CORE QUESTIONS

ON DRINKING-WATER
AND SANITATION FOR
HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS
WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys.

1.Water supply. 2.Sanitation. 3.Data collection - standards. 4.Guidelines. I.WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Pro-
gramme for Water Supply and Sanitation. II.World Health Organization. III.UNICEF.

ISBN 92 4 156326 5 (NLM classification: WA 675)

ISBN 978 92 4 156326 0

© World Health Organization and UNICEF 2006

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ............................................................................................................................4
1. Why use harmonized questions in household surveys? .....................................5
2. The core set of questions on drinking-water and sanitation
for household surveys.......................................................................................6
3. Survey questions about drinking-water .............................................................8
4. Survey questions about sanitation ..................................................................12
5. Survey question about the safe disposal of children’s faeces ..........................15
6. Analysis of survey data ...................................................................................16
7. Tools and resources ........................................................................................22
8. Acknowledgements ........................................................................................24
9. Contact information ........................................................................................25

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Classification of improved and unimproved drinking-water
and sanitation facilities ...................................................................................16
Table 2 Use of improved drinking-water sources .........................................................17
Table 2A Use of improved drinking-water sources by those responding
“bottled water” as the main source of drinking-water in Question 1................18
Table 3 Use of improved sanitation facilities ................................................................19
Table 4 Presentation of drinking-water data in final report ..........................................20
Table 5 Presentation of sanitation data in final report ..................................................21

3
 PREFACE

The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)
prepared this document Core questions on drinking-water and sanitation for household surveys
for use in comprehensive surveys that include questions on drinking-water and sanitation. If
national and subnational household surveys use the questions and response categories in this
guide, this will help to improve survey comparability over time and harmonize them with
international monitoring programmes, including the JMP.
The harmonized questions in this guide are derived from an in-depth study of
several international survey instruments. The questions were developed by the JMP in
collaboration with experts from three international survey programmes – the Demo-
graphic and Health Survey (DHS), the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) and
the World Health Survey (WHS) – as well with selected members of the JMP Technical
Advisory Group (TAG). The DHS, MICS and WHS have adopted these harmonized ques-
tions to solve the comparability problems that previously existed across the different surveys.
This guide :
• Explains why it is important to adopt a harmonized set of drinking-water and
sanitation questions in household surveys.
• Introduces a set of harmonized survey questions related to drinking-water and
sanitation issues.
• Explains how household survey data are used to estimate access to drinking-water
and sanitation.
• Discusses the classification of drinking-water and sanitation technologies as
“improved” or “unimproved,” and provides definitions for such technologies.
• Presents tools and information for monitoring the use of improved drinking-water
and sanitation facilities.

A companion document to this set of core questions has been prepared by Rod Shaw of the
Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, UK.
Entitled “Drinking-Water and Sanitation : A compendium of illustrations for household
surveys,” this document is available on the JMP web site (www.wssinfo.org).

4
1. WHY USE HARMONIZED QUESTIONS IN HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS?

Surveys are routinely used to assess household use of improved drinking-water and sanita-
tion, and to assess hygiene-related practices in countries across the globe. Examples include
the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), supported by the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID); the UNICEF-supported Multiple Indicator Cluster
Survey (MICS); the WHO World Health Survey (WHS); the Reproductive Health Survey;
the Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS); the Core Welfare Indicator Question-
naires (CWIQ); and national censuses.
Accurate information about drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene related issues is invalu-
able to national leaders, decision-makers and stakeholders when making policy decisions.
Sound, evidence-based information can be used in a variety of ways, including:
• to assess progress towards national and international goals and targets;
• to promote increased investments in the sector;
• to focus attention on needy areas and efficiently allot resources.
To ensure that the national, regional and global estimates are of the best quality possible, the
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) uses
different household surveys to estimate drinking-water and sanitation coverage. However,
one problem with using data from a variety of sources is that the different survey results
often cannot be compared, as different surveys may use different questions and response
categories. As a result, it has been difficult to establish accurate trends over time within
countries, and to compare data from different countries. Solving comparability problems is
therefore crucial for estimating coverage accurately, and this prompted the JMP to formulate
the set of harmonized survey questions and response categories presented in this guide.
This set of questions and response categories is intended for use in household surveys and
national censuses; they have already been incorporated into several international survey pro-
grammes including DHS, MICS and WHS. It is envisioned that, with the expanded use of
these harmonized questions, the pool of reliable data will increase, leading to higher quality
estimates at country, regional and global levels.

