Waste Water Masterplan Mombasa West Mainland
Waste Water Masterplan Mombasa West Mainland
Waste Water Masterplan Mombasa West Mainland
In Association with:
MARCH 2017
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
“DOCUMENT CONTROL”
EMPLOYER:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
10.5.3 Implementation Costs for Phased Investment on Waste Water Treatment Plant ..... 10-21
10.6 WASTEWATER REUSE .......................................................................................................... 10-22
10.6.1 Justification for Wastewater Reuse ........................................................................ 10-22
10.6.2 Types of Wastewater Reuse Applications ............................................................... 10-22
10.6.3 Fit-for-Purpose....................................................................................................... 10-24
10.6.4 Selection of Wastewater Reuse Applications .......................................................... 10-25
10.6.5 Conveyance and Storage System of wastewater for Reuse ...................................... 10-27
10.6.6 Implementation Costs for the Industrial Wastewater Reuse Scheme ....................... 10-30
11.0 FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS FOR SELECTED DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY ................ 11-1
11.1 BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................................... 11-1
11.1.1 Water and Sanitation Sector Organization Structure ................................................. 11-1
11.1.2 Tariffs ...................................................................................................................... 11-3
11.1.3 Mombasa West Mainland Wastewater Management Scheme Development Costs .... 11-5
11.2 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 11-6
11.2.1 Key Assumptions ..................................................................................................... 11-6
11.2.2 Methodology for Financial Analysis .......................................................................... 11-7
11.2.3 Project Revenues ..................................................................................................... 11-7
11.2.4 Project Financial Statement...................................................................................... 11-8
11.2.5 Cost Benefit Analysis ................................................................................................ 11-8
11.2.6 The Net Present Value (NPV) .................................................................................... 11-9
11.2.7 Financial Internal Rate of Return .............................................................................. 11-9
11.2.8 Sensitivity Analysis................................................................................................... 11-9
11.2.9 Conclusion of Financial Analysis ............................................................................... 11-9
11.3 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 11-9
11.3.1 General.................................................................................................................... 11-9
11.3.2 Methodology ......................................................................................................... 11-10
11.3.3 Key Assumptions ................................................................................................... 11-10
11.3.4 Capital Development Cost ...................................................................................... 11-10
11.3.5 Project Expenditures .............................................................................................. 11-10
11.3.6 Conversion to Economic Prices ............................................................................... 11-11
11.3.7 Water and Wastewater projections ........................................................................ 11-11
11.3.8 Future without project situation............................................................................. 11-12
11.3.9 Valuation of benefits.............................................................................................. 11-12
11.3.10 Results of Economic Analysis .................................................................................. 11-12
11.3.11 Conclusion of Economic Analysis ............................................................................ 11-16
12.0 RECEIVING ENVIRONMENT AND MONITORING PROGRAM ................................................. 12-1
12.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 12-1
12.2 PRELIMINARY ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES AND WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES ....................................... 12-1
12.3 MONITORING PROGRAM DESIGN ............................................................................................. 12-1
12.3.1 Water Flows ............................................................................................................ 12-1
12.3.2 Water Quality .......................................................................................................... 12-1
12.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING ............................................................................................. 12-3
13.0 PRELIMINARY ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS AND RESETTLEMENT ACTION ................................ 13-1
13.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 13-1
13.1.1 Environment Screening ............................................................................................ 13-1
13.1.2 Screening for Resettlement Impacts ......................................................................... 13-1
13.2 GUIDING LEGISLATION AND POLICY........................................................................................... 13-2
13.2.1 Kenyan Legislations.................................................................................................. 13-2
13.2.2 World Bank Policies and Guidelines .......................................................................... 13-2
13.3 SCOPING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS .................................................................. 13-3
MIBP/ CES/ BOSCH iv
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Location Plan for the Project Towns ............................................................................... 1-2
Figure 2.1: Study Area of Wastewater Masterplan .......................................................................... 2-2
Figure 2.2: Schematic Layout of the existing Water Supply within Mombasa County ....................... 2-4
Figure 2.3: Typical Site Layout Plan for an Ablution Block ............................................................... 2-6
Figure 2.4: Typical Plan, Views and Sections of an Ablution Block ................................................... 2-7
Figure 3.1: Projected Populations based on Growth Rate Scenarios ................................................. 3-3
Figure 3.2: Existing Land Use Plan ................................................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3.3: Projected Land Use Year 2040 ....................................................................................... 3-8
Figure 4.1: Water Demand Projection ............................................................................................. 4-4
Figure 5.1: Comparative Projected Wastewater Flows up to Year 2040 ............................................ 5-5
Figure 6.1: Capital cost for wastewater treatment technologies ...................................................... 6-9
Figure 6.2: Land Requirements for wastewater treatment technologies ........................................ 6-10
Figure 6.3: Layout of Waste Stabilization Ponds ............................................................................ 6-12
Figure 6.4: Sectional View of a Circular Biofilter ............................................................................ 6-12
Figure 6.5: Schematic Showing SBR operational cycle .................................................................... 6-14
Figure 7.1: Proposed Drainage Areas .............................................................................................. 7-2
Figure 7.2: Alternative Scheme 1 .................................................................................................... 7-4
Figure 7.3: Locations of Alternative Waste Water Treatment Plants ................................................ 7-6
Figure 7.4: Locations of Alternative Waste Water Treatment Plants ................................................ 7-8
Figure 8.1: Unit cost for sewer excavation with Depth ..................................................................... 8-3
Figure 9.1: Hierarchy Decision Model used in the AHP..................................................................... 9-4
Figure 10.1: Detailed Layout of the Sewerage System – Mombasa West Mainland ......................... 10-6
Figure 10.2: Layout Plan of the Phased Implementation of Sewerage System for the Study Area .... 10-9
Figure 10.3: Typical Layout Plan and Sections of a Screw Pumping Station ................................... 10-12
Figure 10.4: Typical Layout Plan and Sections of a Centrifugal Pumping Station ........................... 10-13
Figure 10.5: Site Layout Plan of the proposed Waste Water Treatment Plant ............................... 10-19
Figure 10.6: Types of Aquifer Recharge ....................................................................................... 10-23
Figure 10.7: Level of wastewater quality ..................................................................................... 10-24
Figure 10.8: Layout Plan of the Conveyance and Storage System for Industrial Wastewater Reuse –
Mombasa West Mainland .......................................................................................................... 10-29
Figure 11.1: Institutional Set-up of Water Act 2002 ....................................................................... 11-1
Figure 13.1: Kipevu Site ................................................................................................................ 13-3
Figure 14.1: Core Aspects of Asset Management Framework ......................................................... 14-2
Figure 14.2: Life Cycle Asset Management .................................................................................... 14-4
Figure 14.3: Where the AMP Fits In............................................................................................... 14-5
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Project Selected Towns.................................................................................................. 1-1
Table 2.1: Sub-locations and Study Area ........................................................................................ 2-1
Table 2.2: Implementation Costs for Immediate Measures – Ablution Blocks................................... 2-8
Table 3.1: Intercensal Population Data (1979 – 2009) for Mombasa West mainland ......................... 3-1
Table 3.2: Previous Intercensal Annual Population Growth Rates .................................................... 3-1
Table 3.3: Summary of the Projected Population ............................................................................ 3-3
Table 3.4: Summary of Existing Land Use ....................................................................................... 3-4
Table 3.5: Existing Land Use and Projected Land Requirement ........................................................ 3-7
Table 3.6: Adoptive Standards for Urban Planning .......................................................................... 3-9
Table 4.1: Comparison of Water Consumption Rates ....................................................................... 4-2
Table 4.2: Adopted Housing Categories & per Capita Water Consumption ....................................... 4-3
Table 4.3: Water Demand for Medium-Term Plan Horizon - Year 2025 ............................................ 4-4
Table 4.4: Water Demand for Long-Term Plan Horizon - Year 2040 .................................................. 4-4
Table 5.1: Portion of Water Used that ends up as Wastewater ........................................................ 5-2
Table 5.2: Nairobi City Council Manual Peak Flow Factors ............................................................... 5-4
Table 5.3: Common Formulas used to calculate Peak Flow Factor .................................................... 5-4
Table 5.4: Projected Wastewater Generation up to Year 2040 ......................................................... 5-4
Table 5.5: Sewer Connectivity adopted for Realistic Wastewater Generation Projection .................. 5-5
Table 5.6: Water Supply Status adopted for Realistic Wastewater Generation Projection ................ 5-5
Table 6.1: Friction Factor for Manning’s Formula ............................................................................ 6-1
Table 6.2: Minimum Sewer Depths and Pipe Protection ................................................................. 6-3
Table 6.3: Guideline to manhole diameter and spacing ................................................................... 6-4
Table 6.4: Descriptive Comparison of Wastewater Treatment Technologies / Processes ................ 6-17
Table 7.1: Summary of Sewage and BOD5 Generated per Drainage Area .......................................... 7-1
Table 7.2: Alternative Scheme 1 – Pumping components and Treatment Technology ....................... 7-3
Table 7.3: Alternative Scheme 2 – Pumping components and Treatment Technology ....................... 7-5
Table 7.4: Summary of Alternative Wastewater Management Schemes .......................................... 7-7
Table 8.1: Unit Costs for Sewer Lines and Manholes ........................................................................ 8-2
Table 8.2: Unit Cost for Trench Excavations for Sewer Lines ............................................................ 8-3
Table 8.3: Unit Cost for Earthworks ................................................................................................ 8-4
Table 8.4: Unit Cost for Concrete and Mortar .................................................................................. 8-4
Table 8.5: Unit Cost for Formwork .................................................................................................. 8-4
Table 8.6: Unit Cost for Steel Reinforcement ................................................................................... 8-4
Table 8.7: Unit Cost for Masonry and Block Walling ........................................................................ 8-4
Table 8.8: Unit Cost for Miscellaneous ............................................................................................ 8-4
Table 8.9: Unit Cost for Electro-Mechanical Works .......................................................................... 8-5
Table 8.10: Capital Costs of the Alternative Schemes ...................................................................... 8-6
Table 8.11: Annual Operations & Maintenance Costs of the Alternative Schemes (Year 1) ............... 8-7
Table 8.12: Net Present Values and Average Incremental Cost of BOD Removal............................... 8-7
Table 8.13: Summary of Sensitivity Analysis of the Alternative Schemes .......................................... 8-8
Table 9.1: Scale for Pairwise Comparison ........................................................................................ 9-2
Table 9.2: Resultant Matrix of Parameters’ Pairwise Comparison .................................................... 9-4
Table 9.3: Analysis of Simplicity of Operation & Maintenance Weights against other Parameters .... 9-5
Table 9.4: A summary of the Priority Vectors for Parameter Matrix ................................................. 9-5
Table 9.5: Summary of Parameter Weighting against Alternative Wastewater Treatment Trains ...... 9-5
Table 9.6: Decision Variable Matrix based on Environmental Impact ............................................... 9-6
Table 9.7: Decision Variable Matrix based on Simplicity of Operation & Maintenance ..................... 9-6
Table 9.8: Decision Variable Matrix based on Net Present Value ..................................................... 9-6
Table 9.9: Weighted Totals for the alternative wastewater treatment trains ................................... 9-6
Table 9.10: Evaluation of Candidate Wastewater Treatment Plant Sites .......................................... 9-8
Table 9.11: Alternative Wastewater Management Schemes ............................................................ 9-9
Table 13.20: Impact Rating for Noise and Excessive Vibrations .................................................... 13-11
Table 13.21: Impact Rating for Risk of Accidents at Work Sites .................................................... 13-12
Table 13.22: Environment and Social Risk during Project Operation ........................................... 13-12
Table 13.23: Project Resettlement Impacts for Master Plan Projects ........................................... 13-14
Table 13.24: Entitlement Matrix ................................................................................................. 13-16
Table 13.25: Monitoring Indictors During and After Compensation Payments .............................. 13-19
Table 15.1: Definition of Project Hazards and Risks ....................................................................... 15-2
Table 15.2: Identified Environment and Social Risks and Mitigation Measures ............................. 15-8
Table 16.1: Details of the Ablution Blocks – Immediate Sanitation Measures ................................. 16-1
Table 16.2: Details of the Sludge Handling Facility – Immediate Sanitation Measures .................... 16-1
Table 16.3: Summary of Implementation Cost: Medium-Term Plan Plan (2021 -2025) .................... 16-1
Table 16.4: Summary of Implementation Cost: Long-Term Plan Plan (2026 -2040) ......................... 16-2
List of Abbreviations
CES - Consulting Engineers Salzgitter GmbH
CWSB - Coast Water Services Board
DWF - Dry Weather Flow
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment
EA - Environmental Audit
ESIA - Environmental & Social Impact Assessment
GoK - Government of Kenya
IDA - International Development Association
M&E - Mechanical & Electrical
MWI - Ministry of Water and Irrigation
MIBP - Mangat, I.B. Patel & Partners
MOWASCO - Mombasa Water and Sanitation Company Ltd.
ToR - Terms of Reference
SoK - Survey of Kenya
WB - World Bank
WRMA - Water Resources Management Authority
WSB - Water Services Board
WSP - Water Service Provider
WSS - Water Supply and Sanitation
WSTF - Water Services Trust Fund
WWTP - Wastewater Treatment Plant
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
E1 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY
Goals and objectives are defined in the ToR (Paragraph 7.3) as, “The main goal of the Master Plan
is to identify a sound and rational strategy for the development of sewerage services in Mombasa
and selected Towns over the next twenty-five (25) years to improve the quality of effluent to
rivers, Indian Ocean and groundwater and to safeguard the health of the city’s residents.”
The key objective of the proposed Master Plan for Mombasa West Mainland is to come up with
a phased investment programme for Immediate / Short Term Plan (2015 – 2020), Medium Term
Plan (2021 – 2025), Long Term Plan (2026 – 2040) and recommend a treated effluent disposal /
reuse strategy for the effluent in Mombasa West Mainland.
E2 OBJECTIVES OF THIS REPORT
The Final Wastewater Master Plan Report presents the outputs of the Feasibility Study, the
Selected Development Strategy and the Preliminary Design of the planned infrastructure for the
Sanitation System of Mombasa West Mainland.
The components of this Report include the following;
Present Sanitation Situation in the Study Area & Proposed Immediate Interventions
Future Sewerage System / Coverage Area Expansion
Analysis of Sewage Generation and Network Analysis
Formulation of Alternative Wastewater Management Strategies
Detailed Evaluation of the Alternative Wastewater Management Strategies including
Wastewater Treatment, Social / Environmental Assessment, Economic and Financial
Analysis and Multi-Criteria Analysis
Description of Selected Wastewater Management System Development Strategy
Investment and Financial Management Plan
Proposed Implementation / Development Schedule
Conclusion of the Master Plan
E3 STUDY AREA AND DEMOGRAPHY
The jurisdiction of Mombasa West Mainland covers six sub-locations namely; Kwa Shee, Birikani,
Changamwe, Chaani, Miritini, Jomvu Kuu and Port Reitz. The study area for the Wastewater
Master Plan covers all these sub-locations.
The sub-locations forming Mombasa West Mainland and total coverage areas as well as the study
area is given in Table E1 below;
Table E1: Sub-locations and Study Area
Sub-locations Total Area (km²) Coverage in the Study Area (km²)
Kwa Shee 3.79 2.92
Birikani 2.35 0.12
Changamwe 3.81 3.74
Chaani 4.21 1.92
Miritini 10.39 5.84
Jomvu Kuu 21.25 13.21
Portreitz 8.04 5.08
Total 53.84 32.83
Figure E1 on Page E-2 shows the coverage of the Study Area of Wastewater Master Plan for
Mombasa West Mainland.
Figure E1: Study Area of Waste Water Master Plan for Mombasa West Mainland
From the analysis of previous demographic data obtained from Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS),
the average annual growth rate for the Study Area of West Mainland in the last inter-censal
period (1999 - 2009) is 8.1%. This is expected to decrease within the service area as the housing
densities approaches High Density Status.
Based on a medium growth rate scenario, annual population growth rate taken as 3%, the
population for the Study Area has been projected.
A summary of the projected population of the Study Area is given in Table E-2 below.
Figure E2 below shows the projected trend in the combined water demand for the study area up
to year 2040.
Table E4: Water Supply Status adopted for Realistic Wastewater Generation Projection
Water Supply Status as a % of Regular
Population Category Based on Income Levels Water Supply
2021 – 2030 2031 - 2040
High Income 50% 80%
Medium Income 50% 80%
Low Income with Individual Water Connection 50% 80%
Low Income without Individual Water Connection 50% 80%
Figure E3 below shows the comparative trends of wastewater flow generation for the study area
under Ideal condition (100% Sewer Connections and Regular Water Supply) and Realistic
conditions;
70,000
65,000 With Projected Built-out of Sewer
60,000 Connections and Suppressed Water
Supply
Dry Weather Flow, m³/day
55,000
50,000
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
-
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
Similarly, a summary of the weighted totals for the alternative schemes developed for Mombasa
West Mainland is given in Table E7 below.
Table E7: Weighted Totals for the alternative schemes
Simplicity of
Net Potential
Operations Environmental Land Land Weighted
Present for Rank
and Impacts Acquisition Use Totals
Value Reuse
Maintenance
Centralized
Scheme with 1Nr
0.67 0.75 0.33 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.58 1
Oxidation Ditch
System
Decentralized
Scheme with 1 Nr
Oxidation Ditches 0.33 0.25 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.42 2
& 1Nr WSP
System
From the Multi-Criteria Analysis, a Centralized Wastewater Management Scheme at Kipevu
comprising of Oxidation Ditches with Chlorination/ De-Chlorination Facility is the most suitable
and is recommended for Mombasa West Mainland Sanitation Strategy.
Table E8 on Page E-7 gives a summary of the details of this recommended Wastewater
Management Scheme.
Wastewater Treatment
2.1 5,355,968,760 5,827,319,231
Plant (Kshs)
2.2 Pumping Stations (Kshs) 115,561,134 105,207,110
Electro-Mechanical Works
3 358,933,849 376,839,086
(Kshs)
Wastewater Treatment
3.1 281,893,093 306,701,012
Plant (Kshs)
3.2 Pumping Stations (Kshs) 77,040,756 70,138,074
A summary of the Phased Investment cost for Mombasa West Mainland Wastewater
Management System is given in Tables E10 below and E11 on Page E-8;
Table E10: Costs for Medium-Term Plan (Year 2020 – 2025)
S/No. Component Cost (Kshs Costs (USD)
1 Land Acquisition 30,000,000 291,262
2 Sewerage System 1,707,679,513 16,579,413
3 Wastewater Treatment Plant 635,854,457 6,173,344
Total 2,373,533,970 23,044,019
The Operations and Maintenance Costs have been worked out on the following basis;
a) Electricity Costs at the Pumping Stations has been assumed to increase annually at 4.6%
p.a. (same as population) due to increased sewage flow from the increased connections
b) Annual Maintenance Costs of the Schemes have been calculated as the sum of 1% of the
Costs of the Civil Works and 5% of the Electro-Mechanical Works
c) Replacement of the Electro-Mechanical Items to be carried out every 10 Years with repair
works planned for every intermediate 5 years between the replacement schedule
A summary of the Annual Operations & Maintenance Costs in the first year of operation of the
Scheme is given in Table E12 below;
Table E12: Annual Operations & Maintenance Costs (Year 1)
S/No. Component Alternative 1 Alternative 2
1 Maintenance Costs (Kshs) 89,161,677 90,982,558
2 Electricity Costs (Kshs) 64,208,669 69,851,008
3 Staff Costs (Kshs) 15,465,773 20,105,505
Total O&M Cost (Kshs) 168,836,118 180,939,071
[1]
– Exchange Rate: 1 USD = 103 Kshs
E9 FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE SELECTED DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
To provide indicators of economic viability and sustainability of the proposed sanitation system,
it is important to carry out financial and economic analysis. Financial and economic analysis is
used to produce standardised information on Projects, as a basis for making investment decision.
