Natural Convection Heat Transfer in

Electronic Equipment
 Introduction
• Natural or free convection occurs due to the
change in density of the fluid caused by
heating process in a gravity field
• The natural convection is the most common
method used in electronics cooling; there is a
large class of equipment that lends itself to
natural convection .
• The general equation to define the convective
heat transfer either forced or free is given by
the Newton's law of cooling:
q  hA(Ts  T )
 The convection heat transfer
coefficient (h)
• h is expressed by the dimensionless
Nusselt number (Nu) which is related
to the dimensionless ratios Grashof
(Gr) and Prandtl (Pr) numbers or the
Rayleigh number (Ra) which is the
product of the last two dimensionless
groups. Nu  Nu (Gr , Pr) 
hL
k
g (TS  T ) L3 C
Gr  2
Pr 
v k
Empirical correlations for free
convection
• All the average free-convection heat-transfer coefficients for
external flow can be summarized in the following expression

 cGr Pr 
hL
Nu 
m

k
 c( Ra ) m
- The constants c, m are given in table 7.1 for the uniform surface
temperature case .The fluid properties are evaluated at mean film
temperature (Tf) where Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2.
- The characteristic length for different geometries is:
- vertical plate L = height
- Horizontal plate L = W/2 ,W = width
- Spheres L =D
- Horizontal tube L =D
- Vertical tube
- If: D 35

L 4 GrL
L = length (L)
- If not.
L=D
Free convection over vertical
plates and cylinders
TS

Turbulent flow

Laminar flow

x T
Free convection over vertical
plates and cylinders
• For uniform surface temperature (TS =
constant)
- For wide ranges of the Rayleigh number
For 10-1 < RaL<102
0.387 Ra 1L/ 6
Nu L  0.825 
1  0.492 / Pr  9 / 16 8 / 27

For RaL<109
0.67 Ra 1 / 4
Nu L  0.68 
1  0.492 / Pr 
9 / 16 4 / 9

- Fluid properties for both equation are evaluated at

mean film temperature
Free convection over vertical
plates and cylinders
• For uniform surface heat flux (q’’ = constant)
If the plate surface has a constant heat flux .The Grashof
number is modified as Gr* based on x-direction.
g q // 4
x
Grx*  Grx Nu x 
k v2
The local heat transfer coefficients given as follow
hx
Nu x   0.6(Grx* Pr)1/ 5 105  Grx*  1011
k
hx
Nu x   0.17(Grx* Pr)1/ 4 2 1013  Grx* Pr  1016
k
-Fluid properties for both equation are evaluated at local
film temperature
Free convection over vertical
plates and cylinders
• To get the average heat transfer coefficient
for the constant heat flux integration along
the plate height is performed.
x
1
h   h x dx
L0
• Applying this integration we get the average
heat transfer coefficient in the form
5
h  hx L
4
 Free convection from horizontal
cylinder
• For flow over a horizontal cylinder with
uniform surface temperature for a wide
ranges of Ra the following expressions may
be applied
 
1/ 6
1/ 2
 Gr Pr 
Nu  0.6  0.387 10 5  Gr Pr  1012

 1  (0.559 / Pr) 9 / 16  
D
16 / 9
 
-Where fluid properties are evaluated at mean film
temperature.
• For horizontal cylinder with liquid metals the
following equation may be applied

Nu D  0.53 Gr Pr 
2 1/ 4
 Free convection over horizontal
plates
• For uniform surface temperature (TS =
constant)
- We have many cases for horizontal plates with
constant surface temperature as shown in
Figure T < T

T
S
T
T < T  S

S 

•(a) Lower surface of heated plates

TS
T

•(b) Upper surface of heated plates (a) (b)

•(c) Lower surface of cooled plates T > TS

TS
T
T > TS

•(d) Upper surface of cooled plates T

TS

(d)
(c)
Free convection over horizontal
plates with uniform surface
temperature
• For lower surface of heated plates or
upper surface of cooled plates
Nu L  0.27(GrL Pr) 1 / 4 10 5  GrL Pr  1011
• For upper surface of heated plates or
Lower surface of cooled plates
Nu L  0.54(GrL Pr) 1 / 4 2 x10 4  GrL Pr  8x10 6
Nu L  0.15(GrL Pr) 1 / 3 8x10 6  GrL Pr  1011
- Where fluid properties are evaluated at
mean film temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2
Free convection over horizontal
plates with uniform surface
temperature
• For hot surface facing upward (Upper surface of
heated plate)
Nu L  0.13(GrL Pr)1 / 3 GrL Pr  2 x10 8
Nu L  0.16(GrL Pr)1 / 3 2 x10 8  GrL Pr  1011
• For hot surface facing downward (Lower surface of
heated plates)
Nu L  0.58(GrL Pr)1 / 3 10 6  GrL Pr  1011

- For the above equations the fluid properties are evaluated at

the equivalent temperature (Te) which is defined as
Te = Ts – 0.25 (Ts - T∞)
Where:
T = the average surface temperature
Free convection over irregular
surfaces
• For Irregular surfaces the average heat
transfer coefficient is given by
Nu  0.52(Gr Pr) 0.25
W/2
•Where fluid properties are
evaluated at mean film W
temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2
•And the characteristic length is H
H
the distance a fluid particle
travels in the boundary layer.
For example such as shown in
Figure.
Free convection over spheres

• When the flow occurs on sphere the

recommended correlation is
0.589(GrD Pr)1 / 4
Nu D  2 
[1  (0.469 / Pr) 9 / 16 ] 4 / 9
- for RaD<1011 and Pr >0.5
- Where fluid properties are evaluated at
mean film temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2
 Example
• Air flow across an electronic box used in a
spacecraft that is 0.2 m high and 0.3 m wide to
maintain the outer box surface at 45 oC. If the
box is not insulated and exposed to air at 25 oC.
Calculate is the heat loss from the duct per unit
length. TS

• Schematic
W
H
Solution
• The properties of air evaluated at mean film temperature: Tf = (45+25)/2 = 35 oC
- Air properties are:
- ν =16.7x10-6 m2/s.
- k = 0.0269W/m. oC
- Pr= 0.706
- β = 1/308 = 3.247 x10-3 K-1
• For the two vertical sides:
 the characteristic length is the height H = 0.2 m
 The Gr Pr product is

