a verb phrase and omit the rest of the phrase.
Before: “The results are suggestive of the fact that tampering has occurred.”
After: “The results suggest that tampering has occurred.”
7. Replace Complex Words with Simple Ones
Choose simpler synonyms for multisyllabic words.

Before: “The department will disseminate the forms soon.”
After: “The department will pass out the forms soon.”
8. Avoid Expletives
Don’t start sentences with “There is,” “There are,” or “It is.”
Before: “There are many factors in the product’s failure.”
After: “Many factors contributed to the product’s failure.”
9. Eliminate Prepositional Phrases
Replace “(noun1) of the (noun2)” phrasing with “(noun2)’s (noun1)” phrasing.

Before: “The decision of the committee is final.”
After: “The committee’s decision is final.”
10. Reduce Wordy Phrases to Single Words
Replace phrases that signal a transition with simple conjunctions, verbs, or other linking
words.
Before: Due to the fact that the project is behind schedule, today’s meeting has been
postponed.
After: Because the project is behind schedule, today’s meeting has been postponed.
B. Redundancies
What is Redundancy in English?
Redundancy is the needless repetition of words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs or ideas. A
letter, word, or even sentence is said to be "redundant" when it adds no new information to
what has already been conveyed. Our natural language is very redundant. Even when we do
not intend to repeat ourselves, many of our words are not entirely necessary. It is when we
use two or more words together that mean the same thing, for example, ‘adequate enough’.
We also say something is redundant when a modifier’s meaning is contained in the word it
modifies, for example, ‘merge together’. When we write, we should try to be as clear and
concise as we can be. If we learn how to get a message across without adding unnecessary
words, readers are more likely to read what we write.
⮚ Why You Should Not Use Redundant Phrases
Every word you use should add something new to your piece of writing. When you use a
redundant phrase you are using two or more words that mean the same thing. They add
nothing new. Redundancies pad your writing and bore you readers. The longer sentences are
liable to make people stop reading altogether.
Example-1
• If all of us cooperate together, we will succeed.
In this sentence, the words cooperate and together have been used. But both these words
convey the same meaning.
One of the two words should be dropped in order to make the sentence a correct one.
• If all of us cooperate, we will succeed.
• If all of us work together, we will succeed.
Both these sentences are correct ones.
Example-2:
• The accused was guilty of false misstatement.
This sentence uses ‘false’ and ‘misstatement’ whereas both these words convey the same
meaning. The correct sentence is:
• The accused was guilty of misstatement.
Example-3:
• It was the general consensus of opinion that we must go to the movie.
The two words which convey the same meaning are consensus and opinion. One word
should be removed to make this sentence correct one.
The correct sentence is:
• It was the general opinion that we must go to the movie.
Example-4:
• The three brothers had nothing in common with each other.
Here also two phrases ‘in common’ and ‘with each other’ have been used to convey the same
meaning.
• The three brothers had nothing in common.
These examples might have made it clear for you how to avoid Redundancy in your
sentences.
Example-5:
• I am enclosing herewith my bio-data.
Enclosing and herewith are the two words which convey the same meaning.
● I am enclosing my bio-data
C. Clichés
A cliché is a word or phrase that has been overused in writing. Cliché refers to an expression that
has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty.
Clichés such as “leave no stone unturned” have been used so much in writing that they have lost
all their effectiveness. These phrases have become weak and meaningless. They usually
contribute nothing to the message you are trying to convey and will be viewed, by the reader,
simply as padding.
Text full of clichés makes the writer appear lazy and uncreative and will, for many readers, kill
the significance of the writing.
If you want your writing to be fresh and interesting, you should avoid using clichés. Try
rephrasing your text to make it more concise and original. Ask somebody else to proof-read your
work to help ensure that you are not using clichés or other unnecessary padding words and
phrases.
Examples:
Common Cliché Sayings:
● All that glitters isn't gold
● Don't get your knickers in a twist
● All for one, and one for all
● Kiss and make up
● He has his tail between his legs
● And they all lived happily ever after
● Cat got your tongue?
● Read between the lines
● Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed
● We're not laughing at you we're laughing with you
Clichés that Describe Time
● Only time will tell
● In the nick of time
● Lost track of time
● Lasted an eternity
● Just a matter of time
● A waste of time
● Time flies
● In a jiffy
● The time of my life
● At the speed of light
Clichés that Describe People
● As old as the hills
● Fit as a fiddle
● Without a care in the world
● A diamond in the rough
● Brave as a lion
● Weak as a kitten
● Had nerves of steel

1. Which of the following is NOT a rule of précis writing?
a) Always have a heading b) Use as extensive vocabulary as possible
c) Remove any irrelevant information present in the original passage
d) Do not use any short forms or abbreviations
2. A précis should be written in third person.
a) True b) False
3. Which of these is also known as abstract?
a) Index précis b) Narrative précis
c) Précis of speech d) Telegraphs
4. Choose the redundant expression in this sentence:
He then wrote an enthusiastic article for Strand Magazine, being the place in which most of his
Sherlock Holmes stories had first appeared, and later wrote a book on the subject titled The
Coming of the Fairies.
a) no change b) in which the magazine where
c) in which d) being where
5. She worked for thirty years as a teacher and librarian in the field of education in Baltimore
public schools.
Which of the following words or phrases from the preceding sentence is LEAST necessary and
could therefore be deleted?
a) Thirty b) and librarian c) in the field of education d) Baltimore public
Exercise:
Q1. What is Proofreading?

Q2. When proofreading Happens?
Q3. Give two examples of redundancies in writing.
Q1. What is the difference between an editor and a proofreader?
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to define Editing and Proofreading with
techniques for Writing Precisely.
Lecture-22
4.4 Common Errors in English and Use of Punctuation
Learning Objective:
Student shall be able to explain common errors in English.
Student shall be able to explain use of punctuation in English.

4.4.1 Common errors in English
India has the second highest number of English speakers, but it is still a foreign language and
the common mistakes are bound to happen.
⮚ Common errors in the use of nouns

● Wrong: Have you received any informations?
● Right: Have you received any information?
● Wrong: He asked her to pack her luggages.
● Right: He asked her to pack her luggage.
● Wrong: The sceneries here are not good.
● Right: The scenery here is not good.
● Wrong: Did you hear these news?
● Right: Did you hear this news?
Explanation
Nouns like furniture, information, advice, news, luggage and scenery normally have only
a singular form.
● Wrong: I am learning a new poetry.
● Right: I am learning a new poem.
● Wrong: He is my cousin brother.
● Right: He is my cousin.
Explanation
● Cousin means any child of any aunt or uncle. There is no need to say cousin brother
since the noun he already reveals the sex of the person.
● Wrong: One of my friend has agreed to come with me.
● Right: One of my friends has agreed to come with me.
● Wrong: Some of my friends has arrived.
● Right: Some of my friends have arrived.
Explanation
The noun following one of, some of, none of and similar expressions must be plural
in number, but the verb must agree with the subject in number.
● Common errors in the use of Pronouns
● Incorrect: Each of these girls sing well.
Correct: Each of these girls sings well.
● Incorrect: None of my student attended the class today.
Correct: None of my students attended the class today.
● Incorrect: One of my servant has gone on leave.
Correct: One of my servants has gone on leave.
● Incorrect: Some of my servants has gone on leave.
Correct: Some of my servants have gone on leave.
Explanation
The noun following one of, none of, some of and similar expressions must be plural in
number, but the verb agrees in number with the subject of the sentence. In the sentence
‘Each of these girls sings well’, the real subject is each which is a singular word. It should
therefore be followed by a singular verb.
Other singular words which often cause confusion are: every, either, neither, none, much and
person.
● Incorrect: Some of my friends has decided to go on a picnic.
Correct: Some of my friends have decided to go on a picnic.
Explanation
Some is a plural word. It must be followed by a plural verb.
● Incorrect: Both did not come.
Correct: Neither came.
Explanation
The expression both…not is not correct in standard English. Instead, we use neither.
● Incorrect: One should respect his parents.
Correct: One should respect one’s parents.
Explanation
One, if used in a sentence, should be used throughout.
● One should take care of one’s health.
● One should love one’s country.
● Incorrect: One should work hard.
Correct: A man/woman/boy/girl should work hard.
The sentence ‘One should work hard’, is not wrong but in standard English the use of one as
subject should be avoided when possible.
● Incorrect: Here is the bottle: please fill.

Correct: Here is the bottle: please fill it.
● Incorrect: Have you a pen? I have not got.
Correct: Have you a pen? I have not got one.
● Incorrect: He enjoyed at the party.
Correct: He enjoyed himself at the party.
Explanation
The verbs fill, enjoy and got are transitive. All transitive verbs must have an expressed object.
● Incorrect: I asked for his bicycle but he didn’t lend me.
Correct: I asked for his bicycle but he didn’t lend it to me.
● Incorrect: Please give your book.
Correct: Please give me/him/her/them your book.
Explanation
Some transitive verbs like give and lend must have two expressed objects.
● Common Errors in the Use of Verbs

● Incorrect: He told her that he will come.
Correct: He told her that he would come.
Explanation
When the principal verb is in the past tense the verb in the subordinate clause should also be in
the past tense. When the principal verb is in the present tense, the verb in the subordinate clause
can be in any tense.
● Incorrect: He told me that honesty was the best policy.

Correct: He told me that honesty is the best policy.
● Incorrect: Teacher said that the earth revolved around the sun.
Correct: Teacher said that the earth revolves around the sun.
Explanation
To talk about general truths, we always use the present tense.
● Incorrect: The cashier-cum-accountant have come.

Correct: The cashier-cum-accountant has come.
Explanation
Here the nouns cashier and accountant refer to the same person, so we use a singular verb.
● Incorrect: The manager and the accountant has come.

Correct: The manager and the accountant have come.
Explanation
Two nouns connected by and are followed by a plural verb.
● Incorrect: I am so weak that I may not walk.
Correct: I am so weak that I cannot walk.
Explanation
To talk about ability we use can, not may.
● Incorrect: Tell me why are you abusing him.

Correct: Tell me why you are abusing him.
● Incorrect: I wonder why don’t you listen to me.
Correct: I wonder why you don’t listen to me.
Explanation
In indirect questions we put the auxiliary verb after the noun. Note that we do not use question
mark in indirect questions.
● Incorrect: Alice as well as her sisters are beautiful.

Correct: Alice as well as her sisters is beautiful.
Explanation
When the noun that precedes as well as is in the singular, the verb should also be in the singular.
● Incorrect: I am ill for two weeks.
● Correct: I have been ill for two weeks.
● Incorrect: I am waiting since morning.
● Correct: I have been waiting since morning.
Explanation
We use perfect continuous tenses with the prepositions since and for. Here the error lies in using
the present continuous instead of the present perfect continuous.
● Incorrect: The ship drowned.

● Correct: The ship sank.
● Incorrect: The passengers aboard the ship sank.
● Correct: The passengers aboard the ship were drowned.
Explanation
We use drown with people and other animate objects. We use sink with inanimate objects like
ship and boat.
● Common Errors With Adjectives
ERROR 1
● Don’t say: This box isn’t enough big for all the books.
Say: This box isn’t big enough for all the books.
Enough goes after adjectives, adverbs, and verbs:
● Are you old enough to see this movie?
● She’s smart enough to take the advanced class.
● You sing well enough to be a professional!
● The teacher speaks slowly enough for me to understand.
● I play the piano, but I don’t practice enough.
● Make sure you eat enough now so that you’re not hungry later.
Enough goes before nouns:
● There are enough chairs for everybody to sit down.
● There isn’t enough information in this report; I need more details.
● We don’t have enough people to form a soccer team.
● Do you have enough money to buy that motorcycle?
ERROR 2
● Don’t say: I can’t believe how much stubborn he is.
Say: I can’t believe how stubborn he is.
We only use how much and how many before nouns.
With adjectives and adverbs, we use only how:
● How tall are you?
● I want to see how comfortable the couch is before buying it.
● How quickly can they finish the project?
● This software measures how efficiently the employees are working.
ERROR 3
● Don’t say: These are my favorites shoes.
Say: These are my favorite shoes.
These shoes are my favorites.
Adjectives before nouns are always singular in English, even if the noun is plural!
● Our house has three small rooms.
● The forest is filled with giant trees.
● I have a couple of friendly dogs.
● I’ve finished this book, now I’ll read the other ones I borrowed from the library.
Some adjectives – especially “others” – can be used in plural form, if the noun was mentioned
earlier (and is not directly after the adjective).
Examples:
● I have many pairs of shoes, but these red shoes are my favorites.
(= favorite shoes)
● The boss gave raises to some employees but not others.
(= other employees)
● Some of the shows on this channel are great, and others are terrible.
(= other shows on this channel)
ERROR 4
● Don’t say: Last night I was a lot tired.
Say: Last night I was so/very/really tired.
The words so, very, really, are all used before adjectives and adverbs to add emphasis or describe
something that is intense:
● This book is so/very/really interesting.
● She plays the piano so/very/really well!
● They moved here so/very/really recently.
● A lot of / lots of are used before nouns to describe a large quantity:
● I ate a lot of / lots of pizza last night.
● There were a lot of / lots of kids at the playground.
● Note that it’s always a lot and never alot.
● We can also use a lot after verbs to describe something we do frequently/often:
● I read a lot.
● Do you exercise a lot?
ERROR 5
● Don’t say: My new computer is more better than my old one.
Say: My computer is better than my old one.
My computer is much better than my old one.
To form comparative adjectives:
● 1 syllable: fast → faster

● Words ending in Y: easy → easier
● 2+ syllables: popular → more popular
● Irregular: good/bad → better/worse
We only use “more” to make comparisons using adjectives of 2+ syllables: more popular, more
interesting, more efficient, more comfortable, etc. The word “better” is already a comparative, so
we shouldn’t add “more.”
If you want to add extra emphasis to a comparative, you can add “much”:
● My new computer is much better than my old one.

(not just a little bit better… MUCH better)
● This lesson is much easier than yesterday’s.
● My sister is much more popular than me.
● The problem is much worse than we imagined.
ERROR 6
● Don’t say: My apartment is ten miles far from here.
● Say: My apartment is ten miles away from here.
When talking about general long distances, we can say far from or far away from:
● My apartment is far (away) from here.
However, when talking about a specific distance, we say away from or simply from:My
apartment is ten miles away from here.
● My apartment is ten miles from here.
This is confusing because the question might ask “How far…?” but we don’t use the word
“far” when giving an answer with a specific distance:
● How far is the nearest gas station? / Where is the nearest gas station?
It’s about two blocks away.
● How far is the museum from here?
At least five miles – you should probably take the bus.
You can only use “far” in the answer when speaking in general terms
● It’s not far. (it’s a short distance away)
● It’s pretty/quite/very far. (it’s a long distance away)
⮚ Common errors with Adverbs

Error 1
1. (Incorrect): She is very much beautiful.
(Correct): She is very beautiful.
2. (Incorrect): I am very much sorry.
(Correct): I am very sorry.
The expressions very much and very many are uncommon in affirmative sentences, but
they are possible in questions and negatives.
Error 2
1. (Incorrect): He was very foolish enough to trust her.
(Correct): He was too foolish to trust her.
(Correct): He was foolish enough to trust her.
(Correct: He was so foolish that he trusted her.
Enough cannot be modified by very.
Error 3
1. (Incorrect): I managed to do it anyhow.
(Correct): I managed to do it somehow.
Anyhow means in disorder. Somehow means by some means. Anyhow can also mean for
certain. E.g., He may not win but anyhow I shall.
Error 4
1. (Incorrect): To tell in brief.
(Correct): In short
Error 5
1. (Incorrect): He told the story in details.
(Correct): He told the story in detail.
Error 6
1. (Incorrect): Before long there was no one there
(Correct): Long ago there was no one there.
We use ago to count from now. We use before to count from a past moment. Before
long means soon.
Error 7
1. (Incorrect): This story is too interesting.
(Correct): This story is very interesting.
2. (Incorrect): She is too beautiful.
(Correct): She is very beautiful.
Too means more than it ought to be. It has a negative meaning. E.g., He is too fat.
Error 8
1. (Incorrect): They behaved cowardly.
(Correct): They behaved in a cowardly manner.
Some words ending in ly are adjectives, and not normally adverbs. Cowardly is one
among them. Other common examples are costly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, miserly,
lovely, lonely, silly etc. There are no adverbs like cowardlily or costlily.
To modify the verb behave we have to use an adverb, not an adjective. Since there is no
adverb for this meaning, we use the adverb phrase in a cowardly manner.
1. (Incorrect): He lives miserly

(Correct): He lives in a miserly way.
Miserly is an adjective. To modify the verb lives, we use the adverb phrase in a miserly
way.
Error 9
1. (Incorrect): He sings good.
(Correct): He sings well.
To modify the verb sings, we have to use an adverb. Good is an adjective. The adverb for
this meaning is well.
Error 10
1. (Incorrect): My sister is tall than me.
(Correct): My sister is taller than me.
We use comparative adjectives and adverbs before than.
Error 11
1. (Incorrect): Never I have seen such a mess.
(Correct): Never have I seen such a mess.
If a negative word is put at the beginning of a sentence, it is usually followed by auxiliary
verb + subject. Note that these structures are rather formal and uncommon. The
sentence I have never seen such a mess is also correct and more common.
2. (Incorrect): Hardly I have had any rest for one week.

(Correct): Hardly have I had any rest for one week. OR I have hardly had any rest
for one week.
Error 12
1. (Incorrect): Really speaking she isn’t very brilliant.
(Correct): To speak the truth she isn’t very brilliant.
Other phrases that can be used instead of to speak the truth are: as a matter of fact, in
truth and in fact.
In fact she isn’t very brilliant.
As a matter of fact she isn’t very brilliant.
● Common Errors with Conjunctions

Error 1
1. (Incorrect): Though he is fat, still he runs fast.
(Correct): Though he is fat, he runs fast.
2. (Incorrect): As he is fat so he can’t run fast.
(Correct): As he is fat he can’t run fast. OR He is fat, so he can’t run fast.
3. (Incorrect): As I took aim at that time he shook my arm.
(Correct): As I took aim he shook my arm.
In English, one conjunction is enough to join two clauses - we do not normally use two.
Error 2
1. (Incorrect): Because he was not ready therefore we left without him.
(Correct): Because he was not ready we left without him.
The conjunction because is enough to join the two clauses. There is no need to use a
second conjunction like therefore or so.
Error 3
1. (Incorrect): She did not come to school. Because she was ill.
(Correct): She did not come to school because she was ill.
This is a common punctuation mistake. Because is a subordinating conjunction and must
never be separated from its main clause by a full stop.
Error 4
1. (Incorrect): No sooner I had reached the station than the train left.
(Correct): No sooner had I reached the station than the train left.
When no sooner comes at the beginning of a sentence, we use an inverted word order.
That means the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.
1. (Incorrect): Neither he comes nor he writes.
(Correct): Neither does he come nor does he write.
When the first word of the sentence is negative, the auxiliary verb comes before the
subject. Note that the sentence He neither comes nor writes is equally right and probably
more common.
Error 5
1. (Incorrect): Their front door was open and there was nobody at home.
(Correct): Their front door was open but there was nobody at home.
But is the conjunction to use when the second main clause gives unexpected information.
● Common errors in the use of Preposition
Mistakes are often made by using the wrong preposition after certain words. The following
list includes the words which most often give trouble:
1. Absorbed (- very much interested) in, not at.

Don't say: The man was absorbed at his work.
Say: The man was absorbed in his work.
2. Accuse of, not for.
Don't say: She accused the man for stealing.
Say: She accused the man of stealing.
Note: Charge takes with1 The man was charged with murder.
3. Accustomed to, not with.
Don't say: I'm accustomed with hot weather.
Say: I'm accustomed to hot weather.
Note: Also used to: He is used to the heat.
4. Afraid of, not from.
Don't say: Laura is afraid from the dog.
Say: Laura is afraid of the dog.
5. Aim at, not on or against.
Don't say: She aimed on {or against) the target.
Say: She aimed at the target,
Note: Use the preposition at to denote direction, throw at, shout at, fire at, shoot at. Shoot
(without the at) means to kill He shot a bird (= he hit and killed it)
6. Angry with, not against.
Don't say: The teacher was angry against him.
Say: The teacher was angry with him.
Note1: We get angry with a person but at a thing He was angry at The weather 'not with the
weather)
Note2: Also annoyed with, vexed with, indignant with a person, but at a thing.
7. Anxious (= troubled) about, not for.
Don't say: They're anxious for his health.
Say: They're anxious about his health.
Note: Anxious meaning wishing very much takes for: Parents are anxious for their children's
success.
8. Arrive at, not to.
Don't say: We arrived to the village at night.
Say:: We arrived at the village at night.
Note: Use arrive in with countries and large cities. Mr Smith has arrived in London (or New York.
India, etc )
9. Ashamed of, not from.
Don't say: He's now ashamed from his conduct.
Say: He's now ashamed of his conduct.
Note: It isn't correct to use ashamed of meaning shy. Ashamed means feeling shame or guilt
about something. Shy means feeling nervous with someone. Instead of saying1 I'm ashamed (or
shamed) of my teacher, say I'm shy of my teacher
10. Believe in, not to.
Don't say: We believe to God.
Say: We believe in God.
Note: To believe in means to have faith in. To believe (without the in) means to regard
something as true: / believe everything he says.
11. Suspect of, not for.
Don't say: I suspect Kate for stealing the pen.
Say: I suspect Kate of stealing the pen.
Note: Also suspicious of: Oogs are suspicious of strangers
12. Take by» not from.
Don't say: Robert took his brother from the hand.
Say: Robert took his brother by the hand.
Note: Also: hold by, catch by, seize by, snatch by, grasp by.
13. Tie to, not on
Don't say:The girl tied the string on the kite.
Say: The girl tied the string to the kite.
14. Tired of, not from.
Don't say: The boys are tired from eating boiled eggs.
Say: Thc boys are tired of eating boiled eggs.
15. Translate into, not to.
Don't say; Translate this passage to English.
Say: Translate this passage into English.
16. Tremble with cold, etc., not from cold. etc.
Don't say: The man was trembling from cold.
Say: The man was trembling with cold.
Note: Also shake with and shiver with. The thief was shaking with fear
17. Warn (a person) of danger, not about danger.
Don't say: They were warned about the danger.
Say: They were warned of the danger.
18. Write in ink, not with ink.
Don't say: I've written the letter with ink.
Say: I've written the letter in ink.
⮚ Prepositions after certain words
1 accuse of guilty of
2 accustomed to independent of
3 afraid of indifferent to
4 aim at insist on
5 angry with, at interested in
6 arrive at jealous of
7 ashamed of look at
8 believe in married to
9 boast of no doubt of or about
10 careful of, with, about pleased with it
11 complain about prefer to
12 composed of proud of
13 ashamed of related to
14 believe in repent of
15 boast of look at
⮚ Common spelling mistakes and confusing words in English language.
● Accept/Except
o Accept : (verb) - to receive willingly, to approve, to agree
o Except : (preposition or verb) - exclusion or leave out
● Ad/Add
o Ad : an advertisement
o Add : to combine, join, unite or to find a sum
● Advice/Advise
o Advice : (noun) - suggestion or recommendation
o Advise : (verb) - to suggest
● Affect/Effect
o Affect : (verb) - to change, have an effect on
o Effect : (noun) - result
● Ate/Eight
o Ate : Past tense of verb [to eat]
o Eight : number 8
● Buy/By/Bye
o Buy : (verb) - to purchase
o By : next to something, by way of something
o Bye: used to express farewell. Short for [goodbye]
● Choose/Chose/Choice
o Choose : (verb) to make a choice or selection
o Chose : past tense of the verb [to choose]
o Choice : (noun) choosing; selection
● Cite/Site/Sight
o Cite : to mention something or to quote somebody as an example or proof
o Site: the location of an event or object. A website
o Sight : ability to see, a thing that can be seen
● Decent/Descent
o Decent : kind, tolerant, respectable, modest
o Descent: family origins or ancestry. Also the process of coming or going down
o Dissent : (verb or noun) disagreement with a prevailing or official view
● Desert/Dessert
o Desert : (verb) to leave or abandon. (noun) waterless land with no vegetation and
covered with sand
o Dessert : sweet food served after the meal
● Eat/It
o Eat : to put food into the mouth, chew it and swallow it
o It : the thing, animal or situation which has already been mentioned
● Four/For
o Four : number 4
o For : to indicate the object, aim, or purpose of an action or activity
● Here/Hear
o Here : in, at, or to this place
o Hear : to perceive (sound) by the ear
● Knew/New
o Knew : past simple of the verb [to know]
o New : recently created
● Know/Now/No
o Know : (verb) to be familiar with someone or something
o Now : at the present time or moment
o No : negative reply, refusal or disagreement
● Many/Money
o Many : consisting of a large number, numerous
o Money : currency or coins issued by a government that can be exchanged for goods
and services
● Off/Of
o Off : away, at a distance in space or time
o Of : belonging to or connected with someone or something
● Peace/Piece
o Peace : freedom from war and violence
o Piece : a part of something
● Than/Then
o Than : used to compare or contrast things (Changed the order of the example)
o Then : refers to time or consequence
● There/Their
o There : place or position
o Their : possessive word that shows ownership of something
● To/Too/Two
o To : preposition (I went to school) or part of an infinitive (to go, to work)
o Too : also (I like you too) or in excess (That is too much)
o Two : number 2
● Wander/Wonder
o Wander : to walk aimlessly or without any destination
o Wonder : (noun) feeling of surprise and admiration. (verb) desire to know
● Weather/Whether
o Weather : the atmospheric conditions in area, with regard to sun, cloud,
temperature, wind and rain
o Whether : introduces indirect question involving alternative possibilities
● Where/Wear/Were
o Where : to, at or in what place
o Were : past tense of the verb [to be]
o Wear : to have clothing, glasses, etc. on your body
● Right/Write
o Right: morally good, proper. Also opposite of left
o Write : (verb) To form letters, words, or symbols on a surface (like paper) with a
pen or pencil
4.4.2 Use of Punctuation
Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is
constructed and how it should be read. Sentences are the building blocks used to construct
written accounts. They are complete statements. Punctuation shows how the sentences should be
read and makes the meaning clear. Every sentence must begin with capital letter and it should
end with a full stop, exclamation mark or question mark. The basic system indicates that the
sentence is complete.
⮚ The Basic Signs of Punctuation
● The comma ,
● The full stop.
● The exclamation mark!
● The question mark?
● The semi-colon ;
● The colon :
● The apostrophe '
● Quotation marks “ ”
● The hyphen -
● Brackets ( ) or [ ]
● The slash /
⮚ The comma (,)

The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
● Pause before proceeding
● add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
● separate items on a list
● use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)
For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us
more information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:
● Boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the
opening door.
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense
although there would be a loss of information. Alternatively, two sentences could be
used:
● The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He knew that his mother was
about to arrive.
Commas are also used to separate items in a list.
For example:
The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls,
cereals and cartons of milk.
Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word ‘and’ rather than by a comma.
Commas are used to separate adjectives.
For example:
The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his summer holiday.
As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to where
you make natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a comma
should be placed by a natural pause.
⮚ Full Stop (.)

