Journal of

Materials
Processing
Technology
EI~EVIER Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49

A technical review of the laser drilling

of aerospace materials
C.Y. Yeo, S.C. Tam*, S. Jana, Michael W.S. L a u
School of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore 2263
(Received January 18, 1993; accepted July 19, 1993)

Industrial Summary

Drilling cooling holes in aerospace materials with a neodymium-doped: yttrium aluminium

garnet (Nd:YAG) laser is an established technique used in the aerospace industry. However,
there are new challenges as the industry begins to use materials that can withstand higher
temperatures and pressures. In this paper, the mechanisms of some laser-drilling processes, the
types of laser used, the quality characteristics of a laser-drilled hole, the effects of drilling
parameters, and the advantages and limitations of the laser hole-drilling operation are re-
viewed.

1. Introduction

The materials used for aircraft components can be classified generally into poly-
mer-matrix composites, metal-matrix composites, ceramic-matrix composites, simple
aluminium-alloys, and superalloys [1]. Of these materials, superalloys are used
frequently for the fabrication of aero-engine gas-path components such as blades,
guide vanes, after-burners, and casings, where temperatures as high as 2000°C can be
reached.
Superalloys are alloys of nickel, cobalt, chromium, iron, titanium, vanadium,
tungsten, molybdenum, aluminium, and other rare metals. The three main groups of
superalloys used in the gas-turbine industry are the cobalt-based, nickel-based, and
iron-based superalloys [2]. Owing to their toughness, creep strength, oxidation and
hot-corrosion resistance at high temperatures, they are the most suitable materials for
use in the hot sections of aircraft engines.

* Corresponding author.

0924-0136/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0924-0136(93)E0085-U
16 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 ~49

Thousands of cooling holes are required to be drilled in these high-temperature

superalloy components. However, conventional hole-producing processes such as
punching or twist drilling are found to be inefficient because of the toughness of the
material. This has forced airframe and engine manufacturers to employ non-conven-
tional machining techniques, where metal removal is independent of the hardness of
the target metal, such special processes including electrochemical machining (ECM)
or drilling (ECD), and electrical-discharge machining (EDM). However, these tech-
niques suffer from high cost of tools, high cost of consumables, and long lead times.
Since the mid 1970s, the laser, especially the pulsed solid state Nd:YAG laser, has
proven to be an efficient drilling tool which can compete in terms of cost, quality, and
reliability for large scale production applications. This is evidenced by the significant
number of such lasers used for hole drilling world-wide. For example, in Japan,
approximately 5% of YAG lasers are used for hole drilling [3]. Although no break-
down of the application by industry was given, it is believed that at least half or more
of these lasers are used in the aerospace industry. Also, a survey conducted in
Singapore in 1990 showed that about 12% of all industrial lasers were used for hole
drilling in the aerospace industry [4].
With continuing high oil prices, there is a need to produce more fuel-efficient
engines that operate at high temperatures and pressures. Thus new materials such as
advanced ceramics and titanium alloys are being developed and used, and there is
a correspondingly higher demand placed on the fabrication and processing of these
materials. In this paper, the various applications of laser drilling in the aerospace
industry will be discussed. The quality of the holes, the process-parameters involved,
and the advantages and limitations of laser drilling will be reviewed.

2. Types of industrial lasers

The essential elements of a laser device, as shown in Fig. 1, basically consist of:
(i) a laser medium consisting of an appropriate collection of atoms, molecules,
or ions; (ii)a pumping process to excite these atoms into higher quantum
mechanical energy levels; and (iii)suitable optical feed-back elements that

-( Laser Medium
Laser
Output
Beam
100% Partially
Reflecting Transmitting
Mirror Mirror
Pumping Process
Fig. 1. Elements of a typical laser oscillator [5].
 c. Y. Yeo et al./ Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 17

allow a beam of radiation to either pass a few times through the laser medium or
bounce back and forth repeatedly through the laser medium [5].
Because of the characteristics of stimulated emission and optical feed-back, the laser
can be treated as a light source with the unique properties described as follows [6]:
(i) high monochromaticity (small spread of wavelength); (ii) a high degree of both
spatial and temporal coherence (strong correlation in phase); (iii) high brightness;
(iv) the capability of very low (microwatts) to very high (kilowatts) continuous power
output for different types of lasers; (v) high peak power (terawatts) and a large
amount of energy (hundreds of joules) per pulse in lasers operating in pulsed modes;
and (vi) the capability of being focused to a small diffraction-limited spot size (of the
order of the wavelength of the light).
The types of lasers used widely in the industry and applied research for materials
processing are the excimer laser, the argon-ion laser, the ruby laser, the Nd:YAG laser,
the iodine laser, the carbon-monoxide (CO) laser, and the carbon-dioxide (CO2) laser,
their various wavelengths being shown in Fig. 2.
Industrial lasers normally operate in three different modes: continuous wave (CW),
electrically pulsed, or Q-switch pulsed. Typical average continuous-operating output
powers and overall wall-plug efficiencies for some common industrial lasers are as
shown in Table 1.

m
L_

_E g >, =
•., ~ ~ 0 0
• m .- Z o 0 0

WAVELENGTH (~m)
Fig. 2. Spectrumlocations of the wavelengthsof popular industriallasers [7].