The importance of economic analysis in an investment is to help select a Project that contributes
to the welfare of a region or a country. On the other hand, financial analysis evaluates Project
liquidity and profitability.
The Capital Costs for the Investment Phases and their associated Operations and Maintenance
Costs have been used to project the Annual Project Expenditure as summarized in Table E13
below;
Table E13: Schedule of Annual Project Expenditures
Year Project Cost, Ksh O&M, Ksh Depreciation, Ksh Total Cost, Ksh
2021 593,383,492 - 593,383,492
2022 593,383,492 46,022,311.08 639,405,804
2023 593,383,492 168,836,118.27 69,033,466.62 831,253,077
2024 593,383,492 169,713,893.71 92,044,622.15 855,142,008
2025 - 170,579,987.69 92,044,622.15 262,624,610
2026 513,700,294 175,732,140.13 104,812,068.24 794,244,502
2027 513,700,294 180,535,398.78 124,733,143.74 818,968,836
2028 513,700,294 185,052,299.51 144,654,219.24 843,406,812
2029 - 189,328,666.93 144,654,219.24 333,982,886
2030 770,550,440 193,399,269.18 174,535,832.49 1,138,485,542
2031 1,027,400,587 196,624,788.07 203,475,892.52 1,427,501,268
2032 1,284,250,734 199,740,985.01 242,376,490.31 1,726,368,209
2033 513,700,294 202,758,275.29 251,395,474.84 967,854,044
Year Project Cost, Ksh O&M, Ksh Depreciation, Ksh Total Cost, Ksh
2034 - 205,685,518.47 240,493,383.87 446,178,902
2035 - 208,530,325.49 240,493,383.87 449,023,709
2036 - 211,299,291.95 238,208,922.40 449,508,214
2037 - 213,998,178.24 228,770,831.52 442,769,010
2038 - 216,632,050.47 219,332,740.63 435,964,791
2039 - 219,205,392.28 219,332,740.63 438,538,133
2040 - 221,722,194.50 205,175,604.31 426,897,799
2041 - 221,722,194.50 205,175,604.31 426,897,799
2042 - 221,722,194.50 205,175,604.31 426,897,799
2043 - 221,722,194.50 205,175,604.31 426,897,799
2044 - 221,722,194.50 205,175,604.31 426,897,799
2045 221,722,194.50 153,266,104.45 374,988,299
2046 221,722,194.50 153,266,104.45 374,988,299
Assuming adoption of the proposed tariffs and attainment of the projected sewer connections,
the projected financial statement has been determined and summarized in Table E14 below;
Table E14: Projected Financial Statement of the Project
Project Income and expenditure Financial statement (Kshs.)
Total Project Billings Not Net Project Operations & Annual Total
Year Net Revenue
Revenue Recovered Revenue Maintenance Depreciation Expenditure
2023 460,050,906 46,005,091 414,045,816 168,836,118 69,033,467 237,869,598 176,176,218
2024 460,050,906 46,005,091 414,045,816 169,713,894 92,044,622 261,758,529 152,287,287
2025 529,072,996 52,907,300 476,165,697 170,579,988 92,044,622 262,624,623 213,541,073
2026 766,111,799 76,611,180 689,500,619 175,732,140 104,812,068 280,544,222 408,956,397
2027 766,111,799 76,611,180 689,500,619 180,535,399 124,733,144 305,268,557 384,232,063
2028 766,111,799 76,611,180 689,500,619 185,052,300 144,654,219 329,706,533 359,794,086
2029 766,111,799 76,611,180 689,500,619 189,328,667 144,654,219 333,982,901 355,517,718
2030 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 193,399,269 174,535,832 367,935,117 881,235,838
2031 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 196,624,788 203,475,893 400,100,696 849,070,259
2032 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 199,740,985 242,376,490 442,117,491 807,053,464
2033 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 202,758,275 251,395,475 454,153,767 795,017,189
2034 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 205,685,518 240,493,384 446,178,919 802,992,036
2035 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 208,530,325 240,493,384 449,023,727 800,147,229
2036 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 211,299,292 238,208,922 449,508,232 799,662,723
2037 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 213,998,178 228,770,832 442,769,028 806,401,927
2038 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 216,632,050 219,332,741 435,964,810 813,206,146
2039 1,387,967,728 138,796,773 1,249,170,955 219,205,392 219,332,741 438,538,152 810,632,803
2040 2,414,926,596 241,492,660 2,173,433,936 221,722,194 205,175,604 426,897,818 1,746,536,118
2041 2,414,926,596 241,492,660 2,173,433,936 221,722,194 186,299,423 408,021,637 1,765,412,299
2042 2,414,926,596 241,492,660 2,173,433,936 221,722,194 162,704,195 384,426,410 1,789,007,526
2043 2,414,926,596 241,492,660 2,173,433,936 221,722,194 153,266,104 374,988,320 1,798,445,616
2044 2,414,926,596 241,492,660 2,173,433,936 221,722,194 153,266,104 374,988,320 1,798,445,616
2045 2,414,926,596 241,492,660 2,173,433,936 221,722,194 153,266,104 374,988,321 1,798,445,615
2046 2,414,926,596 241,492,660 2,173,433,936 221,722,194 153,266,104 374,988,322 1,798,445,615
Besides the above revenue collected, the following additional direct/indirect benefits have been
considered in the economic analysis:
Cost savings to customers in terms of health benefits
Table E16: Details of the Sludge Handling Facility – Immediate Sanitation Measures
Total Capital Cost
S/No. Component Details
Ksh. USD
Exhaust Discharge Minimum 1 Nr (Either owned by
1 - -
Tanker MOWASCO or Private Providers)
Table E17: Summary of Implementation Cost: Medium-Term Plan Plan (2021 -2025)
S/No. Component Details Cost (Kshs) Cost (USD)
1 Sewers 225 – 525mm Dia; Total length 16.7km
5 Nr New
2 Pumping Stations
4 Nr Rehabilitated 2,373,533,970 23,044,019
Waste Water Chlorination /De-chlorination Facility
3
Treatment Plant (capacity 17,000 m3/day)
Table E18: Summary of Implementation Cost: Long-Term Plan Plan (2026 -2040)
S/No. Component Details Cost (Kshs) Cost (USD)
1 Sewers 225 -375 mm Dia; Total length 22.4 km
Oxidation Ditches with Chlorination
Waste Water 5,137,002,935 49,873,815
2 /De-chlorination Facility (capacity
Treatment Plant
27,300 m3/day)
MAIN REPORT
1.0 PROJECT BACKGROUND
The Government of Kenya (GoK) through the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) has received
“credit” from International Development Association (IDA) to undertake the Wastewater Master
Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region.
Coast Water Services Board (CWSB) is a parastatal (Government Owned and Autonomous) and
operates under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation. CWSB covers six Counties which are
Mombasa, Kwale, Kilifi, Taita-Taveta, Lamu and Tana River.
The primary outcome of this Study will be to obtain the agreement of all major Stakeholders to a
preferred Sewerage Development Strategy most applicable to their needs.
In August 2010, Kenya enacted a new constitution. The Constitution of Kenya 2010 has
dramatically altered the administrative structure of the Government from the initial 8
Administrative Provinces to 47 Semi-autonomous Counties. This autonomy of the Counties vest
powers and privileges in each County especially on the provision of essential public services such
as Water, Sanitation, Education and other Social Services.
The WaSSIP-AF therefore targets the built-up areas of Towns in six Counties in the Coastal Region
as follows:
Table 1.1: Project Selected Towns
S/No. County Urban Centre
1. Mombasa County Mombasa including Island, West Mainland, South Mainland / Likoni
and North Mainland
2. Kwale Kwale, Ukunda / Diani and Part of Mariakani.
The Terms of Reference (ToR) included seven Towns but in the course of the study five upcoming
Towns (Mariakani, Taveta, Ukunda/Diani and Watamu) were added as an addendum.
It is therefore required that the formulated Program shall be aligned to respect and respond to
the requirements of the new Constitution. A key benchmark of the new Constitution is stipulated
under Chapter IV-BILL OF RIGHTS, paragraph 45(1) (b) and (d) which stipulates: “Every person has
the right to (b)............reasonable standards of sanitation and (d) clean and safe water in
adequate quantities.”
A Location Plan for the twelve Project Towns is given in Figure 1.1 on Page 1-2.
Note: Sub-locations not covered by the Waste Water Master Plan have been excluded in Table 2.2 above.
Figure 2.1 on Page 2-2 shows the coverage of the Study Area of Wastewater Master Plan for
Mombasa West Mainland.
MIBP/ CES/ BOSCH 2-1
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
2.3 Climate
Climatic condition in the County of Mombasa vary as a result of SE Monsoon winds (blowing
between April and September) and the NE Monsoons (October to March) and oceanic influence.
The rains occur during the inter-monsoonal period and in two seasons, with the long rains
starting from March to June, and the short rains from October to December.
The mean rainfall in the coast region ranges from 1,397 mm in the south decreasing to 889 mm
in the north.
Mombasa is generally hot and humid all year round. The mean daily temperature ranges
between 22°C to 29.5°C. Average relative humidity along the coastal belt is 65% but decreases
towards the hinterland. The lowest temperature is experienced during the long rains season.
2.4 Topography, Geology and Soils
Mombasa County is situated in the coastal lowland with extensive flat areas rising gently from
8 meters to approximately 100 meters above sea level in the west. The County can be divided
into three main physiographic belts, namely, the flat coastal plain, which is approximately 6
kilometres wide, and includes the Island Division, Kisauni on the North Mainland and Mtongwe
to the South. Next, are found the broken, severely dissected and eroded belt that consists of
Jurassic shale overlain in places by residual sandy plateau found in Changamwe division. Finally,
there is the undulating plateau of sandstone that is divided from the Jurassic belt by a scarp
fault.
Nearer the sea, the land is composed of coral reef that offers excellent drainage. Along the
coastline there are beautiful beaches, which together with a variety of coastal resources and a
rich biodiversity, has made Mombasa a favourite tourist destination.
2.5 Economic Activities
Industrial activities are the predominant economic sector in Mombasa West Mainland with a
significant number of industries. Commercial activities are also evident along the main roads.
2.6 Existing Water Supply and Sanitation Systems
2.6.1 Water Supply
At present, the following bulk water supply sources serve Mombasa West Mainland;
Tiwi Water Supply System from Tiwi Boreholes Serving the West Mainland partly through
Kaya Bombo Reservoirs, and
Marere Water Supply System from Marere, Votia and Mwaluganje Springs in Kwale
(Shimba Hills National Park); serving parts of the West Mainland and now augmenting
the Tiwi System in the South Mainland through Changamwe and Kaya-Bombo Reservoirs
A Schematic Layout of the existing Water Supply System is shown in Figure 2.2 on Page 2-4.
Figure 2.2: Schematic Layout of the existing Water Supply within Mombasa County
2.6.2 Sanitation System
The Service Areas of Mombasa County with reticulated sewerage system are West Mainland and
Mombasa Island. At present, approximately 40% of West Mainland have reticulated sewerage
systems.
The sewerage system in West Mainland was constructed in 1952 and has continually been
expanded to date. The sewerage system on West Mainland is served by a Wastewater Treatment
Plant located at Kipevu (17,000m3/day capacity), adjacent to Kilindini Harbour. The WWTP
comprises of Inlet Works, Oxidation Ditches, Settling Tanks, Sludge Drying Beds and an Outfall
Sewer. The areas covered by the sewerage system comprises of Miritni, Mikindani, Changamwe,
Portreitz, Chaani and EPZ area.
2.7 Immediate Measures for the Improvement of Sanitation Systems
The Final Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa West Mainland describes the development
strategy for the long-term water-borne sanitation system comprising of a wastewater collection
/ conveyance system and the treatment / proper disposal of the treated effluents. However, this
long-term sanitation strategy is not planned for immediate implementation.
In consideration of the current sanitation systems and the growing sanitation needs, an
immediate intervention is urgently required. Thus, Immediate Sanitation Measures have been
developed. These measures include construction of Ablution Blocks in selected Public Places and
a Sludge Handling Facility as described in the following sub-sections.
2.7.1 Ablution Blocks
Ablution Blocks are essential in Mombasa West Mainland for improved access to sanitation
facilities especially in public places e.g., markets, bus stops, etc. They are important to market
vendors, market customers, long distance travelers, bus operators and the general public. Their
locations in Mombasa West Mainland will be selected in consultation with the CWSB and the
Mombasa County Government
Considering the population densities and the number of public utilities, a total of two (2) Ablution
Blocks is proposed for construction in Mombasa West Mainland. Each Ablution Block comprises
of six (6) toilets and two (2) Shower Rooms with equal number for each gender i.e. Ladies and
MIBP/ CES/ BOSCH 2-4
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL WASTEWATER MASTER PLAN
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
Gents. The allocated number of toilets in each Ablution Block ensures provision of sufficient
service levels for the target population. It is estimated that on average, a user spends 5 minutes
in the facility. Thus, for a single facility with 6 toilets and 10 hours of operation in a day, a
maximum number of 720 persons can be served in a day.
Each section (ladies and gents) is provided with a toilet fitted with special amenities for use by
disabled persons. The “Gents” are provided with separate urinals to increase the service levels
especially during the peak hours
The shower rooms are equipped with a dressing area and hand-wash basins. In addition, a
spacious common area with hand-wash basins, hand driers and wall mounted mirrors is provided.
Each of the units is fitted with coat hangers behind the doors for convenience. To enhance natural
lighting within the facility, transparent polycarbonate roofing material have been incorporated in
the design. Proper ventilation is ensured by the louvered windows and gap between the ring
beam and the roof. The gap is fitted with louvre blocks and plastic coated coffee tray wires to
prevent insect entry.
A septic tank with a holding capacity of 16 m3 is provided at the facility for storage and partial
treatment of sewage. The septic tank will require desludging after every 3 months with septage
disposal at the proposed Sludge Handling Facility, to be implemented as part of the immediate
sanitation intervention. In addition, a 5,000-litre water tank mounted on a 3.5m high reinforced
concrete tower within the facility provides a 3-day storage of clean water.
Other services provided at the site include; electricity for use at night and for security lighting,
and security / controlled access through chain link fence and a 4m wide metallic gate.
Permission to use the facility is to be on a pay-per-use basis. This is an effective model used in
many parts of the country to raise money required for operation and maintenance. A personnel
office complete with a storage room shall be provided at the entrance of the facility with grilled
opening for ease of payment before use.
A typical Site Layout, Plan and Elevations of the proposed Ablution Block are given in Figures 2.3
and 2.4 on Pages 2-6 and 2-7 respectively.
Population data is dependent on the coverage considered; for the same Location and time, a
larger area gives a higher population. The use of population figures to establish intercensal
population growth rate in a sub-location with varying coverage areas between intercensal period
is inaccurate due to the variability of coverage area. It is therefore prudent to adopt the use of
population density as a measure of demographic trend where sub-location coverage varies
between intercensal period, as is the case in Mombasa West Mainland.
The previous intercensal annual population growth rates based on the population densities for
the sub-locations covered by Mombasa West Mainland are given in Table 3.2 below.
Table 3.2: Previous Intercensal Annual Population Growth Rates
Intercensal Period
Area of Interest
(Sub-location) 1979 - 1989 1989 - 1999 1999 - 2009
From Table 3.2 on Page 3-1, the annual population growth rate for Mombasa West Mainland in
the last intercensal period (1999 to 2009) is 8.1%. This is quite high when compared with the 4.2%
projected for urban growth rate under Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) by 2015.
The above population dynamic refers to the resident category. The non-resident category
comprising of tourists / visitors is considered under the respective contributory Land-Use
activities.
3.1.2 Population Growth Scenarios
Population trends are influenced by factors such as fertility, mortality and migration levels and
patterns as well as the national socio-economic development momentum.
Continued rapid growth is expected in the study area, considering the infrastructural
developments planned for Mombasa West Mainland in the Integrated Development Plan for
Mombasa County and the potential of Mombasa West Mainland for further growth. These factors
will result to future immigration and urbanization.
As at the last census (2009), the population within Mombasa West Mainland was 209,722. To
forecast the future population of the study area up to the design horizon (year 2040), the
following factors have been considered:
Previous Demographic Trends in Mombasa West Mainland and Mombasa County
The dynamics of Land Use and Trends of development
The correlation of water demand and income / type of housing, population density etc
Integrated Strategic Urban Development Plan for Mombasa County developed in Year
2015.
Three population growth rate scenarios have been formulated for the population projection in
the study area based on the data obtained from Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Census
Reports and other relevant planning documents. These scenarios are briefly described below;
High Growth Rate: This growth rate scenario is based on an assumption that the population will
grow at an average growth rate of 5% in twenty-five years (2015-2040) i.e. the overall natural
growth will continue and in-migration will gradually increase due to intensive investment. Thus,
population of Mombasa West Mainland will grow to 951,728 by year 2040.
Medium Growth Rate: This scenario is based on an assumption that the population will grow at
an average growth rate of 3% in twenty-five years (2015-2040) and that improved medical / health
facilities will result in decrease in mortality rate and increase in life expectancy. It is presumed
that with economic growth, employment opportunities and improved infrastructure (especially
speed transport connectivity) will work in balancing migration. Thus, population of Mombasa
West Mainland will grow to 524,322 by year 2040.
Low Growth Rate: This scenario is based on an assumption that the population of Mombasa West
Mainland will grow at an average growth rate of 1% in twenty-five years (2015-2040). It is
assumed that population growth (both natural growth rate and in-migration) will reduce
considering that population deflection will take place and the flow of return will be diverted to
the development of new areas. Therefore, the population in horizon year 2040 will be 285,501.
This can happen only, if strict measures are taken to control population both in terms of natural
growth and in-migration. Based on the experience in the developing world, it requires intensive
efforts by government in terms of educating people and promoting population control measures
on one hand and to provide ample economic opportunities in the region in order to combat in-
migration.
Projected populations for the above population growth rate scenarios are given in Figure 3.1 on
Page 3-3;
1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
Population
500,000
400,000
300,000
-
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
3.2.1 Introduction
Mombasa City began as a trading port in the 12th century. It has served as a key node in the
complex Indian Ocean trading networks and played a pivotal role in development of Kenya and
East Africa.
Mombasa County has transformed from clustered traditional settlements in the colonial era to
now a vibrant Coastal City. With this rapid urbanization, planning efforts have been superceeded
by the development rates thus sprouting of informal settlements and un-planned developments.
The city’s main planning efforts trace back as far as the early settlements of the native swahilis to
the modern geometric planning of regular grids and urban blocks. The city lies the Island and
extends to the surrounding mainlands.
The island is separated from the mainland by two creeks: Tudor Creek and Kilindini Harbour. It is
connected to the mainland to the north by the Nyali Bridge, to the south by the Likoni Ferry, and
to the west by the Makupa Causeway. The Mainlands include North Mainland, West Mainland
and South Mainland. Mombasa West Mainland has been analysed as a seperate zone.