Box 1: The JMP and global estimates

The JMP serves as the official mechanism of the United Nations for monitoring access to drink-
ing-water and sanitation, and for reporting globally on the status of drinking-water and sanitation
coverage. The coverage estimates are used to measure progress towards MDG Target 7c, «To
halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and
basic sanitation.»

5
 2. THE CORE SET OF QUESTIONS ON DRINKING-WATER AND SANITATION
FOR HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS

The harmonized survey questions in this guide assess the type of drinking-water source and
sanitation facility that household members use. The questions also assess hygiene practices
with respect to the disposal of children’s faeces. The questions are not exhaustive, but serve
as a core set to include in comprehensive household surveys. There are a number of detailed
survey instruments for assessing household sources of drinking-water, sanitation facilities,
and hygiene behaviours, including the Environmental Health Project/USAID Guidelines for
assessing hygiene improvement, the World Bank LSMS, and the London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine WSH indicators for VISION 21. The harmonized survey questions
in this guide will serve as a core set of drinking-water and sanitation questions for compre-
hensive surveys that include concerns beyond water and sanitation. These and other useful
survey tools are listed in section 7. Tools and resources.
In this section, the harmonized questions are presented in three parts: questions related to
drinking-water, to sanitation, and a question on the disposal of children’s faeces. The harmo-
nized questions for drinking-water provide information about the type of water source used,
the time required to collect the water, and the household member responsible for fetching
the water. There is also a question about the treatment of household drinking-water. The
sanitation-related questions focus on access to sanitation facilities, and include questions
about the type of sanitation facility used by the household and whether the facility is shared
with others. The harmonized question on children’s faeces aims at understanding household
practices for disposing of them.

2.1 Survey questions about drinking-water

Question 1 aims to determine the household’s main source of drinking-water, which serves
as a proxy indicator for whether a household’s drinking-water is safe. The assumption is that
certain types of drinking-water sources are likely to deliver drinking-water of adequate qual-
ity for their basic health needs. This approximation is used because it would be too costly
and time consuming to assess drinking-water quality through national household surveys
(see section 6. Analysis of survey data for drinking-water sources that are considered likely to
provide safe water).
Question 1A is designed for households that use bottled water as their main source of drink-
ing-water. In such cases, additional information must be obtained about the water source for
other domestic purposes, such as cooking and hand-washing. Bottled water is considered an
improved source of drinking-water only when the household uses an improved water source
for their other domestic uses.
The harmonized question set includes a question to determine if the round-trip water haul-
ing time between the household and the water source takes more than 30 minutes.
Several other factors, in addition to the quantity of water available and the time and distance
to the source, affect the quality of the access that a household has to drinking-water. Such
factors include the quality of the water delivered, the continuity of the drinking-water ser-
vice, the seasonal availability of water, and the affordability of the services. The time needed

6
to haul water (Question 2) and who within the household collects the water (Question 3)
can be relatively easily assessed by national household surveys. This is not the case for conti-
nuity, reliability, seasonality and affordability of water supplies, since the assessments require
too many questions, and these factors are best assessed by surveys dealing exclusively with
drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene issues.
Household water treatment (Questions 4 and 5) can significantly impact the quality of wa-
ter at the point of use. Appropriate household treatment involves any method proven to be
effective in removing or killing pathogens, such as boiling the water, adding bleach or chlo-
rine to the water, using a water-filtering device, solar disinfection of the water and settling
methods. Some of these treatments are used individually, but some are combined to ensure
that the pathogens are effectively inactivated.

2.2 Survey questions about sanitation

Facilities that are not shared between households and that hygienically separate human
excreta from human contact are considered to be adequate.1 Certain technologies are more
likely than others to meet these adequacy standards. Technologies meeting the above require-
ments are called “improved” and those that do not are “unimproved”. (See section 6. Analysis
of survey data for details of sanitation facilities that are considered likely to provide adequate
sanitation).
Improved sanitation facilities include a flush/pour-flush toilet or latrine that flushes to a sewer,
septic tank or pit. A ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine, pit latrines with the pit well covered
by a slab, or composting toilets are also considered improved. Open pits or latrines without a
proper slab to cover the pit are considered to be unimproved. Hanging latrines, which deposit
untreated excreta directly into bodies of water or in the open, are also unimproved as there is
a high risk that individuals could come into direct contact with human excreta.
Questions 6 and 7 determine whether a sanitation facility is shared with other households,
and if so with how many (Question 8). If a facility is shared and poorly maintained, this
can undercut the hygienic quality of the facility and discourage people from using it. Such
facilities pose health hazards by exposing people directly to human excreta, but in densely
populated urban areas, shared or public facilities are often the only sanitation alternative.