Table 1
Typical averagecontinuous-operatingoutput powers and overall wall-plugefficienciesfor somecommon
industrial lasers
Types of lasers Average continuous-operating Efficiency
output laser
YAG 1 W-2 kW 2-5%
CO2 10 W-20 kW 10-15%
Excimer 1 W-500 W < 3%
CO 5 W-15 kW < 20%
12 < 1 kW < 20%
18 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

Fig. 3 illustrates a schematic drawing of a fast-axial-flow C O 2 laser. The light

energy is produced by exciting the lasing gas mixture, which is circulated through the
plasma tube. Fig. 4 presents a schematic drawing of a high power oscillator-amplifier
Nd:YAG laser. The primary laser emission from the oscillator is intensified after
passing through the amplifier. Fig. 5 shows a basic layout of an excimer laser. The
atoms or molecules of the active lasing gas absorb the energy delivered by the power
supply and then emit a portion of the absorbed energy as laser light. All industrial
lasers are integrated with beam-delivery systems (mirrors, lenses, fibre optics or
scanners) [8] and automated motion-control systems (microcomputers, numerical
controllers, direct numerical controllers or robots) I-9].

Fig. 3. Schematicdiagram of a fast-axial-flowCO2 laser: (a) electrodes;(2) plasma tube; (3) resonator
mirrors; (4) heat exchangers;(5) gas blower [10].

AMPUFIE)t. OSCILLATOR

oo, ,o, /F.O.,

j ...o. 1 ""

SHUTTER ALIGNMENT
LASER
(~,~ WORKPIECE

Fig. 4. Typicaloscillator-amplifierNd:YAG laser I-111.

 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 19

STORAGE
CAPACITOR DISCHARGE REGION

VOLTAGE
n,, IL
U L~', -ER
TmmATRO~ I PC~=CNQg R { ; ~ { ; ; ; ;~"; ;; . OUTPUT
mT=. 1
°,. I g','.'.ER N x
1
Fig. 5. Basic layout of an excimer laser [12].

High Intensity Laser Beam

Incldont Power
I I
Reflection L o u AbeorJtlon by Scattering L o n
the M@talSurface

1
Metal Surface Heatlng
I
RadlationLou
t I
V~oodutlon of Matadal
,Thermal Dlffu~n

l 1 High Pressure
/ I
Thermal Diffusion LIqutfication
Vapor Material Removed
Lo~ of Material
aa Vapor

Material Removed as Liquid

by Pressure of Vapor

Fig. 6. A power-balance diagram, illustrating the effects of a laser beam impinging onto the surface of
a material 113].

3. Physics of laser processing

The physics of laser processing are very complex, well illustrated by the power-
balance diagram, as shown in Fig. 6. There are scattering and reflection losses at the
surface of the specimen, whilst heat diffuses into the bulk material and causes phase
change, melting and/or vaporization.
The various physical processes that occur when a high-power laser beam hits and
interacts with an absorbing surface can be shown further in Fig. 7. Depending on the
power density and time of interaction, the mechanism progresses from one of heat
absorption and conduction, to one of melting and then of vaporization. If the intensity
20 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal o[" Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

(a) ABSORPTIONANDHEATING

LASER
THERMAL
CONDUCTION

(b) MELTING

LIQUIDINTERFACE

(c) VAFR3~ZATION

• N, ~:....~
) ~,~'.:..'~
•~ js~i~..':..~

(d) PLASMAPROOUCTION

Fig. 7. Physical processes occurring when a high-power laser beam strikes an absorbing surface [15].

1014
•SHOCK
' HA ~ ' , ENI d G " ~1 ,1, ' ' '
1013 \ lOO \
\1o0 \
A 1013 DRI%LLING
N

1011

1010

109

108

10 7
10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 10 0

INTERACTION TIME (ll)

Fig. 8. Operational regimes for the various laser materials processing t~ehniflues with a continuous-wave
CO2 laser [16].
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15- 49 21

of the laser beam is too high, a plasma plume is formed at or near to the surface of the
material, this phenomenon causing the process efficiency to drop because of the
absorption and scattering losses, and also creating operational hazards because of the
emission of an intense bright light [14].
The operational regime of a typical CW CO2 laser is shown in Fig. 8. In general,
CW industrial lasers are suitable for processes that require continuous input of stable
energy for phase transformation and/or melting, such as surface hardening, surface
melting, laser chemical vapour deposition (LCVD), brazing, soldering, welding, etc.
Electrically pulsed lasers are ideal for processes that require controlled energy input
and minimum heat-affected zone (HAZ), such as cutting, percussion drilling, mask-
marking, laser physical vapour deposition (LPVD), micro-milling, etc. Q-switch
pulsed lasers are suitable for processes that require very high peak-power but with
a small material removal rate such as scribing or stroke-marking, trimming, shock-
hardening, etc.

4. General characteristics of laser hole-drilling

4.1. Definition of a hole

A hole has been defined as an opening in or through anything; a hollow place;

a cavity in a solid body or area; or a three-dimensional discontinuity in the substance
of a mass or body [17], the general perceptions of a hole as related to laser drilling
being summarized as in Table 2.