3.2.2 Existing Land Use
The total area of Mombasa West Mainland is approximately 6,419.90 ha.
The main active land-use typologies are Residential, Transportation and Industrial. In terms of
coverage areas, the active land-use type with the largest land coverage is Residential while the
least is Recreational.
Approximately 48% of land in Mombasa West mainland is classified as undeveloped.
Table 3.4 below shows a summary of existing Land Use of Mombasa West Mainland.
Table 3.4: Summary of Existing Land Use
Land Use Area Covered (Ha) Coverage (%)
Agriculture 152.00 2.37
Commercial 30.00 0.47
Education 64.60 1.01
Heavy Industry 118.80 1.85
Medium Industry 29.40 0.46
Light Industry 594.50 9.26
Public Purpose 63.70 0.99
Public Utility 18.00 0.28
Recreational 2.60 0.04
High Density Residential 1,070.00 16.67
Medium Density Residential 113.60 1.77
Low Density Residential 21.70 0.34
Undeveloped 3,100.00 48.29
Creek 423.00 6.59
Future Developments - -
Oblique Social Forestry - -
Transport 618.00 9.63
TOTAL 6,419.90 100
and part of hilly terrain at low height where the slope is gentle and favourable) for development
and accommodating part of the projected population.
3.2.4 Land Use Requirement per Land Use Zone
Land requirement in zoning depends on projected population and proposed density.
In most Towns, Residential Land-use has the highest land requirement. The current coverage of
Residential Land-use is 1,205 ha. To absorb the projected year 2040 population of Mombasa West
mainland, the additional total coverage required for the High-Density, Medium-Density and Low-
Density Residential Land-use is 740 ha.
The proposed population densities for each category of Residential Land-use have been worked
out based on the projected population, land available for future development, the potential of
the developed areas for densification and experience in Towns of similar nature and keeping
sufficient room within the current planning boundary for future urban expansion i.e. beyond
year 2040.
Details of existing Land use and projected land requirement are given in Table 3.5 below.
Table 3.5: Existing Land Use and Projected Land Requirement
Existing Land Use 2015 Projected Land Requirement 2040
Land Use
(Area, ha) (Area, ha)
In the proposed Land Use Plan, Mombasa West mainland is expected to have sustainable urban
development. Residential Land Use will be the most dominant Land Use Type with Integrated
Education facilities for improved access to education. With implementation of the Year 2015
Mombasa County ISUDP, the projected Land-use can be attained. The ISUDP should also aim at
enforcing development control, establishing adequate, decent and affordable housing,
conservation of the green spaces and the environment and also provide a road map for provision
of services and facilities.
Layout Plans showing the Proposed Land Use are given in Figure 3.3 on Page 3-8.
Table 3.6 on Pages 3-9 to 3-12 shows a summary of adoptive standards for Urban Planning
Maisonettes 50
Two residential units Shops allowed on plots fronting 9 M
Residential 50 0.1 Ha Low Medium density
Town houses allowed per plot roads
50
Duplexes
Maisonettes 50
Two residential units Shops allowed on plots fronting 9 M
Residential 50 0.1 Ha Low Medium density
Town houses allowed per plot roads
50
duplexes
0
Maisonettes 50
Two residential units Shops allowed on plots fronting 9 M
Residential 50 0.1 Ha Low Medium density
Town houses allowed per plot roads
50
duplexes
Town houses
0.03
Duplexes
Mixed Multiple residential Shops allowed on plots fronting 9 M
Swahili houses 65 65 - High Density
developments units allowed roads
Guest/Boarding
0.045
houses
Town houses
Duplexes
Mixed
Multiple residential Shops allowed on plots fronting 9 M
developments Swahili houses 65 65 0.045 High Density
units allowed roads
Guest/Boarding
houses
Town houses
0.03
Duplexes
Guest/Boarding 0.045
Zone 1: Industrial
Types of
Proposed Land
Zone Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Density of Development No. of Dwelling Units Other Requirements
Use
Allowed
Industrial Industrial plant 50 150 0.2 N/A N/A
Repair Workshops,
Hardware stores Garages, furniture
Light Industry Furniture Makers 50 75 0.045 N/A and welding
1 small tin smiths, Re- workshops allowed
use Industries
Garages, furniture
Godowns, warehouse,
Light Industry 50 75 0.045 N/A and welding
hardware stores
workshops allowed
Zone 2: Educational
Types of
Proposed Land Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Use Development Units
Allowed
Nursery Sch. 0.1
Storeyed buildings recommended for
Classes, offices and Pri. school 4.0 effective use of space
2 Educational dormitories 10 30 Sec. School 4.5 N/A N/A Sharing of recreational facilities
Sanitation block College 10.2 recommended
Institutional Housing allowed
University 50.0
Zone 3: Recreational
Types of
Proposed Land Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Use Development Units
Allowed
Conservation/
Recreation
Green Park
Conservation/
Recreation
Green Park
3
Conservation/
Recreation
Green Park
Zone 4: Public purpose
Types of
Proposed Land Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Use Development Units
Allowed
Civic offices: - County
government; local
authorities, Spatial compactness
Government
4 parastatals, trade Public parking
Headquarters
unions, political party Accessibility
offices, library
entertainment, etc.
Zone 5: Commercial
Types of
Proposed Land Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Use Development Units
Allowed
Densification and diversification
recommended
5 Commercial Compatible mixed use 75 600 0.045 N/A Commercial Flats and high rise buildings
recommended
Future commercial core
Zone 6: Public Utilities
Types of
Proposed Land Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Use Development Units
Allowed
6
Zone 7: Transportation
Types of
Proposed Land Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Use Development Units
Allowed
To be developed through public private
Lorry park N/A N/A 2 N/A N/A
7 partnership
Bus park To be developed by County Government
Zone 8: Hospitality Zone
Types of
Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Future Land Use Development BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Development Units
Allowed
H
Zone 9: Agriculture
Types of Development Density of No. of Dwelling
Zone Future Land Use BCR PR Min Plot Size Other Requirements
Allowed Development Units
Single Dwelling
Residential Bungalows 35 25 0.4 Ha Low Density Agriculture may be practised
Units
Single Dwelling
LD Residential Bungalows 35 25 Low Density Agriculture may be practised
0.4 Ha Units
Single Dwelling
Residential Bungalows 35 25 0.4 Ha Low Density Agriculture may be practised
Units
Single Dwelling
Residential Bungalows 25 25 0.2 Ha Medium density
Units
After analysis of the water consumption rates indicated in Table 4.1 on Page 4-2, the following
water consumption rates have been adopted in the Study:
a) Residential Water Demand
From the findings by different Consultants, it is evident that the type of housing and mode of
water supply are relevant indicators for classifying domestic consumers.
Based on per capita demand observed in similar socio economic and climatic context but
without restriction of water supply, the Consultant adopted the following water consumption
rates for the various categories of domestic consumers as summarised in Table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2: Adopted Housing Categories & per Capita Water Consumption
Consumption
Category Description Rate
(l/c/d)
Low Density Residential Houses and Maisonettes 200
Medium Density Flats and Estates 120
Traditional Houses (Informal Settlements and
High Density 60
Swahili
b) Institutional Water Demand
The institutional water demand has been determined based on the following commonly
accepted demand criteria by type of institution:
Boarding Schools - 50 l/head/d
Day School with WC - 25 l/head/d
Regional Hospital - 200 l/bed/day plus 5000l/day
Dispensary and Health Centre - 5,000 l/day
Administrative Offices - 25 l/head/day
c) Commercial Water Demand
The commercial water demand has been determined based on the following commonly
accepted demand criteria by type of commercial facility:
Shops - 100 l/day
Bars - 500 l/day
The water demands for Mombasa West Mainland have been calculated based on the projected
population and proposed Land-use Plans. Summary of the water demands by sub-location in the
Design Horizons Year 2025 and Year 2040 are given in Tables 4.3 and 4.4 below.
Table 4.3: Water Demand for Medium-Term Plan Horizon - Year 2025
Water Demand (m3/day)
Sub-location
Domestic Health Education Recreational Commercial Industrial Total
Kwa Shee 6,506.2 161.6 181.3 28.5 25.9 2,272.2 9,175.8
Birikani 223.8 5.6 6.2 1.0 0.9 78.2 315.6
Changamwe 2,632.8 65.4 73.4 11.6 10.5 919.5 3,713.1
Chaani 6,427.5 159.6 179.1 28.2 25.5 2,244.7 9,064.8
Miritini 3,534.1 87.8 98.5 15.5 14.0 1,234.2 4,984.1
Jomvu Kuu 6,518.6 161.9 181.7 28.6 25.9 2,276.6 9,193.2
Portreitz 9,800.2 243.4 273.1 43.0 38.9 3,422.6 13,821.3
Total 35,643 885 993 156 142 12,448 50,268
Table 4.4: Water Demand for Long-Term Plan Horizon - Year 2040
Water Demand (m3/day)
Sub-location
Domestic Health Education Recreational Commercial Industrial Total
Kwa Shee 10,136.5 248.6 281.3 43.9 34.9 2,692.0 13,437
Birikani 348.7 8.6 9.7 1.5 1.2 92.6 462
Changamwe 4,101.8 100.6 113.8 17.8 14.1 1,089.3 5,438
Chaani 10,013.9 245.6 277.9 43.4 34.5 2,659.5 13,275
Miritini 5,506.0 135.0 152.8 23.9 19.0 1,462.3 7,299
Jomvu Kuu 10,155.8 249.1 281.8 44.0 35.0 2,697.1 13,463
Portreitz 15,268.4 374.5 423.7 66.2 52.6 4,054.9 20,240
Total 55,531 358 405 63 50 3,874 73,613
The water demand for Mombasa West Mainland is shown in Figure 4.1 on below.
From the TOR “Neither CWSB nor the WSPs have the responsibility for the provision or
maintenance of storm water drainage systems and so the study and review of those facilities is
not included in this Wastewater Master Plan Study. All sewers shall be designed for separate
systems.”
In line with the TOR, a separate sanitary sewer system has been proposed for the design of the
Trunk and Secondary Sewers in Mombasa West Mainland.
5.1.3 Sewage Generation
Wastewater collected in the Sewerage System is generated from;
Domestic, institutional and Commercial consumers
Industrial Effluent
Infiltration and Inflow into the Sewerage System
authorised drainage of open industrial and commercial areas, i.e. “inflow”. This allowance is
taken as a percentage of the domestic wastewater flow and ranges from 5% to 30% depending
upon the predominant housing type i.e.
30% for low income housing
15% for medium income housing
10% for high income housing
A conservative value of 5% of the total wastewater flow has been adopted in this Study for the
determination of Splash flow contribution.
5.1.4 Peak Flow Factor and Sewer Capacity
A sewer should be designed to handle the peak sewage flows that occur due to daily, diurnal
and seasonal fluctuations. A peak factor, which refers to an estimated ratio of maximum to
average sewage flow, is applied on the average wastewater flow to determine the peak flow.
Sewers are normally designed to flow half full at peak flow, where peak dry weather flow is
defined as:
Peak Dry Weather Flow, PDWF = FR (DWF-I) + I
Where:
PDWF = Peak Dry Weather Flow (l/s)
FR = Peak Factor
DWF = Dry Weather Flow (Design Flow) (l/s)
I = Infiltration Rate (l/s)
The Dry Weather Flow (Design Flow), which includes allowance for inflow and infiltration can be
calculated from:
Px G 1+SA E x AE
DWF = SF [( ) x( )+ + IR (AP + AE )]
86400 100 86.4
Where:
SF = Sewage Reduction Factor (%)
P = Population (no. of persons)
G = Water Consumption (litres per person per day)
SA = Inflow/Splash Allowance as % of P x G (litres per day)
E = Industrial Wastewater Flow (m3 /ha/day)
AE = Industrial Drainage Area (Ha)
IR = Infiltration Water Flow Rate (l/sec/ha)
AP = Domestic Drainage Area (Ha)
The daily peak flow in a sewer is a function of the area contributing to the sewer, which, in turn,
determines the contributing population and, hence, the size of the pipe. An increase in the
contributing area results in a lower peak factor, hence large trunk sewers have lower peaks than
small branch sewers.
Many methods and formulae are used to predict peak factors in sewers. The factors derived by
Nairobi City Council in the 1960s, after a comprehensive survey of the Capital City's sewers, are
shown in Table 5.2 on Page 5-4.
5
Babbit Formula, for population < 7,000 Persons 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.2
14
Harmon Formula, for population > 7,000 Persons 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1 +
4 + 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛0.5
Recent studies of the flow records in Nyeri Town carried out by the Nyeri Water & Sewerage
Company indicate that the Babbitt Formula gives peak factors that more accurately correspond
to the measured peaks in the Sewerage System.
The empirical formulas adopted in the computation of peak flows for Mombasa West Mainland
are as follows;
Babbit formula for populations less than 7,000 persons
Harmon Formula for populations greater than 7,000 persons
5.2 Projected Wastewater Flows
The total wastewater generated within a service area is determined by the drainage area from
the water consumed (sewage generation factor of 80%), infiltration into the sewers and splash
flows. A drainage area refers to a natural boundary within which the topography permits
convergence of surface water flow to a single point at a lower elevation
Based upon the above components, the projected wastewater generation for each of the
drainage areas sub-locations within the study area, assuming a regular / unsuppressed water
supply and full coverage of water distribution network, has been determined. A summary of the
projected wastewater generation is given in Table 5.4 below;
Table 5.4: Projected Wastewater Generation up to Year 2040
However, achieving conditions of regular / unsuppressed water supply and full sewer
connections in a Town with Sewerage System is nearly impossible. This restraint is imposed by
the limited development of water resources, inadequate water distribution networks and the
use of on-plot sanitation systems due to topography, affordability, unplanned settlement, etc.
To consider the above situation, the factors of Sewer Connectivity and Water Supply, given in
Tables 5.5 and 5.6 below, have been adopted for the formulation of realistic wastewater
generation projection for the study area.
Table 5.5: Sewer Connectivity adopted for Realistic Wastewater Generation Projection
Sewer Connections
Population Category Based on Income Levels
2021 – 2030 2031 - 2040
High Income 20% 80%
Medium Income 100% 100%
Low Income with Individual Water Connection 60% 80%
Low Income without Individual Water Connection 30% 40%
Table 5.6: Water Supply Status adopted for Realistic Wastewater Generation Projection
Water Supply Status as a % of
Population Category Based on Income Levels Regular Water Supply
2021 – 2030 2031 - 2040
High Income 50% 80%
Medium Income 50% 80%
Low Income with Individual Water Connection 50% 80%
Low Income without Individual Water Connection 50% 80%
Figure 5.1 below shows the comparative trends of the wastewater flow generation for combined
study area of Mombasa West Mainland under the Ideal condition (100% Sewer Connections and
Regular Water Supply) and Realistic condition (with projected build-out of Sewer connections and
suppressed water supply);
70,000
65,000 With Projected Built-out of Sewer Connections
and Suppressed Water Supply
60,000
With 100% Sewer Connections & Regular Water
55,000 Supply
Dry Weather Flow, m³/day
50,000
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
-
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
From Figure 5.1 on Page 5-5, the projected wastewater generation based on the realistic
conditions of water supply and sewer connections at the Years 2025 and 2040 is 14,050 m³/day
and 44,300 m³/day respectively.
The design of Wastewater Management Scheme Components i.e. Sewerage System and Water
Treatment Plants, has been based on the wastewater flow generation developed from the
projected build-out of sewer connections and suppressed water supply.
Manning Equation: The Manning equation is widely used because of its simplicity. Although
it is empirical, it gives an accurate answer, given the uncertainties associated with the flows
generated (population projections, connected population, water consumption per person,
etc.). The formula is as follows:
R0.67 x S0.5
V=( )
n
Where:
V = velocity of flow, (m/s)
n = pipe roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius, (m)
S = slope of the pipeline, (m/m)
Table 6.1 below shows the Manning’s Pipe roughness coefficients for different pipe materials and
diameters.
Table 6.1: Friction Factor for Manning’s Formula
Pipe Material Pipe Dia, mm Friction Coefficient, n
<=300, <600 0.015
Spun Concrete
>= 600 0.014
Cast Concrete All sizes 0.018
uPVC All sizes 0.013
Pitch Fibre 100 & 150 0.014
In this study, manning equation has been adopted for the design of gravity sewers. It has been
complimented by Design Tables and Charts for the Colebrooke-White Equation, developed by the
Hydraulic Research Station in UK.
6.1.3 Self-Cleansing Gradients and Velocities
The velocity of flow in a gravity sewer depends on its gradient; the steeper the gradient, the
higher the velocity and for the same discharge volume, the shallower the depth of flow in the
sewer.
A minimum velocity is required in a sewer to ensure settling of solids do not occur. A velocity of
0.75 m/s is considered as the ‘self-cleansing’ velocity that will keep solids including silt in
suspension. It is important that this velocity is achieved at least once a day. This is ensured by
laying sewers at a gradient that will give a velocity of 1.0 m/s at full bore flow. The Nairobi City
Council’s Adoptive Standards recommends that velocities in sewers should exceed 0.75m/s when
flowing full.
Sewer velocity is more important in tropical climates such as in Mombasa West Mainland since it
has been noted that at high temperatures, increased biological activity rapidly reduces the
dissolved oxygen content of the sewage and can result to build-up of hydrogen sulphide gas.
Without oxygen, sulphate reducing bacteria break down the sulphates always present in sewage
and hydrogen sulphide gas is produced which turns into sulphuric acid. Hydrogen sulphide gas is
known to cause odour and corrosion problems. A velocity of 1.0 m/s is considered necessary in
tropical climates, (WHO Sectorial Report No 9) to deal with this problem.
This requirement is more important for trunk sewers and is inappropriate for house connections
or the secondary sewers for Mombasa West Mainland where flows may be intermittent and
retention times short. A minimum velocity of 0.75m/s has been adopted with exception of some
critical circumstance where a velocity of 0.6m/s has been allowed.
In areas where ground slopes are flat, the adoption of a minimum velocity of 1.0m/s places a
severe constraint on the design of the upper reaches of systems due to the steep gradients
required. Thus, flatter gradients have been adopted to decrease the resultant sewer depths and
to reduce the number of pumping stations. Regular flushing of sewers should be carried out at
the flush manholes to be provided at the upper sewer sections to prevent silting.
The Ministry of Water and Irrigation Practice Manual for Sewerage and Sanitation Services in
Kenya (2008) explains that maximum flow velocities were previously specified to reduce
possibilities of erosion in the pipe internal linings through scouring effects. Such effects were said
to occur at flow velocities exceeding 4.0 m/s. But studies have shown that erosion effects
observed at velocities greater than this threshold value are minimal and hence no upper limit of
flow velocity is recommended.
The following velocity guidelines have been adopted in the design:
Minimum velocity at peak flow 0.75 m/s
Minimum velocity in exceptional circumstances 0.6 m/s
Maximum velocity 3.0 m/s
Maximum flow in exceptional circumstances 6.0 m/s
6.1.4 Sulphide Generation
Hydrogen sulphide is the main source of corrosion in sewer pipes, particularly with high ambient
temperatures and long retention times. Aerobic bacteria on the sewer walls above the sewage
level oxidise the hydrogen sulphide gas to sulphuric acid which attacks the wall of sewer pipe and
result to corrosion of ferrous and concrete walls causing their rapid deterioration.