9.81x3.247 x10 3 x20(0.2) 3

Gr Pr  -6 2
0.706  12.9 x10 6
(16.7 x10 )
• For the top surface (Upper surface of heated plates):
 The characteristic length is half the width W/2 = 0.15 m
 The Gr Pr product is

9.81x3.247 x10 3 x20(0.15) 3

Gr Pr  0.706  5.443 x10 6

(16.7 x10 -6 ) 2
• For the bottom (Lower surface of heated plates):
 The characteristic length half the width W/2 = 0.15 m
 same Gr Pr product as previous
• For the two vertical sides:
- using the equation 7.7
0.67(12.9 x10 6 )1 / 4
Nu S  0.68   31.47
1  0.492 / 0.706 
9 / 16 4 / 9

- The average heat transfer coefficient is

Nu S k 31.47 x0.0269
hS    4.234 W / m 2 . C
L 0.2
• For the top surface
- using the Equation 7.18: upper surface of heated plate case
Nu t  0.15(5.443x10 6 ) 1 / 3  26.38

- The average heat transfer coefficient is

Nu t k 26.38 x0.0269
ht    4.732 W / m 2 . C
L 0.15

• For the bottom

- using the Equation 7.13 lower surface of heated plate case
Nu b  0.27(5.443x10 6 ) 1 / 4  13.04

- The average heat transfer coefficient is

Nu b k 13.04 x0.0269
hb    2.34 W / m 2 . C
L 0.15
 Solution
• The heat loss from the electronic box per
unit length is
q' = (TS -T∞) [2 hs H + ht w + hb w]
= (45 - 25) [2 x 4.234 x 0.2 + 4.732 x 0.3
+ 2.34 x 0.3] = 76.3 W/m
 Natural convection from finned
surfaces
• The amount of heat that can be removed from an electronic
component that is cooled by natural convection will be
substantially increased if the surface area of the component
can be substantially increased. One convenient method for
increasing the surface area is to add fins as shown in Figure,
with a low thermal resistance, the temperature of the fins will
then be nearly equal to the surface temperature of the
electronic component. The additional heat transfer to the
atmosphere will be proportional to the increase in the surface
area.
• Fins will increase the size and weight of the electronic
component. This may be a small penalty to pay if the cost is
reduced and the reliability is increased by eliminating the need
for a cooling fan.
Natural convection from finned
surfaces
• The effectiveness of the finned surface will depend upon the
temperature gradient along the fin as it extends from the
surface of the electronic component. When the fin has a small
temperature gradient, the temperature at the tip of the fin will
be nearly equal to the temperature at the base of the fin or the
chassis surface, and the fin will have a high efficiency. The
natural convection coefficient must be corrected to give the
effective heat transfer coefficient (heff) due to fins
- And the effective heat transfer coefficient is:
heff   h
- Then the total heat transfer divided into two components
due to the heat transferred from the free exposed surface of
the electronic component, and the heat transferred from fins
surface. q  q q
tot. s f

 hA(Ts  T )  heff A fin (Ts  T )

 Natural convection inside
enclosure
• Consider the system shown in Figure,
T1 T2

q
L

• Where Grδ is calculated as:

g  T 3
Gr 
v2
 Natural convection inside
enclosure
• At very low Grashof number the heat transfer occurs
mainly by conduction across the fluid layer. As the Grashof
number is increased, different flow regimes are
encountered, as shown, with a progressively increasing
heat transfer as expressed through the Nusselt number
h
Nu 
k
 Natural convection inside
enclosure
The empirical correlations obtained were:
0.3
L
Nu  0.42 (Gr Pr)1/ 4 Pr 0.012  qW  const
 
10 4  Gr Pr  107
1  Pr  20000
10  L /   40
Nu  0.46 (Gr Pr)1/ 3 qW  const
106  Gr Pr  109
1  Pr  20
1  L /   40
8. Forced convection heat
transfer
Introduction
• Convection is the energy transfer between the
surface and fluid due to temperature difference, this
energy transfer may be performed by either forced
(external, internal flow) or natural convection.

• Heat transfer by forced convection generally makes

use of a fan, blower, or pump to provide high-
velocity fluid (gas or liquid). The high velocity fluid
results in a decreased thermal resistance across the
boundary layer from the fluid to the heated surface.
This, in turn, increases the amount of heat that is
carried away by the fluid.
Boundary layer over a flat plate
U T

Boundary layer edge


y

x
Laminar Transition Turbulent

Flow of a fluid over a flat plate with laminar, transition,

and turbulent boundary layers.
 Laminar boundary layer equations
over a flat plate (Rex ≤ 5x105)
The assumptions made to give the simplicity on analysis are
1- Steady flow.
2- Two-dimensional incompressible viscous flow.
3- No pressure variation in the y direction.
4- No shear force in the y direction.
5- Neglect body force due to gravity.
All the basic differential equations can be derived by considering
an element control volume inside the laminar region as shown in Figure.
v
y+ y
y

u u
x x+ x

v
y

Element control volume on laminar region

 Continuity equation
{Rate of mass accumulation within control volume}+
{Net rate of mass flux out of control volume}= 0
Rate of mass accumulation within control volume =  ( xy )
t
= 0 (steady state)
Net rate of mass flux in x- direction per unit depth = ( ρ u]x+Δ x – ρ u]x )Δy
(  u)
= yx
x
Net rate of mass flux in y- direction per unit depth = ( ρ v]y+Δ y – ρ v]y )Δx
(  )
= xy
x
Continuity equation
Substitute in continuity equation expression it produce
(  u)  (  )
xy  xy  0
x y
 (  u )  (  )
 0
x y
 (u )  ( )
 0
x y
 Momentum equation
By applying Newton's 2nd low on the same element control volume
Net rate of linear
Time rate of change Net rate of linear momentum flux out
of linear + momentum flux out = of the control
momentum within of the control volume summation
the control volume volume of external force
acting in the control
volume
For x-direction:

Time rate of change of linear momentum within the control volume= (  uxy )
t
=0
 Momentum equation
Net rate of linear momentum out of the control unit
= (ρuu]x+Δx – ρuu]x)Δy + (ρvu]y+Δy – ρvu]y)Δx
(  uu ) (  u )
= xy  xy
x y
External forces divided into:
P
-Pressure force =  xy
x
 2u
-Viscous force =  xy
y 2

Substituting in the Newton's 2nd low equation it yeilds

(  u ) (u ) (  ) (u ) P  2u
u  u u    +  2
x x y y x y
Momentum equation
From continuity equation we have:
 (  u ) (  )
 0
x y

Then the momentum equation for laminar boundary layer is

(u ) (u )  2u P
u     2 
x y y x
Energy equation
For the shown element control volume as in Figure
-(k x)[(T/y)+ /y(T/y)y]
 cp[v+(v/y)y][T+ (T/y)y]x

y
 cp[u+(u/x)x][T+(T/x)x]y
 u cpTy

x

-(k x)T/y  v cpTx

x
Element control volume for energy
balance
 Energy equation
with neglecting heat conduction in x-direction and applying energy balance,
the energy equation may be written as follows

Energy convected in left face + Energy convected in bottom face +

heat conduction in bottom face + net viscous work done on element
= energy convected out right face + energy convected out top face +
heat conduction out top face

The net viscous energy delivered to the element control volume

2
 u 
   xy
y 
 Energy equation
By applying energy balance on the element control volume shown in Figure
neglecting the second order differentials yields
 T  u  
2
T  2T  u 
 c p u   T    xy  k xy     xy
 x y   x  y  y y 
2

From continuity Equation the energy equation can be written as follow

2
 T T   T 2
 u 
 c p u    k    
 x y y y 
2

Dividing by ρCp
2
T T  T 2
  u 
u     
x y y 2
c p   y 
Energy equation
At u ≈ u∞ and y≈δ
 2T T
 2 ≈  2
y 
2
  u  ≈  u 2
 
cp   y  cp  2
Now if the ratio between Equations
 u2 u 2
 Pr 1
 c p T c pT
Then we can neglect this term compared to other terms
and we can write the energy equation in this simple form.
T T  2T
u  
x y y2
 Energy equation
We may be solve the continuity and momentum equations to get
u and v Then the energy equation can be solved which depending
on calculated results.
The solution of continuity and momentum equations can be solved by
Blausis exact (analytic) solution.
Then solving the energy equation finally reach to:

The local Nusselt number

hx x
Nu x   0.332 Re1x/ 2 Pr 1 / 3
k
 Cooling air fans for electronic
equipment

Axial flow fan blowing cooling Axial flow fan drawing cooling
air through a box air through a box
• Higher internal air pressure within the • Lower internal air pressure within the
box, which will help to keep dust and dirt box. If the box is located in a dusty or
out of a box that is not well sealed. dirty area, the dust and dirt will be pulled
into the box through all of the small air
• A blowing system will also produce
gaps if the box is not sealed.
slightly more turbulence, which will
improve the heat transfer characteristics • In an exhaust system, the cooling air
within the box. passes through an axial flow fan as the
air exits from the box, as shown in
•When an axial flow fan is used in a
Figure 8.8. The cooling air entering the
blowing system, the air may be forced to
electronic box is therefore cooler
pass over the hot fan motor, which will
tend to heat the air as it enters the
electronic box, as shown in Figure
 Static pressure and velocity
pressure
Static pressure is the pressure that is exerted on the walls of the
container or electronic box, even when there is no flow of air;
it is independent of the air velocity.
Static pressure can be positive or negative, depending upon whether
it is greater or less than the outside ambient pressure.
Velocity pressure is the pressure that forces the air to move
through the electronic box at a certain velocity.
The velocity pressure depends upon the velocity of the air and
always acts in the direction of the airflow.
The velocity head (H v) can be related to the air flow velocity as follow
V  2 gH v
V  1277 H v (cm water )  cm / sec .
The total head will be the sum of the velocity head and the static head as follow
Ht  Hv  Hs
Static pressure and velocity
pressure
A pressurized electronic box
with no air flow

pressure head characteristics

when the fan blows air
through an electronic box

pressure head characteristics

when the fan draws air
through an electronic box
 Fan Performance Curves
• Once the box flow impedance
• The flow resistance curve can
curve has been developed, it is
be generated by considering
necessary to examine different
the various flow resistances
fan performance curves to see
the airflow will encounter as
how well the fans will match the
it flows through the box.
box.
• A typical impedance curve
• A typical fan performance curve
for an electronic box is
is shown in Figure
shown in Figure
Fan Performance Curves
• If the impedance curve for the box is superimposed
on the impedance curve for the fan, they will
intersect. The point of intersection represents the
actual operating point for the system, as shown in
Figure
Typical example with design steps for
fan-cooled electronic box systems

• The system shown in Figure must

be capable of continuous
operation in a 55°C ambient at
sea level condition. The maximum
allowable hot spot component
surface temperature is limited to
100°C. The system contains seven
PCBs, each dissipating 20 watts,
for a total power dissipation of
140 watts. This does not include
fan power dissipation.
• The flow area at the partitions
designed on the drawing are Also
shown .
• Contraction and transition to
rectangular section a rectangle 8
x 125 mm2
• Plenum entrance to a PCB duct
rectangle each 1.5 x 155 mm2
• PCB channel duct are rectangle
each 2.5 x 230 mm2
 Design procedures
• Two fans are available for cooling the box: Fan A is
three phase 15500 rpm that has a 25 Watts motor.
Fan B is single phase, with an 18 Watts motor that
operates at 11000 rpm at sea level
• The box must be examined in two phases to ensure
the integrity of the complete design. In phase 1, the
thermal design of the box is examined, with the
proposed fan, to make sure the component hot spot
temperature of 100°C (212°F) is not exceeded. In
phase 2, the electronic chassis airflow impedance
curve is developed and matched with several fans, to
make sure there is sufficient cooling air available for
the system.
Phase 1: Electronic Box Thermal
Design
• To be on the safe side, base the calculation on the
use of larger, 25 W motor, Fan A. The total energy to
be dissipated would then be
q  140  25  165 W
• Air required for cooling is
 q
m 
c p (t a ,o  t a ,i )
• Past experience with air-cooled electronic systems
has shown that satisfactory thermal performance can
be obtained if the cooling air exit temperature from
the electronic chassis does not exceed 70 °C,
Phase 1: Electronic Box Thermal
Design
• From the air property table at mean
temperature tm= (70+55)/2 = 62.5 °C
- ρ = 1.052 kg/m3
- ν = 19.23 x10-6 m2/s
- Pr = 0.7
- Cp = 1008 J/kg.k
- K = 0.0289 W/m..k