2.3 Survey question about safe disposal of children’s faeces

Question 9 deals with the disposal of children’s faeces because this is a critical aspect of sani-
tary behaviour. Compared to the faeces of an adult, children’s faeces are more likely to be a
source of contamination for the household environment.2 Many cultures, however, do not
regard the faeces of small children as dangerous and do not dispose of them in a safe manner.
The preferred disposal method, which should ensure that the household environment is not
contaminated, is putting or rinsing stools into a sanitation facility.
1
WHO/UNICEF JMP. Report of the first meeting of the Technical Advisory Group. Geneva, 23-25 April 2002.
2
Kleinau E, Pyle D, Nichols L, Rosensweig F, Cogswell L, Tomasek A. Strategic report 8: Guidelines for assessing hygiene
improvement. Arlington, VA, Environmental Health Project II (USAID), 2004.

7
 3. SURVEY QUESTIONS ABOUT DRINKING-WATER

QUESTION 1: Main drinking-water source Indicator

Use of improved drinking-water sources.
The purpose of this question is to determine the
main source of drinking-water for members of Numerator
the household (i.e. the water source that supplies Number of household members using im-
most of the household drinking-water needs). proved sources of drinking-water.
The type of water source or technology speci-
Denominator
fied by the household is used as an indicator for
Total number of household members in house-
whether the drinking-water is of suitable quality.
holds surveyed.
The water sources likely to be of suitable qual-
ity, or “improved”, are: a piped water supply DEFINITIONS
into the dwelling; piped water to a yard/plot;
“Improved” sources of drinking-water
a public tap/standpipe; a tube well/borehole;
a protected dug well; a protected spring; and • Piped water into dwelling, also called a
rainwater. Water sources that are “unimproved” household connection, is defined as a wa-
are: an unprotected dug well; an unprotected ter service pipe connected with in-house
spring; a cart with a small tank/drum; a water plumbing to one or more taps (e.g. in the
tanker-truck; and surface water. kitchen and bathroom).
• Piped water to yard/plot, also called a
Q1. What is the main source of yard connection, is defined as a piped water
drinking-water for members connection to a tap placed in the yard or plot
of your household? outside the house.
• Public tap or standpipe is a public water
Piped water into dwelling >>Q4
point from which people can collect water. A
Piped water to yard/plot >>Q4 standpipe is also known as a public fountain
Public tap/standpipe >>Q2 or public tap. Public standpipes can have
Tubewell/borehole >>Q2 one or more taps and are typically made of
brickwork, masonry or concrete.
Protected dug well >>Q2
• Tubewell or borehole is a deep hole that
Unprotected dug well >>Q2 has been driven, bored or drilled, with the
Protected spring >>Q2 purpose of reaching groundwater supplies.
Boreholes/tubewells are constructed with
Unprotected spring >>Q2
casing, or pipes, which prevent the small
Rainwater collection >>Q2 diameter hole from caving in and protects
Bottled water >>Q1A the water source from infiltration by run-off
Cart with small tank/drum >>Q2 water. Water is delivered from a tubewell
or borehole through a pump, which may be
Tanker-truck >>Q2 powered by human, animal, wind, electric,
Surface water (river, dam, lake, >>Q2 diesel or solar means. Boreholes/tubewells
pond, stream, canal, irrigation are usually protected by a platform around
channels) the well, which leads spilled water away
Other (specify) >>Q2 from the borehole and prevents infiltration
of run-off water at the well head.
• Protected dug well is a dug well that is
protected from runoff water by a well lining