The onset of Hydrogen sulphide attack depends upon many variables including;
Sewage strength and sulphate content
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Velocity of flow – at low velocity, anaerobic conditions result through silt and sludge
accumulation. Natural oxygen recovery from the atmosphere is also low at low velocities
Temperature – sewer corrosion is more frequent and intensive in in warm climates as
compared to temperate areas
A well-designed and constructed Sewerage System is the best way of preventing occurrence of
sulphide attack. It is considered that the relatively short sewer lengths proposed in Mombasa
West Mainland Sewerage System, together with adequate gradients, make the onset of sulphide
attack unlikely. HDPE/ uPVC pipes will be used as much as possible in flatter gradients.
In Pumping Mains, sewage retention time less than 30 minutes has been provided to avoid
anaerobic conditions and generation of hydrogen sulphide. Injection of air into the main by a
compressor is proposed where retention times exceed 30 minutes. Where there is high flow
volume with turbulence and splashing, hydrogen sulphide will easily be generated. Proper design
of gradient changes in manholes, especially back drop manholes should prevent this.
Flushing of sewers prevents hydrogen sulphide generation because sulphides generation result
from slime and sewage deposits.
6.1.5 Ventilation of Sewers
Sewers must have adequate ventilation to:
Remove odorous gases released from the sewage
Remove explosive and poisonous gases produced in the sewage
Maintain adequate supply of oxygen in sewers and prevent hydrogen sulphide
generation
To ensure adequate ventilation, ventilation columns with extensions should be installed at all
house connections, Pumping Stations and Manholes where pumping mains discharge. Manhole
covers should also be provided with ventilation slots. Forced ventilation using compressors
should be used where necessary.
6.1.6 Depth of Sewers
Sewers are designed to flow as much as possible in the direction of the natural ground slope.
They should also be laid at depths that permit connection to the existing and future properties
within the sewered area. Besides, adequate cover to the sewers is required to ensure protection
against damages from live loads transiting on the overburden cover surface.
Nairobi City Council Manual recommends minimum depth of sewers of 1200mm in roads and
900mm in all other areas. Adopting this recommendation at the upstream sewer sections in flat
areas lead to unnecessarily deep sewers. However, additional protection can be provided at the
upstream section of sewers if shallow depths are adopted to limit sewer depths and result to
savings from deep excavations of entire sewer length.
The minimum sewer depths and recommended pipe protection measures in the various
circumstances are shown in Table 6.2 below.
Table 6.2: Minimum Sewer Depths and Pipe Protection
Depth Range Pipe Protection
0 - 750 mm Concrete bed & surround or granular bed & surround
In Open Spaces
Over 750 mm Protection governed by factors other than depth
0 - 1200 mm Concrete bed & surround
In Roads
Over 1200 mm Protection governed by factors other than depth
The depth of sewers in Mombasa West Mainland has been dictated by the constructability of soil
conditions given the flat topography, loose sandy soils, depth of the water table and economic
considerations.
Standard details for backfilling sewers and its surround have been provided to ensure protection
of sewers from unnecessary damages and overburden.
6.1.7 Manhole Spacing and Sizes
Manholes permit the inspection and cleaning of sewers and the removal of blockages. They
should be provided on sewers at all changes of direction, sewer change of gradient, at every
junction, where pipe size changes and generally throughout the sewerage system at intervals
sufficiently close to ease sewer cleaning.
Manhole spacing and size for the various sewer pipe diameters have been adopted based on the
guidelines of the Nairobi City Council Manual as shown in Table 6.3 below.
Table 6.3: Guideline to manhole diameter and spacing
Sewer Pipe Size Manhole Spacing Manhole Diameter
(mm) (m) (mm)
225 - 375 60 1050
450 - 600 80 1200
675 – 900 100 1500
Greater than 900 100 1500
Most sewer blockages occur in the smaller diameter sewers. Thus, for pipe diameters smaller
than 225 mm, it is proposed to reduce the manhole spacing to 40m for ease of cleaning and
maintenance. The spacing of intermediate manholes in the Sewerage System for Mombasa West
Mainland has been guided by the proposed Sewer Layout Plan.
6.1.8 Pipe Materials
The choice of pipe material is influenced by:
Hydraulic and structural design; in consideration of whether it is gravity or forced sewer
Resistance to chemical and biological processes internally and externally e.g. Corrosion
Physical properties of the pipe material i.e. strength (to prevent abrasion)
Types of joints; in view of water tightness which affects infiltration
Availability of required sewer diameters and necessary fittings
Cost of materials and installations
Due to the various requirements in the Sewerage System for Mombasa West Mainland,
combination of various pipe materials, which are manufactured locally to internationally
recognized standards, have been considered. These include;
i. Pre-cast Concrete Pipes
Spun concrete pipes are manufactured locally by several companies in Kenya. They are the
most commonly used for sewer pipes.
Flexible jointed pipes are manufactured in sizes ranging from 150mm to 975mm diameter and
are connected using rubber rings. They are vertically cast in vibrated moulds. They are the
most commonly used type of concrete pipes.
Rigid jointed pipes are rarely used for sewers. They are connected using tarred hessian and
cement mortar. Ogee jointed pipes, commonly used for surface water drainage systems, are
available in sizes from 100 mm to 1525 mm diameter.
Concrete pipes are usually laid on a concrete bed and provided with a haunch and surround
or reinforcement to meet the loading requirements.
Larger sizes and higher strength classes can be manufactured on order.
The disadvantages of using concrete pipes include their high friction coefficient and
susceptibility to corrosion due to the generation of hydrogen sulphide gas especially at high
ambient temperatures and long retention time.
In a Wet Well installation, pump maintenance, and especially the removal of blockages, is a
constant problem as the pumps usually should be withdrawn to gain access. For this reason, new
sewage pumping stations of this type are rarely constructed.
In recent years, several manufactures have started to produce watertight, submersible, portable
pumping sets suitable for sewage, each comprising a centrifugal pump set (centrifugal pump and
electrical motor). It is preferable to have the compact control equipment above ground level and
the remaining unit lowered into underground chamber. This system considerably reduces capital
costs and simplifies maintenance as within minutes, a standby unit can replace a faulty set, which
can then be transported to a workshop for repair.
It is considered that such installations are suitable in Kenya, for pumping capacity within the range
450 – 2,500 l/min. This guideline has not been stringently followed in this study.
Dry Well Stations
The substructure of such stations comprises two compartments, a Dry Well to house the pumps
and a sewage sump to store the sewage, sludge or effluent to be pumped.
The capital costs of such stations are more expensive than Wet Well stations of similar pumping
capacity, but it is considered that the ease of maintenance provided by this arrangement
compensates for the differences. It is recommended that all larger sewage pumping stations in
Kenya (> 2,500 l/min) should be of this type.
Dry Well sewage pumping stations usually house centrifugal pumps (horizontal or vertical
centrifugal pump sets). In general, horizontal centrifugal pumps are cheaper and easier to
maintain than vertical pumps. However, vertical pump sets have advantage that the prime mover
can be installed above ground level, so that it is protected from flooding caused by heavy rain or
a burst on the pipeline. In such installations, the prime mover and pump are connected by
shafting with universal joints. It is recommended that, when centrifugal pumps are used, vertical
sets be adopted.
Reciprocating sludge pumping sets may also be installed in Dry Well Stations. These small sets,
which include the prime mover, are usually located on the floors of the Dry wells to reduce the
suction heads on the pump; otherwise the station resembles one housing a centrifugal pump.
Packaged Pumping Stations
These self-contained, factory-built units are recent development. They operate by electricity and
are fully automated. Usually, a unit is installed underground and comprises pumping sets
enclosed in a protected steel substructure. Most are designed as Dry Well stations except that
electric motors are usually close-coupled to vertical pumps so that they are also at bottom.
6.2.3 Siting of Sewage Pumping Stations
The sewerage system dictates the approximate locations of all pumping stations. However, the
sites for Sewage Pumping Stations should preferably be constructed away from residential
property and should always be readily accessible.
Sewage Pumping Stations are mostly sited in low-lying areas, where flooding may be a risk. As a
precaution, the floor of superstructure to the Pumping Station should always be elevated above
the highest recorded flood level.
Electrical supply and mechanical failures are common occurrence at Sewage Pumping Stations.
All Sewage Pumping Stations should therefore be so located that resulting sewage overflow
causes minimum hazard to public health and environment. Where possible, a screened overflow
pipe, for use only during emergencies should be provided to convey sewage by gravity to a
retention ditch or pond.
The capacity of the sewage sump given by the above formulae represent the sum of the capacities
of the individual compartments if multiple sumps are provided at a Sewage Pumping Station.
At least two compartment of sewage sump is necessary, to facilitate cleaning of the wells and
pipe work and repairs to pumps. These compartments should be interconnected by orifice
through the dividing walls which can be closed by penstocks, when necessary, to isolate a
compartment.
6.3 Design of Wastewater Treatment Plants
6.3.1 Selection Criteria for Treatment Process / Technology
Wastewater treatment technology has been selected after taking due consideration of the
pertinent technical, operational and economic factors, limitations and constraints. In this regard,
the technologies have been evaluated based on the following key factors:
i) Nature and Strength of Wastewater
The physical, chemical and biological treatment processes are primarily governed by the
nature of pollutants to be removed and their strengths in the wastewater. The treatment
technology selected has ensured the attainment of required pollutant removal
efficiencies.
ii) Cost
The least cost treatment technology in terms of the both the capital and operation costs
has been given preference.
To simplify the evaluation process for the various treatment technologies, the Consultant
calculated the dynamic unit cost as average cost/m³ of wastewater treated for different
treatment technologies as summarised in Figure 6.1 below;
Treatment Plant site to reduce the hauling distance and to minimize cost of
transportation. The dumped sludge is compacted with bulldozer and covered with a thick
layer of clean soil to minimize nuisance through odour and flies.
Site evaluation and selection of the Sludge Dump Site have been carried out based on
following key factors:
Topography of the land and its potentials for erosion and runoff
Soil Characteristics
Soil depth to ground water
Accessibility & proximity to critical areas
Availability of clean earth for covering the dumped sludge / solid waste have been
considered to minimize hauling distance and transportation cost.
x) Mechanical Equipment
The selected system shall be such that minimum mechanical equipment needs to be
provided. Unnecessary mechanical equipment has been avoided. The system has been
designed such that maximum of the mechanical equipment is of local make.
xi) Nuisance
The degree of colour, odour and noise shall be below the nuisance thresh-hold, especially,
regarding the proximity of the Wastewater Treatment Plant to the build-up areas.
6.3.2 Alternative Wastewater Treatment Processes / Technologies
The following biological Wastewater Treatment Technologies have been analysed in detail using
the criteria listed in Sub-section 6.3.1:
i) Waste Stabilization Ponds
Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are large basins enclosed by earth embankments in
which raw wastewater is treated by entirely natural processes involving algae and
bacteria. Since these processes are unaided, the rate of oxidation is slower, and thus
hydraulic retention times are longer than in conventional wastewater treatment. WSPs
are the preferred method of wastewater treatment in developing countries where
sufficient land is normally available and where the temperature is most favourable for
their operation.
There are three principal types of WSP: anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds
which are linked in series. Anaerobic ponds and facultative ponds are designed for BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand) removal, and maturation ponds are designed for faecal
bacterial removal. Some removal of faecal bacteria (especially of Vibrio cholerae) occurs
in anaerobic and facultative ponds, which are also responsible for most of the removal of
helminth eggs; and some removal of BOD occurs in maturation ponds, which also remove
some of the nutrients (N and P).
A typical layout of Waste Stabilization Pond is given in Figure 6.3 on Page 6-12.
A trickling filter is a fixed-bed, biological reactor that operates under (mostly) aerobic
conditions. Pre-settled wastewater is continuously ‘trickled’ or sprayed over the filter
using sprinkler as shown in Figure 6.4 below.
The Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) is an activated sludge process designed to operate
under non-steady state conditions. An SBR operates in a true batch mode with aeration
and sludge settlement both occurring in the same tank. The major difference between
SBR and conventional continuous-flow activated sludge system is that the SBR tank
carries out the functions of equalization aeration and sedimentation in a time sequence
rather than in the conventional space sequence of continuous-flow systems thus smaller
footprint (see Figure 6.5 on Page 6-14).
Preliminary Treatment
Regardless of the Wastewater Treatment technology considered, it is important to have a
preceding preliminary Treatment Process at the Wastewater Treatment Plant.
Wastewater contains large solids and grit that can interfere with treatment processes through
accumulation of solids, frequent blockages, abrasion of mechanical parts and increased
maintenance on wastewater treatment equipment. To minimize potential problems and extend
the life of sanitation infrastructure, these materials require separate handling. Preliminary
treatment removes these constituents from the influent wastewater.
Some of the preliminary treatment processes are briefly described below;
a) Screening
Screening is the first unit operation used at Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs). It
removes coarse objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals to prevent damage and
clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances. These screens can be
cleaned either manually or mechanically.
Manually cleaned screens require little or no equipment maintenance and are suitable
for small WWTPs with few screenings. However, they require frequent raking to avoid
clogging and high backwater levels that cause build-up of solids mat on the screen. The
increased raking frequency increases labour costs.
Mechanically cleaned screening systems are popular in modern WWTPs because they
reduce labour costs and improve flow conditions resulting from screen capture.
However, they have a high equipment maintenance costs. A screening compactor is
usually situated close to the mechanically cleaned screen and compacted screenings are
conveyed to a dumpster or disposal area. Plants utilizing mechanically cleaned screens
should have a standby screen to put in operation when the primary screening device is
out of service.
Coarse screens and fine screens are available for use at the WWTPs. Coarse screens
remove large solids, rags, and debris from wastewater, and typically have openings of
6mm or larger. Fine screens are used to remove materials that may create operation and
maintenance problems in downstream processes, particularly in systems that lack
primary treatment. Typical opening sizes for fine screens are 1.5 to 6 mm.
b) Grit Removal
Grit includes sand, gravel, cinder, or other heavy solid materials that have higher specific
gravities than the organic biodegradable solids in the wastewater. Removal of grit
prevents unnecessary abrasion and wear of mechanical equipment, grit deposition in
pipelines and channels, and accumulation of grit in anaerobic digesters and aeration
basins. Removal of grit is carried out in a channel or chamber, where the velocity of the
incoming wastewater is adjusted to allow settlement of sand and grit. Grit removal
facilities typically precede primary clarification, and follow screening to prevent large
solids from interfering with grit handling equipment. In secondary treatment plants
without primary clarification, grit removal should precede aeration (Metcalf & Eddy,
1991).
Many types of grit removal systems exist, including;
o Aerated grit chambers
o Vortex-type (paddle or jet induced vortex) grit removal systems
o Detritus tanks (short-term sedimentation basins)
o Horizontal flow grit chambers (velocity-controlled channel)
o Hydrocyclones (cyclonic inertial separation)
Various factors must be taken into consideration when selecting a grit removal process,
including the quantity and characteristics of grit, potential adverse effects on
Activated power outages requirement Minimum land complicated M&E need further
nutrient and skilled secondary
Sludge and for O&M and requirements. RC structural equipment environmental
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF)
3. The activated sludge process and the oxidation ditch most easily lend themselves to nutrient reduction using the Modified Activated Sludge (MAS) process.
6-17
MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
Chlorination Facility
358 350 P4 382 30 44
580 400 P5 738 63 180
Mikindani
115 200 1,080 31 130
Pumping Station
Miritini Screw
- - 512 4 7
Pump
Port Reitz
610 250 1,538 53 319
Pumping Station
Miritini Pumping
329 200 41 48 8
Station
A detailed Layout Plan for Alternative Scheme 1 is given on Figure 7.2 on Page 7-4.
Existing -
Oxidation Ditch with
4Nr.
1 40 Kipevu (TW 1) 44,300 a Chlorination 9
Proposed -
System
5Nr.
Oxidation Ditch with
Existing - Kipevu (TW 1) 35,600 a Chlorination 7.5
4Nr. System
2 45
Proposed -
Waste Stabilization
4Nr. Miritini (TW 2) 8,700 21
Ponds
The locations of the Candidate Wastewater Treatment Sites considered in the considered
Alternative Schemes are shown in Figure 7.4 on Page 7-8.
Since the depth of excavation for sewer lines varies considerably, depending on several factors
like ground slopes, flow, velocity, etc., the cost of excavation has not been built in the above unit
rates.
To consider the variation of trench excavation for different depths, the cost of excavation has
been taken separately as shown in Table 8.2 below. Cost for extra-over excavation in soft and
hard rock has also been given.
Table 8.2: Unit Cost for Trench Excavations for Sewer Lines
Unit Rate (Kshs)
Pipe Diameter (mm) Depth Not Exceeding
1.0m 2.0m 3.0m 4.0m 5.0m 6.0m
225 243 365 609 937 1205 1473
300 278 417 696 1071 1377 1683
375 313 469 782 1205 1549 1894
450 348 522 869 1339 1721 2104
525 383 574 956 1473 1894 2314
600 417 626 1043 1607 2066 2525
675 452 678 1130 1741 2238 2735
750 487 730 1217 1874 2410 2946
825 522 782 1304 2008 2582 3156
900 556 835 1391 2142 2754 3366
Hard rock – Kshs. 3200/= per cubic metre
Soft rock – Kshs. 1800/= per cubic metre
Figure 8.1 below shows variations of unit costs for sewer trench excavation for various diameters
of sewers.
4000
3500
900mm
3000 825mm
Cost (Kshs/m)
750mm
2500
675mm
2000 600mm
525mm
1500
450mm
1000
375mm
300mm
500
225mm
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Maximum Depth (m)
8.4 Capital and Operations & Maintenance Costs of the Alternative Schemes
8.4.1 Capital Costs
The Capital Costs of the three Alternative Schemes formulated for Mombasa West Mainland have
been worked out on the following basis;
a) Project Implementation planned to be carried out in two phases i.e. Medium-Term Plan
(2020 -2025) and Long-Term Plan (2026 - 2040)
b) The Cost of Civil Works constitute the following fraction of the components total costs;
Wastewater Treatment Plant – 95%
Pumping Station – 60%
Sewers – 100%
A summary of the Capital Costs of the Alternative Schemes is given in Table 8.10 below;
Table 8.10: Capital Costs of the Alternative Schemes
S/No. Component Alternative 1 Alternative 2
1 Land Acquisition (Kshs) 30,000,000 1,226,731,860
Wastewater Treatment
2.1 5,355,968,760 5,827,319,231
Plant (Kshs)
2.2 Pumping Stations (Kshs) 115,561,134 105,207,110
Electro-Mechanical Works
3 358,933,849 376,839,086
(Kshs)
Wastewater Treatment
3.1 281,893,093 306,701,012
Plant (Kshs)
3.2 Pumping Stations (Kshs) 77,040,756 70,138,074
Table 8.11: Annual Operations & Maintenance Costs of the Alternative Schemes (Year 1)
S/No. Component Alternative 1 Alternative 2
Maintenance Costs
1 89,161,677 90,982,558
(Kshs)
2 Electricity Costs (Kshs) 64,208,669 69,851,008
3 Staff Costs (Kshs) 15,465,773 20,105,505
Total O&M Cost (Kshs) 168,836,118 180,939,071
Total O&M Cost (USD) [1] 1,639,186 1,756,690
[1]
– Exchange Rate: 1 USD = 103 Kshs
8.5 Average Incremental costs of the Alternative Schemes
Net Present Value (NPV) is a one of the commonly used criteria for comparing economic viability
of projects / Schemes. When the unit NPV of a scheme is derived for the unit of performance
indicator, incremental cost (marginal cost) is obtained.