• Then the required airflow rate for

cooling is
 165
m   0.01091 kg/s
1008(70  55)
Phase 1: Electronic Box Thermal
Design
• Calculating the Reynolds' number in order to
calculate the heat transfer coefficient between the air
and PCB's and, hence, the temperature rise of the
PCB's above ambient temperature.
VDH
Re 
v
4 A 4 x 9 x0.1
 DH    0.197 in  0.005 m
P 2(9  0.1)
m 0.01091
andV    2.55 m / s
 A 1.052 (7 x9 x0.1) x(0.0254) 2

2.55 x 0.005
 Re  -6
 663
19.23 x10
Phase 1: Electronic Box Thermal
Design
• The heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow through
ducts can be calculated by the following relation
1/ 3
h DH  Re Pr 
 Nu D  1.86 

k  L / D H 
1/ 3
 663 x0.7 x0.005 
 1.86   4.19
 8 x 0.0254 
h  24.2 W/m2.k
• The total heat transfer is
q  h S eff t h
Phase 1: Electronic Box Thermal
Design
• Actually, the back surface of a PCB is not available
for heat transfer; the practice is to assume 30
percent only available for this purpose, hence the
effective surface area is
Seff  7 x1.3 x8 x 9 (0.0254) 2  0.423 m 2
 t h  165 / 24.2 x0.423  16.1 o c

• Therefore, maximum component surface temperature

is
t max = t a,o + ∆t h = 70 + 16.1 = 86.1 oC
• This is acceptable surface temperature since it is less
than 100 °C
Phase 2: Electronic chassis air
flow impedance curve
• The air flow conditions are
examined at six different
points in the chaises, where
the maximum static pressure Position
Hs / H v
losses are expected to occur, number
as shown in Figure 8.16. These
static pressure losses are 1 1
itemized as follow: 2 0.9
1. Air inlet to fan 3 0.4
2. 90o turn and transition to an
oval section 4 2
3. Concentration and transition
to a rectangular section 5 1
4. Plenum entrance to PCB duct
5. Flow through PCB channel 6 1
duct
6. Exhaust from PCB duct and
chaises
 Phase 2: Electronic chassis air
flow impedance curve
• The flow areas at each position are:
 
• Position 1: 4
A  1 d  d  
2
o
4

i0.048  0.028   1.194 10
2 2 2 3
m2

• Position 2: A  0.026  0.074   0.013  2.455 m

2
2 2

• Position 3: A  0.008  0.125  1 10 m

3
3 2

• Position 4: A  0.0015  0.155  7slots  1.628 10 m

4
3 2

• Position 5: A  0.0025  0.23  7  4.025 10 m

5
3 2

• Position 6: A  A  4.025 10 m

5 6
3 2
Phase 2: Electronic chassis air
flow impedance curve
• The following table gives Position V (cm/s.) H v(cm H2O)
velocity, velocity heads at
each position at 10 cfm 1 400 0.098
(0.00472 m3/s)
• Performing the test under 2 376 0.087
different cfm air flow: let the
flow rate also at 20 cfm, and
3 488 0.146
30 cfm
• The losses for each another 4 290 0.0516
flow calculated from

 Hs  V 5 116 0.0082
H     H v 10cfm 
 Hv  10 6 116 0.0082
 Phase 2: Electronic chassis air
flow impedance curve
• The following Table gives the static pressure loss in (cm H2O) at
10 cfm, 20 cfm, and 30 cfm

Position 10 cfm 20 cfm 30 cfm

1 0.098 0.392 0.882
2 0.086 0.345 0.777
3 0.0729 0.292 0.657
4 0.103 0.411 0.927
5 0.0082 0.0325 0.0731
6 0.0082 0.0325 0.0731
Total 0.3761 1.5 3.3892
 Phase 2: Electronic chassis air
flow impedance curve
• Then drawing the
chassis air flow
impedance curve at
different fan curves as
shown
• The minimum flow rate
required for this system
is
 m
0.01091
V    0.01 m 3 / s  10370.7 cm 3 / s
 1.052
Phase 2: Electronic chassis air
flow impedance curve
• From the impedance curve it shows:
- The flow rate supplied by fans A is
V   30cfm  14157 cm 3 / s

- The flow rate supplied by fans B is

V   23cfm  10854 cm 3 / s

• So that both fans A and B can supply more

than the minimum required flow rate, either
fan will be acceptable
9. Forced Convection heat
transfer (cont.)
Forced convection correlations
• Flow over flat plate
• With a fluid flowing parallel to a flat plate
we have several cases arise:
- Flows with or without pressure gradient
- Laminar or turbulent boundary layer
- Negligible or significant viscous dissipation
(effect of frictional heating)
• Flow over cylinders, spheres, and other
geometries
• Heat transfer across tube banks
• Heat transfer with jet impingement
• Internal Flows (inside tubes or ducts)
 Flows with zero pressure gradient
and negligible viscous dissipation

• The boundary layer becomes turbulent if the Reynolds number, Re X,

is greater than the critical Reynolds number, Re cr. A typical value of
5 x105 for the critical Reynolds number is generally accepted.

• The viscous dissipation and high-speed effects can be neglected if

Pr1/2 Ec<1.

• The Eckert number Ec is defined as Ec =u2∞/Cp(TS-T∞) With a

rectangular plate of length L in the direction of the fluid flow.
 Laminar boundary layer ( Rex ≤ 5x105
)

Flow with uniform surface temperature (TS =constant)

Local heat transfer coefficient

The Nusselt number based on the local convective heat transfer coefficient is
expressed as
Nu X  f Pr Re1/X 2
The expression of ƒPr depend on the fluid Prandtl number

 0.564 Pr1/ 2 Pr  0.05


f Pr   0.332 Pr1/ 3 0.6  Pr  50
0.339 Pr1/ 3 , very large Pr

 Laminar boundary layer ( Rex ≤ 5x105
)

For all Prandtl numbers Correlations valid developed by Churchill (1976) and Rose
(1979) are given below.