A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point
has been made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related
point. Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where
a section of a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text,
for example:
● “The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.”
A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words
as in the following examples:
● Telephone Number = Tel. No.

● September = Sept.
● Pages = pp.
⮚ Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or
love. It is also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word.
For example:
● “Help! I love you!”
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction
● “Stop! Police!”
or to indicate humour
● “Ha! Ha! Ha!”

The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need a full stop.
Exclamation marks are a poor way of emphasizing what you think are important points
in your written assignments; the importance of the point will emphasize itself without a
sequence of !!! in the text. An exclamation mark should only be used when absolutely
essential, or when taken from a direct quote.
⮚ Question Mark (?)
The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes
at the end of a sentence:
For example
● Are we at the end?
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.
⮚ Semi-colon (;)
The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in
doubt, avoid using it and convert the added material into a new sentence. As a general
rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways:
● When joining two connected sentences.
For example:
We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.
or
Assertive behaviour concerns being able to express feelings, wants and desires
appropriately; passive behaviour means complying with the wishes of others.
The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists.

For example:
The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France; Paris, Texas; London, UK;
Stockholm, Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Mumbai, India.
⮚ Colon (:)
The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are
two main uses of the colon:
● It is most commonly used when listing.
For example:
She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals
and cartons of milk.
● Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.
For example:
Human Resource Management: Guidelines for Telephone Advisers
⮚ Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses.
The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership.
For example:
The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).
● This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.
The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more
than one hat).
This indicates that the hats belong to the girls.
● Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted:
For example:
1. We're going to do this course. (We are going to do this course.)
2. Isn’t this a fine example of punctuation? (Is not this a fine example of
punctuation?)
3. The time is now 7 o’ clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)
4. Note that a common mistake is to confuse its with it’s.
● It’s indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted.
For example:
It’s a lovely day is an abbreviated way of saying: It is a lovely day.
Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate.
⮚ Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”)

Quotation or speech marks are used to:
● To mark out speech
● When quoting someone else's speech
For example:
1. My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."
2. "George, don't do that!"
3. "Will you get your books out please?” said Mrs Jones, the teacher, “and quieten
down!"
It is worth noting that to report an event back does not require speech or quotation marks.
For example:
Mrs Jones told the pupils to take out their books and to quieten down.
⮚ Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used to link words together.
For example:
● sub-part
● eighteenth-century people
● week-end
● second-class post
● gender-neutral
● non-verbal
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be
placed between syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the
word will be completed on the next line.
Computer applications such as Word Processors can be set to automatically hyphenate
words for you, although it is more common to use extra spacing to avoid hyphenation.
⮚ Brackets ( )
Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not
part of the main flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the
sentence should still make sense.
For example:
“The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as the
intervention continues.”
⮚ Square Brackets […]
A different set of square brackets [ ] can be used:
● To abbreviate lengthy quotations
● To correct the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of your own sentence
● To add your own words to sections of an abbreviated quotation.
To abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report
“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic
resources that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership of
wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major classes
that exist in Western societies are an upper class […]; a middle class […] and a working
class […].”
(Giddens, 1997, p.243)
● To adjust a quotation to suit your own sentence
For example, if you were writing about class structure, you might use the following:
1. According to Giddens, (1997, p.243) the “[o]wnership of wealth, together with

occupation, are the chief basis of class differences”.
Note, that when using square brackets, only the occasional letter as in the above example
or the occasional word (for example when changing the tense of the sentence) would be
placed in square brackets in this way.
⮚ Slash (/)
Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc., but this is not always helpful to the
reader. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral writing to use‘s/he’.
⮚ Capital Letters
The correct use of capital letters is also important in writing.
Q.1 Correct the Mistakes in the sentences and rewrite it with explanations.
1. He’s the one which has the blue tie on.
2. We like very much the new secretary.
3. Could you tell me how can I get in touch with Mr. Yamamoto?
4. We’re not sure he is enough experienced for the position.
5. She’s very sick and has been at the hospital for two weeks.
6. We talked during three hours this morning.
7. We’re using all the informations we have to make an informed decision.
8. They change often our seats at work.
9. They don’t let us to send our clients gifts without getting approval from management first.
10. Do we have some coffee or tea to offer our guests?
Answers and Explanations
1. He’s the one who/that has the blue tie on.

We use the relative pronoun which to refer to things. To refer to people, we use ‘who’ or
‘that’. In formal writing, who is a better choice.
2. We like the new secretary very much.

We don’t normally place an adverb between a verb and its object.
3. Could you tell me how I can get in touch with Mr. Yamamoto?
After expressions like Do you know…, Could you tell me,.. and I was wondering if… we
do not invert the subject and the verb. These are called indirect questions.
4. We’re not sure he is experienced enough for the position.

Enough goes after an adjective or before a noun.
5. She’s very sick and has been in the hospital for two weeks.
To communicate that someone is a patient at the hospital, we say in the hospital. If
someone is not a patient, we use at the hospital.
6. We talked for three hours this morning.

We use for to communicate duration a time. We use during to communicate over what
period of time something happened.
7. We’re using all the information we have to make an informed decision.

Information is a non-count noun. There is no plural form of information. Other non-count
nouns students frequently misuse include evidence, advice, stuff, and furniture. There is
no plural form of these words.
8. They often change our seats at work.

We put adverbs of frequency (always, usually, never, etc.) before the main verb or after
the verb to be.
9. They don’t let us send our clients gifts without getting approval from management first.
After let, help, make, and have (when have communicates that someone is being told to
do something), we use the base infinitive of the second verb, not the infinitive form.
10. Do we have any coffee or tea to offer our guests?
In general, we use some with affirmative statements and any with questions and negative
statements.
Q.2 Use appropriate punctuation marks in the following sentences.
i. We had a great time in France the kids really enjoyed it

ii. Some people work best in the mornings others do better in the evenings
iii. What are you doing next weekend
iv. Mother had to go into hospital she had heart problems
v. Did you understand why I was upset
vi. It is a fine idea let us hope that it is going to work
vii. We will be arriving on Monday morning at least I think so
viii. A textbook can be a wall between teacher and class
ix. The girls father sat in a corner
x. In the words of Murphys Law Anything that can go wrong will go wrong
Answers
i. We had a great time in France – the kids really enjoyed it.

ii. Some people work best in the mornings; others do better in the evenings.
iii. What are you doing next weekend?
iv. Mother had to go into hospital: she had heart problems.
v. Did you understand why I was upset?
vi. It is a fine idea; let us hope that it is going to work.
vii. We will be arriving on Monday morning – at least, I think so.
viii. A textbook can be a ‘wall’ between teacher and class.
ix. The girl’s father sat in a corner.
x. In the words of Murphy’s Law: ‘Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.’
Exercise:
Q1. When to use commas in a sentence? Describe with example.
Q2. Mention any usage of semicolon in a sentence.
Q3. Describe use of hyphen in sentence.
Q1. Describe the importance of punctuation marks in brief.
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to explain the common errors made in English
and will be able to explain the use of punctuation marks in framing the English sentences.
Lecture -23
4.5 Summarization: Meaning, Importance, Skills required: SQ3R, Paraphrasing and Précis
Writing:
Learning Objective:
The students need to know the basics of English language and they should also know
basics of reading and writing skills.
Student shall be able to explain what is paraphrasing.

4.5.1 Comprehension: Meaning and Important skills required
⮚ Introduction: Comprehension
Comprehension develops reading, listening and writing skills. If any one of these skills is
less developed, then it can lead to embarrassment or inappropriate action or distorted
response. To derive full benefit from this process, it is vital to comprehend and retain
properly the matter you have read so vocabulary, grasping power, thinking ability,
listening attitude, writing skills and speed are developed in the process of comprehension.
⮚ Helpful Hints
1. The main idea of a passage is often stated in the first sentence of the paragraph. Sometimes
the main idea comes at the end of the passage and, occasionally anywhere in the passage.
They may not be stated at all, but simply implied.
2. Make a habit of reading the opening and closing statement of each paragraph.
3. To answer effectively, the important thing is to ask oneself what the whole passage is
about.
4. To answer the questions, pay attention to signal words and phrases. They help you
understand the relationship between the ideas with a paragraph(s). Signal words
such as:
● Cause and effect words - as a result
● Time words – meanwhile
● Contrast words – conversely
● Addition words - in addition
5. Understand definitions, recognize examples, understand explanations, find similar or
unlike characteristics of two things.
6. The main idea questions test your understanding of the whole passage.
7. Scan the passage to spot the key words for specific details. They can be positive or
negative.
8. Inference questions ask you to draw a logical conclusion from what you read in the
passage.
9. Vocabulary questions ask you the antonym, synonym, affixes and root of a word or phrase
within the content of the passage.
Reading Comprehension questions are designed to test a wide range of abilities that are
required to read and understand the kinds of prose commonly encountered in graduate
school. Those abilities include:
▪ understanding the meaning of individual words and sentences
▪ understanding the meaning of paragraphs and larger bodies of text
▪ distinguishing between minor and major points
▪ summarizing a passage
▪ drawing conclusions from the information provided
▪ reasoning from incomplete data to infer missing information
▪ understanding the structure of a text in terms of how the parts relate to one another
▪ identifying the author's assumptions and perspective
▪ analyzing a text and reaching conclusions about it
▪ identifying strengths and weaknesses of a position
▪ developing and considering alternative explanations
A summary presents main ideas of given passage. The objective style is used to write a summary.
A perfect summary is useful in today’s professional era.
● Summary: Giving main points of some resource.

● Synopsis: A summary of a piece.
● Abstract: An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes
a larger work.
● Excerpt: A short piece of writing taken from a longer source.
● Synthesis: The act of combining separate ideas, beliefs, etc.
● Rejection: That something cannot be used or sold because of something wrong.
Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work

may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a
humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work.
An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains
key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an
excerpted passage.
4.5.2 Summarization:
One way of discovering the overall pattern of a piece of writing is to summarize it in your
own words. The act of summarizing is much like stating the plot of a play. The primary
purpose of a summary is to "give an accurate, objective representation of what
the work says." As a general rule, "you should not include your own ideas or
interpretations”.
Writing a good summary demonstrates that you clearly understand a text and that you can
communicate that understanding to your readers briefly and correctly. A summary can be
tricky to write at first because it’s tempting to include too much or too little information.
The following steps should be kept in mind before writing a summary:
1) Skim the text you are going to summarize and divide it into sections. Focus on any headings
and subheadings. Also look at any bold-faced terms and make sure you understand them
before you read.
2) Now that you’ve prepared, go ahead and read the selection. Read thoroughly and try and
understand the author’s tone, style, and main idea.
3) Reread actively. Underline topic sentences and key facts. Label areas that you want to refer
to as you write your summary.
4) Now write down the main idea of each section in one well-developed sentence. Make sure
that what you include in your sentences are key points, not minor details.
5) Review the sentences you wrote and identify the key statement that clearly communicates
what the entire text was trying to achieve.
6) Now write the final summary. You can use the key statement as the introductory sentence.
Sentences can make up the body. Make sure that they are in order. Add some transition
words (then, however, also, moreover) that help with the overall structure and flow of the
summary. Write in the present tense. Make sure to include the title of the work. Don't put
your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary. The purpose of writing a
summary is to accurately represent what the author wanted to say, not to provide a critique.
A) How to write a summary :( Refer: Behrens, L. & Rosen, L. J. (1991). Writing and reading
across the curriculum. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.)
1. Read the passage carefully. Determine its structure. Identify the author's purpose in
writing. This will help you to distinguish between more important and less important
information.
2. Reread. This time divide the passage into sections. The author's use of paragraphing
will often be a useful guide. Write on the passage itself, mark each section or stage of
thought. (Underline key ideas and/ or terms)
3. Write one-sentence summaries for each section or stage of thought.
4. Write a thesis: a one-sentence summary of the entire passage. The thesis should
express the central idea of the passage, determined it from the preceding steps. It may
be useful to keep in mind the information contained in the lead sentence or paragraph
of most newspaper stories-the what, who, why, where, when, and how of the matter.
For persuasive passages, summarize in a sentence the author's conclusion. For
expository passages summarize in a sentence the subject’s material and it key
feature(s). For narrative passages summarize in a sentence the subject’s material, and
its key feature(s). Note: in some cases a suitable thesis may already be in the original
passage. If so, You may want to quote it directly in your summary.
5. Write the first draft of your summary by (1) Combining the thesis with the list of one-
sentence summary or (2) Combining the thesis with one sentence summaries plus
significant details from the passage. In either case, eliminate repetition. Eliminate less
important information. Disregard minor details, or generalize them (e.g. Nixon, Ford,
and Carter might be generalized as "recent presidents"). Use as few words as possible
to convey the main ideas.
6. Check your summary against the original passage, and make whatever adjustments
are necessary for accuracy & completeness.
7. Revise your summary, inserting transitional words and phrases where necessary to
ensure coherence, check for style. Avoid a series of short, choppy sentences. Combine
sentences for a smooth, logical flow of ideas. Check for grammatical correctness,
punctuation, and spelling.
4.5.3 Differences between Summary, Abstract, Overview and Synopsis:
Summary is the most catch-all term of this group, and the one that shows up the most in
general everyday English.
Abstract is most commonly used in the scientific context. It is typically a formal requirement
for publication, as the initial section of a scientific paper. Often times if you find scientific
papers online, it is just the abstract that is available.
Overview is similar in literal meaning to "summary". It has a slight informality to it.

Synopsis again could be exchanged directly for "summary" in most contexts. It has a slightly
more formal feel, and shows up in the literature and the arts a bit more frequently than
other contexts (e.g., "I just want to read a synopsis of the novel, not the whole thing" sounds
a bit better than "summary"). A synopsis often is often more detailed than a regular
"summary".
4.5.4 SQ3R
SQRRR or "SQ3R" is a reading comprehension method named for its five steps: survey,
question, read, recite, and review. The method was introduced by Francis P. Robinson, an
American education philosopher in his 1946 book Effective Study.
The method offers a more efficient and active approach to reading textbook material. It was
created for college students, but is extremely useful for young students as well. Classrooms
all over the world have begun using this method to better understand what they're reading.
Comprehension comes from the Latin term, comprehension, which means "a seizing."
When you have comprehension of a subject, you have seized information and incorporated
it into your own knowledge. Any kind of mental grasping of an idea or a subject is a kind
of comprehension.
⮚ The Importance of Comprehension in Language Learning

The ability to comprehend new information is a critical concept in language learning — one
that can determine how well you’ll be able to absorb language elements and use them in a
meaningful way. That is, you acquire language in a predictable order, starting with the most
basic then increasing in complexity as you understand more and more language elements.
Teaching comprehension while students are still mastering foundational reading skills will
not only allow for students to demonstrate age-appropriate skills, but it also will help
reinforce the reasons we read in the first place: to derive meaning, understanding, and
enjoyment from a book or other text.
Examples:
A) Read the following passage carefully and summarize.
An earthquake comes like a thief in the night, without warning. It was necessary, therefore
to invent instruments that neither slumbered nor slept. Some devices were quite simple.
One, for instance, consisted of rods of various lengths and thicknesses which would stand
up on end like ninepins. When a shock came it shook the rigid table upon which these stood.
If it were gentle, only the more unstable rods fell. If it were severe, they all fell. Thus, the
rods by falling and by the direction in which they fell, recorded for the slumbering scientist,
the strength of a shock that was too weak to waken him and the direction from which it
came. But, instruments far more delicate than that were needed if any really serious
advance was to be made.
The ideal to be aimed at was to devise an instrument that could record with a pen on paper
the movements, of the ground or of the table, as the quake passed by. While I write my pen
moves but the paper keeps still. With practice, no doubt, I could, in time, learn to write by
holding the pen still while the paper moved. That sounds a silly suggestion, but that was
precisely the idea adopted in some of the early instruments (seismometers) for recording
earthquake waves. But when table, penholder and paper are all moving how is it possible
to write legibly? The key to a solution of that problem lay in an everyday observation. Why
does a person standing in a bus or train tend to fall when a sudden start is made? It is
because his feet move on, but his head stays still.
B) Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given.
Education has always had two objects: on the one hand, to give skill; and on the other, to
impart a vaguer thing which we may call wisdom. The role of skill has become very much
larger than the role of wisdom. At the same time, it must be admitted that wisdom in our
world is useless expect for those who realize the great part played by skills, for it is increase
of skill that is the distinctive feature of our world. Although scientific skill is necessary, it
is by no means sufficient. A dictatorship of man of science would very soon become
horrible. Skill without wisdom may prove to be surely destructive. For this reason, if for no
other, it is of great importance than those who receive a scientific education should not be
merely scientific, but should have some understanding of that kind of wisdom which, if it
can be imparted at all, can be impacted by the cultural side of education. Science enables
us to know the means to any chosen end, but it does not help us to decide upon what ends
should be pursued. If you wish to exterminate humans, it will show you how to do it. If
you wish to make humans so numerous that all are on the verge of starvation, it will show
you how to do that. If you wish to secure adequate prosperity for the whole human race,
science will tell you what you must do. But it will not tell you whether one of these ends is
more desirable than other. Nor will it give you that instinctive understanding of human
beings that is necessary if your measures are not to arouse fierce opposition which only
ferocious tyranny can quell. It can’t teach your patience, it can’t teach you sympathy, it
can’t teach you a sense of human dignity. These things, insofar as they can be taught in
formal education, are most likely to emerge from the learning of history and great
literature.
a) What should, according to the writer, be the aim of education?
b) Why is increase of skill a distinctive feature of our world?
c) What danger does the writer see in the present emphasis on imparting skills?
d) What knowledge does science impart to us?
e) Why should we study history and great literature?
f) Summarize the passage.
C) Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given
An old precept admonishes us to count ten before acting in anger. I thought of that recently
when someone I had liked and trusted took advantage of that trust advantage himself
personality, at my expense. My first reaction was to retaliate, but having learned from sad
experience the folly of acting destructively when in an emotional state, I turned my
mobilized energies into a quite different channel and accomplished a task I had been trying
to get to for several days.
This is a type of experience that everyone goes through many times in his life, and the
typical first reaction is one of retaliation. If we analyze this reaction, we find that the only
thing we are really seeking at the moment, and the only thing we accomplish for ourselves
by retaliation, is release of the tension that the situation has built up in us. But we
accomplish this usually at the expenses of erasing any feelings of guilt or remorse the other
fellow may have, and this our retaliatory reaction, far from “paying him back”, actually
plays the other person’s hands.
We can release tension just as well by other types of action and with real reward to
ourselves. The best way is to utilize the energy that has been mobilized by our anger to
counteract, by some constructive action, the harm that the other person has done us. If this
is impossible, the energy should be drained off in some other useful activity. But for many
reasons—and if for no other, then for purely selfish ones—we should not react
destructively.
The important thing is to realize in our moment of anger that our glands have flooded us
with energy which demands an “out”, and that to play safe should release it immediately
into some constructive channel. By immediately drawing off the “charge”, we avoid the
danger of explosion with all its potentialities for harmful consequences to ourselves and
others. In brief, when angry emotion is aroused, act quickly—but not in retaliation. War
never pays!
i. What, according to the author, are the best ways to react when angry?
ii. What are we really seeking when we react with retaliation?
iii. In what way does such a reaction play into the hands of object of our anger?
iv. What is the physiological result of anger?
v. Summarize the passage.
D) Read the following passage and answer the given questions.
Although the schooling of fish is familiar form of animal social behavior, how the school is
formed and maintained is only beginning to be understood in detail. It had been thought
that each fish maintains its position chiefly by means of vision. Our work as shown that, as
each fish maintains its position, the lateral line, an organ sensitive to transitory changes in
water displacement, is as important as vision. In each species a fish has a “preferred”
distance and dangle from its nearest neighbor. The ideal separation and bearing, however,
are not maintained rigidly. The result is a probabilistic arrangement that appears like a
random aggregation. The tendency of the fish to remain at the preferred distance and angle,
however, serves to maintain the structure. Each fish, having established its position, uses
its eyes and its lateral lines simultaneously to measure the speed of all the other fish in the
school. It then adjusts its own speed to match a weighted average that emphasizes the
contribution of nearby fish.
Q.1 According to the passage, the structure of a fish school is dependent upon which of the
following.
I. Rigidly formed random aggregations
II. The tendency of each fish to remain at a preferred distance from neighboring fish
III. Measurement of a weighted average by individual fish
A. II only
B. III only
C. I and II only
D. I and III only
E. II and III only
Q.2 Which of the following best describes the author’s attitude toward the theory that the
structure of fish schools is maintained primarily through vision?
A. Heated opposition
B. Careful neutrality
C. Considered dissatisfaction
D. Cautious approval
E. Unqualified enthusiasm
Q.3 The passage suggests that, after establishing its position in the school formation, an
individual fish will subsequently
A. Maintain its preferred position primarily by visual and auditory means
B. Rigorously avoid changes that would interfere with the overall structure of the school
C. Make conscious sensory readjustments to its position within the school
D. Make unexpected shifts in position only if threatened by external danger
E. Surrender its ability to make quick, instinctive judgments.
E) Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given:
On August 3, 1492, Christopher Columbus set sail from Palos , Spain , with less than a
hundred crew members to discover a new route to Asia. After spending a difficult time at
sea, the party sighted land early on the morning of October 12, 1492. They set foot on an island
in the Bahamas which they named Al Salvador. Columbus presumed that the indigenous
people were Native Indians as he was under the mistaken belief that he had set foot on Indian
soil. Probably some 10 million American Indians were natives to the land before the large-
scale inhabitation by Europeans and subsequent annihilation of Native Americans started.
However, it took more than a hundred years after Columbus discovered America for the
Europeans to finally take the momentous decision to make the New World their home.
The Native Americans actually welcomed the pale-skinned visitors primarily out of curiosity
than anything else. They were fascinated by the steel knives and swords, fire spewing
cannons, brass and copper utensils, etc. that these visitors brought with them. Eventually,
cultural differences erupted. The natives could not stomach the arrogance of the newcomers
and the scant respect they paid to nature. The European settlers viewed every resource —
plants, animals, and people as something to be commercially exploited.
The native Indians were vastly outnumbered in the wars that ensued. The resistance they put
up never proved enough to stop the European settlers. The nomadic lifestyle of the Indians,
the relatively unsophisticated weapons at their disposal, the unwillingness of some of their
own people to defend themselves, and the diseases of the white men — all contributed to the
virtual elimination of their race. Some of the diseases brought by Europeans from their
overcrowded cities that decimated the natives were: small pox, plague, measles, cholera,
typhoid, and malaria. These deadly diseases, to which most natives had developed no
resistance, devastated many tribes between 1775 and 1850.
America was named after an Italian navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the
Northern parts of South America in 1499 and 1500 and later announced to the world about
the discovery of a new continent.
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
i. Disprove the notion that America was named after Columbus.
ii. Provide a snapshot of the discovery of America and the early years of settlements.
iii. Explain how the Europeans eliminated the native Americans in their own land.
iv. Discuss how the process of colonization of America started.
v. To tell about the American Indians.
2. From the passage we can infer that in comparison to the Europeans, Native Americans were
i. about their environment
ii. A very unhealthy lot
iii. More respectful of nature
iv. Ignorant about sanitation
v. Afraid of outsiders
3. What can be inferred from the third paragraph?