The Net Present Values of the Alternative Schemes have been worked out on the following basis;
Discount Rate / Cost of Capital – 5%
Economic Life of Scheme – 30 years
10 Years Asset Renewal Period for the Electro-Mechanical components
Substantial completion of the scheme expected at the end of the 2nd year of
Implementation of the Medium-Term Plan Works (2022) and thus, scheme operation to
commence in the 3rd year (2023)
From the respective NPVs, Average Incremental Costs have been calculated in consideration of
the following factors;
Treated Wastewater to increase from 5,700 m³/d in year 2023 to 12,200 m³/d in year
2040
BOD removal as the key performance indicator (kg/year)
Average Influent BOD5 of 500 mg/l and Effluent BOD5 of 30 mg/l; thus, BOD5 removal of
470 mg/l
Average Incremental Cost of BOD removal within the economic life of the Infrastructure is an
alternative measure of economic viability.
The Net Present Values and the Average Increment Costs of BOD removal of the Alternative
Schemes are given in Table 8.12 below;
Table 8.12: Net Present Values and Average Incremental Cost of BOD Removal
Average Incremental Cost of BOD
Alternative Scheme NPV (USD)
Removal (USD / ton of BOD removed)
Alt Scheme 1 97,565,573 1,021
Alt Scheme 2 111,122,132 1,163
Step 3
The priority vectors x1, x2, ...x4 for the decision variable matrices are calculated. The priority
vectors are taken as the column to form a composite matrix ‘C’ such that
𝐶 = (𝑥1 𝑥2 … … 𝑥4 )
The composite priority vector xc is obtained by multiplying the composite matrix C by the priority
vector xb of the parameter matrix i.e xc = c * xb.
From xc, the relative weights of the decision variables i.e. Alternative Wastewater Treatment
Train is obtained. The optimum alternative is the one with the highest weight.
9.2 Wastewater Treatment Train Selection
9.2.1 Objective Description
The principal objective of this study is to select the ‘most suitable wastewater treatment train for
Mombasa West Mainland. This is the core consideration in the formulation of the parameters
used in AHP.
9.2.2 Parameters
To meet the principal objective, several parameters (subordinate objectives) have been
formulated which must be fulfilled. These parameters are identified in the subsequent
subsections with their influence on the Treatment Train selection and their characteristics briefly
discussed.
9.2.2.1 Simplicity of Operations and Maintenance
This parameter defines the relationship between the level of operation and maintenance skills
required and the capability of the local labour pool and service industry.
This factor is very important in consideration of the constraints in the availability of trained
manpower, availability of spare parts and the need to prioritise the use of limited financial
resources.
Decision variables that can be sustained with the use of affordable and locally available skills have
been given higher weights.
9.2.2.2 Net Present Value (NPV)
This is an indicative parameter of the total monetary outlay required by a treatment train. It
incorporates the Capital Costs and Operations & Maintenance Costs of the Project. A 20 year
period has been used in the determination of NPV.
Using the scale for pairwise comparison of decision variables the treatment train with the lowest
NPV is assigned the highest weight.
9.2.2.3 Environmental Impact
In the selection of the most suitable treatment train, it is important to analyse the effect on the
environment. The degree of odour and noise from the treatment train should not exceed the
nuisance threshold. This is achieved by such means including provision of a buffer zone planted
with trees.
Lower weight is assigned to the treatment trains with greater negative impact.
9.2.2.4 Land Requirement
The Land requirement for the treatment train should include allowance for provision of future
expansions works has been put into consideration under this parameter. Land requirement
should also include a buffer zone between the location of the treatment train and adjacent lands.
A wastewater treatment train with the less land requirement have been given higher weight using
the subjective scale of weighting.
9.2.2.5 Institutional Strength
The capacity of the utility provider such as manpower, requisite skill of staff, operation &
maintenance equipment etc. should correspond to the treatment train adopted for efficient daily
running of the treatment facility.
Alternatives which require a lower degree of management effort are weighted higher.
9.2.3 Alternative Wastewater Treatment Trains
Alternatives treatment trains considered in the AHP are listed below:
Alternative 1 - Waste Stabilization Ponds
Alternative 2 - Composite Biofilters (Trickling Filters) System (Anaerobic Ponds +
Trickling Filters + Maturation Ponds)
Alternative 3 - Oxidation Ditch System and Chlorination
Alternative 4 - Long Sea Outfall
To illustrate the interpretation of the scales of Intensity of Relative Importance, the weights of
Simplicity of Operation and Maintenance against other parameters have been analyzed and
summarized in Table 9.3 below.
Table 9.3: Analysis of Simplicity of Operation & Maintenance Weights against other Parameters
Pairwise Comparison Weighting Explanation
Simplicity of Operation and
1 Equal Importance
Maintenance against NPV
Simplicity of Operation and Environmental Impacts is moderately more
Maintenance against 1/3 important Simplicity of Operation and
Environmental Impacts Maintenance
Simplicity of Operation and Simplicity of Operation and Maintenance is
Maintenance against Land 1/4 moderately more important than Land
Requirement Requirement
Simplicity of Operation and Simplicity of Operation and Maintenance is
Maintenance against 1/2 moderately more important than Institutional
Institutional Strength Strength
A priority vector analyses the comparative weights of all the parameters for ranking purposes. A
summary of the priority vectors and ranking for the parameters is given in Table 9.4 below.
Table 9.4: A summary of the Priority Vectors for Parameter Matrix
Decision variable Priority Vector % Best Ranking %
Simplicity of Operation and Maintenance 0.092 9% 5
Net Present Value 0.097 10% 4
Environmental Impacts 0.238 24% 2
Land Requirements 0.340 34% 1
Institutional Strength 0.233 23% 3
From Table 9.4 above, it can be deduced that Environmental Impact is the most significant
parameter in the selection of the most suitable wastewater treatment train. Simplicity of
Operation & Maintenance and Net Present Values also have pronounced significance.
However, Land Requirement has least influence in the selection of most suitable treatment train.
Table 9.5 below gives a summary of the parameters’ strengths against the alternative wastewater
treatment trains.
Table 9.5: Summary of Parameter Weighting against Alternative Wastewater Treatment Trains
Simplicity of Net
Environmental Land Institutional
Operations and Present
Impacts Requirement Strength
Maintenance Value
Waste Stabilization
Good Excellent Excellent Poor Good
Ponds
Composite
Fair Good Fair Fair Fair
Biofilters
Based on these strengths, decision variable matrices for each of the five parameters have been
prepared.
The decision matrices for the significant parameters of Environmental Impact, Simplicity of
Operations & Maintenance and Net Present Value are given in Tables 9.6 to 9.8 below.
Detailed decision matrices for all the parameters is given in Volume 2: Master Plan Annexes –
Chapter 9.
Table 9.6: Decision Variable Matrix based on Environmental Impact
Waste Stabilization Composite Oxidation Ditches Long Sea
Ponds Biofilters with Chlorination Outfall
Waste Stabilization Ponds 1 3 2 3
Composite Biofilters 1/3 1 1/2 1
Oxidation Ditches with
Chlorination 1/2 2 1 1
Long Sea Outfall 1/3 1 1 1
Table 9.7: Decision Variable Matrix based on Simplicity of Operation & Maintenance
Waste Stabilization Composite Oxidation Ditches Long Sea
Ponds Biofilters with Chlorination Outfall
Waste Stabilization Ponds 1 4 1/3 2
Composite Biofilters 1/4 1 1/4 1/3
Oxidation Ditches with
3 4 1 2
Chlorination
Long Sea Outfall 1/2 3 1/2 1
Simplicity of
Net
Operations Environmental Land Institutional Weighted
Present Rank
and Impacts Requirement Strength Total
Value
Maintenance
Waste
Stabilization 0.486 0.548 0.456 0.052 0.410 0.244 3
Ponds
Composite
0.11 0.23 0.26 0.09 0.13 0.113 4
Biofilters
Oxidation
Ditches with 0.108 0.136 0.141 0.192 0.085 0.335 1
Chlorination
Long Sea Outfall 0.30 0.08 0.14 0.66 0.37 0.308 2
and relative elevation difference (for gravity conveyance) is preferred in siting of WWTP. For
instance, downstream arable land would make a WWTP site ideal for agricultural irrigation.
9.3.1.8 Land Acquisition
In this criterion, preference is given to sites owned by government agencies such as Ministries,
County Governments, etc. This ensures that the project affected persons are kept to a minimal
and reduces the cost of resettlement and compensation.
9.3.2 Candidate Sites
Two WWTP sites have been analysed and selected for the construction of WWTPs for Mombasa
West Mainland. A brief description of these sites is given below;
9.3.2.1 Kipevu Site
This is a conventional sewerage treatment plant located on the mainland to the West of
Mombasa Island within Kenya Oil Refineries Limited area and Kenya Pipeline Cooperation. The
plant can be accessed from Mombasa to Nairobi A109 Highway at the Airport round about
using Changamwe road, Magongo or Port Reitz roads. The Plant was commissioned in 2003
and was constructed by Kenyan Government though the support of funds from Saudi Fund.
9.3.2.2 Miritini Site
The Site is located within Miritini Sub-Location. It is located within residential area and is
owned by individuals. The plot is currently vacant.
9.3.3 Evaluation of Candidate Sites
The above sites have been evaluated based on the listed criteria to determine the suitability
ranking. A summary of the evaluation is given in Table 9.10 below.
Table 9.10: Evaluation of Candidate Wastewater Treatment Plant Sites
Distance of
Effluent Topography Potential for Project
Topography Geological Existing
Land use Discharge of Sewered Wastewater Affected
of Site Conditions Infrastructure
Point from Area reuse Persons
the WWTP
Kipevu Site
Miritini Site × ×
Multicriteria Analysis of the candidate sites has been incorporated in the analysis of the
Alternative Schemes in the subsequent section.
9.4 Wastewater Management Scheme Selection Analysis
9.4.1 Objective Description
The principal objective of this study is to select the most suitable wastewater management
scheme for Mombasa West Mainland.
9.4.2 Parameters
To meet the principal objective, several parameters (subordinate objectives) must be fulfilled.
These are listed below with brief description of their influence and characteristics.
9.4.2.1 Simplicity of Operations and Maintenance
This parameter defines the relationship between the level of operation and maintenance skills
required and the capability of the local labour pool and service industry. It is an important
parameter in consideration of constraints in the availability of trained manpower and spare parts
and the need to prioritise the use of limited financial resources.
Decision variables that can be sustained by affordable and locally available skills have been given
higher weights.
9.4.2.2 Net Present Value (NPV)
This is an indication of the total monetary outlay for scheme incorporating the capital cost and
operation and maintenance requirements. A 20 year-period has been used for NPV calculation.
Using the scale for pairwise comparison, a decision variable with lower NPV has been assigned a
higher weight.
The subordinate objectives which by cognizance pose greater importance have been assigned
higher scales in the Intensity of Relative Importance.
A summary of the resulting matrix of the Parameters is given in Table 9.12 below.
Table 9.12: Resultant Matrix of Parameters’ Pairwise Comparison
To illustrate the interpretation of the scales of Intensity of Relative Importance, the weights of
Simplicity of Operation and Maintenance against other parameters have been analyzed and
summarized in Table 9.13 below.
Table 9.13: Analysis of Simplicity of Operation & Maintenance Weights against other
parameters
A priority vector analyses the comparative weights of all the parameters for ranking purposes. A
summary of the priority vectors and ranking for the parameters is given in Table 9.14 on Page 9-
11.
From Table 9.14 above, it can be deduced that Environmental Impact is the most significant
parameter in the selection of the most suitable Wastewater Management Scheme. Land
Acquisition, Simplicity of Operation & Maintenance and Net Present Value also have pronounced
significance.
However, Potential for Treated Wastewater Reuse and Land Use Pattern have the least influence
in the selection of most suitable Wastewater Management Scheme.
Table 9.15 below gives a summary of the parameters’ strengths against the alternative schemes.
Table 9.15: Summary of Parameter Weighting against alternative schemes
Simplicity of
Net
Operations Environmental Potential Land Land
Present
and Impacts for Reuse Acquisition Use
Value
Maintenance
Centralized Scheme
with 1Nr Oxidation Good Good Poor Good Good Good
Ditch System
Decentralized Scheme
with 1 Nr Oxidation
Fair Poor Fair Fair Fair Fair
Ditches & 1Nr WSP
System
Based on these strengths, decision variable matrices for each of the five parameters have been
prepared.
The decision matrices for the significant parameters of Environmental Impact, Land Acquisition,
Simplicity of Operations & Maintenance and Net Present Value are given in Tables 9.16 below
and Table 9.17 to 9.19 on Page 9-12.
Detailed decision matrices for all the parameters is given in Volume 2: Master Plan Annexes –
Chapter 9.
Table 9.16: Decision Variable Matrix based on Environmental Impact
Easy availability and Familiarity; Ms Excel is part of Microsoft office which comes with
most Personal Computers. It is easily available and requires no purchase. It is easy to install
and can be run by most people owing to its familiarity of its commands. It is an all in
one programme and does not need the addition of analysis subsets or scripts.
Powerful analysis of large amounts of data - Recent upgrades to the Excel spreadsheet
enhance analyse of large amounts of data. With powerful filtering, sorting and search tools
one can quickly and easily narrow down the criteria that will assist in the analysis. This is in
addition to the inbuilt formulas and other analysis tools available on Ms Excel.
Details of the Model is given in the subsequent sub-sections;
10.2.3.1 Model Structure / Mathematical Basis
This Hydraulic Network Model is a deterministic model. A deterministic model is one whose
outcomes are precisely determined through known relationships among states and events,
without any room for random variation. In deterministic models, a given input will always
produce the same output. In comparison, stochastic models use ranges of values for variables in
the form of probability distributions.
This Model has been prepared to design for critical parameters required for a sewer to convey
peak wastewater flow generated between sections (manholes) of the sewer profile by gravity
MIBP/ CES/ BOSCH 10-2
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
based on Manning’s equation and other known relationships as briefly described below. All the
quantities are entered in the indicated SI units.
Manning Equation: It is widely used because of its simplicity. Although it is empirical, it
gives an answer that is within the accuracy required, given the uncertainties associated
with the flows generated (population, water consumption per person, etc.).
The formula is as follows:
R0.67 x S 0.5
V=( )
n
Where:
V = velocity of flow, (m/s)
n = pipe roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius, (m)
S = slope of the pipeline, (m/m)
Discharge Formula: Discharge through the pipe is determined by the equation;
Q=VxA
Where:
Q = Discharge (m³/s)
A = Sectional area of flow (m²)
Other standard formulae such as for determining peak factors (See sub-section 5.1.4) and other
geometric formulae have also been incorporated in the Model.
The assumptions of this Model relate to the formulas on whose basis it is formulated. For
instance, it is assumed that the pipe roughness will remain constant for the entire lifespan of the
sewer and a fixed roughness co-efficient adopted. A conservative value for ‘n’ has been adopted
to take care of anticipated deterioration of the pipe smoothness.
The Model evaluates the adequacy of sewer diameter and slope for the peak flow while meeting
the requirements spelt out under the design criteria such as sewage flowing approximately half-
bore and resulting velocities within the permissible range.
A summary of the adopted design criteria for Mombasa West Mainland Sewerage System as
detailed in Section 6.1 is summarised in Table 10.1 below.
Table 10.1: Adopted Design Criteria
Velocity of flow in a sewer should not be less than 0.75 m/s to ensure attainment of self-
cleansing conditions. On the other hand, the velocity should not exceed 3 m/s to reduce
the abrasion effect of the contained solids.
Sewer Slope and diameter are adjusted accordingly to ensure velocity of sewage flow
within this range.
10.2.5 Model Reliability
As earlier stated, this is a deterministic model whose output for similar conditions is constant.
The formulas on whose basis it has been developed have been carefully entered and outputs run
for known conditions.
Manual calculation of the sample condition (known situation with details of pipe diameter, slope,
wastewater flow and the resulting velocities and fraction of sewage flow in the pipe) have been
carried out to test the correctness of the outputs given by the Model.
The Model produces more precise outputs owing to the ability of Microsoft Excel to carry out
computations to the highest accuracy possible.
10.2.6 Proposed Sewerage Network for Mombasa West Mainland
Sewerage Analysis Model indicates that the range of diameter for the Sewers in Mombasa West
Mainland is 225 – 525 mm. The large diameter sewers are for the Trunk Sewers while the small
diameter of 225 mm is used for the secondary sewers.
A Layout Plan of the proposed Sewerage Network for Mombasa West Mainland is given in Figure
10.1 on Page 10-6.
Figure 10.1: Detailed Layout of the Sewerage System – Mombasa West Mainland
future utilization by these activities / settlements have been proposed for Sewerage
Implementation in the latter phases i.e. under Long-Medium Term Plan
Summary of the Phase 2 Sewerage components is given in Table 10.3 below.
Table 10.3: Schedule of Sewerage System - Phase 2
S/No Sewer Line Reference No. Dia (mm) Length (m) Pipe Material
1 Trunk Sewer -TS 3 375 2,200 Concrete S&S
2 Secondary Sewers 225 22,000 uPVC
A Layout Plan of the proposed Sewerage Network for Mombasa West Mainland showing each of
the Sewerage Implementation Phases is given in Figure 10.2 on Page 10-9.
Detailed calculation sheets for the proposed Trunk Sewers based on the Sewerage Network
Analysis Model is given in Volume 2: Master Plan Annexes – Chapter 10.
Layout Plans and Longitudinal Sections (Profiles) of the Trunk Sewers are given in Volume 2:
Master Plan Annexes – Chapter 10.
Figure 10.2: Layout Plan of the Phased Implementation of Sewerage System for the Study Area
Figures 10.3 and 10.4 on Pages 10-12 and 10-13 show the Layout Plan and Sections of a screw
Pump Station and Layout Plan and Section of a Centrifugal Pump Station respectively.
Figures 10.2 on Pages 10-9 shows the Location Plan of the proposed Pumping Stations in the
Sewerage System.
Detailed Calculation Sheets for the Pumping Station Components including Sump and Pump are
given in Volume 2: Master Plan Annexes – Chapter 10.
Figure 10.3: Typical Layout Plan and Sections of a Screw Pumping Station
Figure 10.4: Typical Layout Plan and Sections of a Centrifugal Pumping Station
Alternative suitable treatment technology for use at Kipevu is activated sludge treatment option.
Oxidation Ditch System, the main treatment technology in the existing WWTP, has been
selected with a provision for Chlorination / De-chlorination System for pathogen reduction
(final polishing). Oxidation ditch is a modified activated sludge biological treatment process that
utilizes long solid retention times (SRTs) to remove biodegradable organics. They are typically
complete mix systems, but they can be modified to approach pug flow conditions.
The main advantage of the Oxidation Ditch system is the ability to achieve removal performance
objectives with low operational requirements and operation and maintenance costs. Some
specific advantages of Oxidation Ditches include:
An added measure of reliability and performance over other biological processes owing to
a constant water level and eliminates the periodic effluent surge common to other
biological processes
Long hydraulic retention time and complete mixing minimizing the impact of shock load or
hydraulic surges
Produce less sludge than other biological treatment process owing to the extended
biological activity during the activated sludge process
Energy efficient operations result in reduced energy costs compared with other biological
treatment processes
The main handicap of Oxidation Ditch is the relatively high effluent suspended solid
concentrations which requires further sedimentation units such as secondary clarifiers and
Sludge Thickening Tanks.