0.3387 Re 1x/ 2 Pr 1 / 3
Nu x  1/ 4
  0.0468  2/3

1    
  Pr  

Average heat transfer coefficient.

The average heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated by performing
integration along the flat plate length, if Prandtl number is assumed
constant along the plate, the integration yields e following result:

Nu x  2 Nu x
 Laminar boundary layer ( Rex ≤ 5x105 )

Flow with uniform heat flux (q// = constant).

Local heat transfer coefficient

Churchill and Ozoe (1973) recommend the following single
correlation for all Prandtl numbers

0.886 Re 1X/ 2 Pr 1 / 2
Nu X  1/ 4
  Pr  2 / 3 
1    
  0.0207  
Turbulent boundary layer ( Rex> 5x105 )

Local heat transfer coefficient

Recr< Rex ≤107 Nu x  0.0296 Re 4x / 5 Pr 1 / 3

Rex >107 Nu x  1.596 Re x (ln Re x ) 2.584 Pr 1 / 3

Average heat transfer coefficient.

Recr< Rex ≤107 Nu x  (0.037 Re 4x / 5  871) Pr 1 / 3

Rex >107 Nu x  [1.963 Re x (ln Re x ) 2.584  871] Pr 1 / 3

 Unheated starting length,
Uniform Surface Temperature & Pr > 0.6:
• If the plate is not heated or (cooled) from the leading
edge where the boundary layer develops from the
leading edge until being heated at x = xo as shown in
figure, the correlations have to be modified
Leading edge 

T

xo
x
 Unheated starting length,
Uniform Surface Temperature & Pr > 0.6:
Local heat transfer coefficient:
 0.332 Re1/x 2 Pr1/ 3
 Re x  Recr
3/ 4 1/ 3
   o 
x
 1    
   x  
Nu x   4/5 3/ 5
 0.0296 Re x Pr Re x  Recr
  9 /10 1/ 9

 1   xo  
   x  
  
Average heat transfer coefficient over the Length (L – xo)
Laminar flow (ReL < Recr)
2/3
 k   x  3/ 4

h L  xo   0.664 Re 1L/ 2 Pr 1 / 3 1   o  
 L  xo    L  
 hx L   x o  
3/ 4

 2  1   
 1  ( x o / L )   L  
 Unheated starting length,
Uniform Surface Temperature & Pr > 0.6:
Average heat transfer coefficient over the Length (L – xo)

Turbulent flow (ReL > Recr)

8/9
  xo  
9 / 10

0.037 Re L Pr 1    
4/5 3/5
k
  L  
h L  xo 
L  xo
9 / 10
x 
1  o 
 1.25  L
hx  L
x 
1  o 
 L
Evaluate hx=L from local heat transfer equation for the appropriate case.
Example
Experimental results obtained for heat transfer over a flat plate with
zero pressure gradients yields

Nu x  0.04 Re 0x.9 Pr 1 / 3
Where this correlation is based on x (the distance measured from the
leading edge)
Calculate the ratio of the average heat transfer coefficient to the local
heat transfer coefficient.
Schematic:

x
Solution
Properties of the air evaluated at the film temperature
Tf = 75/2 = 37.5 oC
From air properties table at 37.5 oC:
ν = 16.95 x 10-6 m2/s.
k = 0.027 W/m. oC
Pr= 0.7055
Cp= 1007.4 J/kg. oC
Note: These properties are evaluated at atmospheric pressure, thus we must
perform correction for the kinematic viscosity
ν)act. = ν)atm.x (1.0135/0.06) = 2.863 x10-4 m2/s.

Viscous effect check:

Ec =u2∞/Cp(TS-T∞) = (10)2/(1007.4x15) = 6.6177x10-3
It produce Pr1/2 Ec<1 so that we may neglect the viscous effect

Reynolds number check:

ReL = u∞ L / ν = 10 x 0.5 / (2.863 x10-4) = 17464.2
The flow is Laminar because ReL ≤5x105
Solution
Using the equations:

Nu X  f Pr Re1/X 2
f Pr  0.332 Pr1/ 3 , 0.6  Pr  50
Nu x  2 Nu x
 Nu L  0.664Re1/L 2 Pr1/ 3
= 0.664 (17464.2)1/2(0.7055)1/3
= 78.12
Now the average heat transfer coefficient is
hL
Nu L 
h k
h = 78.12x 0.027 /0.5 = 4.22 W/m2. oC
Then the total heat transfer per unit width equal
q = L (TS -T∞) = 4.22 × 0.5 (45 – 30) = 31.64 W/m
 Example

Water at 25 oC is in parallel flow over an isothermal, 1m

long flat plate with velocity of 2 m/s. Calculate the value of
average heat transfer coefficient
Schematic:
u  =2 m/s
T=25 oC

L=1 m
Solution
Assumptions
-neglect the viscous effect
-The properties of water are evaluated at free stream
temperature
From water properties table at 25 oC:
ν =8.57x10-7 m/s.
k = 0.613W/m. oC
Pr= 5.83
Cp= 4180 J/kg. oC

Reynolds number check:

ReL = u∞ L / ν = 2 x 1 /(8.57x10-7) = 2.33x106
The flow is mixed because ReL ≥5x105
 Solution
By using the Equation 9.7
Nu x  (0.037 Re 4x / 5  871) Pr 1 / 3
 [0.037 x(2.33x10 6 ) 4 / 5  871](5.83) 1 / 3
 6704.78
hLL

k
The average heat transfer coefficient is
hL  4110 W/m2  K
 Flow over cylinders, spheres, and
other Geometries
The flow over cylinders and spheres is of equal importance to the flow over
flat plate, they are more complex due to boundary layer effect along the
surface where the free stream velocity u ∞ brought to the rest at the forward
stagnation point (u =0 and maximum pressure) the pressure decrease with
increasing x is a favorable pressure gradient (dp/dx<0) bring the pressure
to minimum, then the pressure begin to increase with increasing x by
adverse pressure gradient (dp/dx>0) on the rear of the cylinder. In general,
the flow over cylinders and spheres may have a laminar boundary layer
followed by a turbulent boundary layer.
separation
separation u  ,T ,P
u  ,T ,P

narrow wakes

wide wakes

stagnation point
stagnation point
(a) (b)
 Cylinders
The empirical relation represented by Hilpert given below is widely used,
where the constants c, m are given in Table 9.1, all properties are evaluated
at film temperature Tf