4.2. Mechanism of laser drilling

Hole drilling by a CO2 laser or a Nd:YAG laser is a thermal process in which holes
are created by focussing a beam of relatively low energy-density into a high-intensity
beam impinging onto a workpiece. The result is a spot where energy is sufficiently
high to vaporize almost any substance, causing material removal in the path of the
beam. This energy is usually delivered in a pulse of laser light which is partially

Table 2
General labelling of holes [17]

Name Diameter (ram)

Bore > 25.4

Large hole 12.7 to 25.4
Small hole 1.0 to 3.2
Micro-hole < 1.0
22 c.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

absorbed and partially reflected from the surface of the substance. The initial exposure
will cause the temperature of the surface to rise and thus increase the absorption.
Fig. 9 shows that the overall percentage absorption on a metal surface varies as its
temperature increases at both the Nd:YAG (1.06 Ilm) and CO2 (10.6 lam) laser
wavelengths [18]: it can be observed clearly that there is no difference between the two
for temperatures above the melting point. When the pulse reaches its maximum value,
melting of the material will generally begin and vapour pressure will develop beneath
the surface, the latter finally becoming sufficiently great to expel molten layers of
metal from the surface so that a depression is formed.
Haun 1-19] believes that deep holes may be formed as a result of the recoil
momentum produced by the vaporization of the material at the surface of the material
illuminated by the laser radiation. This may produce some sort of shock wave which
propagates through the material in a very directional manner to punch out the hole.
Moreover, it is found that deep holes (the thickness of the material generally greater
than 5 mm) cannot be drilled with a single laser pulse: the laser must be pulsed
repetitively in the same position in order to remove small amounts of material with
each pulse and eventually achieve full penetration. Furthermore, a "light pipe"
mechanism has also been proposed to explain why holes that are much deeper than
the beam depth of focus may be drilled in some materials [20]. Multiple reflections of
laser light from the hole walls at shallow angles of incidence are believed to channel

I00

80
S
60
o

o
40

20

Melting ~oint Boiling point

Temperature
Fig. 9. Relationshipbetweenabsorption and temperature [18].
 c. Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15- 49 23

the optical energy to the bottom of the hole, as shown in Fig. 10. The maximum hole
depth achievable is limited by the amount of energy lost due to reflections from the
wall of the hole and by the reduction of the size of the aperture hole. Plasma, an
intermediate medium between the laser and the workpiece, also plays an important
role in the laser-drilling process as it can partially block and absorb the incident laser
beam. Due to the transient properties of charged particles in the plasma plume, laser
drilling may be improved by the absorption of the plasma plume [21].

4.3. Types o f drilling process

Generally, there are three approaches to laser drilling, these being direct drilling,
drill and ream, and trepanning [17].
Direct drilling will produce the required hole size by the application of one or more
focused laser pulses, this generally being called percussion drilling, where the hole size
is determined by the input power and by the focussing adjustments. Most holes are
drilled with a single laser pulse where high pulse energies are supplied: this is because
the irradiated levels must be above several millions watts per square centimetre to
vaporize the material (see Fig. 8). However, it is more efficient to drill deep holes with
multiple laser pulses of low energy than with a single high-energy pulse, the longitud-
inal cross sections of such holes being found to be less tapered and better defined than
holes processed with single pulses [22].

Laser Beam

S i

i
Fig, 10. Schematicdiagram illustrating multiple internal reflection [20].
24 c.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

Drill and ream consists of directly drilling a pilot hole and then, changing the laser
parameters, increasing the spot size to open out the hole to the desired diameter. An
alternative way is to drill the pilot hole with the laser and then use EDM or con-
ventional reaming to obtain the true size.
Large holes can be produced by a method called trepanning, where the hole is cut in
the part by either moving the part, moving the laser, or rotating the beam delivery
system or lens. As shown in Fig. 11 (a), the trajectory of trepanning normally starts
at the centre of a workpiece, which latter will then rotate repetitively along the radius.
The end operation is shown in Fig. 11 (b) where the central loose part can be blown
off easily.
The advantages of using trepanning are found to be as follows: (i) the dimensional
and metallurgical quality, such as recast layer and cylindricity, can be improved due
to the low energy of each pulse; and (ii) changing of the hole size is controlled easily
because the hole diameter is independent of the spot size but dependent on the
rotating diameter of the beam.

4.4. Comparison o f hole-drilling techniques

The use of electrical machining, such as electrochemical machining (ECM) or

drilling (ECD), electrical-discharge machining (EDM), and laser drilling, are the
major solutions to the problem of drilling small cooling holes in aerospace materials.
However, cost is the main constraint. The relatively high cost of equipment generally
needs to be justified. Table 3 shows a comparison of various drilling techniques for
aero-engine components.

(b)

(a)
Fig. 11. Trepanningof a hole:(a) trepan trajectory;(b) trepanned hole [17].
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 25

Table 3
Comparison of hole-drilling technique for aero-engine components [23]

ECM ECD EDM Laser

Minimum
hole diameter (mm) 0.75 0.5 0.3 0.1
taper (mm/mm) 0.025 0.001 0.0005 0.01
recast layer (txm) -- -- 25 25
angle to surface (degree) -- 15 20 15
surface roughness (Ixm) 2 6 6 20
Maximum aspect ratio, i.e. depth/diameter 20 250 25 50"
Complex shapes Yes No Yes Yes
Simultaneous drilling Yes Yes Yes Yes
Tooling complexity High High High Low
Speed Medium Medium Slow Fast

"Depending on the material thickness

Table 4
Costs per operating hour [24]