10.4.2 Treatment Plant Location
A centralized Waste Water Treatment Plant is proposed for West Mainland at the site of the
Existing Waste Water Treatment Plant in Kipevu (569830 m E, 9553759 m N). The location of the
Wastewater Treatment Plant is shown on Figures 10.1 and 10.2 on Page 10-6 and 10-9
respectively.
This site has been evaluated considering the existing Waste Water Treatment facilities on it and
based on a check-list for site selection prepared in consideration of the pertinent physical,
environmental and economic factors including the ease with which the wastewater generated in
West Mainland can be conveyed to the sites by minimal pumping, limited land availability in the
study area and the safe distance away from built-up areas. The land adjacent to the existing
Wastewater Treatment Plant at Kipevu where the additional units are proposed was earmarked
for expansion Works of the Waste Water Treatment Plant.
Based on the recommended treatment technology (Oxidation Ditch and Chlorination / De-
Chlorination System), ultimate projected wastewater flows based on the suppressed water
MIBP/ CES/ BOSCH 10-14
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
supply and projected build-up of sewer connections (Ultimate Design Capacity – 44,300 m³/d;
Refer to Subsection 5.2) and limited availability of land at the site, the land required for a
centralized WWTP at Kipevu site to serve the sanitation needs of the study area (West Mainland)
up to the ultimate horizon of year 2040, is approximately 11 Ha. The WWTP will include the
existing WWTP with an installed capacity of 17,000 m³/d and additional units to be constructed
under expansion Works with additional capacity of 27,300 m³/d.
The site is owned by the County Government of Mombasa and thus land acquisition is
unnecessary. It lies close to the shores of Port Reitz of the Indian Ocean and treated effluent can
be discharged directly to the ocean through a short length of outfall sewer.
This site slopes towards the ocean with sufficient slopes to permit an adequate hydraulic profile
through the units without incurring excessive earthworks.
Kipevu site is accessible via the access Road to the Kenya Ports at Kipevu off Mombasa – Nairobi
Highway (A109). The site also has services such as electricity and water.
10.4.3 Design Considerations
The design criteria and philosophy adopted in the design of the Oxidation Ditch has been based
mainly on the Publication and Standards by United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), EPA 832 -F-00-013, September 2000 and the Ministry of Water and Irrigation – Final
Practice Manual for Sewerage and Sanitation Services in Kenya, 2008.
General
Preliminary treatment such as bar screens and grit removal, normally precedes the oxidation
ditch. Primary settling prior to an oxidation ditch is sometimes practiced, but is not typical in this
design. Tertiary treatment may be required after clarification, depending on the effluent
requirements. Disinfection is required and reaeration may be necessary prior to the final
discharge. Flow to the oxidation ditch is aerated and mixed with return sludge from a secondary
clarifier.
Design Parameters
Screened wastewater enters the oxidation ditch, is aerated and circulated at about 0.25 to 0.35
m/s to maintain the solids in suspension (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). The Return Activate Sludge (RAS)
recycle ratio is from 75% - 150% and the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentration
ranges from 1,500 – 5,000 mg/L (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991). The oxygen transfer efficiency of the
oxidation ditches ranges from 1,500 – 2,100 g/kW/hr (Baker Process, 1999).
The design criteria are affected by the influent wastewater parameters and the required effluent
characteristics, including the requirements to achieve nitrification, denitrification, and/or
biological phosphorus removal. Specific design parameters for Oxidation Ditches include;
(i) Solids Retention Time (SRT):
Oxidation Ditch volume is sized based on the required SRT to meet effluent quality requirement.
The SRT is selected as a function of nitrification requirements and the minimum mixed liquor
temperature. Design SRT values vary from 4 to 48 or more days. Typical SRTs required for
nitrification range from 12 to 24 days.
(ii) BoD Loading
BoD loading varies from 160 mg/l to more than 40,000 mg/l. A BoD loading rate of 600 mg/l has
been adopted as the design loading rate. However, the BoD loading rate is not typically used to
determine whether nitrification occurs.
The design of the aeration and other electro-mechanical equipment (including oxygen and mixing
requirements) shall be included in the Detailed Design
10.4.4 Wastewater Treatment Plant Details
The Oxidation Ditch system has been designed to serve the sanitation needs of Mombasa West
Mainland up to the ultimate design horizon of Year 2040, for the wastewater generation based
on realistic conditions of water supply and sewer connections and in consideration of the design
consideration described in sub-section 5.3 above.
Table 10.6 on Page 10-18 shows a summary of details of the Waste Water Treatment Plant
designed to serve the sanitation needs of up to Year 2040.
Table 10.6: Details of Additional Units at the Waste Water Treatment Plant: Long-Term Plan
Design Parameter Unit Quantity
Aeration Ditches with Aerators
Number of Aeration Ditches No. 3
Depth of each Aeration Ditch m 3
Free-board m 0.6
Solid Retention Period (SRT) days 12
Hydraulic Retention Period hrs 18
Final Settlement Tanks
Number of Settlement Tanks No. 3
Sidewall Depth m 2.5
0
Floor Angle 7.5
Retention Time hrs 2
M3/m2/
Surface Loading 30
day
Sludge Thickening Tanks
Number of Sludge Thickening
No. 2
Tanks
Sidewall Depth m 4
0
Floor Angle 7.5
Retention Time hrs 12
The Site Layout Plan of the proposed Waste Water Treatment Plant is given in Figure 10.5 on
Page 10-19.
Detailed calculation sheets of the Waste Water Treatment Plants (Year 2040) are given in Volume
2: Master Plan Annexes – Chapter 10.
BUFFER ZONE
Figure 10.5: Site Layout Plan of the proposed Waste Water Treatment Plant
10.5.3 Implementation Costs for Phased Investment on Waste Water Treatment Plant
The estimated implementation costs for the Waste Water Treatment Plant to serve both the
Medium-Term (Year 2021 – 2025) and Long-Term (2026 – 2040) sanitation needs of Mombasa
West Mainland is summarised in Tables 10.8 and 10.9 below.
Table 10.8: Implementation Cost for Waste Water Treatment Plant: Medium-Term Plan
S/No. Components No. Cost (Kshs) Cost (US$)
Chlorination / De-chlorination
1 1
Facility 467,224,625 4,536,161
Sub-Total 1 467,224,625 4,536,161
Add 7.5% of Sub-Total 1 for Preliminary and General 35,041,847 340,212
Sub-Total 2 502,266,472 4,876,374
Add 10% of Sub-Total 2 for Physical Contingencies 50,226,647 487,637
Sub-Total 3 552,493,119 5,364,011
Add 10% of Sub-Total 3 for Price Contingencies 55,249.312 536,401
Sub-Total 4 607,742,431 5,900,412
Add 10% of Sub-Total 4 for Consultancy 60,774,243 590,041
GRAND TOTAL INCLUDING PRELIMINARY AND GENERAL,
668,516,674 6,490,453
CONTINGENCIES, DUTIES AND TAXES & CONSULTANCY FEES
Table 10.9: Implementation Cost for Additional Units at the Waste Water Treatment Plant:
Long-Term Plan
S/No. Components No. Cost (Kshs) Cost (US$)
1 Inlet Works 1 60,606,965 6,060,696
2 Aeration Ditches with Aerators 3 848,497,509 84,849,751
3 Final Settlement Tanks 3 515,159,202 51,515,920
4 Sludge Thickening Tanks 3 515,159,202 51,515,920
5 Electro-mechanical Works including
Item 1,030,318,404 103,031,840
pumps, aerator etc.
6 Chlorination / De-chlorination Facility 1 641,166,905 64,116,691
7 Staff Houses 2 4,500,000 450,000
8 Site and Ancillary Works Item 60,606,965 6,060,696
Sub-Total 1 3,676,015,152 367,601,514
Add 7.5% of Sub-Total 1 for Preliminary and General 275,701,136 27,570,114
Sub-Total 2 3,951,716,289 395,171,629
Add 10% of Sub-Total 2 for Physical Contingencies 395,171,629 39,517,163
Sub-Total 3 4,346,887,918 434,688,792
Add 10% of Sub-Total 3 for Price Contingencies 434,688,792 43,468,879
Sub-Total 4 4,781,576,710 478,157,671
Add 10% of Sub-Total 4 for Consultancy 478,157,671 47,815,767
GRAND TOTAL INCLUDING PRELIMINARY AND GENERAL,
5,259,734,381 525,973,438
CONTINGENCIES, DUTIES AND TAXES & CONSULTANCY FEES
Note: 1 US$ = 103 Kshs
MIBP/ CES/BOSCH 10-21
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
use activities which are within proximity to the Wastewater Treatment Plant are to be considered
for wastewater reuse.
A layout plan showing the proposed land use for Mombasa West Mainland is given in Figure 3.3
on Page 3-8.
Based on the proposed Land-Use Plan and the Level of Wastewater treatment proposed at the
Wastewater Treatment Plant, only three main wastewater reuse applications can be considered
in Mombasa West Mainland, i.e., Agricultural, Industrial and Environmental.
Details of proposed area allocated for Agricultural, Industrial and Environmental land uses in the
year 2040 for Mombasa West Mainland are given in Table 10.11 below.
Table 10.11: Details of Land for Re-use Application (Year 2040).
Land Use Area Allocated (ha)
1. Agricultural 98
2. Industrial 1142
3. Environmental 814
4. Airport 352
Based on Table 10.11 above, the following conclusion can be drawn:
Land-use allocated for agriculture is relatively small in Mombasa West Mainland and located
approximately 10 km from the WWTP in Kipevu. Therefore, due to high pumping and pipeline
construction cost, wastewater reuse for agricultural will be uneconomical in Mombasa West
Mainland.
Industrial production is the predominant economic basket for Mombasa West Mainland.
Based on the 2040 Land Use Map, industries have been allocated the largest Land Use areas
compared to agricultural and environmental Land Uses. The existing and proposed areas for
Industrial Zones are evenly distributed in West Mainland. Therefore, wastewater reuse for
industrial purposes will be highly economical considering the benefits accrued by augmenting
potable water sources. On the contrary, high concentration of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in
treated wastewater from the Oxidation Ditches Systems might render the wastewater
effluent unfit for industrial cooling reuse applications based on the possibilities of scale
formation and associated blockage effects on the conveyance conduits. However, industries
will be advised on the suitable tertiary treatment required to improve the wastewater
effluent quality before use.
The total area allocated for environmental purposes is considerably greater than that
allocated for agriculture. Recycling treated wastewater to rehabilitate and maintain
environmental/conservation areas can improve the Green Space in Mombasa West
Mainland.
Moi International Airport covers 352 ha in Mombasa West Mainland. The airport, which falls
under Commercial Land use, is located within the Industrial zone. Therefore, treated
wastewater conveyed for industrial purposes can also be supplied to the airport to augment
their potable water demand.
In conclusion, Industrial application is the most suitable for wastewater reuse considering the
benefits accrued by augmenting the potable water supply in Mombasa West Mainland.
The volumetric water requirement for Industrial wastewater reuse will be evaluated from
Industrial Water demand in Mombasa West Mainland.
The following criterion was adopted for the industrial water demand based on commonly
accepted demand criteria: -
Intensive industrial activity - 25,000 l/day/ha
Small scale industrial activity - 600 l/day/ha
Gross treated wastewater to be pumped from Kipevu WWTP before transmission losses;
11,520 𝑚³/𝑑𝑎𝑦
=
0.8
Figure 10.8: Layout Plan of the Conveyance and Storage System for Industrial Wastewater Reuse – Mombasa West Mainland
Water Appeal
Board
WAB Water Services
Trust Fund
WSTF
Formulation
Policy
MWI
National level
MWRMD
45
Water Water
Resources Services
Management Regulatory
Regulation
Authority Board
WRMA WSRB
Catchment Areas Water
Regional
level
Advisory Services
Committees Boards
CAACs WSBs
Provision
Consumers, Users
new legislation, as Water Act 2016, to be in accordance to the new constitution. Under the New
Water Act 2016, Cabinet Secretary is empowered, in consultation with county governments to
provide a national water sector investment and financing plan aggregated from the county
government plans which shall provide details such as the time frames and the investment programs
for the Plans.
The Act also requires the Water Service Boards to be transformed into Waterworks Development
Agencies by notice in the Gazette by the Cabinet Secretary.
The powers and functions of the proposed Waterworks Development Agency include:
a) Undertaking the development, maintenance and management of the national public
water works within its area of jurisdiction;
b) operating the waterworks and provide water services as a water service provider, until
such a time as responsibility for the operation and management of the waterworks are
handed over to a county government, joint committee, authority of county governments
or water services provider within whose area of jurisdiction or supply the waterworks is
located;
c) providing reserve capacity for purposes of providing water services where pursuant to
section 103, the Regulatory Board orders the transfer of water services functions from a
defaulting water services provider to another licensee;
d) Providing technical services and capacity building to such county governments and water
services providers within its area as may be requested; and
e) Providing to the Cabinet Secretary technical support in the discharge of his or her
functions under the Constitution and this Act.
11.1.1.2 Status of Water and Sanitation Coverage
Kenya is a water stressed country with a low per capita annual freshwater endowment. Access to
water and sanitation is low because of limited water resources development and ageing/dilapidated
infrastructure. Access to water and sanitation falls below the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
targets of universal access. However, some parts of the Country have improved access than others.
Despite increased investments and improvements in levels of access in the last 5 years, the rapid
population increase, urbanization and economic growth strain the existing water resources and
infrastructure and hinder efforts towards achieving the sector SDGs. Furthermore, catchment
degradation has increased the country’s vulnerability to climate change with the high inter-annual
and intra-annual rainfall variability resulting in frequent and severe droughts and floods. Water
security is hence crucial to attainment of Vision 2030 aspirations and sustained economic
development.
11.1.1.3 Sector Strategies
After enactment of Water Act 2002, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) developed strategic
objectives. These include:
i. Accelerating the implementation of water sector reforms
ii. Improving the sustainable management of water resources
iii. Improving the provision of water and sewerage services
iv. Improving utilization of land through irrigation and land reclamation
v. Strengthening institutions in the ministry and the water sector
vi. Mobilizing resources and promoting efficiency in their utilization
vii. Improving the management and access to water resources information
MWI also developed the Water Sector Strategic Plan (WSSP; 2010 – 2015) to ensure that water
resources are protected, harnessed and sustainably managed for all competing uses and Strategic
Plan (2013-2017) to increase access to clean, safe water and sanitation services.
In addition, the National Water Resources Management Strategy (NWRMS 2010-2016) aims to
increase the per capita water storage levels in Kenya from 5.3m3 to 25m3 by 2030.
11.1.1.4 Regulation
Among the sector institutions, WASREB is mandated to set rules and enforce standards that guide
the sector towards ensuring that consumers are protected and have access to adequate, efficient,
affordable and sustainable services. They undertake tariff reviews to ensure cost-recovery for
institutions to meet future demands. In efforts of promoting the commercialization of water service
delivery, they have permitted private operators to run the urban water utilities.
WRMA issues water permits to the WSBs and monitors their compliance.
11.1.1.5 Coast Water Services Board
The Coast Water Services Board (CWSB) was established through a Gazette Notice No. 1328 of 27th
February 2004 to undertake the mandate of WSB in the jurisdiction of the coastal area. CWSB has
contracted the Mombasa Water Company (MOWASCO), Kilifi-Mariakani Water Company
(KIMAWASCO), Kwale Water Company (KWAWASCO), Malindi Water Company (MAWASCO), Lamu
Water Company (LAWASCO), Taita-Taveta Voi Water Company (TAVEVO) and Tana Water and
Sanitation Company (TAWASCO) with the dedicated mandate of water services provision in their
respective areas.
The main responsibilities undertaken by CWSB include asset development and supervision of the
WSPs. In addition to these, CWSB is currently operating the Bulk Water System while awaiting
setting-up and operationalization of Bulk Water Company.
11.1.1.6 Mombasa Water and Sewerage Company Limited
Mombasa Water & Sewerage Company Ltd (MOWASCO) was established on 24th December 2004 as
a limited liability company. At present, the company is owned by the Mombasa County Government.
The mandate of the company is to provide cost effective and affordable quality water and sanitation
services in the area of jurisdiction. The Company’s mandate includes;
a) Provide quality and economical water and sanitation services to consumers
b) Billing for water and sanitation services and ensure timely collection of revenues
c) Routinely maintain water and sanitation services infrastructure (depending on size of pipe)
d) Ensure compliance with standards and licensing requirements set by CWSB (as stipulated by
Service Provision Agreement - SPA)
11.1.2 Tariffs
11.1.2.1 Introduction
Water Tariffs are identical for all the Water Service Providers under contract with CWSB. In cases
where the tariff has been increased, approval by WASREB is mandatory. WASREB can also mandate
WSB to formulate tariff adjustment.
In February 2010 water tariff adjustment was implemented. Where there is a sewer connection, a
surcharge of 75% of the relevant water tariff applies. Other charges associated with tariff include
meter rental, septic tank exhaust services etc.
Illegal connection-Commercial,
30,000 and double deposit
Industry, Construction (Fraud)
Depreciation is on straight line basis, with civil works having a useful life of 40 years and
electromechanical 10 years’ useful life.
11.2.2 Methodology for Financial Analysis
The financial analysis has been undertaken using project based financial model developed for
modelling the financial performance of a Sewerage Project. The Microsoft excel based model
incorporates all the important variables of financial performance and spans for a period of 26 years.
Its main components include: Investment Cost, Revenue Generated, Operating and Maintenance
Cost and other Economic Factors such as Projected Water Demand and Population.
The outputs for the model include the, Project Financial Statements and Financial Ratios /
Performance Indicators.
In determining the financial viability of the Mombasa West Mainland Wastewater Management
System the following activities were undertaken:
(i) identifying and quantifying the costs and revenues
(ii) calculating the project revenues
(iii) Estimating the average incremental financial cost, financial net present value and
financial internal rate of return (FIRR)
FIRR is the rate of return at which the present value of the stream of incremental net flows in financial
prices is zero. If the FIRR is equal to or greater than the financial opportunity cost of capital, the
project is considered financially viable. Thus, financial benefit-cost analysis covers the profitability
aspect of the project.
11.2.3 Project Revenues
The projects gross revenues are calculated as the total revenues from sewerage services less billings
not recovered while net incomes are calculated as the difference between gross revenues and costs
(capital development and O&M costs). A collection efficiency of 90% has been adopted in the
analysis.
A summary of the Project Revenues is shown in Table 11.5 below.
Table 11.5: Summary of Project Revenues
Year Revenue Generated, Kshs. Collection Efficiency Average Revenue, Kshs.