i. The native Americans did not have any weapons with which to defend themselves.
ii. The native Americans probably attached a lot of importance to and respected nature.
iii. The native Americans did not know how to use natural resources.
iv. The early settlers became arrogant as they could commercially exploit resources.
v. The native Americans did not know the art of making utensils.
4. Based on the information in the passage which of the following cannot be inferred?
I. Alien diseases wiped out a large proportion of certain Native American tribes
II. The early settlers totally eliminated the Native Americans
III. To the early settlers, even people were resources to be exploited commercially
i.Only I
ii.Only II
iii.I & II
iv.Only III
v.None of these
5. Write the summary of the passage
F) Directions (Qs 1 t0 10) in the following passage, there are blank each of which are
numbered these numbers are printed below the passage and against each, five words are
suggested, one of which fits the blank appropriately. Find out the appropriate word in
each case.
PASSAGE
Conversation is indeed the most easily---1---- of all arts. All you need to do in order to become
a good conversationalist is to find a subject that ----2---- you and your listeners. There are, for
example number of ----3----- to talk about. But the -----4------- thing is that you must talk about
the other fellow’s hobby rather than your own. Therein, lays the secret of your friends-----5--
---. Talk to your friends about the things which interest them, and you will get a reputation
for good fellowship, ----6----- wit, and a brilliant mind. There is nothing that pleases people
so much as your interest in their interests. It is just as important to know what subjects to ---
7---- as what subjects to select for good conversation. If you do not want to be set down as a
wet ---8--- or a bore, be careful to avoid certain unpleasant topics avoid talking about yourself,
---9--- you are asked to do so people are interested in their own problems, not in yours.
Sickness or death ----10----everybody. The only one who willingly listens to such talks is the,
but he gets paid for it.
1 (a) reliable (b) implied (c) Cultivated (d) cultivated (e) teachable
2 (a) interests (b) activates (c) Prohibits (d) exhibits (e) guides
3 (a) avoidances (b) hobbies (c) compassions (d) weaknesses (e) aims
4 (a) massive (b) qualitative (c) important (d) striking (e) transitional
5 (a) successions (b) context (c) consonance (d) popularity (e)
significance
6 (a) colonial (b) substantial (c) charming (d) benefiting (e) changing
7 (a) Deserve (b) direct (c) supply (d) avoid (e) ignore
8 (a) Coat (b) shirt (c) cloth (d) rock (e)
blanket
9 (a) Until (b) otherwise (c) unless (d) yet (e) till
10. (a) Enjoy (b) remark (c) emancipate (d) undergo (e) bore
G) Summarize the following passages.
a. Steven Spielberg
The stars are usually actors and actresses. Most people do not even look at the name of the
director or producer, except one - Steven Spielberg. When he was a little boy, his father
showed him how to use a camera. Later he got his own camera and started to film things
like model train crashes, stories about monsters and horrible murders. His three younger
sisters were always the victims. Later he made his first film at home at the age of twelve. It
was a cowboy film three and a half minutes long, and it cost $10 to make.
When he was sixteen, he made a science-fiction film more than two hours long. Making
films was his great hobby - much more fascinating for him than school. Of course, Steven
wanted to go to film school. But his high school grades were not good enough! So, he just
went along to Universal Studios and asked for a job. Spielberg sometimes uses a lot of
complicated effects - in the Indiana Jones films, for example. But, like in Duel, he can create
a fantastic atmosphere even without special effects. E. T. is a success because of the feelings
and reactions of the children. In 1994 he won the most important film prize, the Oscar, for
Schindler's List. The secret of Spielberg’s success is that the stories in many of his films
somehow look as if they could happen to ordinary people like you and me.
b. George Takei
On the TV series Star Trek, George Takei played Sulu, the calm chief navigator on the
Starship Enterprise. Surprisingly, in real life, Takei is much less calm. “I’m a political
animal,” says Takei, who is not only interested in the Japanese-American community
theater in Los Angeles, but also in the enormous transportation system in that city.
What best prepared Takei, who turns 57 this month, for his political activism were his
experiences as a young boy growing up in Los Angeles. In 1942, he and his parents,
relatives and neighbors– all of Japanese origin, many of them American citizens– were sent
to internment camps for the rest of the Second World War. “The internment was one of the
darkest aspects in our country’s history,” Takei says. Although the United States was also
at war with Germany and Italy, only Japanese Americans were sent to the camps. “Just
those who looked different,” Takei said. “In this country we believe in fairness to all people,
but there were no charges, no trial. They just put us together.”
Takei’s 1994 book To the Stars describes his family’s experiences. He believes his interest
today in politics comes from the belief he shared with his father that people have to be
active so that the system can work.
Takei, who has never been married, is still active. His latest passion is the re-development
of an area in downtown Los Angeles that was once the center of the Japanese-American
community. A theater company to which he belongs, the East West Players, is changing a
church into a theater for the group. Another downtown building that Takei helped to save
from demolition used to be a Buddhist temple. “There’s a lot of Japanese history there,” he
says. “I went there as a child. It became the place where the people were taken together
before they were sent to the internment camp. During the war, it served as a storeroom for
Japanese families’ valuable belongings.” While Takei speaks passionately about keeping
Japanese-American culture, he is just as passionate about his acting career.
c. The Hard Rock Cafe Story
"No matter where you are or what time it is, there's something going on at a Hard Rock
Cafe. All over the world our cafes not only serve great food, but they serve up great music."
Hard Rock Cafes around the world symbolize the timeless energy, originality and unifying
spirit that have helped to shape rock music over the last century. The first Hard Rock Cafe
(HRC) opened its doors to the public on June 14, 1971, in London.
Founded by Isaac Tigrett and Peter Morton, two enterprising and music-loving Americans,
HRC was a classic at once, attracting crowds of customers with its first-rate, but moderately
priced American bill of fare, warm service and ever-present rock 'n' roll music and
sensibility.
With more than 108 Hard Rock Cafes in 41 countries Hard Rock Cafe has become a truly
global phenomenon. From its launch in London, England, to New York, Los Angeles, Paris
and Tokyo, and on to such exotic locales as Kuala Lumpur and Taipei, Hard Rock offers a
special experience to its devoted, ever-expanding clientele. HRC has also become the
world's leading collector and exhibitor of rock 'n' roll memorabilia. It all started when Eric
Clapton, a regular at the first Hard Rock Cafe in London, asked the staff if he could hang
his guitar on the wall to mark his favorite bar stool as "his spot".
They did and one week later, a package from "The Who's" Pete Townshend arrived by
messenger with a guitar and a note with the message, "Mine's as good as his! Love, Pete."
Ever since then, Hard Rock Cafes have been collecting pieces of rock memorabilia and
covering their walls with them. Their unparalleled collection consists of more than 60,000
pieces. It is rotated from restaurant to restaurant and provides the world's most
comprehensive "visual history" of rock 'n' roll. These treasures include an awe-inspiring
collection of classic guitars and other instruments, posters, costumes, music and lyric
sheets, album art, platinum and gold LPs, photos and much more. Throughout its history,
HRC has been governed by a special service philosophy: "Love All - Serve All." HRC is a
place where all people have always been welcome, regardless of age, sex or class. Since it
was established Hard Rock Cafe has taken part in a wide variety of human activities around
the world. Following its idea of being more than just a restaurant, Hard Rock tries to
connect its business and its passion to make the earth a safer, healthier and a better place
to live. For example, HRC cafes take an active role in organizing parties raise funds for
different local charities.
They have also founded special initiatives like 'Save the Planet' or 'Ambassador Program'.
All in all, today Hard Rock Cafe International is an entertainment and leisure company that
continues to successfully expand the Hard Rock brand through countless music-related
activities.
H) Summarize the following:
a. Oliver Sacks' essay "An Anthropologist on Mars":
The cause of autism has also been a matter of dispute. Its incidence is about one in a
thousand, and it occurs throughout the world, its features remarkably consistent even in
extremely different cultures. It is often not recognized in the first year of life, but tends to
become obvious in the second or third year. Though Asperger regarded it as a biological
defect of affective contact—innate, inborn, and analogous to a physical or intellectual
defect—Kanner tended to view it as a psychogenic disorder, a reflection of bad parenting,
and most especially of a chillingly remote, often professional, "refrigerator mother." At this
time, autism was often regarded as "defensive" in nature, or confused with childhood
schizophrenia. A whole generation of parents—mothers, particularly—was made to feel
guilty for the autism of their children.
b. The need for knowledge of the constitution and functions, in the concrete, of human nature
is great just because the teacher's attitude to subject matter is so different from that of the
pupil. The teacher presents in actuality what the pupil represents only in posse. That is, the
teacher already knows the things which the student is only learning. Hence the problem of
the two is radically unlike. When engaged in the direct act of teaching, the instructor needs
to have subject matter at his fingers' ends; his attention should be upon the attitude and
response of the pupil. To understand the latter in its interplay with subject matter is his
task, while the pupil's mind, naturally, should be not on itself but on the topic in hand. Or
to state the same point in a somewhat different manner: the teacher should be occupied not
with subject matter in itself but in its interaction with the pupils' present needs and
capacities. Hence simple scholarship is not enough.
I) Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.
Books are of different kinds. Each kind has its own peculiar pleasure. Reading creative
literature provides not only diversion, but also a deep insight into life and human charactor.
Literature acquaints us with a large number of things and situations of which we have no
direct experience. The experience gained through books widens our outlook, broadens our
sympathies and enlarge our mental horizon. Thus it makes us better human being. Good
novels, plays and poems do another service to us. They enable us to face life cheerfully and
courageously. They teach us glad acceptance of life. Even popular fiction gives us at least a
temporary escape from the problems of life. Reading of serious books like those on
philosophy, psychology, sociology etc. has joys of its own. They increase our knowledge,
sharpen out intellect and enable us to think for ourselves. Books on history take us into the
past and prove useful in many ways. One learns not only from the achievements but also
from the failures of the great men and rulers of bygone ages. Reading is, thus, helpful to
man in many ways. This fact should not, however, blind us to the disadvantages of reading,
too much reading in particular. A man who reads too much is somehow cut off from real
life. He loses the pleasures of life in pursuing the pleasures of reading. It is important to
remember that books cannot be substitutes for life. Let us, therefore, use them as aids to a
good and pleasant life.
(a)What are the advantage of reading literature?
(b) Describe the advantage of reading history books.
(c) Are there disadvantages of reading books?
(d) How should books be used?
(e) Find words from the passage which mean the following
(i) Makes us familiar (ii) Options
(f) Summarize the passage in your own words.
J) Read the following passage and answer the following.
Managing, like all other practices- whether medicine, music composition, engineering,
accountancy, or even baseball is an art. It is Know-how. It is doing things in the light of the
realities of a situation. Yet managers can work latter by using the organized knowledge
about management. It is this knowledge that constitutes a science. Thus, managing as
practice is an art; the organized knowledge underlying the practice may be referred to as a
science. In this context science and art are not mutually exclusive; they are complementary.
As Science improves, so should art, as it has happened in the physical biological sciences.
To be sure, the science underlying managing is fairly crude and inexact. This is true because
the many variables with which managers deal are extremely complex. Nevertheless, such
management knowledge can certainly improve managerial practice. Physicians without
the advantage of science would be little more than witch doctors. Executives who attempt
to manage without management science must trust to luck, intuition or what they did in
the past.
In managing, as in any other field, unless practitioners are to learn by trial and error and it
has been said that managers’ errors are their subordinates’ trials. There is no place they can
turn for meaningful guidance other than the accumulated knowledge underlying their
practice.
Questions:
1) Explain how managing can be termed as art and also as science.

2) How is management science important in managing people?
3) Give a suitable title for this passage.
4) Why is the science underlying managing fairly crude and inexact?
5) Summarize the passage in your own words.
K) Read the following passage and give suitable answers for the questions asked:
It’s hard to imagine that two years ago Clare Ross, 32, would do almost anything to avoid
talking to people. Today Clare is chatty and enthusiastic. The key to this transformation is
Books (Reading is my remedy she laughs).
Clare, who has and depression for fifteen years, first discovered this unlikely treatment
while waiting to see her doctor: It was one of my bad times. I didn’t want to speak to anyone
or have anyone approach me, so I turned away and started reading the notice board. On it
was a poster advertising get into reading, a unique project run by the UK charity. The
Reader Organization, which uses top writers as therapy. Novels poetry and plans are read
aloud and discussed in small groups in doctor’s surgeries, prisons, community Centre’s
and libraries. For the first time in ages, Clare found herself really wanting to do something.
She’d always adored reading, but now had been trouble concentrating.
It took her several weeks to muster the courage to go, a year to say anything and two years
before she had the confidence to read aloud. But now Clare, who has few academic
qualifications, can sit in a room with other people, look at them and express her opinions.
Yoga, counseling and eating some healthy, Mediterranean diet rich in fish and grains have
also helped, as has cognitive behavioral therapy which aims to break the cycle of negative
thinking that fuels depression. But Clare shuns medication. I am proof that you can get
better without antidepressants she says.
Q.1. What is important to keep away from depression?

Q.2. Depression an ongoing process, Explain.
Q.3 What are the harms of medication for depression patients?
Q.4. Write the summary of the passage in fifty words and give a suitable title.
L) Read the following passage to answer the given questions based on it. Some
words/phrases are printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the
questions.
Keshav and Yash lived in neighboring villages. Once, a fair was held nearby and they set
off from their homes hoping to do some business there. Keshav filled his sack with cheap
cotton, overlaid it with a layer of fine wool, and set off for the fair. Meanwhile Yash,
collected some old clothes, put a layer of sheer cotton on top and made his way to the fair.
Each stopped to rest under tree and got to talking. “I have the finest wool in my sack,”
boasted Keshav. Not to be outdone. Yash said, “I have cotton of the most superior quality.
The two struck a deal. They would exchange their goods and since wool was more
expensive, Yash would pay Keshav an extra rupee. But Yash had no money on him. So after
agreeing to pay Keshav later, they went home, laughing at each other’s folly. It did not take
them long to discover that they had been duped. The next day, Keshav landed at Yash’s
house, “You cheat! Give me my rupee at least.” Yash was untroubled by Keshav’s word,
“Of course. But first help me find the treasure at the bottom of this well. We can divide it.”
So Keshav went into the well. But each time Yash, hauled up the bucket Keshav had filled,
he said, “Oh! No treasure here. Try again.” Keshav soon realized he was being used as free
labour to clean the well. So, he gave a loud shout, “Here is the treasure! Watch out its
heavy!” Yash was amazed that there actually was treasure in the well. As soon as he pulled
up the bucket he threw away the rope so that Keshav could not come up. But, what did he
find in the bucket? Keshav covered in mud! They began fighting again. Soon it got too dark
to continue and they left for their homes.
But Keshav did not give up easily. He arrived at Yash’s house a few days later. Yash
stopped him and told his wife, “I will pretend to be dead. Keshav will have to give up.” But
when Keshav heard Yash’s wife wailing, rushed out to gather the villagers. “My friend has
died. Let’s take his body of cremation.” Yash’s wife got scared, “Go away. I shall arrange
for cremation myself!” But the villagers thought she was too grief stricken. Once they
reached the cremation ground, Keshav told the villagers, “It is getting dark. I shall watch
over him during the night.” When the villagers had left, Keshav said to Yash, “Stop
pretending. Give me my money!” Now, a gang of thieves came upon them and seeing one
figure seated on the funeral pyre and another standing next to him talking, they assumed
them to be ghosts and dropped their bag of stolen goods and left at top speed. The two, saw
the bag full of gold and silver ornaments and divided it between themselves. Keshav made
sure he got an extra gold coin and the account was settled at least!
1. What made the two young men decide to visit the fair?
A. They thought they could get jobs and B. They wanted to trade their goods at the
support themselves. fair and earn some money.
C. To sell the produce they had grown for a D. Being unemployed they thought they
handsome profit could entrain people at the fair.
E. Not clearly mentioned in the passage
2. What were Keshav and Yash quarrelling about?
A. The cost of wool B. The interest on the loan Yash had taken
C. Dividing the thieves’ treasure equally D. The money Yash owed Keshav
E. The wages for digging the well
3. Why were the two men happy despite not going to the fair?
A. They had managed to buy whatever B. They had got a good deal in exchange for
they needed on the way a rupee
C. They had become fast friends and had D. Each thought he had got the better deal
made a lot of money in the bargain. and had swindled the other
E. none of these
4. Why did the villagers gather at Yash’s house?

Yash’s wife was very upset seeing To help Yash’s wife carry Yash’s body
A. Keshav and her husband arguing B. home as night had fallen
C. To give Yash’s wife the news of her D. They wanted to keep watch over Yash’s
husband’s death wife during the night
E. Villagers gathered to cremate Yash.
5. Why did Yash request Keshav to go down into the well?
A. He knew Keshav was smart and would B. He was in search of treasure that he had
clean it thoroughly buried.
C. To trick Keshav into cleaning it. D. His wife had refused to help him.
To make Keshav earn the extra gold

E. coin.
M) Read the following passage to answer the given questions based on it. Some
questions.
Turmeric is a perennial plant of the ginger family native to southwest India. It is commonly
used as a spice in Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani cuisine. It is also used for dyeing and
imparting colour to mustard condiments. The use of turmeric for colouring and flavoring
food, for cosmetic purposes and for medicinal properties dates back to the ancient Vedic
culture of India. Used in almost all Indian curries, it has zero cholesterol and almost no
calories. Turmeric is rich in dietary fiber, iron, potassium, magnesium and vitamin B6.
Turmeric is used to cure arthritis, heartburns, stomach ailments, jaundice, liver problems,
and gallbladder disorders. It is also used to treat headaches, bronchitis, colds, lung
infections as well as depression, Alzheimer’s disease, water retention and kidney problems.
Turmeric contains curcumin, a substance with powerful anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
properties. This helps the body fight foreign invaders and also has a role in repairing
damage. Turmeric is much stronger than vitamin E and vitamin C, and this may help boost
one’s immunity, maintain normal cholesterol levels, and stop aging.
Turmeric also significantly increases the antioxidant capacity of the body. Turmeric boosts
levels of brain growth hormone which increases the growth of new neurons and fights
various degenerative processes in the brain. Regular use of turmeric can help in fighting
heart disease. Research has shown that the use of turmeric leads to several changes on the
molecular level that may help prevent and perhaps even treat cancer.
Q I. Answer the following questions by choosing the most appropriate alternative
from the ones given.
1. Native to southwest India, turmeric is used to boost one’s ________________________.
a. cholesterol levels b. molecular levels c. one’s immunity d. neurons
2. Turmeric helps fight degenerative processes in the brain by __________________________.
a. increasing the levels of new neurons b. maintain cholesterol levels
c. delaying aging d. boosting brain growth hormone
3. Turmeric is used in Indian curries as _____________________________.
a. it contains curcumin b. it is rich in dietary fiber
c. it cures stomach ailments d. it maintains cholesterol levels
4. The antioxidant properties of turmeric _________________________________.
a. imparts colour to mustard condiments b. helps the body fight foreign invaders
c. fights heart disease d. stops cell degeneration
II. Find words from the passage that mean

a. characteristic: _________________ b. sickness: _________________
N) Read the following passage to answer the given questions based on it. Some
questions.
China lodged a strong diplomatic protest against its long-term strategically and neighbour
North Korea, after three Chinese were shot and killed by border troops. Foreign Ministry
spokesperson Qin Gang said that Beijing had lodged a formal diplomatic complaint with
Pyongyang over the incident, in a rare public criticism of North Korea from its only
international ally. “On the morning of June 4, some residents of Dandong city of Liaoning
province were shot by DPRK [Democratic People's Republic of Korea, as the North is
officially known] border guards on suspicion of crossing the border for trade activities,
leaving three dead and one injured”, said Mr. Qin. After the incident, China attached great
importance to it and immediately raised solemn representations to the DPRK. The shooting,
which also left one person injured, was first reported over, “the weekend by the North
Korea Intellectuals Solidarity, a group of defectors based in Seoul, South Korea. The group
said, “the three Chinese were traders who were trying to smuggle copper into China”.
Chinese officials did not verify this claim, and said investigations into the incident were still
progressing. Recent months have seen some signs of discord between the long-term allies,
with China coming under increasing international pressure to take action against North
Korea over an attack on a South Korean warship. Following the March 26 sinking of the
Cheonan warship, which left 46 sailors dead, South Korea and the West have been calling
for strong sanctions against North Korea.
Q.1 The relations between China and North Korea have traditionally been
A. Complementary B. Antagonistic C. Apathetic D. Belligerent