Nu D  c Re mD Pr 1 / 3

Constants of c and m at different Reynolds numbers

ReD c m
0.4-4 0.989 0.33
4-40 0.911 0.385
40-4000 0.683 0.466
4000-40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000-400,000 0.027 0.805
 Cylinders
Other correlation has been suggested for circular cylinder. The correlation
given below is represented by Zhukauskas (Equation 9.14), where the
constants c ,m are given in Table 9.2 , all properties are evaluated at Free
stream temperature T∞, except PrS which is evaluated at TS which is used
in limited Prandtl number 0.7 < Pr < 500
1/ 4
n  Pr 
If Pr ≤ 10, n= 0.37 Nu D  c Re D Pr 
m

If Pr > 10, n= 0.36  Pr S 

Constants of c and m at different Reynolds numbers

ReD c m
1-40 0.75 0.4
40-1000 0.51 0.5
1000-2 x105 0.26 0.6
2 x105-106 0.076 0.7
 Cylinders
For entire ranges of ReD as well as the wide ranges of Prandtl numbers, the
following correlations proposed by Churchill and Bernstein (1977): ReD Pr > 0.2.
Evaluate properties at film temperature Tf:

Re > 400, 000

4/5
0.62 Re 1/ 2
Pr 1/ 3   Re D  5/8

Nu D  0.3  D
1    
  
1/ 4
  0.4  2/3
 282,000 
1    
  Pr  
10, 000< Re< 400, 000
0.62 Re 1D/ 2 Pr 1 / 3   Re D  
1/ 2

Nu D  0.3  1    
  0.4  2 / 3    282,000  
1 / 4

1    
  Pr  
 Cylinders
Re < 10, 000
0.62 Re 1D/ 2 Pr 1 / 3
Nu D  0.3  1/ 4
  0.4  2/3

1    
  Pr  

For flow of liquid metals, use the following correlation suggested

by Ishiguro et al. (1979):

1 < Re d Pr < 100

Nu d  1.125(Re D Pr) 0.413

 Spheres
The following two correlations are explicitly used for flows over spheres
1. Whitaker (1972): all properties at T∞ except μs at Ts.
3 .5< Red < 76,000 0.71< Pr < 380 1< μ /μs <3.2
1/ 4
  

Nu D  2  0.4 Re 1/ 2
 0.06 Re 2/3
Pr 2/5
 
 S
D D

2. Achenbach (1978):all properties at film temperature:
100< Re d < 2 x105 Pr = 0.71


Nu D  2  0.25 Re D  3x10  4 Re 8D/ 5 1/ 2

4 x105< Re d < 5 x106 Pr = 0.71

Nu D  430  5 x10 3 Re D  0.25 x10 9 Re 2D  3.1x10 17 Re 3D

For Liquid Metals convective flow, experimental results for liquid
sodium, Witte (1968) proposed: 3.6 x104< Re d < 1.5 x105
Nu D  2  0.386(Re D Pr) 1 / 2
 Other geometries
For geometries other than cylinders and spheres, use the following
equation (Equation 9.24) with the characteristic dimensions and values
of the constants given in the Table 9.3 for different geometries, all
properties are evaluated at film temperature T f

Nu D  c Re mD Pr 1 / 3

The above equation is based on experimental data done for gases.

Its use can be extended to fluids with moderate Prandtl numbers by multiplying
it by 1.11
 Other geometries
Constants for Equation 9.24 for non circular cylinders external flow

Geometry ReD C m

u
D
5×103-105 0.102 0.675

u
D
5×103-105 0.246 0.588

u
D
5×103-105 0.153 0.638

u
D 5×103- 0.16 0.638
1.95×104 0.0385 0.782
1.95×104-105
u
D
4×103-1.5×104 0.228 0.731
 Example
Atmospheric air at 25 oC flowing at velocity of 15 m/s. over the
following surfaces, each at 75 oC. Calculate the rate of heat transfer
per unit length for each arrangement.
a)A circular cylinder of 20 mm diameter ,
b)A square cylinder of 20 mm length on a side
c)A vertical plate of 20 mm height
Schematic: u
u u

(a) (b) (c)

 Solution
From the film temperature
Tf = (25+75)/2 = 50 oC
Air properties are:
ν =1.8x10-5 m/s.
k = 0.028W/m. oC
Pr= 0.70378

Calculation of Reynolds number for all cases have the same

characteristic length = 20 mm
ReD = u∞ L / ν = 15 x 0.02 / 1.8x10-5 = 16666.667
By using Equation 9.13 for all cases
Nu D  c Re mD Pr 1 / 3
 Solution
Case (a) a circular cylinder
From table 9.1
C = 0.193 and m= 0.618

Nu D  0.193(16666.667) 0.618 (0.70378)1 / 3

 69.79
The average heat transfer coefficient is

Nu D k 69.79 x0.028
hD    97.7 W/m2 . o C
D 0.02

The total heat transfer per unit length is

q/ = 97.7 (π x 0.02)50 = 306.9 W/m
 Solution

Case (b) square cylinder

From table 9.3
C = 0.102 and m= 0.675

Nu D  0.102(16666.667) 0.675 (0.70378)1 / 3

 64.19
The average heat transfer coefficient is

Nu D k 64.19 x0.028
hD    89.87 W/m2 . o C
D 0.02
The total heat transfer per unit length is
q/ = 89.87 (4 x 0.02)50 = 359.48 W/m
 Solution
Case (c) vertical plate
From table 9.3
C = 0.228 and m= 0.731
Nu D  0.228(16666.667) 0.731 (0.70378)1 / 3
 247.316
The average heat transfer coefficient is
Nu D k 247.316 x0.028
hD    346.24 W/m2 . o C
D 0.02