Items Cost/US$

1. Flash-lamp replacement 2.00

2. Gas consumption, oxygen 4.00
3. Power consumption, $0.05/kWh 0.75
4. Misc. filters, lenses, etc. 1.00
Total 7.75

4.5. Advantages and limitations

The advantages of using a laser to drill holes can be summarized briefly as follows:
(1) Tool wear and breakages are not encountered.
(2) Holes can be located accurately by using the optical system of the laser for align-
ment.
(3) Holes of large aspect ratio and very small holes can be drilled.
(4) A wide variety of hard materials (such as diamond, alumina, Hastalloy, tungsten
and titanium) can be drilled.
(5) The drilling is extremely rapid and the set-up times are economical.
(6) Holes can be drilled at difficult entrance angles (as low as 10 ° to the surface).
(7) Due to its flexibility, the process can be automated easily for such as the "on-
the-fly" operation.
(8) The operating cost is low (see Table 4).
26 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

However, the limitations of laser drilling are as follows:

(1) High equipment cost.
(2) Taper is normally encountered in the direct drilling of holes, the amount of taper
depending on the thickness of the material.
(3) A blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve with a laser.
(4) The thickness of the material that can be laser drilled is restricted (up to about
50 mm).
(5) Adherent materials, which are formed normally at the exit holes, need to be
removed.

5. Mathematical modelling of percussion drilling

Many researchers have developed models in order to be able to describe the

phenomenon of laser-drilling processes, such as the temperature profile and the
thermal stress propagation [25], the temperature distribution [26], the mass removal
and hole profile characteristics [27], the moving heat source dynamics [28], and
a basic thermal-balance-model [29].
In order to predict the depth of penetration of a hole under given laser shot
conditions, one-dimensional heat conduction theory, suggested by Matsunawa [30],
was applied as a first-order approximation. The temperature at an arbitrary time and
position is expressed as follows, when a square-pulse heat input is targeted onto the
material surface.
During heating, for 0 <~ t < D:

T(~, t) = T
~1° r f ~ y ]e-'x"~2 - ~ erf ( y ) ] + To
L\~) (1)
During cooling, for t >~ D:

T(x' t) = k~'°rf~]e-~X/'~2-(JL~]e-~/z~2--xerfC(y)+Xerfc(~)]
- L\,f~) x.,,/~) + To
(2)

where: t is time (s); D is heating time (duration of the laser pulse) (s); T is temperature
(°C); x is the depth beneath the surface (cm); e is the absorptivity of the material;
I0 is the power density of the incident beam at the surface (W/cm2); k is the
thermal conductivity (W/cm °C); fl is the thermal diffusivity (cm2/s); y = x / ~ ; erfc
is the complementary error function; To is the initial temperature (°C); and
z = x/afl(t -- D).
Although the actual heat flow during hole drilling is three dimensional, the one-
dimensional analysis used in this model can still give a fairly good solution by
assuming that the heat divergence is very small. The experiment conducted by
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 27

2000
~antal
rt.x~t~ e = 0.6
lSOO

=0.3
"~ lOOO

~z4

Z - I - I 1 I I
0~,,
o 1 2 3 4 5 6

T i m e , t (ms)
Fig. 12. Comparison of the experimental hole depth with that calculated in the laser drilling of 310S
stainless steel [30].

A. Matsunawa into the hole drilling of 310S stainless steel showed that the calculated
result agrees well with the experimental value when the absorptivity is taken as 60%
(see Fig. 12). The hole is drilled with a pulse energy of 10.6 J/pulse, a pulse duration of
3.1 ms, and a focussing lens with a focal length of 120 mm, the power density being
calculated to be 14.8 k W / m m 2.
Alternatively, a simple energy-balance equation can be applied to approxi-
mate the laser material-removal process [31]. This equation ignores all mecha-
nisms of heat loss and assumes that all the heat input into the material is consumed in
the vaporization of the material:

H = m [ C n ( T b -- To) + H f + Hv] (3)

where H is the total energy required (J); m is the mass of material removed
(kg); Cp is the specific heat (J/kg°C); Tb is the boiling point (°C); Hf is the
latent heat of fusion (J/kg); and Hv is the latent heat of vaporisation (J/kg).
The steady-state drilling velocity, l/~s (cm/s), of a vapor/liquid interface will then be
given by
slo
V,, -- (4)
p[Cp(Tb - To) + n f + n v ]

where p is the density (kg/cm3).

28 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials" Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

A theoretical model developed by von Allmen [32] allows the drilling velocity
and drilling efficiency to be calculated as a function of the absorbed intensity,
and Wagner [-33] has reported a quantitative model which can predict the depth and
shape of a hole drilled in alumina ceramic by a ruby laser, whilst Forget et al.
[34] used thermal models coupled with an energy-matter balance equation to predict
the depth per pulse in the laser drilling of ceramic-coated superalloys.

6. Hole quality characteristics

The application of a laser to a particular drilling process involves a careful analysis

of the requirements of the hole such as diameter, depth, taper, barrelling, recast layer,
micro-cracking, entrance angle, and drilling time [35]. The hole geometry and the
typical faults most likely to occur after laser drilling are well demonstrated in Fig. 13.
In this diagram, the symbols have the following meaning: a - the diameter at
mid-span; b - the thickness of the recast layer; c - the exit diameter; d - the hole depth;
e - the inlet diameter; g - the thickness of the surface debris; tk - the inlet cone-angle;
- the taper angle [36].