Explanation: Answer can be found in line ‘Recent months have seen some signs of discord
between the long-term allies…’ The word ‘ally’ means one party in helpful association with
another which means China and Korea have been long term partners. So we need a positive
word here. Antagonistic and Belligerent both mean hostile and adversarial. Apathetic
means without concern. So the answer is Option A, complementary
Q 2 Qin Gang may reside in
A. Beijing B. Pyongyang C. South Korea D. the USA
Answer can be found in line ‘Foreign Ministry spokesperson Qin Gang said that Beijing
had lodged a formal diplomatic complaint with Pyongyang over the incident, in a rare
public criticism of North Korea from its only international ally’ Since the spokesperson
criticized nothing Korea, he must be Chinese spokesperson. So the answer is Chinese capital
city, Beijing (Option A)
Q 3 The people shot dead were
A. trying to smuggle copper out of China B. trying to smuggle copper to South Korea
C. not trying to smuggle copper into China D. may be trying to smuggle copper into China
As given in the passage, these people were killed on suspicion that they were trying to
smuggle copper from North Korea to China. Since it was a mere suspicion and not a
confirmed fact, the answer is option D.
Q 4 North Korea is being sidelined by the international community because of its
A. corrupt leadership B. communism and radical ideology
C. military junta D. Belligerence
O) Read the following passage to answer the given questions based on it.
Reviving the practice of using elements of popular music in classical composition, an

approach that had been in hibernation in the United States during the 1960s, composer
Philip Glass (born 1937) embraced the ethos of popular music in his compositions. Glass
based two symphonies on music by rock musicians David Bowie and Brian Eno, but the
symphonies' sound is distinctively his. Popular elements do not appear out of place in
Glass's classical music, which from its early days has shared certain harmonies and rhythms
with rock music. Yet this use of popular elements has not made Glass a composer of popular
music. His music is not a version of popular music packaged to attract classical listeners; it
is high art for listeners steeped in rock rather than the classics.
Select only one answer choice.
1. The passage addresses which of the following issues related to Glass's use of popular
elements in his classical compositions?
A. How it is regarded by listeners who prefer rock to the classics
B. How it has affected the commercial success of Glass's music
C. Whether it has contributed to a revival of interest among other composers in using
popular elements in their compositions
D. Whether it has had a detrimental effect on Glass's reputation as a composer of
classical music
E. Whether it has caused certain of Glass's works to be derivative in quality
Consider each of the three choices separately and select all that apply.
2. The passage suggests that Glass's work displays which of the following qualities?
A. A return to the use of popular music in classical compositions
B. An attempt to elevate rock music to an artistic status more closely approximating that
of classical music
C. A long-standing tendency to incorporate elements from two apparently disparate
musical styles
3. Select the sentence that distinguishes two ways of integrating rock and classical music.
Explanation
The passage describes in general terms how Philip Glass uses popular music in his classical
compositions and explores how Glass can do this without being imitative. Note that there
are no opposing views discussed; the author is simply presenting his or her views.
Question 1: One of the important points that the passage makes is that when Glass uses
popular elements in his music, the result is very much his own creation (it is “distinctively
his”). In other words, the music is far from being derivative. Thus one issue that the passage
addresses is the one referred to in answer choice E — it answers it in the negative. The
passage does not discuss the impact of Glass's use of popular elements on listeners, on the
commercial success of his music, on other composers or on Glass's reputation, so none of
Choices A through D is correct. The correct answer is Choice E.
Question 2: To answer this question, it is important to assess each answer choice
independently. Since the passage says that Glass revived the use of popular music in
classical compositions, answer choice A is clearly correct. On the other hand, the passage
also denies that Glass composes popular music or packages it in a way to elevate its status,
so answer choice B is incorrect. Finally, since Glass's style has always mixed elements of
rock with classical elements, answer Choice C is correct. Thus the correct answer is Choice
A and Choice C.
Question 3: Almost every sentence in the passage refers to incorporating rock music in
classical compositions, but only the last sentence distinguishes two ways of doing so. It
distinguishes between writing rock music in a way that will make it attractive to classical
listeners and writing classical music that will be attractive to listeners familiar with
rock. Thus, the correct answer is the last sentence of the passage.
4.5.7 Paraphrasing
A paraphrase (pronounced par–uh-freyz) is a restatement or rewording of a paragraph or text, in

order to borrow, clarify, or expand on information without plagiarizing. Paraphrasing is an
important tool to use when writing research papers, essays, and pieces of journalism. The
purpose of paraphrasing is to build on someone else’s work in an original way. By correctly
paraphrasing you demonstrate that you have understood an author’s ideas, and you can analyze
and restate them without altering the author’s meaning.
⮚ The Importance of Using Paraphrase

Paraphrasing is a way of referencing a source without directly quoting it or of further
explaining a selected quote. Correct paraphrasing is important one but it should be given
the credit to the writer by citing him or her in our work, otherwise, it will be considered
as theft come that work under plagiarism, or copying from a source without correctly
citing it. Paraphrasing allows writers to examine the meaning of others’ work, creatively
rephrase their statements, and craft information to suit an essay or composition’s goal or
focus.
⮚ Types of Paraphrasing
A. Change of Parts of Speech
Parts of speech ranging from verbs and nouns to adjectives and adverbs are replaced with
new parts of speech in this type of paraphrasing. Here is an example:
Original Sentence:
The boy quickly ran across the finish line, seizing yet another victory.
Paraphrase:
The quick boy seized yet another victory when he ran across the finish line.
In this example, many parts of speech are changed: the adverb quickly becomes the
adjective quick, and the verb phrase with the gerund seizing becomes the verb seized.
B. Change of Structure
This type of paraphrasing involves changing the sentence’s structure, sometimes creating
a passive voice from an active voice and vice versa. The change in structure can be used
to reflect the writer’s interpretation of the original quote. Here is an example of change of
structure paraphrasing:
Original Sentence:
Puppies were adopted by numerous kind souls at the puppy drive.
Paraphrase:
Many kind souls adopted puppies during the puppy drive.
In this example, the object of the sentence (kind souls) becomes the subject with an active
voice (adopted) rather than a passive voice (were adopted).
C. Reduction of Clauses
Reduction of clauses paraphrases reduce the number of clauses in a sentence, which can
be interruptive or confusing, by incorporating the phrases into the sentence. Here is an
example of reduction of clauses paraphrasing:
Original Sentence:
While I understand where you’re coming from, and truly respect your opinion, I wish you would
express yourself more clearly, like Clara does.
Paraphrase:
I understand where you’re coming from and respect your opinion, but I wish you would be more
like Clara and express yourself more clearly.
D. Synonym Replacement
Synonym replacement paraphrasing is one of the simplest forms of paraphrasing:
replacing words with similar words, or synonyms. Here is an example:
Original Sentence:
The older citizens were honored with a parade for those once in the military.
Paraphrase:
Senior citizens were honored with a march for veterans.
In this example, many synonyms are used: older citizens are senior citizens, a parade
becomes a march, and those once in the military refer to veterans.
⮚ Guidelines for Paraphrasing
● Read the original two or three times or until you are sure you understand it.
● Put the original aside and try to write the main ideas in your own words. Say what
the source says, but no more, and try to reproduce the source's order of ideas and
emphasis.
● Look closely at unfamiliar words, observing carefully the exact sense in which the
writer uses the words.
● Check your paraphrase, as often as needed, against the original for accurate tone and
meaning, changing any words or phrases that match the original too closely. If the
wording of the paraphrase is too close to the wording of the original, then it is
plagiarism.
● Include a citation for the source of the information (including the page numbers) so
that you can cite the source accurately. Even when you paraphrase, you must still
give credit to the original author.
4.5.8 Précis-writing
A précis is a summary. Précis writing is an exercise in compression. A précis is the gist of

a passage expressed in as few words as possible. A précis should give all essential points
so that anyone reading it will be able to understand the idea expressed in the original
passage.
Note that précis writing is different from paraphrasing. In a paraphrase you should give
all the details: you should not leave out any details. A paraphrase will be at least as long
as and sometimes longer than the original. A précis, on the other hand, must always be
shorter than the original. It should express only the main theme that too as briefly as
possible.
⮚ How long should a précis be?
There are no rigid rules regarding the length of a précis. But as a general rule, it should not
contain more than a third of the total number of words in the original passage.
⮚ Uses of précis writing
Most people read carelessly and fail to fully comprehend the meaning of the passage. Précis
writing forces them to pay attention to what they read because no one can write a summary
of a passage unless they read it carefully. So summarizing teaches one to read with
concentration.
Précis writing also improves your overall writing skills. It teaches you how to express your
thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. You learn to choose your words carefully and
construct your sentences in a logical and concise manner.
⮚ Do's in a précis:
Start your précis by highlighting the main idea of the passage and you should create
contextual environment where you can place the necessary points.
Once the main idea is established in the précis, you can present the methods, points, facts etc.
used by the author of the passage.
Compress and clarify a lengthy passage, article, or book, while retaining important concepts,
key words, and important data.
Remove what is superfluous and retain the core essence of the work.
Always remember that mentions about history should be advisably done in the past tense.
State the purpose of the research or piece of writing (why was it important to conduct this
research or write on this topic?)
⮚ Don'ts in a précis:
Do not express your own opinion, wish, remark or criticism.
Do not insert any question in your précis. Its significance, if essential, may be expressed by a
statement.
Do not use abbreviations or contractions.
⮚ Procedure to write précis
● Start by reading the paragraph thoroughly and then understand the central theme or
the idea. It is important that you identify the idea so that you incorporate that in the
required precision.
● Check whether the total number of words is given or not. If it not given than count out
the total words in the paragraph.
● If you have not understood the precis in one go then give it a couple more reads. Make
sure you are clear with the meaning of the paragraph.
● While reading the paragraph highlight the main points and make notes of it. Try to
find which information is irrelevant for your précis.
● The heading is very critical, so give it a good thought before finalizing it.
● The notes or the points that you have highlighted is very important in précis.
● As the precis should follow the logical order, arrange these points in the same way.
● For officials, you need to provide titles and designations rather than names. If nothing
is provided then you go with the personal name, but make sure that you follow the
same pattern throughout your writing.
● Before submitting your draft, review it properly as the précis is already in a short
format error should be avoided
● Have a final glance at the paragraph to make sure that you have missed out on
anything. A good practice would be to count the number of words in the précis and
put it in a bracket at the end of précis.
Exercise-1 –Paraphrasing
Directions: write a paraphrase of each of the following passages.
1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of our
heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the
camera. "The cold ocean water around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water
from the tropics, and its upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our
atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this regulating system is now threatened by human
activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon (May 1990):17.
2. The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law was a bad
joke because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years
when organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything
against it. Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and men
like Bix Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young.
The flapper was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she
symbolized, perhaps more than anyone or anything else, America's break with the past.
From Kathleen Yancey, English 102 Supplemental Guide (1989):
3. Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head
injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing a
bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet
absorbs the shock and cushions the head. From "Bike Helmets: Unused Lifesavers,"
Consumer Reports (May 1990): 348.
4. Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most realistic
of all modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a landscape and
the smell of oranges as essential to a still life. "The Casbah Gate" depicts the well-known
gateway Bab el Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near the sultan's palace.
With scrubby coats of ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced by the liveliest gray
outline in art history, Matisse gets the essence of a Tangier afternoon, including the subtle
presence of the bowaab, the sentry who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate.
From Peter Plagens, "Bright Lights." Newsweek (26 March 1990): 50.
5. While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper engineering so
far, it's unlikely that architects and engineers have abandoned the quest for the world's
tallest building. The question is: Just how high can a building go? Structural engineer
William LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high, twice as tall as
the Sears Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing technology could
produce a 500-story building. From Ron Bachman, "Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May
1990): 15.
Exercise-1 – Précis writing
Directions: write a paraphrase of each of the following passages.
1. Men and women are of equal rank but they are not identical. They are be peerless pair being
supplementary to one another, each helps the other so that without one the existence of the other
cannot be conceived and, therefore it follows as a necessary corollary from these facts that
anything that will impair the status of either of them will involve the equal ruin of them both. In
framing any scheme of women’s education this cardinal truth must be constantly kept in mind.
Man is supreme in the outward activities of a married air and therefore it is in the fitness of things
that he should have a greater knowledge thereof. On the other hand, noise life is entirely the
sphere of woman and, therefore in domestic affairs, in the upbringing and education of children,
woman ought to have more knowledge Not that knowledge should be divided into water tight
compartment’s or that so that some branches of knowledge should be closed to anyone, but unless
courses of instruction are based on discriminating appreciation of these basic principles, the
fullest life of man and woman cannot be developed. Among the manifold misfortunes that may
befall humanity, the loss of health is one of the severest. All the joys which life can give cannot
outweigh the sufferings of the sick. Among the manifold misfortunes that may befall humanity,
the loss of health is one of the severest. All the joys which life can give cannot outweigh the
sufferings of the sick.
2. Among the manifold misfortunes that may befall humanity, the loss of health is one of the
severest. All the joys which life can give cannot outweigh the sufferings of the sick. Give the sick
man everything and leave him sufferings a d he will feel that half the world is lost to him. Lay
him on a soft silken couch; he will nevertheless be under the pressure of his suffering while the
miserable beggar, blessed with health, sleeps sweetly on the hard ground. Spend his table with
dainty meals and choice drinks, and he will thrust back the hand that proffers them and every
the poor man that thoroughly enjoys his dry crush Surround him with the pomp of kings, let his
chair be a throne and his crutch a world saving scepter, he will look with contemptuous eye on
marble, on gold and on purple and would deem himself happy, could he enjoy, even was it under
a thatched roof, health of the meanest of his servants.
3. Machines have, in fact, become the salves of modern life. They do more and more work that
human beings do not want to do themselves. Think for a moment of the extent to which machines
do work for you. You wake, perhaps, to the hoot of a siren by a machine in a neighboring factory.
You wash in water brought to you by the aid of machinery, heated by machinery and placed in
basins for your convenience by a machine. You eat your breakfast quickly cooked for you by
machinery, go to school in machines made for saving leg labour. And if you are lucky to be in a
very modern school, you enjoy cinema where a machine teaches you or you listen to lessons
broadcast by one of the most wonderful machines. So dependent has man become on machines
that a certain writer imagines a time when machines will have acquired a will of their own and
become the master of men, doomed once more to slavery.
4. Certain people consciously or unconsciously cherish the desire that some part of their work
and of their accomplishment will outlive their own individual life. The influence which they have
exercised on the world in which they lived, the concern which they have built up, the books which
they have written, the work they have laid as a part of some scientific edifice, whose completion
they themselves will not live to see all such things inspire the people that some aspect of
themselves will outlast their own personal existence, the artist bequeaths his pictures, the scholar
his contribution of knowledge while poets and composers are primarily concerned that posterity
shall take pleasure in their creations. Statesmen envisage that particular agreement in whose
development they themselves had played a crucial part will preserve their names for future
generations. People are not unconcerned for their posthumous reputation. Many an old person is
distinctly preoccupied with this question and keeps a zealous watch to ensure that his
achievement are properly quoted and recorded.
5. Several times in the history of the world particular countries and cities or even small groups of
people have attained a high degree of civilization. Yet none of these civilizations, important they
were, have lasted and one of the reasons why they did not least was that they were confined to a
very few people. They were like little oasis of civilization on deserts of barbarism. Now it is no
good being civilized if everybody round about you is barbarous, or rather it is some good but it
is very risky. For the barbarians are always liable to break in on you, and with their greater
numbers and rude vigor scatter your civilization to the winds. Over and over again in history
comparatively civilized people dwelling in cities have been conquered in this way by barbarians
coming down from the hills and burning and killing and destroying whatever they found in the
plains.
6. We live in an age of great hurry and great speed. Men have lost their inward resources. They
merely reflect. Like a set of mirrors, opinions which they get a little leisure, they turn to material
diversions from outside rather than to inward resources. This internal vacuum is responsible for
mental and nervous troubles. The cure for this is not so much treatment by medicine and surgery
but a recovery of faith in the ultimate goodness, truth and the decency of things. If we are able to
recover that faith, if we are able to live in this world with our consciousness centered in the
intimacy of the spirit, many of the problems to which we are subject today may be overcome. Our
people were regarded as aspiring after metaphysical insight, but we seem to forget that it never
occurred to them to equate eternal life with either the surrender of the mind or the sacrifice of the
body. When an Upanishad writer was asked to define what is meant by spiritual life. He gave the
answer that it consists of the satisfaction of the mind, the abundance of tranquility of the spirit.
Body, mind and spirit must be integrated and they must lead to a harmonious developed life. If
we get that, we have life eternal.
7. A keen sense of humor is the hall mark of culture. When a person can crack a joke on himself,
he raises himself at one in the estimation of his friends. There are people who can throw jokes at
others, but never take one thrown against themselves. This one way traffic is not really a high
sense of good humor. It is the essence of hamper that there should be give and takes in the process
good humor is often the test of tolerance. A fanatic is incapable of good humor. He is tearing
others to pieces fearing of getting himself torn all the time. Good humor defeats itself. If there is
malice in it, or is indulged in to hurt others. A joke should never hurt otherwise it is no joke at all.
A joke should make the person who makes it and the person who has to take it, laugh together.
That is why tolerance and culture are the sources of every good joke.
8. Education ought to teach us how to be in love always and what to be in love with. The great
things of history have been done by the great lovers, saints, men of science and artists, and the
problem of civilization is to give every man a chance of being a saint, a man of science or an artist.
But this problem cannot be solved unless men desire to be saints, men of science and artists. And
if they are to desire that continuously they must be taught what it means to be these things. We
think of the man of science, or the artist if not of the saint, as a being with peculiar gifts who
exercises more precisely and incessantly perhaps, activities which we all ought to exercise. It is a
commonplace belief that art has ebbed away out of our ordinary life, out of all the things which
we use, and that it is practiced no longer recognize the aesthetic activity as an activity of the spirit
and common to all men. We do not know that when a man makes anything he ought to make it
beautiful for the sake of doing so, and that when a man buys anything he ought to demand beauty
in it for the sake of that beauty in it for the sake of that beauty. We think of beauty if we think of
it at all, as a mere source of pleasure, and therefore it means to us an ornament added to things
for which we can pay extra as we choose. But neatly is not an ornament to life, or the things made
by man. It is an essential part of both.
9. The thing above all that a teacher should Endeavour to produce in his pupils if democracy is
to survive, is the kind of tolerance that springs from an Endeavour to understand those who are
different from ourselves. It is perhaps a natural impulse to view with horror and disgust all
manners and customs different from those to such we are use. Ants and savages put strangers to
death. And those who have never traveled either physically or mentally find it difficult to tolerate
the queer ways and outlandish beliefs of other nationals and other times other sees and other
political parties. This kind of ignorant intolerance is the antithesis of civilized outlook and is one
of the gravest dangers to which cur over crowded world is exposed. The educational system,
ought to be designed to correct it, but much too little is done in this direction at present. In every
country nationalistic feeling is encouraged and school children are taught what they are only too
ready to believe, that the inhabitants of other countries are morally and intellectually inferior to
those of the country in which the school children happens to reside. In all this the teachers are not
to blame. They are not free to teach as they would wish. It is they who know most intimately the
needs of the young. It is they who through daily contact have come to care for them. But it is not
they who decided what shall be taught or what the methods of instruction are to be.
10. Discipline is of the utmost importance in student life. If the young students do not obey their
superiors and go without discipline, they will be deprive do much of the training they should
have at this period and in future they will never be able to extract obedience from other sin the
society. Society will never accept them as persons fit for commanding and taking up any
responsible positions in life. So it is the bounder. Duty of all the students to observe discipline in
the preparatory stage of their life. A college without discipline can never impart suitable
education to students. The rule of discipline in the playground and the battle field as well plays
a very important role. A team without discipline may not fare well in spite of good players for
want of mutual understanding and cooperation. In any army everyone from the rank of the
general down to the ranks of an ordinary soldier must observe discipline. In case a soldier does
not obey his immediate superior the army becomes a rabble quite unfit for the achievement of the
common ends of war. At first sight it may appear to us that discipline takes away individual
liberty. But on analysis it is found that it does not do so, for liberty is not license. We find
disciplined liberty at the root of all kinds of human happiness.
I. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ):

1. Which of these is not a type of precis?
a) Precis of speech
b) Precis of correspondence
c) Tables
d) Telegraphese
2. Which of the following is NOT a rule of précis writing?
a) Always have a heading
b) Use as extensive vocabulary as possible
c) Remove any irrelevant information present in the original passage
d) Do not use any short forms or abbreviations
3. What is paraphrasing?
a) Rephrasing an original statement
b) Summarizing and shortening
c) Stealing someone else’s words
d) A type of summarization
4. When can paraphrasing be used?

a) in a documentary
b) on a news report
c) in a formal essay
d) all of the above
5. Which of these is not included in precis of continuous matter?
a) Parliamentary reports
b) Correspondence
c) Reports of evidence
d) Articles
Exercise:
1. Write the difference between Summary and Abstract.
2. State the difference between overview and synopsis.
3. How the active reading plays important role in comprehending any passage?
● 4. What is paraphrasing?
5. What are the types of paraphrasing?
6. What is Précis writing

Q.1 Discuss the importance of summarization.
Q.2. Discuss in detail the skills required for comprehension.
Q.3. Write the procedure of Précis writing.
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to understand the concept of summarization and
of comprehension state the objectives and its importance and will be able to explain the
Paraphrasing and Précis writing.
1. _________ which is also called a NOMINATIVE PHRASE consists of a noun or a pronoun

and a participle.
a. An ABSOLUTE PHRASE b. NOMINATION PHRASE c. PREPOSITIONAL
PHRASE d. NOUN PHRASE
2. Because my dog loves pizza crusts.
a. No Main clause only Subordinate clause b. No Subordinate clause only Main
clause c. No Main No subordinate clause d. Both clauses are present
3. The man in the white shirt is my boyfriend.
a. No Main clause only Subordinate clause b. No Subordinate clause only Main
clause c. No Main No subordinate clause d. Both clauses are present
4. Birds fly. (Match)
a. subject predicate b. only subject c. only predicate d. only predicate
5. We made him captain.
a. SVO b. SVOO c. SVOC d. SVOA
6. Which of the following is an adverb phrase?
a) The exams were extremely tough b) After the sunset
c) Her eyes were mesmerizing d) He loves to walk in the park
7. Choose the sentence pattern for the following sentence: The mother served various kinds of
dishes.
a) Subject + verb b) Subject + verb + direct object
c) Subject + linking verb + complement d) Subject + linking verb
8. Can you smell the soup, John? (Identify the underlined parts of speech)
a. noun b. pronoun c. verb d. adverb
9. Love is in the air. (Identify the underlined noun type)
a. abstract b. countable c. proper d. common
10. Themselves is which kind of pronoun?
a. relative b. reflective c. objective d. subjective
11. Verb is the nucleus of a sentence.
a. True b. false
12. Find out the one which is not “to be” form
a. be b. is c. are d. have
13. Write the correct sentence.
a. Here is the boys' hostel, where i used to live during college days.
b. Here is the boy’s hostel, where i live during college days.
c. Here is the boys's hostel, where i used to stay during college days.
d. Here is the boys hostel, where i was living during college days.
14. Which is distributive pronoun in sentence "Neither of those two were passed."
a. Of b. those c. neither d. was
15. A precis is like a miniature portrait of the passage.
a. True b. False
16. ______ is the needless repetition of words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs or ideas.
a. repetition b. cliché c. redundancy d. precis
17. The three brothers had nothing in common with each other. (Find the one which is not
required)
a. with each other b. in common c. three brothers d. nothing
18. To abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report, which punctuation is used?
a. square brackets b. brackets c. Quotation d. Three dots.
1. Explain redundancy in detail.

2. Write a short note on ways of comprehending a passage.
3. Give a brief note on parts of speech
4. Explain the importance of precis writing for an engineer.
5. Write in short the difference between paraphrasing and summarizing.
6. Find out various ways of avoiding common errors in English language.
7. Being non-native speaker of English language, how much accuracy should one require for
being effective in written communication? Explain in detail.
8. Businesses can only run if written communication is properly maintained in an
organization. Explain this statement with the help of examples.
9. Correctness in language matters for clarity in understanding. Explain this statement in the
light of written communication.
1. Abstract, paraphrasing, synopsis, summarization, precis writing and concluding are

almost the same exercises. Compare and contrast all these concepts.
2. Explain in detail about the importance of Written Communication in an organization
3. To comprehend a passage, one should require a certain skill set. Explain the skill sets.
4. Explain the phrases and clauses with suitable examples.
5. What are the various ways of keeping oneself abreast with written communication?
6. Explain various sentence structures with its proper usage.
7. Write in short the sentence patterns and types with suitable examples.
8. Written Communication is an integral part of an organization. Explain with suitable
examples.
9. Communication is the life blood of an organization. Explain in detail.
10. Writing is a skill and can be enhanced with practice. Explain this statement with suitable
examples.
Self-Assessment:
1. Define abstract, synopsis and summary
2. Explain phrases and clauses with its comparison.
3. Explain the importance of precis writing for an engineer.
4. Paraphrasing, summarization and precis writing are the similar concepts with
slight difference. explain
Self-Evaluation
Name of
the
student
Class
Roll No
Subject
Module
No.
1 Do you understand phrases and clauses? Yes
No
2 Do you gain various writing skills and Yes

content development in short?
No
3 Have you understood various techniques Yes

of comprehension?
No
4 Will you be able to write synopsis or Yes

summarization of a text?
No

Partially
No, not at all

Module 5
Professional Writing Skills
Lecture 24
5.1 Introduction to Technical Writing: Definition, Importance and Types of Technical

Writing
5.1.1 Motivation
Engineering and technology are an emerging career within Engineering and allied
information and technology fields when students enter in their professional career they need
to contribute to the growing body of literature within the field. This module introduces the
contextualized assessment insight to enhance students’ smack of technical writing, research
capability, inculcate writing instructions, competence, and confidence technical as well as
professional writing and to connect them with the academic publishing process. While linking
professional writing skills to practical engineering experience will enrich learning outcomes
and eventually foster the professionalization within this emerging discipline.
5.1.2 Syllabus:
Duration Self-study
Lecture Content
Hours Hours
24 Introduction to Technical Writing: Definition, Importance 1 hour 1 hour
and Types of Technical Writing
25 Writing Instructions: Tips to Write Instructions; Writing 1 hour 1 hour
User Manuals
26 Description of an object 1 hour 1 hour
27 Description of process, Digital Content Development 1 hour 1 hour
28 Writing a Research paper 1 hour 1 hour
5.1.3 Learning Objectives
● Define various technical devices/ technical processes.