The total heat transfer per unit length is

q/ = 346.24 x (2 x 0.02) x 50 = 692.48 W/m
 Heat transfer across tube banks
Heat transfer through a bank (or bundle) of tubes has several applications in
industry as heat exchanger which can be used in many applications.
When tube banks are used in heat exchangers, two arrangements of the
tubes are considered aligned and staggered as shown in Figure 3.
If the spacing between the tubes is very much greater than the diameter of
the tubes, correlations for single tubes can be used. Correlations for flow
over tube banks when the spacing between tubes in a row and a column are
not much greater than the diameter of the tubes have been developed for
use in heat-exchanger applications will be discussed as follows.
NL S SL

D
SL

T , u  ST
NT T , u 
ST

row 1 row 2 row 3 row 4

row 1 row 2 row 3 row 4
(a) (b)

Figure 9.3 arrangements of the tubes (a) In-line arrangement, (b) staggered arrangement
 Heat transfer across tube banks

For the average convective heat transfer coefficient with tubes at uniform
surface temperature, experimental results carried by Zukauskas (1987)
recommended the following correlation:

Nu D  c(a / b) P Re mD Pr n (Pr/ Prs ) 0.25

a = ST /D; b = SL /D.
ST = Transverse pitch; SL = Lateral pitch
D = tube diameter
All properties are evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the inlet and exit temperatures of
the fluid (T∞i + T∞o)/2, except PrS which is evaluated at the surface temperature TS. The
values of the constants c, p, m, and n are given in Table 9.4 for in-line arrangement and
 Heat transfer across tube banks
in Table 9.5 for staggered arrangement.
The maximum average velocity between tubes is used to calculate ReD. The
maximum velocity can be calculated as follows:
For in-line arrangement:
 ST 
u max  u   
 ST  D 
For Staggered arrangement:
If S D If not
SD  T

2 0.5 S T
 u max  u
 u max 
ST
u S D  D 
ST  D
Where 1/ 2
 2  ST  2 
S D  S L    
  2  
 Heat transfer across tube banks
In-Line arrangement values of constants in Equation (9.25) (p = 0 in all cases)
ReD C m n

1-100 0.9 0.4 0.36

100-1000 0.52 0.5 0.36
1000-2x105 0.27 0.63 0.36
2x105-2x106 0.033 0.8 0.4

staggered arrangement values of constants in Equation (9.25)

ReD c P m n
1-500 1.04 0 0.4 0.36
500-1000 0.71 0 0.5 0.36
1000-2x105 0.35 0.2 0.6 0.36
2x105-2x106 0.031 0.2 0.8 0.36
 Heat transfer across tube banks
It is a common practice to compute the total heat transfer rate with the
assumption of uniform convective heat transfer coefficient. With such
an assumption of uniform convective heat transfer coefficient, uniform
surface temperature and constant specific heat, the heat transfer rate
to the fluid is related by the heat balance.

   To  Ti 
q  m C P (To  Ti )  hATS   
  2 
T∞i = inlet free stream temperature
T∞o= outlet free stream temperature
mo= out side tubes gaseous flow rate = ρ∞i(NTSTL)u∞
A = Total heat transfer area = NTNLπDL
NT = number of tubes in transverse direction
NL = number of tubes in lateral direction
L = length of tube per pass.
 Pressure drop across tube banks
Pressure drop is a significant factor, as it determines the power required to
move the fluid across bank. The pressure drop for flow gases over a bank
may be calculated with Equation9.27
0.14
2 f / G max
2
NT   S 
p   
   
Δp = pressure drop in pascals.
ƒ/ = friction factor is given by Jacob [18]
Gmax= mass velocity at minimum flow rate, kg/m 2.s
ρ = density evaluated at free stream conditions, kg/m 3
NT = number of transverse rows.
μS = fluid viscosity evaluated at surface temperature.
μ = average free stream viscosity.
For in-line: For staggered:
   
   
f /  0.044 
0.08 S  0.15 f  0.25 
/ 0.118  0.16
1.08 Re max
0.43 1.13 D / S L  Re max
L
  ST  D     ST  D  
  D      
   D

     D  
 Example
A heat exchanger with aligned tubes is used to heat 40 kg/sec of
atmospheric air from 10 to 50 °C with the tube surfaces maintained at 100
°C. Details of the heat exchanger are
Diameter of tubes 25 mm, Number of columns (NT) 20,Length of each tube
3 m and SL = ST = 75 mm
-Determine the number of rows (NL) required
Solution:
Properties of atmospheric air at average air temperature = (T ∞i + T∞o)/2 = 30 °C.
ρ = 1.151 kg/ m3
CP= 1007 J/ kg.k
K = 0.0265 W/ m.k
μ = 186x10-7 N.s/ m2
Pr = 0.7066
At surface temperature Ts=100 oC
Prs = 0.6954
At inlet free stream temperature T∞i =10 oC
ρ∞i = 1.24 kg/ m3
 Solution
To find u∞
m  = ρ∞i(NTSTL)u∞
40 = 1.24(20x0.075x3) u∞
u∞ = 7.168 m/s
For in-line arrangement:

 ST 
u max  u   
 ST  D 
= 7.168 x0.075 (0.075 - 0.025)
= 10.752 m/ s
Reynolds number based on maximum velocity
ReD = ρumaxD/μ = 1.151x10.752x0.025/(186x10-7 ) = 16633.8