6.1. Diameter and depth

Cost-effective laser-drilled holes are those less than 1.5 mm in diameter, as larger
holes can be made by trepanning. However, the geometrical characteristics of laser-
drilled holes are best described in terms of their aspect ratio, this being the ratio of
hole depth to diameter at the mid-span of the hole. The limiting aspect ratio for
a particular material depends upon both the optical characteristics of the beam and

e g

Fig. 13. Geometry of a hole drilled with a laser [36].

 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 29

the optical and thermal properties of the material. Beams focussed with shallow
convergence angles will have large depth of focus and will tend to produce holes of
high aspect-ratio. Low thermal diffusivity and the "light pipe" mechanisms will also
assist in achieving a high aspect-ratio. However, most high-aspect-ratio holes have
a larger entrance diameter than the mean hole diameter. In deep-hole drilling of holes
between 0.25 to 1.00 mm in diameter, typical aspect ratio of more than 10 can be
obtained easily as shown in Fig. 14. The graphs show the relationship between hole
diameter, depth and aspect-ratio in the drilling of high-nickel alloys with a pulsed
YAG laser. It is observed that there is a limitation in obtaining the required depth
with increasing hole diameter when using a laser.

6.2. Taper and barrelling

Taper in laser-drilled holes is a result of erosion caused by the expulsion of molten

and vaporized material from the hole, Fig. 15 showing the relationship between
material thickness and hole taper [38]. These results show that the degree of taper
reduces with increasing material thickness or depth of hole, this trend being similar for
all materials. The trend can be controlled by varying the pulse duration, the pulse
energy, the number of pulses, and the design of the optical system. In general, the
shorter the pulse duration the greater will be the taper. Fig. 16 demonstrates a typical
taper formed after laser drilling [39]. The hole taper, referring to Fig. 13, can be
measured by [40]:

emc
- (5)
d

20 100

80
IS

~-~ I~h 60

,-' 10

5
20

0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25

Diameter (mm)
Fig. 14. Relationshipbetweenhole diameter, depth and aspect ratio in the YAG laser drilling of higher-
nickel alloys [37].
30 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

1:3 E N .,.,.,$8B + Ni o Ta 0 Ti

;.-3
e'-

E-

o I I
0.25 0.5 0.75 I 1.25

Thickness (mm)
Fig. 15. Thickness of aerospace materials versus hole taper when drilled by a pulsed YAG laser with a pulse
energy of 15 J and a pulse duration of 1.4 ms [38].

Barrelling is formed by the ejection of material from local sites of the hole cavity,
which erodes the hole walls in the region of the penetration front. Yilbas [41] found
that barrelling may be reduced by decreasing the pressure of the assist gas. However,
when the thickness of the material increases, the ejection of material will increase also
due to the high pressure developed in the crater, causing barrelling to worsen.
Quantatively, referring to Fig. 13, barrelling may be measured using the following
equation:
Barrelling = a - 1 (e + c) (6)

6.3. Recast layer and micro-cracking

Any molten or vaporized material that is not completely expelled but resolidifies
inside and around the hole, is known as recast, a recast layer or resolidifed material
being found normally at the entrance of the hole. This material is generally loose and
may be scraped off easily. The structure of the material lining the walls of the holes is
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 31

Fig. 16. Taper of a hole in 3.2 mm thick nickeldrilledby a pulsedYAG laserwith pulseseach of 2.2 J [39].

considerably different from that of the parent material and shows evidence of substan-
tial micro-cracking (see Fig. 17). Recast layer can be reduced by selecting appropriate
power densities that effectively expel molten and vaporized material. The micro-
cracking may also be reduced by keeping pulse durations sufficiently short
and repetition rates sufficiently low to minimize heating of the surrounding parent
material [42].

6.4. Entrance angle

In drilling cooling holes in combustors, the radical entry angles, sometimes as steep
as 10° to the surface, are extremely difficult to drill conventionally, as drill bits are
prone to "walk-off-and-break", resulting in holes with poor geometry. Because there is
no physical contact with the workpiece, the laser beam is capable of drilling holes with
32 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

Fig. 17. Recast layer and micro-cracking in layer lining of holes drilled in 25.0 m m thick Inconel 718 by
a pulsed YAG laser with a pulsed energy of 30 J and a pulse duration of 1.8 ms [43].

Fig. 18. A hole drilled in a stainless steU sheet of 1.6 m m thickness with a diameter of 0.33 m m at 45 ° to the
surface [39].
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 33

an entrance angle that varies from 10° to the surface up to normal incidence (90 °) with
acceptable hole characteristics. Fig. 18 shows an example of a stainless steel sheet of
1.6 mm thickness drilled at an angle of 45 ° to the surface by a pulsed YAG laser with
4 pulses each of 2.2 J.
Drilling perpendicular to the surface will maximise the effective surface power
density and permit the widest range of focal lengths and focusing angles. As the
entrance drilling angles with respect to the surface become smaller, the effective
surface power density is reduced, and it is then necessary to increase the power of the
laser or improve the quality of the laser beam.

6.5. Drilling time

Drilling time relates directly to production speed and, therefore, has impact on
the economics of laser processing. In deep-hole drilling, the operation can be

= 15
C

E
~ lO

0 I I I I

2 4 6 8 10

P u l s e Energy (J/pulse)
Fig. 19. Pulse energy versus drilling time for a constant material thickness of 6.35 m m of steel alloy [44].
34 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15- 49

2 5 - -

76 E)lameter
20

r-"
E
~'~ 15

~,j
¢-.