● Explain instructions for optimum utilization of these devices or objects and technical.
Processes.
● Describe various objects and technical processes.
● Understand the difference between apparatus and instruments.
● List the instructions about performing a task.
● Compare and contrast appliances, Machines and Tools.
Technical writing occupies a very important place in the scientific and technological world. A
student or professional of business, science, technology, industry must learn effectively, and
professionals may be writing technical reports, papers, user manuals, letters and memos,
proposals, instructions, description of objects and processes, they must apply technical
writing skills. They must use technical English diction. Technical English is one of the
important aspects of technical communication. However, technical communication or
technical writing is not restricted to only science and technology. Technical writing has
applications in all the branches of knowledge. It is an art or science of communicating specific,
‘exact’, scientific information to the reader or listener. The ‘specific’ information can be related
to business, commerce, science, technology, management, and administration. Effective
technical writing skills are essential skills for engineers and professionals.
5.1.5 Key Definition
1. Defining and Classifying:

Definition, Importance and Types of Technical Writing
Technical writing means to write or draft a technical communication which is used in
technical and occupational context i.e., computer hardware, Engineering, chemistry,
aeronautics, robotics, finance, finance, medical, consumer electronics, biotechnology and
forestry. In the social context it can be defined as a form of a communication that exhibits the
following characteristics: having communication regarding technical or particular topics, for
example, medical procedures, computer applications or environmental regulations;
moreover, communicating by using technology, for instance, web pages, help files or social
media sites or providing instructions about how to do something, something, regardless of
how technical the task is.
● Introduction
Technical writing skills are one of the prerequisites of developing technical leadership,
whenever an individual attempts to present ‘specific, ‘scientific, information, the person has
to use principles of technical writing. In the context of information and technology, most of
the questions are raised about students’ professionalism and competence to present tacit
written communication with an impeccable manner. Therefore, to meet students’ need this
module ponders over how to develop professional writing skills among the Engineering
students.
● Importance of Technical Writing:
Just as in case of any meaningful communications, technical communication also aims to

transmit information as meaningfully, efficiently, and effectively as possible. Ultimately,
through the interpretation of such communication, people around us can perform their duties
well. In the context of technical communications, technical writing developed as an essential
aspect of technical communication. Technical writing at its most basic level aims to transmit
the information in the context through special diction. Whether it may be computer software,
hardware, engineering, robotics, finance, biotechnology or consumer electronics, Technical
writing is utilized in all such fields for conveying data about a particular or more things to the
audience. Roots of Technical writing first appearing as a profession dates back to as early as
the end of the World War II. It has rapidly grown as an essential and integral part of the IT
industry, and several people are now becoming more proficient in the ways of a technical
writer.
● Essential Elements in Technical Writing
Technical writing covers various technologies and genres, with some examples; a technical
writer usually performs Technical Writing to share information regarding a particular subject
in a professional and presentable manner. A technical writer’s main job is to convey the
information/statistics to the other part in the most efficient and clear manner possible. Most
of the time, the information conveyed by the technical writers Is extremely complex, which is
why a technical writer must always carefully analyze the data, and format it in a way, which
is easy to understand. A fine technical writer must possess solid communication and writing
skills. These writers do not have to necessarily convey the information as text, as they can
utilize graphics as well. Due to this, the technical authors must also be proficient with the
usage of computer. They can add or edit images, diagrams and charts using a variety of
different softwares, and may create additional visual aids to better convey the message to the
audience.
● Making Things Presentable
Writing memos, press releases, business proposals, product specifications, product

descriptions, job applications and resumes. It serves as a medium between any given firm and
the audience. It helps them convey their own information to other people in an easy-to-
understand manner. This helps the other people relate better with the firm's product and
services, creating a friendly environment for everyone.
In the modern era, most of the information is conveyed through different forms of technical
writing. As technology has greatly advanced, everyone has access to various digital platforms,
on which information, in the form of technical writing is shared every minute. It can concern
a specific topic or various topics and may offer knowledge to the one reading it. Interaction
becomes easier after attaining technical knowledge about any given thing, whether it is a
machine, a product or anything else.
● Conveying the Desired Message
As conveying, a message is so important in technical writing, documents layouts and designs

are very essential key points of technical writing. Most of the technical writers spend a huge
amount of their time to ensure that their documents are written and presented in a manner
that they are easy to read and understand. A poorly designed document will leave a bad
impression on the other party, which is why technical documents make use of professional
designs, and further divides the important points. Font-size, bullet points, bold text play an
important role in attracting the attention of the individuals and convey the message better.
● Types of Technical Writing
Technical writing includes a wide range of documents. They include instructions, reviews,
reports, newsletters, presentations, web pages, brochures, proposals, letters, fliers, graphics,
memos, press releases, handbooks, specifications, style guides, and agendas and so on. There
are so many of them, that to understand the differences between them, we need to break them
up into categories.
1. Traditional: medical studies

2. End-user documentation: Electronics, consumer products
3. Technical marketing content: Press releases, catalogs
1. Traditional Technical Writing

While traditional technical writing sounds broad, pieces of content within this category are
specifically written for professional audiences. These experts rely on traditional technical
writing for targeted research papers, programming guidelines, and repair manuals.
Science and Medical Papers
Research results can be hard to explain, so scientists collaborate with technical writers to
interpret and organize findings. These results are published in medical journals, so the
presentation of material requires fine detail, accuracy, and organization. These papers act as
learning resources for practitioners to understand procedures and results. As with any form
of research, technical writers ensure that proper credibility is given in the text.
Professional Reports and Reviews
In addition to writing for scientists and doctors, technical writers assist in creating reports for
business growth and educational institutions. Examples of professional reports include
project and business status reports, legal case reviews, and personnel activity reports.
Important 10 attributes of technical writing:
Being able to explain characteristics of technical writing is important, especially since the
industry is all about explaining topics to others. Keeping these key technical writing
attributes in mind will make your writing coherent and consistent:
● Stick to a technical subject.

● Have a purpose.
● Maintain an objective.
● Convey solid information/facts/data.
● Be impersonal.
● Stay concise.
● Maintain direction.
● Keep style and format consistent.
● Content is archival.
● Properly cite contributions.
End-User Documentation
Almost every product you purchase has a written explanation of operation. These “how-to”
pieces are written to help users understand and operate products correctly. After all, what
good is a product if users do not know how to properly use it? Since end-user documentation
requires clear and concise instruction, it is important to create content that breaks down
technological terms to layman’s terms. Specific examples of end-user documentation are as
follows:
User Help Guides
When software product users have questions that need specific answers, they turn to user
help guides. These are written to provide clear and sensible answers to common questions
that may develop as use of software programs continue. User help guides are broken down
into sections depending on the type of ‘help’ needed – allowing users to read ahead or re-read
information to make their understanding of a product stronger.
Product Manuals
You know you have seen these — and are guilty of adding them to a bookshelf before reading.
Product manuals are those small booklets that highlight a product’s main features, general
maintenance, and basic operation. Examples of product manuals you have heard of include
owner’s manuals for cars and operator’s manuals for heavy machinery.
Assembly Guidelines
Since assembly guidelines tell users how to physically set up a product, technical writers are
responsible for writing clear and user-friendly, systematic instructions. It is important for
these instructions to be written in a way that ensures users can accurately assemble products.
Just think: if you used the assembly guide that came with your new entertainment system,
you probably would have put it together in half the time!
Technical Books
Similar to user help guides, technical writers are hired to write guides for users to understand
the ins and outs of a product, most often software products. It is critical for these technical
books to be accessible and of interest to non-expert users. If you are thinking of writing a
technical book, then you must follow a proper guidebook where you will find instructions on
how to write a book.
The Most Common Technical Writing Mistakes we commit:
These are the most common technical mistakes we commit while writing in the technical
context. We must avoid these mistakes to hone our technical writing skills.
● Poorly defined topic

● Lengthy sentences and big words
● Scattered page layout
● Inadequate content
● Inconsistent tone
3. Technological marketing communications:
This kind of writing is used in promotional marketing such as fliers and promotional
brochures that would entice a person to purchase a certain product or service. These might
include:
• A promotional ad outlining why you would want to purchase a new computer and
explaining the features of that computer.
• A promotional ad explaining why you would want to purchase a new cell phone, outlining
the phone's features.
• A promotional ad explaining why you would want to purchase a new mp3 player and
outlining the phone's features, such as an ad for the Creative Zen Mozaic Mp3 player.
● Most essential five Technical Writing Tools
The use of technical writing tools is vital in creating the best user experience when designing
and editing content. Here are the five most popular programs:
a. Acrobat – An Adobe program that captures documents and allows users to view it in
its original format and appearance.
b. SnagIt – A screenshot tool available to Microsoft Windows and Mac OS operating
systems that captures audio and video display.
c. Visio – A program from Microsoft Office’s list of products that utilizes diagrams,
charts, and layouts that are used in flowcharts, playbooks, and network diagramming.
d. Photo Shop – Digital image editing software from Adobe that allows for editing
photos, graphics, and other images.
e. Frame Maker – An Adobe processor designed for writing and editing complex
documents frequently constructed by technical writer.
● Guidelines for Effective Technical Writing:
Regardless of the type of document, which is written, technical writing requires the writer to
follow the properties of knowing their audience, writing in a clear, non-personal style and
doing extensive research on the topic. By including these properties, the writer can create clear
instructions and explanations for the reader.
Know your audience. An expert in the field will understand certain abbreviations, acronyms,
and lingo that directly apply to such a field. The novice will not understand in the same
manner and, therefore, every detail must be explained and spelled out for them.
Use an impersonal style. Write from a third person perspective, like a teacher instructing
students. Any opinions should be omitted.
The writing should be straightforward, to the point, and as simple as possible to make sure
the reader understands the process or instruction. This at times may appear as simply a list of
steps to take to achieve the desired goal or may be a short or lengthy explanation of a concept
or abstract idea.
Know how to research. Gather information from several sources, understand the information
gathered so that it can be analyzed thoroughly, and then put the information into an easy-to-
understand format to instruct those who read it. The more inexperienced your audience, the
more information you will need to gather and explain.
Be thorough in description and provide enough detail to make your points; in addition, you
also must consider that you need to use an economy of words so that you do not bore your
reader with gratuitous details.
A good technical writer can make a difficult task easy and can quickly explain a complex piece
of information.
Let’s check the takeaway from this Lecture.
1. Which are commonly committed mistakes in technical writing?

a. Poorly defined topic
b. Lengthy sentences and difficult words
c. Both A and B
d. None of these
2. An Acrobat is a
a. An Adobe program that captures documents and allows users to view it in its
original format and appearance.
b. An Adobe processor designed for writing and editing complex documents
frequently constructed by technical writers.
c. A screenshot tool available to Microsoft Windows and Mac OS operating
systems that captures audio and video display.
d. Digital image editing software from Adobe that allows for editing photos,
graphics, and other images.
Exercise
Q.1 Which are the guidelines for effective technical writing?
Q.2 Explain the most essential five technical writing tools.
Q.3 Illustrate the importance of Technical Writing
Learning outcome: Learners will be able to explain the importance of technical writing as
well as they will be to use technical writing tools effectively.
Lecture 25
5.2 Writing Instructions

Learning objective
Students shall be able to express writing task in the correct manner.
5.2.1. Instructions:
Instruction is information about performing a task. There are lots of processes or tasks
performed in the industry and day-to-day life. An instruction provides the accurate and
specific knowledge about performing a task in the correct manner. Effective instructions
will achieve the desired result if they are explicit, exact, and precise. Giving correct
instructions is a necessary skill to a superior to get the work done from his subordinate.
The purpose of the instructions is to teach someone how to do something.
Effective instructions give the new user a help for understanding the proper handling of
the technical objects. This will help the devices not to damage and the users to use it with
care. When a technical communicator is writing the instructions for handling a particular
device, he/ she needs to know what is important and to be included in the instruction
sheet. The instruction is the part of the user manual of any devices.
For example: How to run a CD player?
When one is writing instructions, the technical communicator should have the following
things in mind:
● Have reader-centered titles (what does the writer have to do?)
● Have a clearly stated purpose that includes reader benefits.
● List parts, materials, and conditions
There are some basic principles about writing instructions. The basics of writing
instructions and manuals are as follows:
1. Know your audience.

2. Keep your instructions simple.
3. Start with an introduction.
4. Use a clear and effective visual hierarchy.
5. Use numbers for commands, bullets for options.
6. Don ‘t skip steps just because they seem obvious.
7. Conclude with a summary or description.
Instructions are usual in the world of work. Examples are fire drills, grievance
procedures, and instructions for using equipment.
Here are some guidelines to help you to write clear instructions:
● Prefix the instructions with a clear heading that summarizes the task.
● Show clearly who does what. If a process involves more than one person, write
a different procedure for each person.
● Start each instruction with a verb that tells the reader to do something.
Examples: "Open the valve…", "Press the emergency button…", "Tell your
supervisor…"
● Use a numbered list when the order is important. Use a bulleted list (like this
list) when the order is not important (for example, when the reader can choose
between different options).
● Put notes and warnings at the start of the instructions, or before the list item to
which they refer.
● Specify conditions before the primary part of the instructions. For example, at
step 5 of some stock taking instructions, do not write, "Before you start the stock
take, make sure that…" (This type of problem frequently occurs.)
● Do not mix instructions with conceptual information. Give the necessary
background information before the instructions.
● Write for your audience and use a level of detail that is suitable to their skill
level.
● Avoid lists of more than approximately ten steps. If possible, divide a long list
of instructions into two or more different tasks.
● Specify what the reader does when the task is complete. If a reader asks, "Now
what?" the instructions are not complete.
5.2.2 Tips to write instructions and user manuals.
● Give even instructions precisely, accurately, and completely.
● Arrange all the instructions in a chronological sequence so that it will achieve
the desired result.
● Start every instruction with a verb of command or imperative sentence.
● Keep the language simple throughout.
● Give instruction in a single sentence.
● Number all the instructions serially.
● Organize the instructions under: (a) Introduction (b) List of instructions (c)
Safety precautions.
● Do not combine 2 instructions into 1.
● Place warnings/cautions/precautions before the corresponding step.
Instructions include categorized according to degree of damage to product/output /
user…
Note: A note is written to emphasize a point or action, or to remind the user of sonic
minor problems in the outcome of what they are performing. For example: Fill in the
entries carefully.
Precaution: Precaution is the instruction for knowing/ following safety measures before
one starts performing a task or process. For example: Wear Hand gloves.
Caution (Very alert): Caution is written when there is a possibility of damage to the
instrument or apparatus in case of mishandling. For example: Do not expose the
medicine to direct sunlight.
Warning (Danger): Warning is written when there is possibility of minor or serious
injury to the user. For example: Avoid smoking.
Danger: A danger note is written when there is possibility of fatal injuries or accidents to their
user.
For example: Highly inflammable, highly explosive.
Sample Examples:
1. Arrange the following instructions of shaping a wooden piece into round and
cylindrical objects.
1. Hold the piece between two centers.
2. Start the motor.
3. Move the tool towards the job.
4. Apply the cut.
5. Take the wooden piece to be turned.
6. Hold the tool in the hand and support it.
7. Check for the final dimension.
8. When the correct dimension is obtained, remove the job.
9. Stop the motor and check the dimension. Bring the tool back and adjust the next
cut.
Answer 1.
Proper instruction set is:
1. Take the wooden piece to be turned.
2. Hold the piece between two centers.
3. Start the motor.
4. Hold the tool in the hand and support it.
5. Move the tool towards the job.
6. Apply the cut.
7. Check for the final dimension.
8. When the correct dimension is obtained, remove the job.
9. Stop the motor and check the dimension. Bring the tool back and adjust
the next cut. Hence, the sequence is 5, 1, and 2,6,3,4,7,8,9
A. Changing the tube of a tube light:

1. Warning (Danger): Switch off the connection of the tube light.
2. Precaution: Wear rubber slippers before touching any part of the tube light.
3. Rotate the tube in the holder.
4. When the pins match the gap in the holder gives a slight tug to the tube it
should come out.
5. Caution: Now place the tube horizontally on the round somewhere safe
so that no one trips over it and it does not break.
6. Remove the new tube from the cover very carefully.
7. If necessary, clean the tube with a very soft cloth.
8. Now align the tube along its holder in such a manner that the pins match the
gap.
9. Give the tube a slight push so that the pins enter the gap in the holder and
then rotate the tube to fit the holder.
10. Now switch on the supply for the tube light and if it does not glow give
slight rotating moments to the tube until it glows
B. Drilling hole in a wooden plank:

1. Precaution: Wear shoes before starting.
2. Take the hand drill and plug its pins in the wall socket switch on the power
supply.
3. Warning (Danger): Push the button on the drill and check whether the drill
is in working condition it should be kept away from the body while doing
this.
4. Now stop the drill and switch off the power supply.
5. Loosen the drill head on the hand drill using the key provided.
6. Select the drill-bit for the hole of required diameter.
7. Insert the drill-bit in the drill head on the hand drill.
8. Tighten the drill head using the key provided.
9. Caution: Check whether the drill-bit is secured properly before switching
on the power supply.
10. Switch on the power supply and push the button on the hand drill keeping
it away from the body.
11. Now if the drill is working properly then secure the wooden plank that
needs to be drilled in a vice.
12. Keep the drill on the position marked for the hole and give slight rotation
to it to get small indentation.
13. After this start the drilling and drill the hole to the required depth.
14. After the required depth is reached, stop the drill, remove it from the
wooden plank, and switch off the power supply.
15. Remove the drill bit from the drill head.
C. Write a set of instructions for replacing a gas cylinder:

1. Warning (Danger): Store filled cylinder in special-ventilated cabinets.
2. Keep it away from direct sunlight and sources of ignition
Store it in vertical position all the time.
3. Caution: Before changing, bring it without rolling or dragging.
4. Ensure that the gas stove and regulator are switched off.
5. Precaution: Have strict checks on the working of rubber
pipe regulator and gas stove.
6. If they are faulty, replace them.
7. Open the gas cylinder valve softly.
8. Open the regulator softly.
9. Warning (Danger): Make sure that there is no flame or
any other source of spark.
10. Make sure that all windows are open.
11. Fit the regulator to the new cylinder carefully.
12. Check the gas seal first and then turn on gas stove and then regulator
D. Instruction set use a washing machine:

Introduction: These instructions should be followed to use a semi-automatic washing
machine.
1. Plug the cord in the electric socket.
2. Select the water level requirement from the selector switch
3. Fill the water as per requirement.
4. Adjust water tap to avoid excess flow.
5. Add washing powder.
6. Put the clothes to be washed in the wash tub.
Caution: Do not overload the wash tub.
1. Select gentle or strong wash as per the requirement of clothes.

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Give wash timing by using the wash timer button.
4. After hearing the buzzer, drain the water filled inside the wash tub.
5. Transfer the washed clothes from wash tub to spin tub.
6. Select spin tub shower option.
Warning: Do not put your hands into the spin tub until the sinner has completely stopped
Remove the clothes from the dryer.

1. Switch OFF the power.
Conclusion: contact us for any difficulty regarding the machine.
● Given below are precautions while using an overhead projector. Change the
description into a set of instructions. The projector should be used only with the
fan running. After switching on the fan, a short time should be allowed and then
the light should be switched on. Mirror assembly should be operated only after
the instructions are read. It should be kept in a closed position always when not
in use, to protect from dust. Mirror should be cleaned only with a soft cloth.
● Never use the projector without the fan running.

● After switching on the fan, allow a short time and only then switch on the lamp.
● Attempt mirror assembly only after reading the instructions.
● Always keep in a closed position when not in use in order to protect from
dust. Clean mirror only with a soft cloth.
1.Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

1. Microscope is a…
a. Tool
b. Apparatus
c. Engine
d. Machine
2. The term device is used for.

a. generalized discussion on various technical objects.
b. generalized discussion on various processes.
c. instruments
d. writing instructions
3. Open the door when gas leaks. It is a...
e. object description
f. process description
g. instruction
h. order
4. Engineering students study basic technical writing because

i. It’s their hobby.
j. to sharpen their technical skills
k. to sharpen their communication skills
l. c and d both
5. We need to categorize various devices because…

a. it makes the study easier.
b. similar technologies are used in various categories.
c. these categories have their own peculiarities.
d. can ‘t say
6. Which one is a machine in the following devices?

i. Washing Machine
ii. A Personnel Computer
iii. Cell Phone
iv. An Electric Iron
a. i& ii
b. i, ii & iii
c. only ii
d. All
e.none
7. The process of Electrolysis is

a. the production of a chemical reaction by passing an electric current
through an electrolyte.
b. the process of producing a metallic coating on a surface by electrode
position
c. both
d. none
8. Define Microwave Oven with the help of the information given below. High frequency
radiation, cooks food, appliance, molecules in motion
a. appliance, cooks food, High frequency radiation, molecules in motion
b. High frequency radiation, cooks food, appliance, molecules in motion
c. molecules in motion, High frequency radiation, appliance, cooks food
d. appliance, cooks food, molecules in motion, High frequency radiation
9. Caution and warning differ because.

a. Caution is the set of instructions which is written to save the
device from any possible damage
b. Warning is the set of instructions which is written to save the user
from any possible damage
c. Both
d. The pattern is faulty
10. The difference between instructions and description of objects is…
a. instructions stand for the guidelines for optimum use of the device
b. Object description stands for explanation of parts, use, and function of
the device
c. a & b both explain in a nutshell the difference accurately
d. a & b as well as the point that language and the style of writing
completely differs in each
11. A doorbell consists of a pushbutton switch, a signal unit, wiring and a transformer‖ is
a. warning
b. danger
c. caution
d. note
12. Unplug a refrigerator before servicing it‖ is a

a. caution
b. warning
c. instruction
d. dander
13. Voltmeter is
a. Instrument
b. apparatus
c. note
d. object description
Exercise:
Q. 1 Define apparatus?
Q. 2 State the different ways of writing technical definition.
Q. 3 Differentiate between caution and warning.
Q. 4 Explain the concepts, Precaution and Danger.
Q.5 What is the importance of technical writing?
Q. 6 Discuss the techniques to define the object.
Q. 7 Explain in detail, how to write the description of an object.
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to define the objects and the difference
between various technical devices / technical processes; and write instructions, differentiate
between precaution & Caution, Warning & Danger etc.
Lecture 26
5.3 Describing; Describing Technical object/product/process; Digital content.