From Table 9.4

p = 0, C = 0.27, m = 0.63, n = 0.36
 Solution
From Equation 9.25

Nu D = 0.27 (16633.8)0.63 (0.7066)0.36(0.7066/0.6954)0.25 = 109.15

= h D/ k

h = 109.15x0.0265/0.025 = 115.699 W/m2.k

From Equation9.26.The Total heat transfer is

   To  Ti 
q  m C P (To  Ti )  hATS   
  2 
40x1007 (50 -10) =115.699 A [100-30]
Total heat transfer area
A = 198.94 m2
Number of rows (NL)
A = NTNLπDL
198.94 = 20NL (π x 0.025 x 3)
NL = 43 rows
 Heat transfer with jet impingement
Cooling analysis:
Free single phase jet impingement cooling
is affected with many variables such as: d
-Jet diameter (d)
-Fluid velocity (v)
-Jet to heated surface distance (H )
-Size of heated surface area (L x L)
-Coolant properties
The average heat transfer coefficient
correlation is given by Jigi and Dagn
 L 
Nu L  3.84 Re 0.5
d Pr 0.33
 0.008  1
 d 
The properties are evaluated at mean film temperature (T S + T∞)/2
This correlation is experimented for FC-77 and water and also valid for 3< H/d <15
-3< H/d <15
-d = 0.508 to 1.016 mm
-v < 15 m/s
-small surface dimensions L<12.7 mm (microelectronic devices)
 Example
A single phase free jet impingement nozzle is placed in the center of an
electronic heated surface 12x12 mm2 and the heated surface is placed at 4
mm from the jet.
The working medium is FC-77 passing through 1mm tube diameter at a rate
of 0.015 kg/sec.
To cool the plate, if the supply coolant is at 25 oC and the heat load is 20 W
Determine the average heat transfer coefficient and the surface temperature
of the heated surface.
Solution:
To get the properties of the FC-77 we need to assume the surface temperature:
let the surface temperature equal 45 oC as a first approximation.
Tf = (45 + 25)/2 = 35 oC
From FC-77 property tables at 35 oC:
ρ = 1746 kg/m3 μ = 1.198x10-3 N.S/m2
k = 0.0623 W/m.k Pr= 20.3
We must check on H/d ratio:
H/d = 4/1
Solution
Calculation of Reynolds number
Re = ρvd / μ = 4m' / πdμ
= 4x0.015 / π ×1 × 10-3 × 1.198 × 10-3
= 15942
From equation 9.30
 L 
Nu L  3.84 Re 0d.5 Pr 0.33  0.008  1
 d 
= 3.84 (15942)0.5 (20.3)0.33(0.008x12/1 +1)
= 1435.12
And so the average heat transfer coefficient is:

hL
Nu l 
k
h = (1435.12x0.0623)/ (12x10-3)
= 7450.656 W/m2.k
q = h A ΔT
Then the temperature difference is: ΔT = 20/(7450.656 x12x12x10-6) = 18.64 K
Therefore the surface temperature is: TS = 43.64 oC. For more accuracy we may
make another trial at new film temperature and reach more accurate results.
 Internal Flows (inside tubes or ducts)
The heat transfer to (or from) a fluid flowing inside a tube or duct used in
modern instruments and equipments such as laser coolant lines ,compact
heat exchanger , and electronics cooling (heat pipe method). Only heat
transfer to or from a single-phase fluid is considered.
The fluid flow may be laminar or turbulent, the flow is laminar if the
Reynolds number (rumDH/m) is less than 2300 (Re ≤ 2300), based on the
tube hydraulic diameter (DH = 4A / P) where A, P is the cross sectional
area and wetted perimeter respectively and um is average velocity over
the tube cross section.
Also the hydraulic diameter should be used in calculating Nusselt
number. And If the Reynolds number is greater than 2300 the flow is
turbulent (Re >2300).
Internal Flows (inside tubes or ducts)
Heat transfer correlations
 Internal Flows (inside tubes or ducts)

For the heat transfer correlations shown in table 9.6 the following should
apply:

• For equation 9.31 at the arithmetic mean of the inlet and exit temperatures
(Tmi+Tmo)/2
• For equation 9.32, equation 9.33 equation 9.34 and at the mean temperature
Tm
• For equation 9.35 and equation 9.36 the Subscripts m, f, and s indicate that the
variables are to be evaluated at the mean temperature T m, film temperature Tf
(arithmetic mean of the mean and surface temperatures (T S +Tm )/2 , and
surface temperature, respectively.
 Variation of fluid temperature (Tm)
in a tube
By taking a differential control volume as Tm
shown in figure considering that the fluid
enters the tube at Tmi and exits at Tmo with dx
constant flow rate m' , convection heat
transfer occurring at the inner surface (h), dTm

heat addition by convection q, neglecting

the conduction in the axial direction, and
assuming no work done by the fluid. Then
applying heat balance on the control
volume we can obtain an equation relating Tmi Tmo
the surface temperature at any point.
dq
X

L
 Case 1:
Uniform surface temperature (TS = constant)
dq = m' Cp dTm = h ( Pwdx) (TS – Tm)
Where Pw = out side tube perimeter
dT hP
 m  , w (TS  Tm )
dx m C p
TS  Tm  T
dTm d T
 
dx dx
d T hP
  , w (T )
dx m Cp
Integrating:
T X
dT
x  T  Pw h
hP  ln  x   ,

Ti
  , w dx
T 0 m C p  Ti  m Cp
x

 P h 
T X   ,w x
dT xP 1 x  T x mC 

Ti
 , w
T m C p
  h dx 
x
 0

 Ti
e  p 
 Case 1:
Uniform surface temperature (TS = constant)

temperature
 p h  TS = constant
  ,w L 
At x = L To mC 
e  p 
 T= TS - Tmx  To
Ti
 Ti Tmo

Tmi

The total heat transfer is:

qt  m,C p (Tmo  Tmi )
But
Tmo- Tmi = ΔTi – ΔTo
 qt  m,C p (Ti  To )
 Case 1:
Uniform surface temperature (TS = constant)

Also for total heat transfer by average heat transfer coefficient

qt  hLPw (TS  Tm ) average
m , C p (Ti  To )  hLPw (T ) average
m,C p
Taverage  (Ti  To )
hLPw
Where ΔTaverage = (TS -Tm)average
Substitute the Equation 9.41 in Equation 9.45 produce:
Ti  To
Taverage 
 Ti 
ln  
 To 
ΔTaverage called logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)
 Case 2:
Uniform heat flux (q// = constant)

Since
dq = m' Cp dTm dTm q // Pw
And  '
dq = q// Pwdx
dx m Cp

Tmx
q // Pw x
Integrating q // Pw
 dT
Tmi
m  '
m Cp  dx
0
Tmx - Tmi = ' x
m Cp

q// = h (TS – Tm)

TS – Tm = q// / h ≈ constant along the tube length
Case 2:
Uniform heat flux (q// = constant)

Temperature

TS
Tmo

Tm

Tmi
x

Entrance Fully developed flow

Region