.'-e-"-2 ~o

i I i 3 i i i i i i l i
0
-

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Time (seconds)

Fig. 20. Material thickness versus drillingtime for a steel alloy [44].

accomplished only by operating the laser in a rapid pulsed mode, so that the total time
to drill a hole of a given diameter is proportional to the amount of energy delivered
per pulse, as illustrated in Fig. 19. From the graph, it can be observed clearly that
high-energy pulses drill a hole faster than do lower energy pulses.
Fig. 20 shows the relationship between thickness of material, diameter of hole, and
drilling time. It is found that holes with a similar aspect ratio can be drilled in similar
amounts of time. For instance, for an aspect ratio of 20, all holes took around 7.0 s to
be drilled.

7. Laser parameters affecting hole quality

To obtain a hole of good quality, the optimum principal laser-process parameters

must be ascertained. Fig. 21 shows a cause-and-effect diagram demonstrating the
various factors that affect the quality of drilled holes, these being grouped into the
laser pulse, the focussing lens, the assist gas, the material and the environment.

7.1. Pulse energy, pulse duration and pulse repetition frequency

The best holes are drilled when a proper combination of pulse energy, pulse
duration, and pulse repetition frequency are selected. On some machines, these
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 35

Material Laser Pulse

superalloy- - ~ pulse shape ~ .
pumaenergy
ceramics__ ~ laserwavelength
~ pulseduration
beamdivergence ~k~
surface reflectivity '~_ulse repetition
Quality of
thickness transverse modes ~ frequency
\

humi d ity/
/,._,u,.
gaspreseure/
/.oz,.°.,on/
/ focallength Holes
Drilled

Environment Assist Gas Focussing Lens

Fig. 21. A cause-and-effectdiagram showingthe various parameters affectingthe quality of drilled
holes.

parameters may be varied independent of one another, but on other machines these
variables are interdependent, so that changing one of them requires changing of the
others. The peak power that a laser delivers in a pulse is related to the pulse energy
and the pulse duration according to the following equation [44]:

E
Pp = ~ (7)

where Pp is the peak power in watts (W), E is the pulse energy in joules (J), and D is the
pulse duration in seconds(s).
In order to remove a greater amount of material, a high peak-power is used to
create the required vapour pressure, and it is recommended that the required
peak-power should be obtained by increasing the pulse energy whilst keeping the
pulse duration constant, as drilling holes with pulse durations longer than necessary
will result in excess melting and will give an enlarged entrance hole 144].
Fig. 22 shows the relationship between peak power and hole diameter in drilling
steel alloy. It can be observed that the two curves give the same trend at
two different pulse durations, i.e. a higher peak power is required to drill a hole of
large diameter.
Choosing an appropriate pulse duration will eventually give a small taper, a small
heat-affected zone, and a small recast layer. The range of pulse durations suitable for
deep-hole drilling is found to be 0.1 to 2.5 ms. Thus, as pulse energy increases,
a greater depth per laser pulse can be achieved. However, more deformation or
a larger inlet cone at the top of the surface can be expected.
36 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49

140
2xPutse Duration 1 j ,
120 + Pulse D4Jration 1

~ +

40

0 I I I I

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Hole Diameter (mm)

Fig. 22. Peak power versus hole diameter at two different pulse durations though 12.7 mm thick of steel
alloy [44].

Another important factor to consider for drilling holes is the concentration of the
laser power on the surface of the material. This concentration is commonly measured
as power density, defined by dividing the laser power by the area of the beam spot
focused on the material [44].

Io = --PP (8)
A

where A is the area of the focused spot (cm2). In general, a range of power density
values can be used to drill the same thickness of material. Fig. 23 illustrates how the
power density affects the thickness through which the laser can drill.
However, it is best to describe the interrelationships of pulse energy, power density,
focal spot area, and pulse duration as follows [44]:

E = Io.A.D (9)

With this relationship, it is possible to determine nearly all the laser and optical
settings required to drill holes. Moreover, the mean output power, which is limited by
the capacity of the electrical power supply, is equal to the number of joules issued by
the laser in one second as follows [45].

Po = E- R (10)
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 37

20
O

16
Q

12

i~ g ySe

i i ! ! w i ;

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Thickness (mm)
Fig. 23. Power density versus thickness of various materials [44].

where Po is the mean output power in watts (W) and R is the pulse repetition rate in
hertz (Hz). To summarize, the findings from various researchers show that high pulse
energy (typically 20 J), and short pulse duration (typically 0.1 to 2.5 ms) are suitable
for drilling deep holes in aerospace materials.

7.2. Pulse shape

The material-removal capabilities of a laser pulse depends on its temporal profile

(pulse shape). For example, Ross [46] reports that the drilling of small holes in 0.1 mm
thick aluminium foil was not possible with a normal 200 ~ts Nd:YAG laser pulse up to
400 mJ. Nevertheless, holes with very good quality were obtained by using trains of
short pulses as shown in Fig. 24(b) 1-46]. In the pulse train, each single spike has
a width of 0.5 las and the time interval between two pulses is greater than 1 ~ts, which
latter could have allowed the vapour generated in the hole zone to escape before the
arrival of the next spike. A small amount of material is removed by each spike, a train
of such spikes drilling a hole of very good quality. Pulse shaping involves using pulses
that consist of a series of rectangular steps. Pirri et al. used this technique to produce
such a spike as would ignite the plasma rapidly, calculating the time span of
laser-supported combustion and laser-supported detonation, and recommending
a special pulse shape for maximum thermal coupling 1-47].
Two other techniques, passive and active pulse-shaping, are used also [48].
Passive pulse-shaping is to split a short laser pulse into many components and
then to recombine them with appropriate attenuation of each component, whilst
active pulse-shaping uses an optical shutter with a rise time shorter than
38 C. Y. Yeo et al./Journal o/ Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49

I kill 10 kW I

I, ~ t ¢
200 ~m 200 ~m

(a) (b)

Fig. 24. Pulse shaping with an energy of 200 mJ [46]: (a) a normal laser pulse; (b) a pulse train.