8
 or casing that is raised above ground level QUESTION 1A: Bottled water prompt
and a platform that diverts spilled water
This question is asked only of those whose
away from the well. A protected dug well
response to Question 1 was “bottled water”.
is also covered, so that bird droppings and
It is designed to determine the main water
animals cannot fall into the well.
source used by the household for purposes
• Protected spring. The spring is typically
such as cooking and personal hygiene. Hand
protected from runoff, bird droppings and
washing and cooking are a proxy for all other
animals by a “spring box”, which is con-
water uses. If bottled water users use alter-
structed of brick, masonry, or concrete and
nate water sources (improved or unimproved),
is built around the spring so that water flows
it is important to identify the main second-
directly out of the box into a pipe or cistern,
ary source, to be able to properly classify the
without being exposed to outside pollution.
household as having access to an improved or
• Bottled water is considered an improved
unimproved water source.
source of drinking-water only when there is
a secondary source of improved water for
Q1A. What is the main source of
other uses such as personal hygiene and
water used by your house-
cooking. Production of bottled water should hold for other purposes,
be overseen by a competent national sur- such as cooking and hand
veillance body. washing?
• Rainwater refers to rain that is collected or
Piped water into dwelling >>Q4
harvested from surfaces (by roof or ground
catchment) and stored in a container, tank Piped water to yard/plot >>Q4
or cistern until used. Public tap/standpipe
“Unimproved” sources of drinking-water Tubewell/borehole
• Unprotected spring. This is a spring that is Protected dug well
subject to runoff, bird droppings, or the en-
Unprotected dug well
try of animals. Unprotected springs typically
do not have a “spring box”. Protected spring
• Unprotected dug well. This is a dug well for Unprotected spring
which one of the following conditions is true: Rainwater collection
1) the well is not protected from runoff water;
Cart with small tank/drum
or 2) the well is not protected from bird drop-
pings and animals. If at least one of these Tanker-truck
conditions is true, the well is unprotected. Surface water (river, dam, lake,
• Cart with small tank/drum. This refers to pond, stream, canal, irrigation
water sold by a provider who transports wa- channels)
ter into a community. The types of transpor- Other (specify)
tation used include donkey carts, motorized
vehicles and other means.
DEFINITIONS
• Tanker-truck. The water is trucked into a
community and sold from the water truck. See Question 1 for definitions.
• Surface water is water located above ground
and includes rivers, dams, lakes, ponds,
streams, canals, and irrigation channels.

9
 QUESTION 2: Time to collect water disparities with respect to water-hauling re-
sponsibilities.
The purpose of this question is to assess
whether the main drinking-water source is
sufficiently close or accessible to the house- Q3. Who usually goes to this
source to fetch the water for
hold to ensure that there is an adequate daily
your household?
volume of water for basic household purposes. Probe:
The question asks for the total number of min- Is this person under age 15 years?
utes it takes to get from the dwelling to the What sex? Circle the code that best
water collection point, queue for water, and describes this person.
return to the dwelling. Time spent socializing Adult woman >>Q4
(outside of queuing) should not be included in Adult man >>Q4
the total number of minutes.
Female child (under 15 years) >>Q4
Q2. How long does it take Male child (under 15 years) >>Q4
to go there, get water, DK >>Q4
and come back?
No. of minutes >>Q3
QUESTIONS 4 AND 5: Water treatment
Water on premises >>Q4
The purpose of the following two questions
DK >>Q3 is to know whether the household drinking-
water is treated within the household and, if so,
Note that the question refers only to a single
what type of treatment is used. The questions
water-hauling trip and does not consider mul-
are intended to gather information on water
tiple trips in a single day.
treatment practices at the household level,
DEFINITIONS which provides an indication of the quality of
• No. of minutes refers to the amount of time the drinking-water used in the household.
needed to get to the water source, obtain Check more than one response if several
water, and return to the household. Social- methods are used together (e.g. filtering and
izing time should not be included in the adding chlorine).
minute value given, unless it is done while
Indicator
queuing for water. The minute value is the
Use of an adequate water treatment method.
time for one round trip, not the total time
spent per day hauling water. Numerator
Number of household members who treat
• Water on premises refers to a water source
their water using an adequate water treat-
that is located in the household (house,
ment method.
apartment building), or in the yard/plot.
Denominator
• DK means “don’t know”.
Total number of household members surveyed.
DEFINITIONS
QUESTION 3: Individual(s) collecting water “Adequate” water treatment methods
An adequate water treatment method disin-
The purpose of this question is to know who
fects water, killing harmful pathogens.
usually goes to the source to fetch water for
the household. This information gives a sense • Boil refers to bringing the water to a rolling
of whether there are gender and generational boil.

10
 from the water. They could be used in combi-
Q4. Do you treat your water in
nation with any of the above adequate treat-
any way to make it safer to
ment methods, but exclusive use of inadequate
drink?
methods will not make water safe to drink.
Yes >>Q5
• Strain it through a cloth refers to pouring
No >>Q6
water through a cloth which filters particu-
DK >>Q6 lates from the water.
Q5. What do you usually do to • Let it stand and settle refers to holding or
the water to make it safer storing water undisturbed and without mix-
to drink? ing long enough for larger particles to settle
Anything else? out. The settled water is carefully removed by
Record all items mentioned decanting, or any other gentle method that
does not disturb the sedimented particles.
Boil >>Q6
Add bleach/chlorine >>Q6
Strain it through a cloth >>Q6
Use a water filter (ceramic, sand, >>Q6
composite, etc.)
Solar disinfection >>Q6
Let it stand and settle >>Q6
Other (specify) >>Q6
DK >>Q6
• Add bleach/chlorine refers to the use of
chlorine compounds to treat drinking-water.
The most common chlorine compounds in-
clude sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypo-
chlorite and bleaching powder (chloride of
lime, a mixture of calcium hydroxide, cal-
cium chloride and calcium hypochlorite).
• Use a water filter (ceramic, sand, com-
posite) refers to filtering the water through
media to remove particles and most mi-
crobes from the water. The media used in
filtering systems can be ceramic (including
clays, diatomaceous earth, glass and other
fine particles), sand, or composite (a combi-
nation of materials).
• Solar disinfection consists of exposing wa-
ter in clear bottles or containers to sunlight
for a minimum of six hours, typically on the
roof of a house.
“Inadequate” water treatment methods
These methods are not sufficient to disinfect
water, but can remove dirt or other particles