Learning Objective
Student shall be able to
1. Describe various objects with its components and working.
2. Compare and contrast appliances, Machines and Tools.
5.3.1 Description of object
This involves the physical characteristics, its mechanism, and its function. While defining
an object the physical appearance and its working is necessary. It is a kind of mechanism
description,
designed to convey to the reader a technical understanding of the function,
appearance, and operation of a particular object. The definition will also help in
understanding the object and its purpose. In one or two sentences, the technical
communicator should give the reader a quick overview of these three elements, before
any details.
A mechanism description analyzes (that is, subdivides into components for further
scrutiny) an object in space. Among the rhetorical patterns, one might employ other
characteristics of the object with its partition, classification, and comparison/contrast.
When nothing else seems appropriate, you can always fall back on the more-important-
to-less-important strategy.
There are four major things, which should be included in the description of the objects:
definition, important components/ parts of the object, diagram, and the working of the
object.
Let us see how objects are described in the illustrated following examples:
1. Printer:
Definition: A printer is a peripheral device that can produce hard copy of documents,
i.e. permanent readable text and/ or graphics stored in electronic form usually on a
physical print media such as paper or transparencies.
Components:
1. Photoreceptor drum: it receives the LASER beam.
2. Toner: a container with black color powder.
3. Fuser: a pair of heated rollers.
4. Mirror: it causes the beam of lasers to be reflected onto the photoreceptor drum.
5. LASER scanning unit: it scans the LASER beam.
Printer
Working: The core component of the LASER printing system is the photoreceptor
drum. The rotating mirror inside the printer causes the LASER beam to sweep across
the photoconductive drum. Initially the LASER beam charges the photoconductive
drum positively. When the charged drum is exposed to an optical image through a
beam of light to discharge, a latent or invisible image is formed. At the point where
the LASER strikes the drum, it creates a dot of positive charge. These points are
represented by black dots that are printed on the paper eventually. After this, the
printer coats the drum with a black powder called toner. This toner is negatively
charged, and so it clings to the positive areas of the drum surface. When the powder
pattern gets fixed, the drum is rotated, and the paper is fed into the drum surface via
a pressure roller. This pressure roller transfers the toner onto the paper. Since the
paper is moving at the same speed as the drum, the paper picks up the image pattern
precisely. Finally, the printer passes the paper though the fuser, a pair of heated
rollers. As the paper passes through these rollers, the toner powder melts and fuses
with the fibers in the paper. The paper is then brought out of the printer.
2. Microscope:
Definition: A microscope is an optical instrument used to magnify a small object,
which cannot be seen by the naked eyes.
Components:
1. Body tube – It is the part of the microscope that holds the eyepiece.
2. Arm – The arm connects the body tube to the base.
3. Base – It is the lowest portion on which the whole structure of the microscope rests.
4. Eyepiece – Through eyepiece, we can look at the specimen placed on
the stage of the microscope. It contains two or more lenses. A removable
part can be interchanged with another one of a different magnification.
5. Objective lenses – These are the primary lenses of a compound
microscope and can have different magnifications.
6. Stage – It is the platform below the objective lens on which the object
viewed is placed.
7. Diaphragm – It is located on the lower surface of the stage. It is used to
control the amount of light that reaches the specimen through the hole
in the stage.
8. Illuminator – It is a mirror that can be moved to adjust the amount of
light that can be on the specimen.
Microscope
Working:
Microscope, using visible wavelengths of light i.e. VIBGYOR Colours are the
simplest and most used. While using a microscope switch on the light source
and then adjust the diaphragm to the largest hole diameter, allowing the
greatest amount of light through. Rotate the nosepiece to the lowest-power
objective, so that the largest view can be occurred. Place a microscope alide on
the stage. Adjust the diaphragm to get the best lighting. Afterwards, we can
scan the slide at low power to get an overview of the specimen. We can also
rotate the nosepiece for magnifying the specimen according to the
requirements. Repeat and adjust the lighting again until the image is most
clean.
3 Telephone:
Definition: Telephone is an electronic instrument for allowing people to communicate.
Components:
1. Push buttons/Press buttons - Push buttons are used to dial the numbers.
Generally, there are 12 to 20 buttons on it.
2. Receiver – The receiver has a mic to speak into and the speaker from which
we hear the conversation.
3. Redial key – Redial key is used to redial the last number dialed, without
going through the process of all buttons.
4. Speaker phone – It is also a key which enables us to speak or hear without
holding the receiver i.e. as if it were a loudspeaker.
5. Caller Identification Display – In some telephones, this facility is available
which helps to know the caller‘s identity.
Telephone
Working:
The telephone operates on simple principles.

1. A telephone mouthpiece contains a thin metallic coating separated from an
electrode by a thin barrier (today we use plastic) which connects to a wire
carrying an electric current.
2. When a person speaks into the mouthpiece, the acoustic vibrations from
her speech push the metallic coating slightly closer to the electrode,
resulting in variations in voltage and therefore a speedy conversion from
acoustic to electric energy.
3. The electric pulses are conveyed through a wire to the speaker on the other
end, where electric pulses are converted into acoustic energy again.
Often considered second in impact only to the printing press for
revolutionizing human communication, the telephone made it possible
to connect people to others without dependency on the postal service.
4. Computer
Definition: A computer is a machine consisting of a monitor, CPU and input devices
which are together capable of accepting, storing, processing and retrieving information
when needed.
Components:
1. Monitor: It is a visual display screen, which works as an output device.
2. CPU: the Central Processing Unit is the brain of the computer. It controls the
input and output devices and the transfer of data to and from the primary
storage. It has 3 components, viz control unit, arithmetic logic unit and registers.
Fetching, Decoding, Executing and Storing are the basic operations of this unit.
3. Keyboard: It is the most common data entry device. Using the keyboard, the user
may type text and execute programs. The keyboard may contain from 82 to 108
keys or more. Function keys, alphabetical keys, numeric keys, etc. are a few
categories.
4. Mouse: it is a small handheld input pointing device with a rubber ball embedded
in its lower side and buttons and scrolling wheel on the upper side. It may
contain two to three buttons to input commands and to scroll the screen upwards
or downwards.
Working:
The computer has input, functioning and output devices. Through the input devices, the
user provides the CPU with instructions. Here, data is interpreted. The ALU decodes this
data into its binary form. The processed results are written back to primary storage via
registers. The control unit supervises the process of input data handling and output data
handling as also the transfer of data to and from the primary Control unit. Thus, the
results are computed in a timely, accurate manner. In addition, it also determines
whether data is needed, where it is stored, and where to write the results of a
computation. The various devices involved in the computation task are sent control
signals by the Control unit. Thus, the results are computed in a timely, accurate manner.
5. Cell phone
Definition: A cell phone or mobile phone or mobile is an electronic device used for mobile
telecommunications, text messaging or data transmission over a cellular network of
Specialized Base stations.
Components:
i.Display screen – It is a liquid crystal display screen (LCD) of difficult lengths placed on
the top of the cell phone displays the operations done by us like surfing the internet, text
messaging, calling, etc.
ii.Keypad: It is a group of soft touch buttons or keys having functional and numerical
approach. These are placed just below the display screen. Audio, video, audio-visual,
call, disconnecting the call, deletes numerals alphabets. Keys are seen on cell phones. The
number of keys may vary depending on the model and type of cell phone.
iii.Microphone and speaker: The speaker and microphone allow a cell phone user to speak
to and hear people on the other end of the line. Most phones also include a second
speaker and microphone to allow the user to use a cell phone as a speakerphone.
iv.Antenna: It is an important part of the cell phone. It allows the cell phone to connect to
the cellular network.
v.Battery: Rechargeable batteries are used for power supply.
Manufacturers also can add features & components to their
phones.
Working – The circuit board of the cell phone is essentially the brain of the operation.
The circuit board allows other parts to communicate with one another and keeps the cell
phone working. When we use cell phones, following things happen. First, the phone
locates the base station having the strongest signal, and requests for a channel
assignment. The base station permits channel assignment and the calls accepted. The call
is then forwarded to the local telephone network if it is to a regular phone otherwise it is
transmitted through the cellular network. The call is then sent to its destination through
the telephone network.
In recent times, they are available with a wide range of functions. To list a few functions
– store contact information, keep track of appointments, set reminders, prepare to-do
lists, send or receive emails, text messages, play games, access to the internet, watch and
enjoy TV, built- in calculator, GPS, GPRS services, mp3 players, etc.
6. Thermometer:
Definition: A thermometer is an instrument/ a device used to measure
temperature.
Components:
1. Glass bulb - The glass bulb is an external glass tube, which can be helpful to measure
the temperature.
2. A long & thin glass tube – This glass tube has numbers written on it ranging from 35
to 42 degree Celsius.
3. Mercury – Inside the glass tube is a liquid like mercury or coloured alcohol that rises
and falls in the tube as the temperature around it increases and decreases.
Working – Simple thermometers are now days used very less. They are very thin glass tubes
filled with a calculated amount of mercury – the only metal that‘s a liquid at ordinary,
everyday temperatures. When the thermometer is kept under the armpit or under the tongue,
the mercury gets heated and expands by an amount that‘s directly related to the calibration
on the tube i.e. temperature. Therefore, if the temperature increases by 20 degrees the mercury
expands and moves up the scale by twice as much as if the temperature increase is only 10
degrees. Then we can check the readings of temperature by placing at eye-level. The
thermometer consists of a narrow glass stem approximately 12.7 cm in length with markings
along one or both sides indicating the temperature scale in degrees Fahrenheit, centigrade or
both. These thermometers can record a wide range of temperatures between 94oF and 105oF
(35oC and 42oC).
7. Micrometer
Definition: Micrometer is a precision measuring instrument used by
engineers… Components: A micrometer is composed of:
● Frame-
o The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in constant relation to each
other. It is thick because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion, and
contraction, which would distort the measurement.
The frame is heavy and consequently has a high thermal mass, to prevent
substantial heating up by the holding hand/fingers. It is often covered by
insulating plastic plates, which further reduce heat transference. Explanation:
If one holds, the frame long enough so that it heats up by 10°C, then the
increase in length of any 10 cm linear piece of steel is of magnitude 1/100 mm.
For micrometers, this is their typical accuracy range.
Micrometers typically have a specified temperature at which the measurement
is correct (often 20°C [68°F], which is generally considered”
room temperature" in a room with HVAC). Tool rooms are generally kept
at 20°C [68°F].
● Anvil- The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests
against.
● Sleeve / barrel / stock - The stationary round component with the linear scale
on it.
● Lock nut / lock-ring / thimble lock-The knurled component (or lever) that
one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as when momentarily
holding a measurement.
● Screw- The heart of the micrometer, as explained under "Operating
principles". It is inside the barrel.
● Spindle- The shiny cylindrical component that the thimble causes to move
toward the anvil.
● Thimble- The component that one's thumb turns.
● Ratchet stop- Device on end of handle that limits applied pressure by
slipping at a calibrated torque.
In order to take the reading using a screw gauge, the object is placed between the jaws
that are moved by the thimble. The ratchet knob is used to adjust the object firmly
between the jaws. For accurate reading, the thimble should be moved until three clicks
are heard from the ratchet. The ratchet ensures accuracy and prevents the object from
being damaged. The main scale reading is taken by considering that marking on the
sleeve, which is visible just to the left of the thimble. It is also to note that the 0.5 mm
divisions that are provided below the main scale should also be considered while taking
the reading. The auxiliary scale reading is taken by observing the marking on the thimble
that coincides with the main scale on the sleeve. The auxiliary reading figures will follow
the main scale reading figures in the final reading. Let‘s take an example to understand
this.
1. Which one Technical Writing does not consist of?

a. defining and describing an object
b. writing instructions and describing a process
c. study of language and style as well as format
d. a study of how to communicate.
. 2. Which one is a tool?
a. screw b. Veneer scale c. Hacksaw d. All
3. Microscope is a…
a. Machine b. Tool c. Apparatus d. Engine
Exercise:
Q.1. Describe the following object by giving definition, diagram, components and working
of Digital Camera.
Q.2. Describe the following object by giving definition, diagram, components and working
of Voltmeter.
Q.1. Describe the following object of Laptop.
Q.2 Explain in detail, how to write the description of an object.
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to describe different objects with its
components and working.
Solved Questions
Examples for Practice:

1. Arrange the following examples in proper format as given above. (Definition,
Components, Labeled Diagram & Working)
a. An electric iron:
The modem electric iron comprises a sole plate, an intermediate plate, a cover with
handle, an electric heating element, a selector disc, and a glow lamp. By means of the
selector device, the temperature can be set to values suitable for different fabrics (nylon,
rayon, silk, wool, cotton, linen). This adjustment is achieved by means of a thermostat.
The three-wire A.C., connection comprises an earthed safety wire. The heating element
is shown in red in the accompanying diagram. The current goes through the element, the
outer contact spring and contact pin, the inner contact spring and contact pin, the
connecting
rod, and the flexible metal trip.
When the selector dial is, for example, set to "linen", the glow lamp lights up and the
current heats the heating element to the required temperature. The lamp then goes out.
The iron is thereafter kept at constant temperature by the thermostat. For example, when
the iron cools a little, the temperature of the freely movable intermediate plate, to which
the thermostat is attached, also goes down. As a result of this, the intermediate plate
contacts and causes the thermostat strip, which is made of Invar (a nickel-iron alloy with
a very small coefficient of thermal expansion, so that it hardly expands or contracts due
to temperature changes), to Buckle outwards and push the connecting rod against the
inner contact spring thrusts the latter against the outer contact spring, so that the circuit
is restored and the heating element gets switched on again. The glow lamp also lights
up. When the pre-set ironing temperature has been reached again, the thermostat causes
the contacts to separate and thus break the circuit. The glow lamp is thereby also
switched off. The switching on and off the lamp indicates that the thermostat is
functioning and automatically keeping the temperature constant. Depending on the
setting of the selector dial, the heating element is switched on and off at a higher or lower
temperature.
Rotation of the disc moves the rod of ceramic material in the axial direction. The outer
contact spring is so installed that it tends always against the inner contact spring. When
the iron heats up, and the Invar strip consequently elongates, the outer spring follows
the inner spring until its end encounters the ceramic rod. This causes the contacts to
separate. The farther forward this rod protrudes, the sooner this occurs, i.e., the lower
the temperature at which the heating element is switched on and off. A thermostat of this
kind controls the temperature to within about 10°C accuracy.
a. An electric bulb:
An incandescent lamp comprises an electrical conductor through which a current is
passed which causes it to glow at white heat. The conductor is usually a wire or filament,
which is carried on a glass mount and whose ends are welded to thicker support wires
(leads) through which the current is supplied to the filament. In order to prevent
oxidation (burning away)of the filament by exposure to air, it is enclosed in a glass bulb,
which is sealed together with the mount. The lead-in wires are sealed into the glass. The
bulb is evacuated, i.e., a vacuum is formed inside it, or it is filed with a neutral gas or gas
mixture (e.g., nitrogen and argon). The filaments used in the early incandescent lamps
were made of carbon. As it was not possible to raise the temperature of such filaments to
white heat without seriously shortening the service life of the lamps, the light they gave
was rather dim. For this reason, carbon filaments were abandoned in favor of metal
filaments. A suitable metal for the purpose was tungsten, which has a high melting point
and can be heated to 3000°C. Tungsten is obtained, from its ore, in the form of a black
powder, which is then processed, by sintering at about 1000°C in a neutral gas
atmosphere, into pencil-size rods. The material is homogenized by hammering and
stretched to rods about inch long and x inch in diameter. Further treatment is affected
by drawing. The drawing dies consist of pierced diamonds, by means of which it is
possible to produce tungsten wire down to about mm (0.0004 inch) diameter. Some
idea of the extreme thinness of such wire is conveyed by the fact that nearly 200 miles
mm wire can be produced from 1 pound of tungsten. These extremely thin wires are then
formed into doubly coiled (coiled-coil) filaments, which are secured to mount in the
manner described above. The total length of the filament wire in a 15-watt lamp is about
0.75 m (30 inch). The first coil has about 3000 turn; this coiled wire is then coiled in 100
larger turns, so that the overall length of the filament is reduced to about 3 cm (1 inch).
The sealed bulb of the lamp is cemented into a metal base, which may be of various types,
the commonest being the bayonet type and the screw type. The bayonet base is
cylindrical in shape, with two small pins projecting from the sleeve to engage lock slots
in the lamp socket; the two lead-in wires terminate at two metal contacts at the foot of
the base. In the screw-type lamp, (see Fig. 5) one wire is connected to an insulated central
metal contact plate at the foot, while the other is connected to the screw-threaded metal
side of the base.
Lecture 27
5.4 Description of Process
Learning objective: Students shall be able to Describe Technical Object/ Product/ Process.
1. Explain process of technical machines or process.

2. Describe various technical processes.
Introduction:
To describe a process, the emphasis is on the function it performs. The result of a process
needs to be mentioned in the description. To describe or explain the process, the
components required for carrying out the process, the ways of handling the process and
its details need to be written to understand the procedure of the same. Let us here
examine how a process is described with examples of Electrolysis and Electroplating.
Examples:
i.Electrolysis:
Electrolysis is the production of a chemical reaction by passing an electric current
through an electrolyte. In electrolysis, positive ions migrate to the cathode and negative
ions to the anode. The reactions occurring depend on electron transfer at the electrodes
and are therefore red ox reactions. At the anode, negative ions in solution may lose
electrons to form neutral species. Alternatively, atoms of the electrode can lose electrons
and go into solution as positive ions. In either case the reaction is an oxidation. At the
cathode, positive ions in solution can gain electrons to Form neutral species. Thus,
cathode reactions are reductions.
i.The process of electroplating:
Electroplating is the process of producing a metallic coating on a surface by electrode position.
- i.e., by the action of an electric current. Such coatings may perform a mainly protective
function, to prevent corrosion of the metal on which they are deposited: e.g., plating with
zinc (electro galvanizing) or with tin; or a decorative function: e.g., gold or silver-plating;
or both functions: e.g., chromium plating. The-principle of electroplating is that the
coating metal is deposited from an electrolyte - an aqueous acid or alkaline solution - on
to the base: i.e., the metal to be coated (Fig.). The latter forms the cathode (negative
electrode), while a plate of the metal to be deposited serves as the anode (positive
electrode). A low-voltage direct current is used; the anode is gradually consumed.
Various substances (addition agents) are added to the electroplating bath to obtain a
smooth and bright metal deposit. These are principally organic compounds, usually
colloidal. Sometimes the objects to be plated are coated with two or more layers of
different metals; for example, chromium plating cannot suitably be applied directly to a
zinc-sprayed base; a coating of copper followed by a coating of nickel must be applied
intermediately before the chromium is deposited. To obtain a good and firmly adhering
coating it is necessary to subject the objects or components to a thorough cleaning. This
may be achieved by mechanical treatment -e.g., sandblasting, grinding, wire brushing,
scraping, etc. or by physical methods such as degreasing with organic solvents or by
chemical methods such as pickling with acid or degreasing by die action of alkalis
(saponification) or by electro cleaning, which is a method of cleaning by electrolytic
action (more particularly the scrubbing action exercised by the evolution of gas at the
surface of the metal). Wetting agents or emulsifiers may be added. The vats for
electroplating baths differ greatly in size, shape and lining material (glass, lead, etc.),
depending on the size and shape of the components to be plated and on the chemical
character of the bath. Electroplating is normally done with direct current. However,
particularly with cyanide copper baths, improved smoothies and uniformity of the
coating can be obtained by means of the so-called periodic-reverse process, in which the
polarity is periodically reversed, so that the metal is alternatively plated and depleted.
Steel strip is plated with zinc or with tin by continuous and largely automated high-speed
processes. The electrolytic tin-plating process illustrated schematically in Fig. comprises
the following operations: Electrolytic cleaning in dilute sulphury acid, pickling,
electrodeposition of tin, melting of the coating to give it a brilliant surface, chemical
dipping in chromate solutions, oiling, shearing. The steel strip travels through
Electrolytic tin-plating plant for steel strip travels through the installation at a speed of
about 25 m/min. (80 ft. /min). Continuous zinc – plating installation is illustrated
schematically in Fig.
1. The process of Electrolysis is

a. the production of a chemical reaction by passing an electric current through an
electrolyte.
b. the process of producing a metallic coating on a surface by electrodeposition
c. both
d. none
2. Define Microwave Oven with the help of the information given below.
High frequency radiation, cook’s food, appliance, molecules in motion
a. appliance, cook’s food, High frequency radiation, molecules in motion

b. High frequency radiation, cook’s food, appliance, molecules in motion
c. molecules in motion, High frequency radiation, appliance, cook’s food
d. appliance, cook’s food, molecules in motion, High frequency radiation
3. Caution and warning differ because.
a. Caution is the set of instructions which is written to save the device from any
possible damage
b. Warning is the set of instructions which is written to save the user from any
possible damage
c. Both
d. The pattern is faulty
4. The difference between instructions and description of objects is…
a. instructions stand for the guidelines for optimum use of the device.
b. Object description stands for explanation of parts, use, and function of the
device.
c. A and B both explain in a nutshell the difference.
d. A and B
Exercise:
Q.1. Define electrolysis.
Q.2. Explain the process of electroplating.
1. Explain the process of the technical machine.
2. Describe various technical processes.
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to depict the objects with its functions.
Lecture28
5.5 Writing A Research Paper

Technical research papers are considered an integral part of education. When conducting
research, one can get the answers to the required questions. In other words, it is a process of
gathering information to solve current problems, and it increases human knowledge
concerning the chosen field of the research. Nowadays, technology is an area that evolves
within its different aspects and plays a crucial role in every person’s life. Numerous subjects
are added to the field of technology. Thus, technical research papers are essential to cover the
information regarding technological inventions and breakthroughs.
The following three points are basic elements to write an effective technical paper:
1. Choose and define the topic.
First, the area of technology is quite rich with a variety of inventions, thus there are
many interesting topics to research on more in-depth. Because this area is extremely
popular among students, the Internet is full of papers and surveys within this field.
Therefore, to draw the audience’s attention to the paper straight away, it is important
to select a topic that has never been discussed before, which is fresh and unexpected
to some extent. Although, writing a topic that has already been done to death may also
be successful if it is written from a different perspective. However, what is more
important, a person should choose the topic that he or she is interested in and feels
comfortable to write about.
2. Know the audience and stick to your message.
There should be a thorough understanding of your audience, its beliefs, and

preferences – “Who will benefit when I write my research paper on technology?”
While writing a paper, a writer should keep its readers in mind in order to adjust to
their educational background. In addition, the purpose is to inform the readers in a
way that will also entertain them. It is important to create a strong thesis of the research
and focus the paper on it. The clear vision of the paper’s goal and the audience will
help in solving the problem and achieving its purpose. Overall, the audience should
be convinced that the current problem of the research is interesting, challenging and
that it is solved, nonetheless.
3. Structure of the paper and related works
The structure is an essential part for every technical research paper. It serves as a
foundation for the work and needs to be followed systematically. When all the
information is gathered, it should be organized in sections and paragraphs according
to its relatedness. Besides, technical papers usually contain figures that are presented
as supporting evidence, so different signposts all over the work will help the reader
easily navigate within the paper. In addition, it is suggested to write the introduction
in the last place because the process of just describing the paper would be simpler
when the rest of the work is already done. What is more important, every research
paper should be based on the work of others; there must be a discussion whether the
ideas of others are relevant to your thesis. Hence, a valuable background work may
serve as strong evidence for the research paper.
A. Structure of the writing standard technical research paper
Once the research question is clearly defined, writing the paper becomes considerably easier.
The paper will ask the question, then answer it. The key to successful scientific writing is
getting the structure of the paper right. The basic structure of a typical research paper is the
sequence of Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (sometimes abbreviated as
IMRAD). Each section addresses a different objective. The author’s state: (i) the problem they
intend to address—in other terms, the research question—in the Introduction; (ii) what they
did to answer the question in the Methods section; (iii) what they observed in the Results
section; and (iv) what they think the results mean in the Discussion.
In turn, each basic section addresses several topics, and may be divided into subsections
(Table 1). In the Introduction, the authors should explain the rationale and background to the
study. What is the research question, and why is it important to ask it? While it is neither
necessary nor desirable to provide a full-blown review of the literature as a prelude to the
study, it is helpful to situate the study within some larger field of inquiry. The research
question should always be spelled out and not merely left for the reader to guess.
● Introduction
State why the problem you address is important

State what is lacking in the current knowledge
State the objectives of your study or the research question
● Methods
Describe the context and setting of the study

Specify the study design
Describe the ‘population’ (patients, doctors, hospitals, etc.)
Describe the sampling strategy
Describe the intervention (if applicable)
Identify the main study variables
Describe data collection instruments and procedures
Outline analysis methods
● Results
Report on data collection and recruitment (response rates, etc.)