1.0 ¸
Ag
Cu
0.8

steel
ID 0.6
tJ
r-

0.4

0.2

I I I I I I I
0.2 0.4 I 2 4 I0 20
Wavelength (t,m)
Fig. 25. Reflectance versus wavelength for various polished metal surfaces [18].

the pulse length required. A long pulse is incident on the shutter, the transmission of
the latter being controlled in such a way as to produce the a p p r o p r i a t e profile.

7.3. Laser wavelength, beam divergence and transverse modes

The a m o u n t of laser radiation that actually penetrates into the material depends on
the surface reflectance of the material, and can be written as Io(1 - Rs), where Rs is the
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 39

surface reflectance (R, = 1 - 5). Curves of reflectance versus wavelength for various
metals are shown in Fig. 25. Generally, the reflectance decreases with decreasing
wavelength, so that it would seem advantageous to use lasers with a shorter
wavelength. However, the values of Rs shown in Fig. 25 apply only at room temper-
ature, the values dropping as the temperature rises.
The diameter of the laser beam normally will increase with increasing distance from
the laser owing to the divergence (i.e. spread) of the beam. Beam divergence is
expressed as an angle (in milliradians) representing the increase in beam diameter for
each unit distance of beam travel. It can be used also to predict the minimum beam
diameter that can be achieved by focussing the beam with a lens (see Eq. (11) below). It
should be noted that the diameter and divergence of a laser beam depend on the
average output power of the laser. Fig. 26 shows how the beam divergence of a
typical high-performance laser increases with the average power. In general, it is
recommended that the lowest possible divergence be used for deep-hole drilling
applications.Transverse modes, or transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes, corres-
pond to the shapes of the laser beam transverse to the direction of propagation. They

2s I

20

-.j
.'-d
k.,

E
o 15
t-
-j

>
°~

10
E

sI
0 I I I
0 1O0 2OO 3O0 4O0

O u t p u t P o w e r (W)
Fig. 26. Variation of beam divergence with output power [49].
40 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

are formed by waves travelling on-axis or just off-axis that are able to replicate
themselves after covering a closed path such as that shown in Fig. 27(a). The
lowest-order mode, TEMoo, having cylindrical Gaussian irradiance distribution as
shown in Fig. 27(b), experiences the minimum possible diffraction loss, has minimum
divergence, and can be focused to the smallest possible spot. The presence of higher-
order modes will give rise to a larger spread but would render the system more energy
efficient as a larger mode volume is excited. For laser hole-drilling, a mixture of
low-order modes is preferred, to give a beam of low divergence and high energy.

7.4. Focal length o f lens and focal position

The focal length of the focussing lens and the location of the focal point relative to
the target surface are two important factors to consider in achieving the straightest
possible hole. When parallel laser light enters a lens, it is assumed to focus to an
infinitely small spot. In practice, the raw beam suffers from diffraction and has
a certain divergence so that the beam is focused to a "waist" that has a specific length

(al

T E Moo (uniphose ) T E M 01 ~

r eO
QO
TEM, 0 (h) TEMI '
Fig. 27. Transverse modes: (a) example of a non-axial self-replicatingray that gives rise to transverse
modes; (b) some low-orderTEM modes. 1-50].
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 41

and diameter, the distance where the waist diameter does not change appreciably
being called the depth of focus (see Fig. 28).
In general, a lens with a long focal length gives a larger depth of focus than that
produced by a lens with a short focal length, and the minimum spot diameter can be
found approximately using the equation [44]:
w =f.O (11)
where w is the focused diameter (mm),fis the focal length of lens (mm), and 0 is the
total beam divergence angle (radians). The depth of focus can be estimated as follows
[51]:
2. w.f
Af = - - (12)
Di
where Di is the beam diameter (ram) and Afis the depth of focus (ram) (see Fig. 28). In
order to obtain the greatest depth of focus, a lens with a long focal length and a beam
of low divergence are generally required.
Moreover, the position of the focal point of the beam with respect to the working
surface has a critical effect on the shape and depth of holes, incorrect positioning
resulting in a hole that has poor straightness. The best focal position occurs when the
focus of the beam lies just below the surface of the material (see Fig. 29(d)).
The effect of the focal position on the hole geometry has been studied by Yilbas also
1-52]. Fig. 30 shows that the diameter of the inlet hole depends on the thickness of the
material and on the focal position of the laser beam.
In general, for laser hole-drilling, the beam should have a low divergence, the
focussing lens should have a long focal length, and the position of the beam focus
should be situated below the surface of the material (i.e. into the material).

Depth of Focus

Minimum Spot
Diameter w

/ i
Focal Length f
Beam Divergence
Angle 0/2
Fig. 28. Focal pattern of a converging lens [44].
42 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

(o) (b) (c)

" I \

(a) (o) (0

. I I

(g) (h) (i)

Fig. 29. The effectof focus on the shape and depth of holes [17].