11
 4. SURVEY QUESTIONS ABOUT SANITATION

QUESTION 6: Sanitation facility Q6. What kind of toilet facility

The purpose of this question is to determine do members of your house-
the type of sanitation facility used by adults hold usually use?
in the household, which provides an indication If “flush” or “pour flush” probe:
Where does it flush to?
of whether the household uses adequate sani-
tation. The question specifically asks about Flush/pour flush to: >>Q7
actual use of a facility, rather than asks if a piped sewer system >>Q7
household has or owns a toilet facility. This
septic tank >>Q7
should avoid counting facilities not in use or
dysfunctional. pit latrine >>Q7
elsewhere >>Q7
A sanitation facility is considered adequate if
it hygienically separates human excreta from unknown place/not sure/DK >>Q7
human contact. The types of technology that where
are likely to meet this criterion are: flush to Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) >>Q7
piped sewer system; flush to septic tank; Pit latrine with slab >>Q7
flush/pour flush to pit; composting toilet; VIP
latrine; pit latrine with a slab. Pit latrine without slab/open pit >>Q7
Composting toilet >>Q7
Types of sanitation facilities that are not like-
ly to meet the criterion are: flush/pour flush Bucket >>Q7
elsewhere; pit latrine without a slab/open pit; Hanging toilet/hanging latrine >>Q7
bucket; and a hanging toilet. No facilities or bush or field >>Q9
See the definition of “No facilities/bush/field” Other (specify) >>Q7
for various answers to this response category. DEFINITIONS
The response category ”Other” is for record- “Improved” sanitation facilities
ing answers that do not match any other re- • A flush toilet uses a cistern or holding tank
sponse category. If “latrine”, “pit latrine”, or for flushing water, and a water seal (which
“traditional latrine” is given as a response, is a U-shaped pipe below the seat or squat-
probe for whether the latrine meets the defini- ting pan) that prevents the passage of flies
tion of a VIP, a pit latrine with slab, a pit latrine and odours. A pour flush toilet uses a water
without slab, or an open pit. seal, but unlike a flush toilet, a pour flush
toilet uses water poured by hand for flush-
Indicator ing (no cistern is used).
Use of improved sanitation facility. • A piped sewer system is a system of sewer
Numerator pipes, also called sewerage, that is designed
Number of household members using im- to collect human excreta (faeces and urine)
proved sanitation facilities. and wastewater and remove them from the
household environment. Sewerage systems
Denominator consist of facilities for collection, pumping,
Total number of household members in house- treating and disposing of human excreta
holds surveyed. and wastewater.
• A septic tank is an excreta collection de-
vice consisting of a water-tight settling tank,