2023 460,050,906.24 90% 414,045,816
2024 460,050,906.24 90% 414,045,816
2025 529,072,996.43 90% 476,165,697
2026 529,072,996.43 90% 476,165,697
2027 766,111,799.38 90% 689,500,619
2028 766,111,799.38 90% 689,500,619
2029 766,111,799.38 90% 689,500,619
2030 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2031 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2032 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2033 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2034 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2035 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2036 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2037 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2038 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2039 1,387,967,728.04 90% 1,249,170,955
2040 2,414,926,596.07 90% 2,173,433,936
2041 2,414,926,596.07 90% 2,173,433,936
2042 2,414,926,596.07 90% 2,173,433,936
2043 2,414,926,596.07 90% 2,173,433,936
2044 2,414,926,596.07 90% 2,173,433,936
MIBP/ CES/ BOSCH 11-7
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The Key outputs of the Financial Analysis Model include the Benefit Cost (BC) ratio and Discounted
Measures such as Net Present Value (NPV) and Financial Internal Rate of Return (FIRR). A summary
of these key outputs is described in the subsequent sub-sections while the detailed results for the
analysis are presented in Volume 2: Master Plan Annexes – Chapter 11.
11.2.5 Cost Benefit Analysis
The benefit cost (BC) ratio of the project was computed using the following formula:
BC Ratio = present value of the project revenues/ project investment cost
From the analysis, the BC ratio for the project is 1.96 with an assumed discounting rate of 5%.
However, at discounting rates of 8% and 12% the resulting BCs are 1.65 and 1.49. These BC ratios
are greater than 1 and indicate that the project is financially viable
health and living conditions, reduction of poverty, increased productivity and economic growth of
the Project Area.
The purpose of the economic analysis of projects is to inform a better allocation of scarce resources.
11.3.2 Methodology
The assessment is based on the analysis of the economic impacts and returns in the conventional
cost benefit approach i.e. the Capital and Operational and Maintenance Costs in economic terms
over the project life are compared to the Economic Benefits of increased Sanitation Services.
To assess the economic viability of the project, the following steps have been undertaken:
i. Costs and benefits were identified and quantified (in physical terms).
ii. Costs and benefits were valued to the extent feasible, in monetary terms; and
iii. Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) or Economic Net Present Value (NPV) discounted at
Economic Opportunity Cost of Capital (EOCC) of 5%, 10% and 12% by comparing benefits with
the costs
The EIRR is the rate of return for which the present value of the net benefit stream becomes zero, or
at which the present value of the benefit stream is equal to the present value of the cost stream. For
a project to be acceptable, the EIRR should be greater than the EOCC.
The weighted average cost of capital for the CWSB area is approximately 3%. The analysis has
adopted 5% as the minimum rate of return since the projects are assumed to have considerable non-
quantifiable benefits.
11.3.3 Key Assumptions
The assumptions considered under Financial Analysis applies for the Economic Analysis (Refer to Sub-
section 11.2.1).
11.3.4 Capital Development Cost
The capital development costs adopted in the economic analysis are summarized in Table 11.8
below:
Table 11.8: Schedule of Capital Development Costs
Distribution
Implementation Percentage of Sewerage Waste Water
of Land
Period Disbursement system Treatment plant
Investments
Medium Term
In the Economic Analysis, the projected wastewater generation with the projected build-out of Sewer
Connections and Suppressed Water Supply has been adopted.
11.3.8 Future without project situation
Mombasa West Mainland currently lacks a functional water-borne sewerage system. If the proposed
wastewater management strategy is not implemented, the service area will continue to rely on the
on-plot sanitation systems such as septic tanks and latrines. These systems are unsustainable and
pose hazard to both the public health and the environment resulting to pollution of water bodies
(ocean and rivers) and increased occurrence of water-borne diseases.
11.3.9 Valuation of benefits
11.3.9.1 Improvement of water bodies (non-use value)
Tourism is the main economic activity in Mombasa West Mainland. At present, raw sewage is
released into the environment including water bodies such as the ocean beaches. The
implementation of the proposed wastewater management system will ensure proper treatment and
disposal of wastewater and result to clean and more attractive beaches with the effect of boosting
the economy of Mombasa West Mainland through increased number of visiting tourists and
investors.
It has been assumed that the tourists and visitors to Mombasa West Mainland will increase by 0.1%
and increase the revenue for the beaches by 0.1% of the tourist spend per annum.
The resulting benefits have been calculated based on the following variables & their assumed values;
Number of Tourists and Visitors Per Month (N) - 50,000
Average expenditure per day in in USD - 200
Exchange rate USD to Kshs (E) - 101
Number of Month in a year (M) - 12
Percentage contribution - 0.10%
Total expenditure by tourists & visitors = (50,000*200*101*12) *0.1% = Ksh. 12,120,000 p.a.
11.3.9.2 Health Benefits
Improved sanitation systems are expected to generate significant health benefits to be measured by
the reduction in waterborne sickness and thereby reduced household expenditure in health, reduced
work day losses from sickness or by having to care for the sick family members.
In the economic analysis, it has been assumed that about 60% of health expenditure in Mombasa
West Mainland results from waterborne diseases and health expenditure per capita per year is USD
13 (Kshs. 975).
11.3.10 Results of Economic Analysis
The Key outputs of the model are the Cost Benefit Cash Flow, Net Present Value and Economic
Internal Rate of Return (EIRR). Details of these outputs are given in following sub-sections.
the World Bank Operational Policy OP 4.12 have been adopted as the main policy documents
to guide on mechanisms for preparation of Resettlement Action Plan.
The main principles of the Policy include:
To prevent or minimize involuntary displacement whenever possible;
To design and implement resettlement as a sustainable development program;
To pay for lost assets at replacement cost;
To restore peoples’ capacity to earn a living and their community ties;
Components necessary to realize project objectives are covered regardless of the
source of financing;
Resettlement costs are considered part of project costs.
The Project components described above will trigger resettlement impacts as listed below;
No RAP impacts are anticipated with the existing Kipevu Waste Water Treatment Plant.
However, RAP impacts are anticipated to be triggered by other Project components as
illustrated in bullets below.
Loss of business and residential structures lying along the sewer alignments and its
wayleave and at the proposed WWTP site during construction period
Loss of crops and trees lying along the sewer alignments and its wayleave and at the
proposed WWTP site during construction period
13.2 Guiding Legislation and Policy
Based on the scope, EMCA 1999 requires that Project activities under the proposed
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa West Mainland be subjected to an Environmental and
Social Impact Assessment (ESIA).
The World Bank under Operation Policy OP 4.01 also requires that Environmental Assessment
(EA) be carried out for Projects of such magnitude.
The development of such Infrastructural Projects require compliance to the guiding
legislations, guidelines and policies, both under the Kenyan context and the World Bank. These
have been dealt with under several laws, by-laws, regulations and Acts of parliament, as well
as policy documents. The relevant guidelines are summarized in the following sub-sections;
13.2.1 Kenyan Legislations
The Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), 1999 and subsequent
regulations
Coast Development Authority Act (Cap 449)
Forest Act 2005
Marine Zones Act Cap 371 of 1989
Water Act 2016
County Government Act No. 17 of 2012
Physical Planning Act 1996 (286)
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA 2007)
The Public Health Act (Cap.242)
13.2.2 World Bank Policies and Guidelines
The Project has been assessed against the following Safeguards Policies;
Environmental Assessment OP 4.01
Involuntary Resettlement (OP 4.12)
Forestry (OP4.36, GP4.36)
OP/BP 4.04 (Natural Habitats)
Physical Cultural Resources(OP/BP4.11)
World Bank Group Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines on Water and
Sanitation
13.3 Scoping for Environmental and Social Impacts
The process of scoping for environmental and social impacts has been undertaken on all
components of the proposed Project. The purpose of scoping is to identify significant
environmental and social risks that are likely to be triggered by the Project.
The process enabled determination of the appropriate issues within the scope and extent of
the Project. The aspects considered during scoping include;
a. Relevant issues to be considered in an ESIA
b. Appropriate time and space boundaries of the ESIA
c. Information necessary for decision-making
d. Significant effects and factors to be studied in detail
13.3.1 Alternative Sites
The scoping for environment and social impacts has been carried out for all the alternative
WWTP sites considered in the Master Plan. A summary of the finding for the alternative sites
based on the scoping is presented in Tables 13.1 and 13.2 and Figures 13.1 below.
Table 13.1: Site Description- Kipevu
Environment and Social Parameters Remark
No anticipated significant impact to natural Detailed ESIA required at detailed
environment design
No significant impact to Health and Safety of the Full RAP required at detailed design
community Site ideal for establishment of the
No significant impact to social environment, Oxidation Ditches with Chlorination /
however OP 4.12 is triggered due to potential of De-Chlorination Facility from an
sewer lines traversing though private property Environment and Social perspective
The impact rating for increased land values is shown in Table 13.10 below.
Table 13.10: Impact Rating for Increased Land Values
Severity of Impact +3
Spatial Scope of the Impact +3
Duration of Impact +4
Overall score +3
Impact Rating Medium – Beneficial
13.7 Negative Impacts and Mitigation Measures during the Construction Phase
13.7.1 Negative Impacts to the Biophysical Environment and Mitigation Measures
(i) Destruction of Vegetation in areas covered by the Project Components
From site visit, it has been realized that most parts of the Mombasa West Mainland are less
vegetated except for isolated coastal vegetation. Therefore, less significant impact of the
Project to vegetation is anticipated.
The impact rating for destruction of vegetation cover is shown in Table 13.11 below.
Table 13.11: Impact Scoring for Destruction of Vegetation Cover
Severity of Impact -3
Spatial Scope of the Impact -2
Duration of Impact -3
Overall score -3
Impact Rating Low Negative
Mitigation Measures
Site clearance and construction activities will be limited within the Project dimension to
minimize destruction to vegetation cover
Reinstatement of the Project sites to their original state once construction works are
completed to allow vegetation growth
Vegetation and trees damaged during construction to be replaced / reinstated if
possible, after completion of the Works
(ii) Contamination of Water Resources
The proposed Wastewater Management Scheme entails collection of wastewater within the
drainage area of Mombasa West Mainland, conveyance to the proposed WWTP for treatment
and discharge of treated effluent to Indian Ocean.
During the construction period, effluents from construction plant and equipment (oils, grease,
hydro-carbonates) are potential point pollutants of water resources. These effluents originate
from activities such as cleaning, repair of the equipment as well as through leakages during
normal operation. As a result of surface run-off, these effluents will be conveyed to the Ocean
through natural drains, streams and rivers, resulting to contamination of water resources.
The impact rating of contamination of water resources is shown in Table 13.12 on Page 13-8.
Mitigation Measures
Risk of water resources pollution by discharges from Construction Equipment is low;
however, it will be further minimized by ensuring Construction Equipment is well
maintained and serviced per manufacturer’s specifications to prevent oil leaks.
Cleaning / repair of Construction Plant and Equipment to be carried out at designated
yards and the Contractor to have designated storage areas for oils, fuels etc. that is
protected from rain water and away from nearby surface water courses.
(iii) Soil Erosion Resulting to Loss of Top Soil
Site clearance, excavation and ground levelling activities during construction of the Project
Components loosen the top soil and make it susceptible to erosion agents (wind and water).
The impact rating for soil erosion is shown in Table 13.13 below.
Table 13.13: Impact Rating for Soil Erosion
Severity of Impact -2
Spatial Scope of the Impact -2
Duration of Impact -3
Overall score -2
Impact Rating Low – Negative
Mitigation Measures
The risk of soil erosion is low as the design of the sanitation infrastructure has incorporated
measures to minimize this risk through provision of erosion prevention structures i.e. gabions,
scour checks, etc. in areas susceptible to soil erosion such as river banks.
(iv) Solid Wastes Pollution (Construction Activities)
Construction activities and Contractor’s Camps will generate solid wastes such as plastics, used
tires, metal parts, biodegradable materials, etc. Such wastes if poorly disposed of can lead to
pollution of nearby water courses and blockage of drainage and sewerage systems.
The impact rating for pollution by solid wastes is shown in Table 13.14 below.
Table 13.14: Impact Rating for Pollution by Solid Wastes
Severity of Impact -3
Spatial Scope of the Impact -2
Duration of Impact -3
Overall score -3
Impact Rating Medium – Negative
Mitigation Measures
Construction wastes (residual earth, debris and scrap materials) to be collected at
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designated points and Contractor to dispose to designated Solid Waste Dumping Sites
approved by the Local Authority.
Environmental Management, Health and Safety Training Programmes to be conducted
for Contractor’s Staff to create awareness on proper solid wastes management
(v) Air Pollution and Dust Generation
Air Pollution will result from dusts and emissions from Construction Plant, Equipment and
Vehicles. Dusty conditions result due to unpaved roads and tracks, exposed and non-vegetated
surfaces, etc. Project borrow pits and quarries are also potential sources of dust.
Impact rating for air pollution and dust generation is shown in Table 13.15 below.
Table 13.15: Impact Scoring for Air Pollution and Dust Generation
Severity of Impact -3
Spatial Scope of the Impact -2
Duration of Impact -3
Overall score -3
Impact Rating Medium – Negative
Mitigation Measures
Contractor to comply with the provisions of EMCA 1999 (Air Quality Regulations 2014)
Workers to be trained on management of air pollution from vehicles and machinery and
construction machinery maintained and serviced in accordance to manufacturer’s
specifications
Removal of vegetation to be avoided until clearance is required and exposed surfaces
re-vegetated or stabilized as soon as possible
The Contractor shall not carry out dust generating activities (excavation, handling and
transport of soils) during times of strong winds
Vehicles delivering construction materials and vehicles hauling excavated materials shall
be covered to reduce spills and windblown dust
Water sprays shall be used on all earthworks areas within 200 metres of human
settlement especially during the dry season.
13.7.2 Negative Impacts to the Socio-Economic Environment and Mitigation Measures
(i) Land Acquisition and Impacts to Assets and Sources of Livelihood
The Project implementation require minimal land acquisition as the site proposed for the
development WWTP is owned by the government and can be made available for the Project
at Kipevu. Preliminary field assessment indicated that a few households and crops cover the
site. However, the Pumping Stations require land acquisition.
This triggers application of World Bank OP 4.12, which requires that a Resettlement Action
Plan (RAP) be prepared at the Detailed Design Stage.
Table 13.16 below presents a summary of Resettlement Impacts identified for the project;
Table 13.16: Resettlement Impacts
Category of Loss Extent and Magnitude of
Site Name Ownership of Land
identified Loss
Oxidation Ditches NO RAP impacts Oxidation ditches Parcel No.2549/VI/MN
with Chlorination 44,300m3/day land - No records found
/De-Chlorination requirement 9Ha
- Government land
Facility – Kipevu
(b) To set out strategies for the preparation of detailed RAP and implementation of the RAP,
including the process through which to acquire the necessary land and easements for the
implementation of the Project activities; and
(c) To carry out consultations with community members and other stakeholders, including
PAPs, and make them aware of the project and to obtain their concerns regarding the
economic and social impacts of the proposed Project and mitigation measures.
This Preliminary RAP defines the procedures and methodology for identifying the PAPs and spells
out the compensation entitlements for PAPs, the socio-economic profiles of the Project areas,
the legal and institutional framework that impacts on resettlement and compensation.
13.9.2 Guiding Legislations and Policies
The assessment identified that both community land and private land will be acquired either as
easement or permanently for construction of the Project. Land acquisition will be carried out
as stipulated in the Land Act 2012, Land Registration Act 2012, National Land Commission Act
2012 as well as the World Bank Operation Safeguard Policy OP 4.12 on Involuntary
Resettlement as presented below;
World Bank OP 4.12
Land Act 2012
Land Registration Act 2012
Valuation Act
National Land Commission Act
The Constitution of Kenya
13.9.3 Identified Project Resettlement Impacts
In general, the assessment determined that the Project will result to the following impacts:
Land acquisition for establishment of the proposed Projects Components
Potential Project Impacts on people’s assets and sources of livelihood
Potential Project Impacts on the environment
A summary of preliminary Project impacts in terms of type, nature and ownership of potential
assets to be affected for the Master Plan is given in Table 13.23 below.
Table 13.23: Project Resettlement Impacts for Master Plan Projects
Land Requirement WWTP Land
Project Component Category of Loss
(Ha) Ownership
NO RAP impacts
Wastewater Oxidation ditches - Parcel No.2549/VI/MN -
Stabilization Pond 44,300m3/day land No records found
(WSP) – Kipevu requirement 9Ha
“Government land
Loss business structures To be determined
Trunk, secondary and Road reserves land and
tertiary sewer lines Loss of crops and trees river riparian land
Land acquisition
Pumping Stations
required Varied locations;
0.75
Loss business structures
Public / Private land
Loss of crops and trees
13.9.4 Eligibility for Compensation and ‘Cut-Off’ Date
The affected persons, irrespective of their status, are eligible to some form of assistance if they
occupied the land or engaged in any livelihood income-generating activity at the affected sites
before the entitlement ‘cut-off date’. This date will be determined at detailed RAP stage for
each of the identified Project in the Master Plan.
The following categories will be eligible for compensation under the RAP;
People who own land at the identified sites for the Projects
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1
A site in this context implies areas where the PAPs are concentrated under various Project components.
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The sustainable level of service needs need to be updated periodically to account for changes
due to future growth in supply and demand, regulatory requirements and technology
improvements.
Questions that need to be answered in determining the level of service cover include:
What level do stakeholders and customers demand?
What are the regulatory needs of the environmental agencies?
What is the actual system performance?
What are the physical capabilities of the assets?
Best practices undertaken in addressing the above questions include:
Analysing current and anticipated customer demand and satisfaction with the system
Allowing for the current and anticipated regulatory requirements
Writing and communicating to the public, a level of service “Agreement” that sets out
the systems performance
Using level of service standards to track system performance over time
14.4 Critical Assets
It is necessary to determine which assets are critical to the sustainable performance of the
system. Because assets fail, how are the consequences of failure best managed? Not every asset
presents the same risk of failure, or is equally critical to the wastewater management system’s
performance. Critical assets are those that are classified as having a high risk of failing (through
being old, in poor condition etc.) and which have major consequences if they do fail (major
expense, system failure, safety concerns etc.). This type of analysis is also carried out in the
vulnerability assessment.
Aspects for determining critical assets threshold are covered by addressing the following
concerns:
How can assets fail
How do assets fail
What are the likelihoods (probabilities) and consequences of asset failure?
What is the cost of repair or replacement?
What are the other costs (social, environmental etc.) associated with asset failure?
Best practices in the analysis of critical assets include:
Listing assets in the inventory in accordance to how crucial they are to system operations
Conducting a failure analysis root cause analysis, failure mode analysis
Analysing failure risk and consequences
Using asset decay curves to determine their economic life
Reviewing and updating the systems vulnerability assessment
14.5 Asset Life Cycle Costs
Asset Management enables a system to determine the lowest cost options for providing the
highest level of service over time. Typically for Utility Companies (WSPs) responsible for the
wastewater management, the expenses for operation and maintenance, personnel and capital
budget make up around 85% of annual expenses. An appropriate Asset Management Programme
helps to make risk-based decisions for choosing the priority projects based on a time schedule
and sound reasons.
Important issues to be addressed include:
What alternative strategies exist for managing O&M, personnel and capital budget
accounts?
What strategies are most feasible?
What are the costs of rehabilitation, repair and replacement for critical assets?
Best practices include:
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Risk The process of evaluating the consequences of hazards and their likelihoods or
Assessment probabilities. For example, the failure of a technology may result in economic loss
and associated risks. Environmental Risk Assessment is a process that evaluates the
likelihood or probability that adverse effects may occur to environmental functions,
as a result of human activities. Risk assessment provides a mechanism for
communicating forecasted risks associated with decisions to the public and the
stakeholders.
Risk The process of appraising options for responding to risk and deciding which to
Management implement. Risk management require periodic /continual re-assessment.