7.5. A s s i s t g a s e s

During the drilling process, a gas jet is normally directed coaxially with the laser
beam into the interaction region, the effect of which is to remove ejecta from the
machining region, and to obtain a clean cut. Assist gases also shield the lens from the
expelled material by setting up a high-pressure barrier at the nozzle opening.
Compressed air and oxygen are the two most commonly used assist gases in
industry. Pure oxygen will cause rapid oxidation, an exothermic reaction, at the
exposed area and increase the amount of absorption and vaporization, which will
result in better process efficiency. However, the selection of compressed air, oxygen or
an inert gas as an assist gas depends mainly on the material, the thickness, other
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 43

0.8

E
E 0.6

0
E
-..I
0.4
£3

I
75 0.2
Thickness

0.3 mm X 0.4 mm t', 0.5 men -F 0.6 turn

0 t I t i

48 49 50 51 52 53

Focal Position (mm)

Fig. 30. Inlet hole diameters against focal position in drilling different thickness of nimonic 75 [52].

Table 5
Some recommended assist gases being used in the laser drilling of various aerospace materials

Materials Assist gas used References

Hastalloy-X Oxygen or argon [13]

Iron, nickel and their alloys Oxygen or compressed air [17]
Aluminium: rolled, extruded and cast plate Dry air [17]
Steel: 1008 galv.; 1010 stamped; soft; hot
rolled; forgings; stainless-tool steels Oxygen [17]
Titanium 724 Dry air [17]
Copper rolled plate Oxygen or dry air [17]
Silicon carbide Nitrogen or air [53]
Silicon nitride Nitrogen [53]
Alumina Nitrogen [53]

process parameters, and the economics of the job. Table 5 summarises some data
regarding assist gases for the laser drilling of various aerospace materials.
In laser drilling, nozzles form a very i m p o r t a n t part of the equipment, in keeping the
lens clean from v a p o r and spatter. The gas stream removes the molten material from
44 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

the hole and is an important parameter in affecting the hole quality and the amount of
recast material at the edge. Moreover, the flow regimes also play an important role in
the design of the nozzle. It was observed that supersonic jets which are stopped in
a series of shocks are normally encountered in most cases 1-54].

7.6. Material properties and environment

The properties of the material play an important role in evaluating the possibility of
laser drilling. The most significant properties are as follows:
(1) Properties that directly affect the manner in which the light is absorbed by the
material. These are the material surface characteristics, the reflectivity of the
surface at the particular wavelength being used, and the absorption coefficient of
the bulk material.
(2) Properties that affect the flow of heat in a material, such as thermal conductivity
and diffusivity. In general, a material with a high thermal-diffusivity will accept
and conduct thermal energy very quickly.
(3) Properties that relate the amount of energy required to cause a desired phase
change in the form of melting or vaporization. These include density, specific heat
and latent heats.
Environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, dust, oil vapour or mist,
and vibrations due to heavy machinery could also affect the performance of lasers and
optics in industrial applications [55]. Optical elements should be maintained at
elevated temperatures to ensure that they are always above the dew point. In
high-power laser applications, it is very important that neither oil vapor nor dust
settle on the surfaces of optic elements, otherwise thermal runaway will occur, as the
absorption of most optical materials increases with temperature, which may result in
damage or destruction of the optical system.

8. Case studies

Case 1 Turbine blades and vanes, normally cast with internal air chambers and
channels, require hundreds of cooling holes with a diameter between 0.25 to
0.5 mm to be drilled. Fig. 31 shows a typical turbine vane with cooling holes
for an aircraft jet engine, drilled by a Nd:YAG laser of energy 10 to 15 J/pulse
and pulse widths of between 1 to 2 ms.
Case 2 Holes may be trepanned at angles of between 20 and 90° to the surface, with
a hole depth of up to 10.0mm, as shown in Fig. 32, using a pulsed
solid-state laser (low divergence) which can produce up to 120 W average
output power.
Case 3 Fig. 33 shows an Inconel 718 specimen of thickness 25.0 mm percussion-
drilled with a pulsed Nd:YAG laser (low divergence) having a maximum of
C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 45

Fig. 31. A typical laser-drilled turbine vane [24].

Fig. 32. A completed workpiece with holes at a low angle to the surface [56].
46 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15 49

Fig. 33. Laser deep-hole drilled Inconel 718 specimen of thickness 25.0 mm [57].

240 W output power, operating at a pulse energy of 30.0 J and a pulse width
of 1.8 ms.

9. Summary

In this article, the physical mechanisms of laser processing, the types of laser and the
various laser-drilling processes are reviewed. It is found that the applications of laser
drilling in the ~terospace industry are very promising in terms of their capabilities and
advantages. However, for applications that require tight tolerances and high accuracy,
the introduction of reliable lasers, innovative work-handling equipment, and
improved beam delivery systems will make laser machining even more versatile and
cost effective.
Since most of the hole drilling operations with pulsed lasers is a thermal process,
laser parameters such as pulse duration, pulse energy, pulse shape, focal position,
beam divergence, and assisting gas need to be considered in order to produce a
good quality hole. The various quality requirements of a hole have also been
discussed.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Singapore Ministry
of Finance (Grant No. M O F R & D 04/89) and the encouragement given by the late
 C.Y. Yeo et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 15-49 47

Professor S.K. Leung, former Dean of the School of Mechanical and Production
Engineering, NTU.

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