12
 which is normally located underground, • Bucket refers to the use of a bucket or
away from the house or toilet. The treated other container for the retention of faeces
effluent of a septic tank usually seeps into (and sometimes urine and anal cleaning
the ground through a leaching pit. It can also material), which are periodically removed
be discharged into a sewerage system. for treatment, disposal, or use as fertilizer.
• A flush/pour flush to pit latrine refers to a • A hanging toilet or hanging latrine is a
system that flushes excreta to a hole in the toilet built over the sea, a river, or other body
ground or leaching pit (protected, covered). of water, into which excreta drops directly.
• A ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) is • No facilities or bush or field includes
a dry pit latrine ventilated by a pipe that ex- defecation in the bush or field or ditch; ex-
tends above the latrine roof. The open end creta deposited on the ground and covered
of the vent pipe is covered with gauze mesh with a layer of earth (cat method); excreta
or fly-proof netting and the inside of the su- wrapped and thrown into garbage; and
perstructure is kept dark. defecation into surface water (drainage
• A pit latrine with slab is a dry pit latrine channel, beach, river, stream or sea).
that uses a hole in the ground to collect the
excreta and a squatting slab or platform
that is firmly supported on all sides, easy
QUESTIONS 7 AND 8: Shared sanitation
to clean and raised above the surrounding
facility
ground level to prevent surface water from
entering the pit. The platform has a squat- The purpose of these questions is to know
ting hole, or is fitted with a seat. whether the household shares its sanitation
• A composting toilet is a dry toilet into facility with other households. The shared sta-
which carbon-rich material (vegetable tus of a sanitation facility is important because
wastes, straw, grass, sawdust, ash) are shared facilities can be less hygienic than fa-
added to the excreta and special conditions cilities used by a single household. Unhygienic
maintained to produce inoffensive compost. conditions (faeces on the floor, seat or wall,
A composting latrine may or may not have a and flies) may discourage use of the facility.
urine separation device.
Effect on the indicator of question 6
• Special case. A response of “flush/pour
People using an improved sanitation facility
flush to unknown place/not sure/DK where”
that is shared should be discounted from the
is taken to indicate that the household sani-
numerator in question 6.
tation facility is improved, as respondents
might not know if their toilet is connected to Q7. Do you share this facility
a sewer or septic tank. with other households?
“Unimproved” sanitation facilities Yes >>Q8
• A flush/pour flush to elsewhere refers to No >>Q9
excreta being deposited in or nearby the
household environment (not into a pit, sep- Q8. How many households use
tic tank, or sewer). Excreta may be flushed this toilet facility?
to the street, yard/plot, open sewer, a ditch, How many other households share >>Q9
a drainage way or other location. this toilet?
• A pit latrine without slab uses a hole in the Can any member of the public use >>Q9
ground for excreta collection and does not this toilet?
have a squatting slab, platform or seat. An DK >>Q9
open pit is a rudimentary hole in the ground
where excreta is collected.

13
 DEFINITIONS
A shared sanitation facility is a facility used by
a restricted number of households.
In urban areas and apartment buildings, in
particular, several families often share a facil-
ity. Research is required to determine if shared
facilities should be considered generally as
unimproved, or if there is a reasonable cut-
off point within which sharing can be seen as
hygienically acceptable.

14
5. SURVEY QUESTION ABOUT THE SAFE DISPOSAL OF CHILDREN’S FAECES

QUESTION 9: Disposal of children’s faeces

The purpose of this question is to determine Indicator
how the faeces of all children under three Sanitary disposal of children’s faeces.
years of age in the household were disposed
Numerator
of when they most recently passed stool. The
Number of children under the age of 3 years
safe disposal of children’s faeces is of particu-
whose (last) stools were disposed of safely.
lar importance because children’s faeces are
the most likely cause of faecal contamination Denominator
to the immediate household environment. Total number of children under the age of 3
years surveyed
The preferred disposal method, which is likely
to ensure protection of the household environ- Sanitary disposal of children’s faeces
ment from faecal contamination, is putting or
• Child used toilet/latrine
rinsing stools into a sanitation facility.
• Put/rinsed faeces into the toilet or latrine
• Buried the faeces
Q9. The last time [name of youngest
child] passed stools, what was done Unsanitary disposal of children’s faeces
to dispose of the stools? • Put/rinsed faeces into drain or ditch
Child used toilet/latrine • Faeces thrown into the garbage
Put/rinsed into toilet or latrine • Faeces left or buried in the open
• DK
Put/rinsed into drain or ditch
Thrown into garbage
Buried
Left in the open
Other (specify)
DK

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 6. ANALYSIS OF SURVEY DATA

The classification of “improved” and “unimproved” facilities adopted by the JMP is listed
in Table 1 and covers the response categories of the household survey questions presented
in this guide.
Table 1
Classification of improved and unimproved drinking-water and sanitation facilities

Improved Unimproved
Drinking- Piped water into dwelling, Unprotected dug well
water plot or yard Unprotected spring
Public tap/standpipe Cart with small tank/drum
Tubewell/borehole Bottled watera
Protected dug well Tanker-truck
Protected spring Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond,
Rainwater collection stream, canal, irrigation channels)
Sanitationb Flush/pour flush to: Flush/pour flush to:
- piped sewer system - elsewhere
- septic tank Pit latrine without slab/open pit
- pit latrine Bucket
- unknown place/not known where Hanging toilet/hanging latrine
VIP latrine No facilities or bush or field
Pit latrine with slab
Composting toilet
a
Bottled water is considered improved only when the household uses water from an improved source for cooking and
personal hygiene.
b
Shared or public facilities are not counted as improved.

Tables 2 and 3 show how to calculate household coverage from the survey questions and
response categories in this guide.