Environmental An aspect of the environment that is important because of its ecological, economic
Value or social significance to an ecosystem, the potential consequences of its loss, and/or
its economic or social importance, including for example the ability of the
environment to support agriculture, and to support tourism, or the human health
hazards associated with deterioration in environmental services.
Risks are complex and may result from a variety of factors, including uncertainty in financial
markets, project or business failures, legal liabilities, credit risk, accidents, and natural causes or
disasters. Importantly, risks may also derive from unintended or unrecognised consequences of
developments associated with individual projects, not necessarily directly connected to the
programme under consideration, and from the cumulative impacts of a variety of factors.
Assessing a risk involves an analysis of the consequences and likelihood of a potential hazard
being realised. In decision-making, low-consequence or low-probability risks are typically
perceived as acceptable and therefore only require monitoring. In contrast, high-consequence or
high-probability risks are perceived as unacceptable and a strategy is required to manage the risk.
A strategy would include structured risk assessment to better understand the features that
contribute most to the risk, and to assist with the development of countermeasures. In the long-
term, education and training in risk assessment and management should be considered for
managers dealing with the wastewater management sectors. Furthermore, the precautionary
principle should be adopted when considering and assessing risks, particularly where hazards
have long environmental lifetimes or accumulative or irreversible consequences.
In the wake of the recent global economic problems, risk management is increasingly seen as an
important executive-level issue and a process that needs to be incorporated in day-to-day
decision making for long-term profitability and competitive advantage.
In general, risk management is considered to include the following elements:
1. Identify, categorise and assess potential threats.
2. Assess the vulnerability of critical components or assets to specific threats or to
combinations of different threats.
3. Determine the risk and consequences of specific threats.
4. Identify mechanisms whereby those risks may be reduced.
5. Prioritise risk reduction measures, and include regular reviews of all threats as an integral
component of programme management, ensuring that risk management is dynamic and
responsive to change.
Potential hazards or risks can be categorised as either environmental or economic risks even
though inevitable overlaps and linkages exist.
15.2 Environmental Risks
A range of potential environmental risks are expected in the construction and operation phases
of the Wastewater Management Scheme such as from the effluent discharge into the natural
water courses from the proposed Wastewater Treatment Plants.
The expected environmental and socio-economic impacts result from:
a. Resettlement and compensation,
b. Construction of Sewerage System (Sewers & Sewage Pumping Stations),
c. Construction of Wastewater Treatment Plants,
d. Operation of the Constructed Sanitation Systems.
Potential categories of risks include:
Changes in precipitation and temperature as a result of climate change
Hazards resulting from construction of the project components. Risk management
procedures need to be incorporated in the detailed designs and operating procedures.
Discharge of inadequately treated effluent to natural water course may result to
increased health risks for downstream communities or households.
Changes in local groundwater regime as a result of increased downstream flows after
discharge of treated effluent.
Hazards and risks encountered during the operation of the sewerage system.
Environmental impacts resulting from construction are considered as short-term impacts and can
be managed with the adoption of recommended mitigation measures.
15.2.1 Climate Change
Global climate is predicted to change substantially, with changes in temperature, precipitation
and frequency of storms, and with subsequent effects on hydrology especially in the drier areas.
A global rapid rise in temperatures in the likely range of 1.1 to 6.4°C is expected. Precipitation
patterns are expected to change significantly, and extreme weather events (severe storms,
floods, droughts, and heat waves) are expected to become more intense and frequent. From the
sanitation (public health) and environment (water resources) perspective, the increased
incidence of drought periods represents a potential critical risk.
Agricultural output is predicted to be impacted by increased temperatures and changes in
precipitation and runoff. It is considered that many countries in Africa may suffer productivity
losses of more than 25 percent (World Bank, 2011)2. Such losses are projected to be acute in the
Sahel, the Horn of Africa, and in East and South-West Africa – areas that are projected to
experience significant decreases in precipitation and increases in temperature. Further work
focussed on Kenya also confirms that global warming will have adverse effects on agriculture
(Kabubo-Mariara and Karanja, 2007)3. Thus, the ability to provide water for downstream
environments and for irrigation purposes is likely to be of increasing importance, especially when
coupled with the increasing food requirements of an increasing urban population.
2
World Bank (2011). Africa’s Water Resources in a Changing Climate: Toward an Operational Perspective.
Summary Report. Africa Region, Sustainable Development Department, The World Bank.
3
Kabubo-Mariara, J. and Karanja, F.K. (2007). The Economic Impact of Climate Change on Kenyan Crop
Agriculture: A Ricardian Approach. World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper 4334.
MIBP/ CES/ BOSCH 15-3
Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project – Additional Financing (WaSSIP - AF) FINAL MASTER PLAN REPORT
Wastewater Master Plan for Mombasa and Selected Towns within the Coast Region - MOMBASA WEST MAINLAND
Most models confirm projected changes in precipitation and temperature. Whilst the actual
extent of changes in precipitation are currently uncertain, models do indicate that changes will
occur. This will have inevitable implications for water and food security.
The risks from climate change can therefore be summarized as follows:
Most parts of East Africa are projected to experience an increase in consecutive dry days
There will be an increase in temperatures
Water demands are expected to increase. Crop water requirements are expected to be
higher for both rain-fed and irrigated crops as temperatures rise. Similarly, livestock are
likely to require more water.
Water-related public health could also be compromised by climate change. Hydrologic
and temperature change may modify the natural habitat boundaries of disease vectors
such as mosquitoes, and other water borne diseases.
Given the difficulties of averting global warming, adaptation to climate change is considered
essential to counter the expected impacts of long-term climate change. Improved management
and conservation of available water resources, protection of the water sources from potential
pollutants, water harvesting and recycling of wastewater are likely to play important roles.
Risk Management procedures need to include a regular assessment of the current climatic
situation and water and sanitation related issues (public health).
15.2.2 Risks from Construction
Potential negative impacts expected from construction of the project components, are detailed
in the Preliminary ESIA for the Selected Wastewater Management Schemes.
In general, the impacts related to such construction activities are minor, can be understood and
planned for and mitigated against. The major risks would therefore result from pre-construction
phase and construction phase environmental management plans not being fully prepared in
advance and not being followed and activities monitored in detail.
An important component of risk management in the pre-construction phase will be to set up a
series of important long-term monitoring systems that will provide the important information
required during the construction phase and during the subsequent operational phase.
At construction, the disposal of excavated material represents a potential hazard if not planned
and carried out to result in minimal social, economic and environmental impact. It is
recommended that instead of considering the excavated material as “spoil” requiring disposal, it
should be used as raw material for a range of activities such as road repair and construction, and
for use as building material, including the making of bricks for buildings.
15.2.3 Public Health Risks
Public health depends on factors including the quality / quantity of water supply and sanitation
systems adopted in an area. Proper sanitation entails safe handling of wastewater and proper
disposal of the treated effluent and sludge.
The quality of the raw water in potential water resources should be good enough to produce
domestic water supplies of a safe and acceptable standard when treated. These sources should
be consistent in terms of quantity and quality. In many cases, it is cheaper to protect the water
resources from pollution than to provide requisite treatment after contamination to ensure
achieve acceptable standards. Contaminated and poorly managed water resources contain
chemical, microbiological or radiological hazards which are health hazard.
The preventive measures that should be incorporated in risk management procedures include:
Regular and comprehensive monitoring, to decide if and where contamination of the
water is occurring especially when contamination of the water sources is most likely.
Ideally, monitoring should be 200m downstream of effluent discharge point and 200m
upstream.
Proper operation and maintenance of the Wastewater Management Schemes to ensure
proper conveyance and treatment of sewage including safe disposal of sludge
Detailed knowledge of where the catchment (surface water) or re-charge zones
(groundwater) of the water sources are, and the nature of the land and all the land use
and/or land cover in these areas.
Identifying protection zones for the sources, so that possible sources of contamination
that require to be managed can be identified. This could for example, include the legal
establishment of a series of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs) within the watersheds.
As an integral component of risk management procedures, water quality data of the water
resources need to be analysed and made available on a regular basis to all authorities involved in
the management of water resources and related issues.
15.2.4 Operational Hazards
Several hazards are inevitable during the operation of the Wastewater Management Scheme
System such as:
Blockages of sewers
Sewer leakages and bursts; leading to ground infiltration
Microbiological contamination of water sources and natural water courses from raw
sewage or unpolished effluents
Contamination of drainage channels and downstream water sources as a result of
poorly or inadequately treated wastewater.
Risk management plans will need to take account of such operational hazards and incorporate
risk reduction strategies.
15.3 Economic Risks
The use of pricing policies and other economic instruments are essential for the effective and
equitable allocation of resource considering social and economic criteria as well as basic human
needs. Economic evaluations need to consider positive and negative impacts on health, human
and ecosystems. Inadequate economic policies have often contributed to the poor performance
of wastewater utilities thus decreasing their ability to attract financial resources from the public
and private sector as well as the international community.
While the public sector has traditionally played a major role in financing wastewater utilities
development, there is an increasing recognition of the need to involve other stakeholders (private
sector and community based organisations) for financial sustainability.
Financial support for the collection, processing and dissemination of timely, reliable and demand-
oriented information is essential to the effective management of wastewater management
schemes.
15.3.1 Multi-Criteria Evaluation and Risk Analysis of Proposed Investment Scenarios
The Least Cost Analysis for the economic evaluation of alternative schemes of satisfying the
sanitation needs of Mombasa West Mainland up to year 2040, considered the capital and
operational costs and their investment schedules.
The Least Cost Analysis determined the most economically efficient means of providing
Wastewater Management System to meet the projected demand, through a normalisation
process allowing for the options different configurations, to show the Average Incremental cost
of BOD5 Removal (AIC) for each option expressed as US$/m3 of BOD5 removed. Sensitivity analysis
to test the effect of changes in the key parameters – capital costs, O&M costs, and discount rate
was also carried out.
Following the Least Cost Analysis, a Multi-Criteria Analysis was carried out (See Chapter 9)
considering six key sustainability issues taking account of natural resources, economic
performance, technical issues, environmental issues and social sustainability. Each aspect was
scored and weighed according to its importance and the overall score used to determine the best
option and strategy.
The Multi-Criteria Analysis allowed for other factors affecting the risk and sustainability of the
development option that were not fully reflected in the economic Least Cost Analysis which uses
the monetised capital and O&M costs. Risks were accommodated in the Multi-Criteria Analysis
by considering several factors, particularly on the operation and maintenance, schemes technical
complexity and number of management entities involved; susceptibility to prioritisation and;
multiplicity of the Wastewater Treatment Plant (Phasing).
The results of the Multi-Criteria Analysis reflect the preferred option and strategy for meeting
future water demand that is best suited to manage the potential risks.
15.3.2 Key Issues and Recommended Actions
a. Wastewater Management Scheme must be integrated into the national economy,
recognising it as a social and economic good, vital for ecosystem functioning and applying
economic instruments in its management. As such, economic policies must consider
"intangibles" such as social and environmental values of dealing with wastewater as well as
the special conditions in non-monetary sector economies.
b. Actions should be oriented towards applying demand based management approach taking
into account the notion of users' willingness and ability to pay. Resources must help in the
collection, dissemination and transfer of international experiences in economic evaluation
and financial management of wastewater schemes. Where possible, support should be
provided to strengthen private sector, community based participation as well as the
development of appropriate and low cost technologies. Also, assistance should continue in
favour of public institutions in improving their role.
c. Efficiency, transparency and accountability are keys to sustainable financial management of
wastewater management schemes. For these, information should be made public including;
performance indicators, procurement procedures, pricing policies and components, cost
estimates and revenues. Determination and allocation of subsidies, cross-subsidies, and
charges should be transparent in order to maintain confidence and improve investment
revenues in the sector. Instruments such as auditing could help achieve this goal.
d. Integrated wastewater management requires closed partnership between public and private
sectors. As such, a clear definition and distinction should be made of the role of both central
and county governments, the private sector and other stakeholders, where appropriate to
local situations. This is expected to create more conducive institutional and legal
environment for private sector investment and the emergence of local water service
providers. Particular attention has to be given to financial and economic risk assessment.
e. Regardless of policies, financial sustainability is a prerequisite for sustainable integrated
wastewater management. Therefore, it is a necessity to facilitate a gradual transition towards
full cost recovery, criteria for financial burden sharing and the development of financial and
regulatory instruments. Also, measures needed include adapted financial policies for the
poor and rural areas who might not have access to the water-borne sanitation system when
carrying tariff studies. Emphasis should be placed on participation of users, training of local
entrepreneurs and the diversification of sources of funding. Furthermore, a strong link should
be made with the de-centralisation process.
f. At the same time, it is important to ensure adequate financing of the wastewater
management schemes. Related issues in this case concern the adequacy of absorptive
capacity and availability of financial resources within the sector, the lack of political
awareness and will to implement strategies aimed at recovering costs as well as the
requirements of external funding sources which limit the flows of resources to the sector.
Thus, actions should be aimed at improving donor-recipient dialogue on financing, the
creation of national fund for financial resources mobilisation and allocation in the water
resources sector. The international community and Governments (donors and recipients
alike) should be urged to maintain and be encouraged to increase their assistance to the
water resources sector in a predictable manner and targeted to solve specific problems.
Value can be added by improving communication and co-operation among sources of
financing as well as the mobilisation of largely untapped community financing resources and
through the provision of credit mechanisms which foster self-help efforts by individuals. This
includes the mobilisation of innovative source of funding.
g. The frequency of extreme events has increased in recent decades. Therefore, provision
should be made for economic costs analysis of these events and for the management
measures for chronically prone areas to flooding and drought. Several main actions may be
concurred to achieving this goal. The creation of mechanisms of regional consultation,
regional solidarity funds, drought and flood preparedness programs and early warning
systems, mitigation plans at local and national levels, regional emergency funds and
insurance programs for extreme events could be considered.
h. In a broader perspective, several priority activities should be financed including institutional
and capacity building, integrated wastewater planning and management. Particularly, local
support should be provided for sustainable solutions to communities, associations, local
authorities and emerging local private sector.
i. Finally, financial resources can be best attracted to the sector when efforts are made to
increase financial accountability and to reduce cost in particular. For this, specific actions
could include restructuring of existing institutions, improving existing management through
demand management/leak reduction, promoting competition in service provision, data
collection and creating financial incentives, participation as well as the use of low cost
technologies.
15.3.3 Priority Areas in Need of Financing
Areas in need of financing are grouped into the following divides:
Institutional capacity building/support to policy and legislation
Integrated wastewater Management
Data collection, monitoring and integrated information management systems
Local support for sustainable solutions to communities, associations, local authorities
and emerging local private sector
Investment to areas without access to basic needs
15.3.4 Strategies / Action for Cost Reduction
Several strategies and actions are recommended to address economic and financial issues related
to wastewater Management. Such measures include:
Restructuring of existing institutions to reduce cost
Improving existing management such as demand management/leak reduction
Promoting competition in service provision
Improving existing data collection network
Provision of financial incentives e.g. tax exemption for equipment and to private sector;
Investing in under privileged areas
Reliance on low cost systems and appropriate technologies including indigenous
technologies
Increasing accountability in system management
0. General Notification (a) The local construction and environment inspectorates and
Conditions and Worker communities be notified of upcoming activities
Safety
(b) The public be notified of the Works through appropriate
notification in the media and/or at publicly accessible sites
(including the site of the works)
(c) All legally required permits obtained for construction and/or
rehabilitation
(d) Contractor formally agrees that all work be carried out in a safe
and disciplined manner designed to minimize impacts on
neighbouring residents and environment.
(e) Workers’ PPE comply with international good practice (always
hardhats, as needed masks and safety glasses, harnesses and
safety boots)
(f) Appropriate signposting of the sites to inform workers of key rules
and regulations to follow.
A. General Air Quality (a) Construction debris kept in controlled area and sprayed with
Rehabilitation water mist to reduce debris dust
and /or
(b) During project construction, dust should be suppressed by
Construction
ongoing water spraying and/or installing dust screen enclosures
Activities
at site
(c) The surrounding environment (sidewalks, roads) be kept free of
debris to minimize dust
(d) No open burning of construction / waste material at site
(e) No excessive idling of construction vehicles at sites
Noise (a) Construction noise be limited to restricted times agreed to in the
permit
(b) During operations, the engine covers of generators, air
compressors and other powered mechanical equipment be
closed, and equipment placed as far away from residential areas
as possible
Water Quality (a) The site establishes appropriate erosion and sediment control
measures such as e.g. hay bales and / or silt fences to prevent
sediment from moving off site and causing excessive turbidity in
nearby streams and rivers.
Waste (a) Waste collection and disposal pathways and sites be identified
management for all major waste types expected from demolition and
construction activities.
B. Individual Water Quality (a) The approach to handling sanitary wastes and wastewater from
wastewater building sites (installation or reconstruction) must be approved
treatment by the local authorities
system
(b) Before being discharged into receiving waters, effluents from
individual wastewater systems be treated to meet the minimal
quality criteria set out by national guidelines on effluent quality
and wastewater treatment
(c) Monitoring of new wastewater systems (before/after) will be
carried out
(d) Construction vehicles and machinery will be washed only in
designated areas where runoff will not pollute natural surface
water bodies.
C. Physical Cultural (a) If the facility is to be constructed within a designated historic
cultural (s) Heritage structure, very close to such a structure, or located in a
designated historic district, notification shall be made and
approvals/permits be obtained from local authorities and all
construction activities planned and carried out in line with local
and national legislation.
(b) It shall be ensured that provisions are put in place so that
artefacts or other possible “chance finds” encountered in
excavation or construction are noted and registered.
In addition, there are a series of potential risks that are related to or linked with Climate Change.
These are, for example, likely to alter or increase the water requirements of downstream
communities, as well as the requirements for agriculture, and for other water related sectors of
the economy. The relevant sectors are likely to include: Agriculture, Energy, Health, Biodiversity
and Ecosystems, as indicated above under the section on Climate Change. Risk management
related to Climate Change will need to be carried out in conjunction and collaboration with the
new Climate Change Authority, established by Bill of Parliament and signed into law in May 2016.
Similarly, there are long-term risks associated with the onset of Peak Oil, and predicted increases
in crude oil prices, resulting in increased costs and changes to sectors of the economy. Current
trends in the international crude oil prices, based on daily price data from the year 2000 to the
present, indicate a trend towards a doubling of current crude oil prices by the year 2018. Such
cost increases may result in changes in the tendency for population increase in the major urban.
Such changes would modify the demands for wastewater services. Risk management therefore
needs to be aware of this potential situation and the possible requirements for changes in the
wastewater management schemes.
Table 16.2: Details of the Sludge Handling Facility – Immediate Sanitation Measures
Total Capital Cost
S/No. Component Details
Ksh. USD
Table 16.4: Summary of Implementation Cost: Long-Term Plan Plan (2026 -2040)
S/No. Component Details Cost (Kshs) Cost (USD)
1 Sewers 225 -375 mm Dia; Total length 22.4 km
Oxidation Ditches with Chlorination
Waste Water 5,137,002,935 49,873,815
2 /De-chlorination Facility (capacity
Treatment Plant
27,300 m3/day)
Financial analysis of the selected Wastewater Management Scheme presented the following
Financial Ratios / Performance Indicators;
Benefit – Cost (BC) Ratio; 1.49 - 1.96
On the other hand, economic analysis presented the following Performance Indicators;
Net Present Values (NPV); Ksh. 3,202,840,996 @ 10% cost of capital