Describe participants (demographic, clinical condition, etc.)
Present key findings with respect to the central research question
Present secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)
● Discussion
State the main findings of the study

Discuss the main results with reference to previous research.
Discuss policy and practice implications of the results
Analyze the strengths and limitations of the study
Offer perspectives for future work
The Methods section should provide the readers with sufficient detail about the study
methods to be able to reproduce the study if so desired. Thus, this section should be specific,
concrete, technical, and fairly detailed. The study setting, the sampling strategy used,
instruments, data collection methods, and analysis strategies should be described. In the case
of qualitative research studies, it is also useful to tell the reader, which research tradition the
study, utilizes and to link the choice of methodological strategies with the research goals.
The Results section is typically fairly straightforward and factual. All results that relate to the
research question should be given in detail, including simple counts and percentages. Resist
the temptation to demonstrate analytical ability and the richness of the dataset by providing
numerous tables of non-essential results.
The Discussion section allows the most freedom. This is why the Discussion is the most
difficult to write, and is often the weakest part of a paper. Some journal editors have proposed
structured Discussion sections. While strict adherence to such rules may not be necessary,
following a plan such as that proposed in Table 1 may help the novice writer stay on track.
References should be used wisely. Key assertions should be referenced, as well as the methods
and instruments used. However, unless the paper is a comprehensive review of a topic, there
is no need to be exhaustive. Even, references to unpublished work, to documents in the grey
literature (technical reports), or to any source that the reader will have difficulty finding or
understanding should be avoided.
● The Basics
Having the structure of the paper in place is a good start. However, many details have to be
attended to while writing. An obvious recommendation is to read, and follow, the instructions
to authors published by the journal (typically found on the journal’s website). Another
concerns non-native writers of English: do have a native speaker edit the manuscript. A paper
usually goes through several drafts before it is submitted. When revising a paper, it is useful
to keep an eye out for the most common mistakes (Table 2). If you avoid all those, your paper
should be in good shape.
➔ Common mistakes are seen in manuscripts submitted to the journal

● The stated aim of the paper is tautological (e.g. ‘the aim of this paper is to describe
what we did’) or vague (e.g. ‘we explored issues related to X’)
● The structure of the paper is chaotic (e.g., methods are described in the Results
section)
● The manuscripts do not follow the journal’s instructions for authors
● The paper much exceeds the maximum number of words allowed
● The Introduction is an extensive review of the literature
● Methods, interventions and instruments are not described in sufficient detail
● Results are reported selectively (e.g. percentages without frequencies, P-values
without measures of effect)
● The same results appear both in a table and in the text
● Detailed tables are provided for results that do not relate to the main research question
● In the Introduction and Discussion, key arguments are not backed up by appropriate
references
● References are out of date or cannot be accessed by most readers
● The Discussion does not provide an answer to the research question
● The Discussion overstates the implications of the results and does not acknowledge
the limitations of the study
● The paper is written in poor English

1. Research begins with:
a. methodology
b. research problem
c. data collection
d. data analysis
2. The core elements of research paper writing are

a. Introduction; Data Collection; Data Analysis; Conclusions and Recommendations
b. Executive summary; Literature review; Data Analysis; References
c. Research plan; Research Data; Analysis; References
d. Introduction; Literature Review; Research Methodology; Results; Discussion and
Conclusion
3. What is a research design?

a. A way of conducting research that is not grounded in theory.
b. The choice between using qualitative or quantitative methods
c. The style in which you present your research findings e.g. a graph
d. A framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data.
4. Which are the basic elements to write an effective technical paper?

a. choose and define the topic
b. Know the audience and stick to your message
c. structure of the paper and related works
d. All of these
Exercise:
1. Which are the three basic elements to write an effective technical paper?
2. What kind of common mistakes are observed in the submitted research paper?
3. How does the research method play a vital role according to the context?
4. Explain the structure of technical research papers in brief.
Learning from the lecture: Learners will be able to describe different objects and frame the
structure of technical research paper meticulously.
Add to Knowledge: (Content Beyond Syllabus): Application in real life
Importance of Technical Writing:
Although creative writing is a complex and complicated discipline in its own right, it
would be wrong to consider that mastering it can give you any edge at all in technical
writing. Technical writing follows a completely different set of rules and principles; and
the importance of their proper implementation can hardly be overestimated. After all, the
everyday workings of the modern world depend in a much more crucial way on
technological documentation than on fiction and even journalism – for good or worse.
Technical writing deals with specific knowledge, generally in the sphere of science and
technology, and may be used in a wide variety of media: technical documentation, manuals,
scientific articles, dissertations and so on. Each of these kinds of writing follows its own set
of rules, and in order to write, for example, an article in a scientific magazine one doesn‘t
simply have to know his subject – one has to know the conventions of this genre, the way
scientific and technological thought is to be expressed. It doesn‘t mean that otherwise you
wouldn‘t be understood – although in some cases you really wouldn‘t – it simply means
that no self- respecting magazine is going to accept your article if it isn‘t written properly.
1. Learning Outcomes:
Know: Student should be able to

1. Define technical instruments and devices.
2. List parts, materials, conditions etc. While writing instructions.
3. State meaning, importance and different types
Comprehend: Student should be able to
1. Describe various processes and factions of instruments and devices.
2. Explain the ways of writing the technical definition.
3. Compare and contrast the concept of warning and danger.
Apply, Analyze and synthesize: Student should be able to
1. Adapt techniques of writing clear instructions
5.6 Short Answer Questions:

1. Define the following:
As per the curriculum in Technical Writing, only definitions are asked in exams as
short answer type questions thus to give students an idea a few examples are given
below:
a. Hacksaw: The hacksaw is a hand tool used for cutting metal rods, bars and pipes
to desired length.
b. Hammer: Hammer is a hand tool, which consists of a solid metal head set
crosswise on the end of a handle, used for pounding.
c. Grinding: Grinding is a process of reducing the material into small particles.
d. Chisel: Chisel is a sharp cut tool made of a very hard metal used for hand
grinding purposes.
e. Voltmeter: A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the potential
difference between two points.
f. Electric Iron: It is a home appliance consisting of a flat metal base that is heated
and used to smooth cloth. Welding:
g. Refrigerator: An electrical appliance used usually for preserving food articles
under a constant temperature lower than that of the room.
h. Engineering Drawing: E.D. is a graphic representation used universally by
design engineers and engineering technologists to describe die shape and size of
structures and mechanisms.
i. Fountain Pen: A pen that is supplied with ink from a reservoir in its barrel.
j. Screw Driver: A hand tool for driving screws has a tip that fits into the head of a
screw.
k. Brake: A restraint used to slow or stop a vehicle
l. Knife: Edge tool used as a cutting instrument; has a pointed blade with a sharp
edge and a handle.
m. Lathe: Lathe is a machine tool for shaping metal or wood; the workplace turns
about the horizontal axis against a fixed tool.
n. Telescope: An instrument designed to gather light from a large area and bring it
to a focus, where the radiation can be analyzed.
o. Molding refrigerator: It is an electric appliance that uses refrigeration to help
mold objects.
5.7 Long Answer Questions:
1. Describe the following:
1. Electric mixer 5. Telescope 9. Screwdriver
2. Hammer 6. Molding Refrigerator 10.Microscope
3. Refrigerator 7. Lathe 11. Brake
2. Explain the following processes giving definition, material, and description.
Draw a neat-labeled diagram.
1. Electrolysis
2. Galvanizing
3. Drilling
4. Vacuum cleaning
5. Operating a transform
3. Write the instructions of shaping a wooden piece into round and cylindrical objects.
Self-Assessment:
1. Explain the ways of defining an object.
2. Why are instructions important to follow? Explain.
3. Explain various elements to be included while describing an object.
4. Describe an object or a process which you can see in your surrounding in a

systematic manner.
Self-Evaluation
Name of
the
student
Class
Roll No
Subject
Module
No.
1 Do you understand the ways of defining Yes

an object?
No
2 Do you understand various ways of Yes

writing instructions and describing an
object? No

instruction and description?
No
4 Will you be able to write a technical Yes

paper, following the basics of technical
writing? No

Partially
No, not at all

Module 6
Oral Communication
Lecture 27
6.1 Concept of Oral Communication
6.1.1 Motivation
Oral communication is the process of expressing ideas through the medium of speech and this
plays a crucial role in the life of students. An individual learns the basics of oral communication
right at home. The school environment takes this learning a notch higher by teaching the
student how to interact with peers and teachers alike. The quality of communication in student
life will define professional communication later in life.
6.1.2: Syllabus: Oral skills

Topics Content Duration Self-study
Hours Hours
6.1 Intonation Pattern for effective presentation 1 1
Common Everyday Situations: Conversation and
Dialogues
6.2 Compeering, Hosting, Anchoring 1 1
Presentation on Technical Research Paper (one
technical topic)
6.1.4 Learning objectives:

• Understand intonation patterns for effective Communication
• Define the nature of spoken communication
• Know the primacy of oral communication in business transaction and
personal interaction
• Understand effective ways of Hosting, Compeering, and Anchoring events
• List the key skills of technical presentation
• Know how to use skills of conversation at various situations.
A. Listening Comprehension
Listening comprehension is the most important skill in language learning. If you can achieve a
high level in comprehension, all other skills will follow. It is the precursor to reading
comprehension, so it’s an important skill to develop. Listening comprehension isn’t
just hearing what is said—it is the ability to understand the words and relate to them in some
way.
Listening comprehension encompasses the multiple processes involved in understanding and
making sense of spoken language. These include recognizing speech sounds, understanding the
meaning of individual words, and understanding the syntax of sentences in which they are
presented. Listening comprehension can also involve the prosody with which utterances are
spoken (which can, e.g., change intended meaning from a statement to a question), and making
relevant inferences based on context, real-world knowledge, and speaker-specific attributes
(e.g., to what information the speaker has access and about what he/she is likely to be talking).
For longer stretches of language or discourse, listening comprehension also involves significant
memory demands to keep track of causal relationships expressed within the discourse.
Listening is the skill which we use the most in everyday life. Listening comprehension is the
basis for your speaking, writing and reading skills. To train your listening skills, it is important
to listen actively, which means to actively pay attention to what you are listening to. Make it a
habit to listen to audio books, podcasts, news, songs, etc. and to watch videos and films in the
foreign language.
• Suggestions for improving your listening skills

Before you listen
• Think about the topic of the text you are going to listen to. What do you already know
about it? What could possibly be the content of the text? Which words come to mind
that you already know? Which words would you want to look up?
• If you have to do a task on the listening text, check whether you have understood the
task correctly.
• Think about what type of text you are going to listen to. What do you know about this
type of text?
• Relax and make yourself ready to pay attention to the listening text. While you are
listening
• It is not necessary to understand every single word. Try to ignore those words that you
think are less important anyway.
• If there are words or issues that you don't understand, use your general knowledge as
well as the context to find out the meaning.
• If you still don't understand something, use a dictionary to look up the words or ask
someone else for help.
• Focus on key words and facts.
• Take notes to support your memory.
• Intonation and stress of the speakers can help you to understand what you hear.
• Try to think ahead. What might happen next? What might the speakers say, which
words might they use? After listening
• Think about the text again. Have you understood the main points?
• Remember the speculations you made before you listened. Did they come true?
• Review your notes.
• Check whether you have completed your task correctly.
Have you had any problems while listening? Do you have any problems now to
complete your task? Identify your problems and ask someone for help. Listen again to
difficult passages.
❖ Listening Comprehension Test
Comprehension of the passage I
I didn’t go to school until I was twelve years old. Before that, I studied at home with
my brother and sister. We lived on a sheep station – a very big farm – in Australia, and the
closest school was two hundred kilometers away. We studied a variety of subjects and the
school was called the School of the Air.
Our classroom was the dining room and we studied for five hours every day. We
communicated with the teacher and other students by radio. My favorite subjects were
History and Science and I did quite well in them. I didn’t like Math and I wasn’t very good
at it. In fact, my results in this subject were so unsatisfactory that my parents were very
angry about it. We spent half an hour a day on the radio, read books and wrote different
kinds of stories which were then sent to the school centre in Alice Springs. The teacher who
visited us once a year corrected them and sent them back to us by mail. These days, of
course, the Internet is widely used but we didn’t have computers at that time so we
couldn’t communicate by email and chatting was obviously unheard of.
In 1948, my parents sent me to a boarding school in Brisbane. That was very
different to what I was used to. There were a lot of other students, all with different
personalities, and we lived at the school where we slept in the living quarters. I only went
home during school holidays. Brisbane is a big, beautiful city by the sea; however, I was
really sad and missed my family at first. I cried on my first day there but after that I
enjoyed it very much. It is an experience that I will treasure for the rest of my life.
A. Put a tick ( ) in the correct box according to whether the statement is TRUE or
FALSE
1. Carol Baines started studying when she was 12.
2. Carol Baines lived on a farm with her two sisters.
3. The closest school to the farm was 200km away.
4. They used the sitting room as a classroom.
5. They talked to the teacher and other students on the Internet.
6. Carol Baines studied History, Science and Mathematics.
B. What do these words dates and numbers refer to in the passage?
1. 5: ________________________________________________________
2. Alice Springs: ________________________________________________________
3. 1948: ________________________________________________________
C. Fill in with ONE word from the passage.
1.During the time she attended boarding school, Carol only went home during
__________.
2. At first, when Carol Baines went to a boarding school, she was very ______________.
Comprehension of the passage II

Hollywood, the most famous town in America, got its name in 1886 when a retired
couple moved to California and built a ranch. The movies hadn't yet been born and the
couple chose the location because they liked the wide open spaces around the small but
bustling city of Los Angeles.
Three years later moving pictures were invented in London when William Frieze-
Greene gave the first demonstration of a Cinematograph. But it was the Lumiere brothers
in Paris who gave the first public demonstration before a paying audience in 1895.
Ironically, they thought movies had no commercial use.
The first narrative film that used actors was called "The Great Train Robbery".
People went to see the film in their thousands. Each person paid five cents for admission:
this is why the first cinemas were called "Nickel Odeon’s."
The popularity of movie boomed and the film companies joined together in order to
get patent rights as a way of protecting their product. But pirate companies began to make
films of their own outside the law. To avoid prosecution these film makers packed up and
moved across country. They settled in a small town called Hollywood. By 1914 this town
had become the biggest film factory in the world. Other companies moved there because
the sunny climate was conducive to shooting outdoors. The surrounding environment was
also perfect for making westerns, the first and most popular American film genre.
The early Hollywood artists were regarded with disrespect by many people. The
cinema was the upstart medium and many people resented its overnight success.
Circle the most appropriate option

1. The retired couple chose the location for their ranch because
a) Los Angeles was a small and bustling town.
b) They liked to live near Hollywood,
c) They wanted to make movies.
d) They liked the environment.
2. In 1886 Hollywood was
a) As famous as it is now.
b) Only a small remote ranch,
c) the most famous city in America.
d) Surrounded by wide open spaces.
3. The Lumiere brothers were the first
a) To give a demonstration of moving pictures.
b) To get money for the demonstration of a film.
c) To believe that movies had commercial use.
d) To make a film that used actors.
4. Pirate film companies
a) made their films illegally.
b) moved across the country illegally.
c) wanted to work within the law.
d) joined together to protect their products.
5. According to the text, other film companies moved to Hollywood because
a) they wanted to avoid prosecution.
b) they wanted to make movies outside the law.
c) the weather conditions allowed them to make films outside.
d) the weather was sunny most of the time.
6. According to the text
a) "The Great Train Robbery" was a huge success.
b) people were not enthusiastic about "The Great Train Robbery".
c) each person gave a thousand dollars for "The Great Train Robbery".
d) "The Great Train Robbery" was first shown in the "Odeon Cinema".
7. According to the text in the 1920s many people in America
a) respected actors very much.
b) thought badly of Hollywood artists.
c) regarded Hollywood artists as noble people.
d) were not interested in movies and actors at all
• Comprehension of the passage III
Would you like to be served in a restaurant by a robot waiter? This is what happened when a
robot lost its head. A robot that was supposed to serve wine in a restaurant ran amok instead,
knocking over furniture and frightening customers, until eventually its head fell off into a
customer’s lap, the court of Sessions in Edinburgh was told yesterday. The court was told that
during its eventful career in a restaurant in Leith, Edinburgh, the robot spilled a glass of wine
on its first test run and became uncontrollable after thirty minutes, knocking over furniture.
It was said to have been erratic and uncontrollable again during tests the next day, when it
spilled more glasses of wine and ended dropping its head into a customer's lap, while its lights
and voice cassette also failed. The engineer who demonstrated the robot at the restaurant and
showed a disc jockey how to use it, told the court:
"It just needed practice, and in time you can perfect it. It is almost like a conjuring trip. You
speaks into the microphone." But he said that if the batteries were undercharged "the results
would be catastrophic, because the radio-controlled signal would be too weak and there would
be jerky movements."
The robot stood in court wearing a black hat and bow tie. It looked in a sorry state, incapable of
speech or movement. After the case was settled, it was taken from the court on a trolley, its
internal wiring detached from its body.
• Circle the most appropriate option
1. The restaurant employed the robot

a) to do the cleaning.
b) to help the other waiters.
c) to taste wine for customers.
d) to provide wine for customers to drink.
2. During its test the robot waiter

a) worked properly.
b) did some unexpected thing.
c) ran away from the customers.
d) knocked over some of the restaurant staff
3. During tests the next day the robot

a) did the same things as the day before.
b) sat into a customer's lap.
c) became controllable.
d) behaved properly.
4. The restaurant staff

a) disconnected the robot.
b) managed to control the robot.
c) gave the demonstration of the robot's operation.
d) couldn't stop the robot when it was working.
5. The engineer suggested that the robot

a) wasn't difficult to operate.
b) spoke into the microphone.
c) should charge its batteries.
d) was just a conjuring trick.
6. In court, the engineer

a) explained why the robot had behaved so badly.
b) couldn't think of any reason why the robot had behaved so badly.
c) spoke about the catastrophe in the restaurant.
d) showed the court how to use the robot.
7. While the robot stood in court it
a) behaved violently.
b) was in working order.
c) was in poor condition.
d) was able to speak for itself.
8. The court's decision about the case was:

a) More practice is needed.
b) Some repairs are needed.
c) A fine should be paid.
d) Not mentioned in the text.
6.1 Pronunciation, Intonation, Stress and Rhythm

You can study English reading, writing and grammar for many years, but when you begin
to talk with English speakers from other countries, especially fluent speakers talking
together informally, you may be surprised to find that spoken English is very different
from written English.
The reason for this is that there are several important features of spoken English which are
not apparent in the written language. Understanding these features can be a great help to
English learners, but unfortunately they are not always taught in English classes. These
features make up the unique "music of English."
Learning English as a second language is very important to learn how words stress; when
we use rhythm in each sentence and what for intonation it will be used. These are parts of
pronunciation in English language. Learning English is not learning words and sentences.
It is necessary to learn how to avoid the interference of mother language in order to
improve the utterance near the native speakers. The role of mother tongue influences in a
language acquisition for rhythm, stress and intonation when they adapt the same process
of acquisition. So, it is necessary to learn stress, rhythm and intonation because they are
parts of pronunciation.
❖ Word Stress
Stress is about which sounds we emphasize in words and sentences. For example in the word
‘banana’ the stress is on the second syllable, in the word ‘orange’ the stress is on the first
syllable. English has stress sounds on the main words such as verbs, nouns, adjectives and
adverbs that we call Content Words such as nouns : bag, sauce, verbs: walk, drive, hit, adverbs:
well, fast, and adjectives: fat, big, thin. And some words we do not stress they are called
Function Words such as determiners: the, an, a, some, any, a few, auxiliary verbs: am, was, can,
could, should, must etc., prepositions: near, next to, after etc., conjunctions: but, and, or, for, as
etc., pronouns: he, she, we, they, him, her etc.
In English word, more prominent syllable receives the primary stress and others have the
secondary stress. Primary stress is marked on more prominent syllable with a vertical bar above
and in front of the syllable and secondary stress is marked with a vertical bar below and in front
of the syllable.
❖ Rhythm
We learn the rhythm of our native language in the first months of life, and tend to mistakenly
apply that rhythm to any new language we learn. It is important to learn the unique rhythm of
each language. English is one of the "stress-timed" languages, and the basic unit of English
rhythm is the syllable.
Rhythm is about how we use a combination of stressed and unstressed words in sentences.
Sentences have strong beats (the stressed words) and weak beats (the unstressed words).
Rhythm, in the English language, is closely tied to the way in which speakers place stress on
syllables. In unstressed syllables, the vowels are reduced whereas in stressed syllables the
vowels are longer and louder, as well as higher in pitch, although not all three characteristics
are always present in any given stressed syllable. Stressed and unstressed syllables combine to
create a regular, patterned beat similar to the rhythm of a musical phrase.
❖ Intonation
Intonation is the way the pitch of a speaker’s voice goes up or down as they speak. We use
intonation to help get our message across.
English depends mainly on intonation, or pitch pattern ("melody"), to help the listener notice
the most important (focus) word in a thought group. By making a major pitch change (higher
or lower) on the stressed syllable of the focus word, the speaker gives emphasis to that word
and thereby highlights it for the listener. This emphasis can indicate meaning, new information,
contrast, or emotion.
We also use intonation to help the listener know what is ahead. The pitch stays up between
thought groups (to show that more is coming), and usually goes down to show the end of a
sentence (except Yes/No questions).
Exercises for listening:
https://usefulenglish.ru/phonetics/practice-intonation-rhythm
B. Common Everyday Situations: Conversation and Dialogues

Dialogue 1-1: Formal Greetings
JAMES: Good morning, Professor Austin, how are you doing?
PROFESSOR AUSTIN: Good morning, James. I am doing well and you?
JAMES: I’m great, thank you. This is my friend Emma. She is thinking about applying to
this college. She has a few questions. Would you mind telling us about the process, please?
PROFESSOR AUSTIN: Hello, Emma! It’s a pleasure to meet you. I’m more than happy
to speak with you. Please stop by my office next week.
EMMA: It’s a pleasure to meet you, professor. Thank you so much for helping us.
PROFESSOR AUSTIN: Don’t mention it. Hopefully, I will be able to answer your
questions!
Language Note
• The greetings good morning/good afternoon/good evening are used
at different times of the day to greet people. “Good evening” is often
used after 6 p.m. or generally when the sun has set.
• “Good night is not a greeting: It is used when leaving a place or group
of people. Thank you and good night! /Good night, and see you
tomorrow.
• When people meet in the United States, it is customary for them to
shake hands. A handshake should be firm and usually lasts for about
two to three seconds — which allows enough time to say “Nice to meet
you.”
• “Don’t mention it” is another way of saying “You’re welcome.” The
phrase “You are welcome” is more formal. However, responses such as
don’t mention it. /No problem. / Happy to help. Are informal ways of
responding to a thank you?
Dialogue 1-2: Informal Greetings and Farewells
JANE: Hi, Helen! How’s it going?

HELEN: Fine, thanks — and you?
JANE: Just fine. Where are you off to?
HELEN: To the library. I’ve got a history exam next week and need to start
studying. Ugh.
JANE: Oh, no. Well, I’ll see you later then. Good luck!
HELEN: Thanks. See you later.
Language Note
• “Hi” is an informal way of saying “hello.” Notice that the “I” sounds in “hi”
is extended, to show that Jane is very pleased to see Helen.
• “How’s it going?” is an informal way of saying “How are you?”
• “Fine, thanks—and you?” Notice the rising intonation on “and you?” This shows
that Helen is interested in what Jane has to say.
• “Where are you off to?” is an informal way of saying “Where are you going?”
Notice the falling intonation since this is an information question, not a
“yes/no question.
Dialogue 1-3: Formal Introductions
MARGARET Mr. Wilson, I’d like you to meet Dr. Edward Smith.
MR.WILSON It’s nice to meet you, Dr .Smith.
DR.SMITH: Pleasure to meet you, too.
MARGARET: Dr. Smith is an economist. He just finished writing a book on
international trade.
MR.WILSON: Oh? That’s my field, too. I work for the United Nations.
DR.SMITH: In the Development Program, by any chance?

MR.WILSON: Yes. How did you guess?
DR.SMITH : I’ve read your articles on technical assistance. They’re excellent.
Language Note
• Mr. Wilson, I’d like you … Notice the rising intonation on “Mr. Wilson,”
which is used to address someone. Listen fort he’d” in “I’d like.”This
means I would like, which is very different from like. (“I’d like” means the
same as “I would like ”or “I want.”)
• Dr. Smith is an economist. Notice the stress on “economist.” This content
word has new information, so it is emphasized. There are four syllables in
“economist,” with the stress on the second syllable (e-CON-o-mist).
• He just finished writing …“just” means the very recent past. “Just” is
usually used with a simple past verb because the action is complete.
However, it can also be used with the present perfect (He’s just finished
writing…).
• Development program. Since these two words make a compound
noun, the main stress falls on “development.”
• By any chance? Means the same as “possibly.” Notice the rising
intonation, which is used in yes/no questions to confirm that something
is true.
•
Dialogue 1-4: Informal Introductions
Jim: Who’s the tall woman next to Barbara?