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 Table 2
Use of improved drinking-water sources
Percentage of the population using improved drinking-water sources, country, year, urban, rural

Main source of drinking-water a Total

Improved sources Unimproved sources number
of people
Percent- using
age using Total improved Total
Piped Piped Public Tube- improved Cart percentage sources number
into into tap/ well/ Pro- Pro- sources of Unpro- Unpro- Sur- with using unim- of of
dwell- yard/ stand- bore- tected tected Rain- Bottled drinking- tected tected face Tanker tank/ Bottled proved water drinking- household
ing plot pipe hole well spring water water b water well spring water truck drum water c Other sources Total water members

Urban 100.0
Rural 100.0
Totals 100.0

= household connections
= improved sources
Sum of and = total improved sources

a
Based on responses to questions 1 and 1A.
b
Proportion of people using bottled water as the main source of drinking-water who also use another improved source for other purposes, such as cooking and hand washing.
c
Proportion of people using bottled water as the main source of drinking-water, but with a unimproved source for other purposes, such as cooking and hand washing.

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18
Table 2A
Use of improved drinking-water sources by those responding “bottled water” as the main source of drinking-water in Question 1

QUESTION 1A: Secondary source of water when main source of drinking-water is “bottled water”
Improved sources Unimproved sources
Percentage
of population
answering Piped Piped Public Tube- Cart
“bottled into into tap/ well/ Pro- Pro- Unpro- Sur- Unpro- Unpro- Sur- with
water” to dwell- yard/ stand- bore- tected tected Rain- Total tected face Tanker tected tected face Tanker tank/ Total unim-
Question 1 ing plot pipe hole well spring water improved spring water truck well spring water truck drum Other proved

Urban
Rural
Totals
 Table 3
Use of improved sanitation facilities
Percentage of the population using sanitary means of excreta disposal, country, year, urban, rural

Type of toilet facility used by household

Improved sanitation facility Unimproved sanitation facility Total
number
Flush/pour flush to: of people Total
Flush/ pour Pit latrine Hanging using number
Piped Ventilated flush to without toilet/ Total improved of
sewer improved Pit latrine Compos- Total some- slab/ open hanging unim- sanitation household
b
system Septic tank Pit latrine pit latrine with slab ting toilet improved where else pit Bucket latrine Other None proved Total facilities members
a
ns s ns s ns s ns s ns s ns s ns s ns s ns s ns s ns s
Urban 100.0
Rural 100.0
Totals 100.0

= toilets flushing to piped sewer systems (not shared)

= access to improved sanitation (not shared)
= sum of and = total improved sanitation
a
Abbreviations: ns = not shared; s = shared.
b
This indicator is based on responses to Questions 6 and 7.

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 Table 4
Presentation of drinking-water data in final report

SURVEY NAME YEAR

Water Urban Rural Total
Piped water into dwelling
Piped water to yard/plot see footnote a
Public tap/standpipe
Tubewell/Borehole
Protected dug well
Protected spring
Rainwater
Unprotected dug well
Unprotected spring
Cart with small tank/drum
Tanker truck provided
Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation
channels)
Other (specify)
Totals 100 100 100
% use of improved drinking-water source
% house connections
% using bottled water as main drinking-water source
% bottled water users with improved drinking-water source
a
Example of calculation: = (Piped into dwelling from Q1) + (Piped into dwelling from Q1A * Percentage of population
answering “bottled water” to Q1 / 100).

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Table 5
Presentation of sanitation data in final report
SURVEY NAME YEAR
Sanitation Urban Rural Total
a
Flush/pour flush to piped sewer system see footnote
Flush/pour flush to piped sewer system (shared)
Flush/pour flush to septic tank
Flush/pour flush to septic tank (shared)
Flush/pour flush to pit
Flush/pour flush to pit (shared)
Flush/pour flush to unknown place/ not sure/DK where
Flush/pour flush to unknown place/ not sure/DK where (shared)
VIP latrine
VIP latrine (shared)
Pit latrine with slab
Pit latrine with slab (shared)
Composting toilet
Composting toilet (shared)
Flush/pour flush to elsewhere
Pit latrine without slab/open pit
Bucket
Hanging toilet/hanging latrine
No facilities or bush or field
Other (specify)
Totals 100 100
% use of improved sanitation facilities
% use of sewerage connections
a
Example of calculation: = (Flush/pour flush to piped sewer system from Q6) * (Ratio of private flush/pour flush to piped
sewer system from Q6 and Q7).

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 7. TOOLS AND RESOURCES

The household survey questions in this guide are a limited selection of core questions for a
basic assessment of a household’s source of drinking-water and use of sanitation facility. Us-
ing the core questions in comprehensive surveys will improve the comparability of surveys
from different countries, and over time. The DHS, MICS and WHS have already adopted
the set of core questions. Information on these and other survey resources is given below.
For example, the DHS are nationally-representative household surveys with large sample
sizes, which provide data on and analysis of the population, health, and nutrition of women
and children in developing countries. In addition to providing demographic and health
data, DHS aims to increase local capacity in research design and implementation, sampling,
data processing, analysis, and dissemination. Additional information about DHS surveys
can be found on Measure DHS+ web site, http://www.measuredhs.com.
The MICS were developed by UNICEF as a means for countries to fill data gaps in moni-
toring progress towards the World Summit for Children goals. The surveys furnish data that
allow the status of women and children to be assessed, and monitor progress towards the
internationally agreed development goals. The MICS also help to improve data and moni-
toring systems within countries by strengthening the technical expertise associated with the
design and implementation of household surveys and their data analysis. For information
on using this survey tool and for survey results, see the UNICEF web site for monitoring
the situation of children and women, http://www.childinfo.org.
WHO introduced the WHS in 2002, with the objective of providing a low-cost tool that
would give valid, reliable and comparable information on outcomes, functions, and inputs
to health-care systems. An additional objective is to build the evidence base necessary to
monitor goals and adjust policies, strategies and programmes. More information about the
WHS is available at http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/en.
The World Bank’s LSMS household surveys are used to measure and understand poverty in
developing countries. This survey tool provides governments and economic analysts with
accurate, current, and relevant data, which helps them to make evidence-based economic
and policy decisions. Additional information on the LSMS survey can be found at the
World Bank LSMS web site at http://www.worldbank.org/lsms.
The Guidelines for assessing hygiene improvement 3 by the Environmental Health Project,
presents a model questionnaire for measuring hygiene improvement at the household and
community levels. The intent of the guidelines is to assist project designers and manag-
ers in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of hygiene improvement
projects and programmes.
The survey tool, WSH Indicators for Vision 21, was developed by the London School of
Hygiene and Tropical Medicine specifically to assess drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene
in households and schools. This instrument includes a household questionnaire and a school
question, and includes in-depth questions on appropriate hygiene practices, school hygiene
and sanitation, use of/access to improved sanitation, and use of/access to improved water
sources.

3
Kleinau E, Pyle D, Nichols L, Rosensweig F, Cogswell L, Tomasek A (2004). Strategic Report 8: Guidelines for assessing
hygiene improvement. Arlington, VA, Environmental Health Project II (USAID).

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8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Executing Agencies of the JMP (WHO and UNICEF) wish to acknowledge the
contributions made by the JMP Technical Advisory Group and the JMP Task Force on
Harmonization of Survey Questions in developing the harmonized set of drinking-water
and sanitation questions. The generous time and effort of the following Task Force members
is greatly appreciated: Fred Arnold (Macro International), Kristof Bostoen (London School
of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine), Trevor Croft (UNICEF), Patricia David (John Snow
International), Cathie Frazier (Environmental Health Project/USAID), Mark Henderson
(UNICEF), José Hueb (WHO), Eckhard Kleinau (Environmental Health Project/USAID),
Pete Kolsky (The World Bank), Rolf Luyendijk (UNICEF), Rose Mungai (The World
Bank), Tessa Wardlaw (UNICEF).
The financial support of USAID is gratefully acknowledged along with the contributions
made by Cathie Frazier of the Johns Hopkins University Health and Child Survival Fellows
Program and the Environmental Health Project (EHP/USAID), who wrote and organized
the initial draft of the guide and produced background documentation and analyses for
developing the harmonized question set.
In addition, special thanks are extended to the advisers, writers and reviewers: Jamie
Bartram, Trevor Croft, Mark Henderson, José Hueb, Frédéric Jacot-Guillarmod, Rolf Luy-
endijk, Vanessa Tobin and Tessa Wardlaw.

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 9. CONTACT INFORMATION

The overall aim of the JMP is to report on the status of the drinking-water and sanitation
sector, as well as support countries in their monitoring efforts, to enable better planning and
management.
The harmonized questions presented in this guide are available for downloading from the
JMP website at: http://www.wssinfo.org.
For more information, contact:
World Health Organization
Water, Sanitation and Health
20, Avenue Appia, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health
e-mail: [email protected].
United Nations Children’s Fund
Water, Environment and Sanitation Section
3 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA.
http://www.unicef.org/wes.
e-mail: [email protected].

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