Charles: That’s her friend Mary. Didn’t you meet her at Steve’s party?
Jim: No, I wasn’t at Steve’s party.
Charles: Oh! Then let me introduce you to her now. Mary, this is my friend Jim.
Mary: Hi, Jim. Nice to meet you.
Jim: You too. Would you like a drink?

Mary : Sure, let’s go get one.
Language Note
• “Who’s” is the contracted form of who is. It is pronounced the same way as
“whose” (/ huwz/), but the meaning is different.
• Didn’t you meet her …? Notice that this is a negative question. Charles
thought that Jim had met Mary before. He is now surprised that Jim does
not know Mary, and so he uses a negative question to show his surprise.
• I wasn’t at Steve’s party. Notice that the emphasis here is on “at”
although prepositions normally have weak stress. In this case, “at”
means “there” (I wasn’t there).
• Mary, this is my friend Jim. This is a friendly way to introduce two
people. It’s Common to follow this with “Jim, this is Mary.”In this case,
Mary says “Hi, Jim” first.
• Nice to meet you. This is a typical response after you’ve been introduced
to someone.
• “Sure” is often used in informal conversation to mean “yes.
Dialogue 1.5: What Time Is It?

Natasha : It’s a quarter after seven. We’re on time. Don’t panic. But I thought we had
to be at the restaurant by 7:30 for the surprise party. We’ll never make it there with all
this evening traffic.
Tony: Sure we will. Rush hour is almost over. Anyway, the party starts at 8:00. But I do
need help with directions. Can you call the restaurant and ask them where we park our
car?
Language Note
• It’s a quarter after seven. This phrase is one of the most common ways
of stating this time. It means: “its 15 minutes past 7:00.” Another possibility
here is to simply Say: “its seven fifteen.” In general you can say: “It’s a
quarter past the hour.” How do we know the time of day? Look for
context clues: “evening traffic.”
• In the dialog, Natasha and Tony are going to a surprise party. They
need to be on time. Therefore there is an element of stress and urgency.
When someone is stressed for time you can use expressions like: Don’t
worry. / Don’t stress. / We’re fine. / We will be on time.
• Natasha thinks the surprise party begins sat7:30.There is two different
ways to express this time. You may say simply “seven thirty” or “half
pasts even.”
• Rush hour is the time of day—usually in the morning and
evening—when traffic is heavy because of people commuting to
and from their workplace by bus, by car, by subway, on foot, etc.
Dialogue 1-6: A Telephone Call
John: Hi, Alice, it’s John. How are you?

Alice: Oh, hi, John! I was just thinking about you.
John: That’s nice. I was wondering if you’d like to go to a movie tonight.
Alice: Sure, I’d love to! What’s playing?
John: I was thinking about that new comedy Lights Out. What do you think?
Alice: Sounds great!
John: OK, I’ll pick you up around 7:30. The movie starts at8:00.
Alice: See you then. Bye!
Language Note
• Hi, Alice, it’s John: Hi,, it’ sisal casual and friendly way to say
hello on the Phone. Although “it’s” means “it is,” it is used to
mean “I am” here.
• Oh, hi, John! Notice the rising intonation here. Alice is excited to hear
from John and is very pleased that he called her.
• I was wondering if you’d like to this is a polite and indirect way of
asking “Do you want to …?” John is nervous and does not want to
appear too direct or bold. Notice how the question goes up at the end,
which shows that he is not overly confident. Sure! I’d love to means
“Yes, I would love to.” Notice that Alice is very enthusiastic and
friendly. She wants John to feel comfortable about asking her out on a
date.
• I was thinking about … / what do you think? Again, John does

not want to appear too bold. He wants to give Alice a chance to
suggest a movie.
• Sounds great! Is an informal way of saying “That is a good plan.”
• I’ll pick you up is an informal way of saying “I’ll come to your
house so that we can go together.”
Dialogue 1-7: Can You Say That Again?
Luke: Hello? Hi, Stephanie, how are things at the office?

Stephanie: Hi, Luke! How are you? Can you please stop and pickup extra paper for the
computer printer?
Luke: What did you say? Can you repeat that, please? Did you say to pick up ink for
the printer? Sorry, the phone is cutting out.
Stephanie: Can you hear me now? No, I need more computer paper. Listen, I’ll text you
exactly what I need. Thanks, Luke. Talk to you later.
Luke: Thanks, Stephanie. Sorry, my phone has really badly reception here.
Language Note
• There are a few way stop express a lack of understanding and to
request additional Information .The most common ones are stated, but
you can also say “Excuse me” or simply “I can’t hear you.” In a more
formal situation, try saying “I’m sorry?” or “I beg your pardon?”(With
a rising intonation).
• When asking someone to clarify information try saying can you please
repeat that? / Can you spell that for me?/Can you please write down the
address for me?
• Cutting out describes a difficulty in understanding a caller due to poor
cell phone reception. If you are having trouble understanding the

caller, you can also say The Line is breaking up / I am losing you. If the
phone call is disconnected because of poor reception, you can say the call
dropped. Talk to you later is the equivalent in a phone conversation
of “See you later” in a regular, face-to-face conversation Reception
here means the availability of cellular service, the possibility to receive
and give calls on a cell phone. Cell phone reception can be limited in
remote areas, inside large buildings or underground (in the subway, for
instance).
Dialogue 1-8: Coincidences
MEG: Well, hello there, Julia! Long time nose!

JULIA: Meg! Hi! What a coincidence! I haven’t seen you in ages! What are you doing here?
MEG: I just got a new job in the city, so I’m shopping for some clothes. Hey,
What do you think of this shirt?
JULIA: Hmmm … well, you know how much I love blue. See? I’ve got the same shirt!
MEG: You always did have good taste! What a small world.
Language Note
• Well, hello there … Notice the emphasis on “hello,” which shows that Meg
did not expect to see Julia.
• Long time, no see! This is a common expression used to say hello to
someone you haven’t seen in a longtime.
• What a ___! This exclamation shows a great degree of surprise, joy,
disappointment, etc. (What a surprise to see you here! What a joy to have you
with us! What a shame that you have to leave so soon! What a wonderful idea
that is!)
• You always did have good taste! Notice the stress on “did,” which Meg uses to
emphasize the fact that Julia DOES have good taste! Meg says it in a joking way
because Julia likes the same thing that she does.
• What a small world is a common expression used to describe a chance
meeting or other such coincidence.

1. Which of the following kinds of communication do students spend most time engaged in:
a) listening b) speaking
c) reading d) writing
2. The melody of the language produced by the elements of stress, pitch, and pauses is known
as:
a) intonation b) voice quality
c) tempo d) rhyme
Practice Quiz:
Identify which words are content words and should be stressed in the following sentences:
1. They've been learning English for two months.

2. My friends have nothing to do this weekend.
3. I would have visited in April if I had known Peter was in town.
4. Natalie will have been studying for four hours by six o'clock.
5. The boys and I will spend the weekend next to the lake fishing for trout.
6. Jennifer and Alice had finished the report before it was due last week.
Answers: Words in italics are stressed content words while unstressed function words are in
lower case.
1. They've been learning English for two months.

2. My friends have nothing to do this weekend.
3. I would have visited in April if I had known Peter was in town.
4. Natalie will have been studying for fours hours by six o'clock.
5. The boys and I will spend the weekend next to the lake fishing for trout.
6. Jennifer and Alice had finished the report before it was due last week.
Exercise:
Q.1. What is intonation?
Q.2. Write short note on ‘stress’ and ‘rhythm’ of English language.
Q.3. Lack of effective listening skills results in loss of time, lowering of productivity and
missed opportunities. Do you agree with the statement? If yes, substantiate you answer
with appropriate examples.
Q.4. Effective listening is a rather daunting task. Do you think so? If yes, why? Give
suitable examples.
listening, speaking skills and develop effective listening and speaking skills.
Lecture 30
6.1 6.2 Communication at Workplace: Compeering, Hosting, Anchoring and Presentation

Communication is one of the major concerns in the workplace. Creating and
maintaining a positive work environment is what means effective workplace
communication. Let’s find out how it can be done.
We have all been there, where we are given a task or leave a meeting and have no
idea what to do next. It’s quite common. According to the statistics, 57% of
employees report not being given clear directions and 69% of managers are not comfortable
communicating with the employees in general. From the statistics, it is clear that there is a
need to improve communication in the workplace. But first thing is– what is workplace
communication?
Communication in the workplace is one of the signs of a high-performance culture.
Exchanging information and ideas within an organization is called workplace
communication. However, effective communication occurs when a message is sent and
received accurately. In every aspect of life (both professional and personal), effective
communication is important to success and happiness. Effective communication in the
workplace is central to all business goals.
Why is communication so important in the workplace?
• It avoids confusion
• It provides purpose
• It builds a positive company culture
• It creates accountability
Improving communication starts at the top to meet your business intent. Often,
effective communication at the workplace is what distinguishes a good leader from a great
one. Communication at workplace defines organizational goals and helps coworkers
collaborate. This is a step towards a fundamental business practice for a committed and
productive workforce. In a study, companies ranked communication skills twice
as important as managerial skills. Here are the skills that employers mostly seek in new
hires, ranked in terms of priority.
• Oral communication
• Listening
• Written communication
• Public speaking
• Adaptability
It’s vital to measure communication so you can see what works, what doesn’t,
and tweak it accordingly. Workplace communication is important to your growth and
success. It allows everyone to share their inputs and feel that their ideas are being
valued.
A. Formal Presentations
Presentations give you the opportunity to share and receive feedback on your ideas and
research findings. Let’s see the guidelines for organizing, designing, and delivering
formal presentations. It also provides links for further discussion and examples.
But before you get started…
Know your audience. As an engineer, you will deliver formal presentations to
different audiences who have varying levels of technical knowledge: undergraduates,
graduate students, professors, university administrators, and supervisors and
colleagues in industry. Anticipate what your audience already knows about your topic.
If you are unsure how to address your audience, imagine having a conversation about
your topic with a member of the audience. You would employ different diction and
sentence structures to discuss your work with a fellow engineering student than you
would to explain it to a marketing student, wouldn’t you? Ideally, you address
audience members on a field of shared knowledge and then lead them to greater
understanding.
Also try to anticipate your audience’s mood. You should organize your
presentation differently for a friendly audience than you would for a skeptical or hostile
one. Generally speaking, a friendly audience will likely accept an early assertion of your
main point, followed by supportive details. A skeptical audience, however, responds
more productively to a presentation of shared concerns, followed by a “delayed thesis,”
or main point.
Finally, make sure you know your audience’s preferences for presentations. Does
your audience expect or require PowerPoint or other presentation software? Would
your audience prefer other modes of presentation, such as displaying slides as Web
pages ? These types of questions may be difficult to answer for someone with little
presentation experience, but doing some initial research into your audience’s
expectations will make you a more effective presenter.
• Organizing the Presentation

Most presentations have three distinct sections: Introduction, Middle, and Conclusion.
1. Draft the Introduction.

Think like a journalist: the introduction should explain the “who, what, when,
where and why” of your research. The Middle will explain the “how.” Your title slide
will convey much of this information. Fig. 1 shows a title slide that includes the “who,
what, and where.” Make sure you attend to font size and color contrast so that your
names are visible. Also, spell out the names of your university and department even
though they may be obvious. If you receive external funding for your research, your
title slide should identify the source of your support. At this stage, consider your
Introduction as a rough draft. You will revise it later.
2. Concentrate on the Middle and Conclusion.

Imagine yourself at the end of your presentation. What exactly do you want the audience
to learn, or take away? Engineering communicators recommend that you focus on 3-5
points per presentation. Yet at a busy conference, most of us can realistically remember
only the main point of each speaker .Prioritize your points in order of importance. Make
sure all the information you include in the Middle of your presentation contributes to your
most important point; too many unnecessary details will veil the important information.
Select the most persuasive visual data to use as supporting evidence
3. Organize your argument and support.

First, avoid your computer .Instead, write down your points on note cards and organize the
cards, so you can see the entire structure at a glance and make changes quickly. If you
begin this work on presentation software, you risk wasting time on slide design details.
This process will also help to remove unnecessary information that does not support your
main points. It will be earlier to throw away a note card that you scribbled on than to delete
a slide that took you an hour to perfect.
Repetition helps you to emphasize important information. If you want the audience to
remember a point, elude to it early, present the information as clearly as possible, and
repeat your point in the conclusion.
4. Finally, return to your Introduction.

Review all the material in your draft, including your title. Make sure your Introduction
explains why your work is important—and why we should pay attention to you. Also
explain the larger context of your work (or the “big picture”) for the least technically
knowledgeable member of the audience; that person could have the most power or money
to help you. If your presentation will last longer than 5 minutes, provide an overview slide
to outline the contents. You can use the overview to explain your scope: what you will
discuss and what you will not.
• Designing the Slides

As an undergraduate, you will normally use PowerPoint for your slide designs, but you
should know its limitations. Remember three principles:
1. Slides should support your message, not act as a substitute. If you watch the talks
on Ted.com you will notice that the focus is on the speaker, not the slides.. We do not need
slides to understand what he\ she is saying.
2. Visual presentations and written reports speak different languages. In other
words, don’t simply cut-and-paste words and illustrations from your reports onto the
slides. Consider how your presentation audience differs from your reader, and how you
can use the language of visual presentation to advantage.
3. Keep the slides simple. The more complex your material, the easier you should
make the presentation for the reader. Avoid long bullet lists, complex flow charts, and
tables full of fine detail. Pay attention to the size of words and images. What if you need to
show the fine detail? Make a handout.
• Practicing the Delivery

Public speakers, politicians, and professional actors get nervous before stepping onto a
stage, so why shouldn’t you? Arguably, some degree of “nervousness” works to your
advantage in that it keeps you alert and energizes your performance. Still, learning to
channel that energy takes time and practice. The delivery could make or break a
presentation, so start planning it early. Prepare your delivery as follows:
1. Create note cards. Even if you are asked to “present a paper,” don’t plan to read the
entire paper out loud. Outline it on cards, legibly stating the major points. Make sure you
know your sources for all your information. If you are using presentation software, the
sources should be cited on the slide. If not, list the source on your note cards. You may be
called on your sources during the Question and Answer period.
2. Practice in front of friends—not just the mirror. It is amazing how quickly your brain
will disregard the 10 hours of practicing you did at home when faced with another human
being. A real audience, however small, will help give you a sense of the “nerves” you will
experience and alert you to lapses in clarity or design flaws in your slides. Practice
maintaining eye contact as much as possible. Practice twice, and note your improvement. If
you are soft-spoken, practice in the largest lecture room possible. Ask a friend to sit in the
back row so you can practice voice projection.
3. Visit the location if possible. For presentations on campus, you should be able to visit
the room beforehand. Note the size of the room and where you will stand. If you are
presenting in a large lecture hall, check your slides for visibility from the back row. Test the
projector and screen controls and arrange for technical support if necessary.
4. Remember Murphy’s laws. Prepare for your laptop to crash, for the projector light bulb
to blow out, for your partner not to show up. If you are presenting outside the University,
prepare a backup plan to deliver your talk from memory, with handouts.
5. Anticipate questions and challenges. Be ready to elaborate on each major point. Prepare
to support your sources, your methods, and your conclusions without appearing to go on
the defensive. If you do not know the answer, say so.
❖ Useful phrases to help you perform the functions listed below:
1. Introduction
• A provocative statement.-
"I want to discuss with you this afternoon why you're going to fail to have a great career."
• Incite curiosity.
"I need to make a confession at the outset here. A little over 20 years ago, I did something that I regret,
something that I'm not particularly proud of. Something that, in many ways, I wish no one would ever
know, but here I feel kind of obliged to reveal."
• Shock the audience.
"You will live seven and a half minutes longer than you would have otherwise, just because you watched
this talk."
• Tell a story.
When I was seven years old and my sister was just five years old, we were playing on top of a bunk bed..."
• Be authentic
"I'm going to tell you a little bit about my TEDx Houston Talk. I woke up the morning after I gave that
talk with the worst vulnerability hangover of my life. And I actually didn't leave my house for about three
days."
• Ask a question.
"Do you think it's possible to control someone's attention? Even more than that, what about predicting
human behaviour?"
• Make a Bold Claim
I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for
freedom in the history of our nation.
2. Justifying the topic of your presentation
• There are many concerns regarding …

• … has been the subject of much debate recently and this is the topic of my presentation
• Recent research has shown that…
• Did you know...........?
• This is the reason for my talk today. ... and this is the theme for my presentation today
• …so the purpose of my presentation today is to inform/discuss/present/analyze …
• … is a growing problem in the world. For this reason I intend to focus on the issue of …
3. Giving the outline of your presentation
• Firstly, I’m going to look at ...

• Secondly, I’ll move on to the issue of ...
• Then I’ll move on to examine ...
• Lastly/Finally, I’ll look at / focus on ...
• I have divided my talk into the following main areas: ...
• I am going to divide my presentation into two main parts. First I’m going to describe …
and then I’ll move on to look at …
• And in this part of my presentation I’ll be showing you some data/charts/tables …
• I’ll also try to explain my findings …
• In the third part of my presentation I’ll put forward some ideas about….
• I’ll also be offering some recommendations on how we can solve/address/tackle the issues
of…
4. Referring to research
• Researchers have identified three key issues here, they are … Researchers have shown quite
conclusively that …
• A number of recent studies, notably the ones by … and …, have shown that …
• A number of studies have shown that ...
• A study by … shows that ...
• Research suggests/indicates that …
• According to …
• Figures from … show/suggest/indicate that ...
• A very interesting study by … shows that…
• The study by … is on your reading list and I encourage you to take a look at it. Basically, what he
found was that …
• One of the most interesting studies carried out
5. Conclusion:
Making conclusions and summarizing your main points
• To conclude my presentation, ...
• In conclusion, ...
• To summarize the main points of my presentation …
• In view of the evidence I have presented I think it is fair to say that …
• After all is said and done I think we can conclude that …
• This is clearly a very complex issue but on the strength of the evidence I have seen I would say
that …/it seems that …
6. Finishing your presentation
• OK we’re coming to the end of the presentation so I’d just like to thank you for listening ...
• OK. That brings us to the end of my presentation.
• Thank you for listening.
• I hope you found it interesting.

1. Making requests and asking for permission.
Read the conversations below and fill in the gaps with the words and phrases from the lists.
Do you mind if I is it OK if I could you turn What’s the problem
here you are telling me thanks can I borrow go ahead
Conversation 1
A: Yeah?
B: Hello, ........................................... turn the music down, please? It’s one o’clock and I’m trying
to sleep.
A: Oh, sorry. Is that better?
B: Yes,..................................... . Perhaps I can get some sleep now. Good night.
Conversation 2
A: I’m sorry, ................................ leave early today? I’m going to take my cat to see the vet.
B: You’re going to take your cat to the vet? What’s the matter with her then?
A: Him. I don’t know. That’s why I’m going to take him to the vet’s.
B: Oh, I see. Sure, ...................................... . Thanks for ...................................... .
Conversation 3
A: David, do you have your mobile phone with you?
B: Um... yes. Why?
A: ............................ it, please? I need to make a quick call to my mother.
B: OK, .............................. .
Conversation 4
A: ...................................... change seats?
B: Yes, all right. ......................................?
A: I can’t see because of the sun.
B: OK, then. Why don’t you sit there, next to Andrea?
Learning from Listening Skills: Students will be able to understand the art of conversation
and techniques of making effective presentations.
6.3 Short Answer Questions:
1. What are various techniques used to make effective presentation?
2. Explain the importance of phonetics.
3. Explain various intonation patterns and its importance.
6.4 Long Answer Questions:
1. Practice makes man perfect. Explain how practice can help in enhancing compering
and anchoring.
2. Conversation skills can only be improved through interactions. Explain
3. Explain the spoken and written aspect of English language.
4. Give some tips to enhance presentation skills.
Self-Assessment:
1. Explain the ways of effective presentation.
2. Explain the importance of voice modulation.
3. Conversation skills can be enhanced. Explain.
Self-Evaluation
Name of
the
student
Class
Roll No
Subject
Module
No.

1 Do you understand the ways of using Yes
intonation patterns?
No
2 Do you understand voice modulation Yes

and pauses are very important in
conversation? No

presentation and communication?
No
4 Will you be able to have an effective Yes

dialogue and conversational skills?
No

Partially
No, not at all

A. CO Mapping with Revised Bloom Taxonomy Level
Sr. Course Outcomes Cognitive Levels of
Bloom’s Taxonomy
1 Produce appropriate vocabulary and correct words L1, L2, L3
2 Communicate effectively by using structure of English L1, L2, L3

language
3 Write effective and coherent paragraphs professionally L1, L2, L3
4 Enhance professional and technical writing skills L1, L2, L3
5 Understand and apply the communication patterns in L1, L2, L3

organization
6 To improve speaking ability in English both in terms of L1, L2, L3
fluency and comprehensibility
CO-PO Mapping:
PO
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO
CO1 L L M M H H
CO2 L M H H H H
CO3 M H H H H
CO4 M H H H H
CO5 L M M H H
CO6 M M M H H
CO-PSO Mapping:
PO
PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
CO
CO1 H L
CO2 H L
CO3 H H
CO4 H H
CO5 H H
CO6 H H

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English for Professional Communication

A.Y. 2020-21 (FE SEMESTER I/II)

Compiled, reviewed and edited by:

2nd Edition of revised syllabus, April 2021

2. Teaching learning process would be based on this resource book.

4. A separate notebook should be maintained for every subject.

Subject Related Guidelines:

3. Weightage for the subject includes In-Semester Examination- 20 marks, Innovative

Exam Specific Guidelines:

Guidelines for Writing Quality Answer:

1. Write content as per marks distribution.

2. Highlight the main points.

3. Write necessary content related to the point.

4. Draw neat and labelled diagrams wherever necessary.

ISA: In-Semester Examination- Paper Duration – 1 Hours

Sr. Course Outcomes Cognitive Levels of

2 Communicate effectively by using structure of English L1, L2, L3

4 Enhance professional and technical writing skills L1, L2, L3

5 Understand and apply the communication patterns in L1, L2, L3

Detailed Syllabus (Total No. of Hours: 30):

1.1 Concept and Meaning: Etymology, Definition and Process of

2 Word Formation 05 L1, L2, L3

2.1 Concept of Word Formation: Reduplicating; Clipping

3 Basic Language Skills 08 L1, L2

4 Written Communication 05 L1, L2, L3

6 Oral Communication 02 L1, L2, L3

Suggested List of Practical/ Experiments:

Practical Type of Practical/ Experiment Topic Hrs. RBT

4 Public Speaking (Practice 3) 2 L1, L2, L3

5 Activities based on Basic Language 2 L1, L2, L3

7 Reading 2 L1, L2, L3

8 Speaking 2 L1, L2, L3

9 Listening 2 L1, L2, L3

10 Practice Sessions in Language Lab 2 L1, L2, L3

13 Watching Videos on Oratory 2 L1, L2, L3

14 Editing 2 L1, L2, L3

15 Proofreading 2 L1, L2, L3

Books and References:

Sr. Name of the Book Name of the Publisher Edition Year of

1 Practical English Michael Swan OUP 4th Edition 1995

2 Remedial English F.T. Wood Macmillan 2014 Edition 2007

3 On Writing Well William Zinsser Harper 25th 2001

4 Study Writing Liz Hamp- Cambridg 2nd Edition 2006

6 Exercises in CIEFL University 1997 Edition 1997

Sr. No. Name of Module Page No.

5 Professional Writing Skills 219-253

6 Oral Communication 253-274

1.1.2 Syllabus: Communication Theory

1.1.3 Weightage: 10 Marks

1.1.4 Learning Objective

1.1.5 Theoretical Background

1.1.8 Key Definitions

1.1.9 Introduction: Communication

a. Strong Business Relationships & Enhanced Professional Image

1.1.10 Cycle of Communication/ Process of Communication/ Elements (Components) of

Encodes Modes Decodes

I. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

3. Words count only 7% in our communication, according to

4. Medium and channel are

Learning from Communication cycle, Process of Communication (Components of