Chapter 1 - 6

1
Tools
1. Introduction 2. Screw Drivers. 3. Pliers. 4.Pocket Knife. 5. Hammers. 6. Wooden
Saw. 7. Chisels. 8. Scratch Awl. 9. Hand Drill. 10. Ratchet Bit Brace. 11. Auger Bits.
12. Rawl Plug Tool, 13. Hacksaw. 14. Centre Punch. 15. Twist Drill. 16. Putty Knife.
17. Blow Lamp. 18, Files. 19. Plumb Bob. 20. Conduit Wiring Tools. 21. Pipe Vices.
22. Conduit Pipes Cutter. 23. Conduit cutting by Hacksaw. 24. Reamer. 25. Die and
Die Stock. 26. Conduit Bending tools. 27. Taps. 28. Wrenches. 29. Precautions in
handling the Toots.
1.Introduction. It is said that among the tool kits of engineers,

electrical engineer's kit is the most simple and brief. He can do much
work with a screw driver and a plier, but as electric lighting and
wiring is a specialized job, so it requires a special kit. Some of the
tools used for lighting and wiring are common with other trades.
These tools are not expensive and are available at all leading
hardware stores. While purchasin g tools, it should be remembered
that better grade tools should be preferred to cheap type tools. As
estimating the cost of any installation and executing the same are
related, it is imperative to know about the tools which form the
essential part of the execution. The following are the most common
types of tools.
2. Screw Drivers. As mentioned earlier, it is the most
important tool and is used more often than any other tool. The screw
drivers are available in different blade sizes, but commonly a 25
cms. screw driver with 15 cm.s. blade is a standard one which can
be used to meet different types ofjobs. Such a screw driver is shown
in Fig. 1.1 (a). - In addition to this, a similar screw driver with thin
blade is useful for screwing or unscrewing the small screws of
switches, lamp holders etc. In some cases a square blade screwdriver
may be required to augment handpressure. Such a screw driver is
shown in Fig. 1.1 (c).

2 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
-
Standard Screw
Driver Thin Blade Screw Driver
(a) (b)
Square blade Screw Driver

(c)
Fig. 1.1
3. Pliers. It is also one of the mostly used tools in wiring. The
various types of pliers in use are
(a) Side Cutting Pliers.
Side cutting pliers

Fig. 1.2
Such a pliers is used for cutting wires, gripping operation by
hand, twisting wires and a number of other operations required in
eletriçal work. It is usually provided with snub-nosed jaws and
have a cutting edge only on one side as shown in Fig. 1.2. Usually
15 cms. or 22.5 cms. pliers is used. An insulated pliers is always
preferred.
(b) Diagonal Cutting Pliers.
It is usually very difficult to cut the conductor of the wires
terminating into holders, switches etc. with the side cutting pliers.
Diagonal cutting pliers.

Fig. 1.3
TOOLS
So under such odd circumstances diagonal pliers as shown in Fig.

1.3 is much useful.
(c) Long Nose Pliers.
The efficient tool kit must also include a long nose pliers.
C^O^^
Long Nose Pliers.
Fig. 1.4.
It is useful for forming eyes of the wires which are to be used where
they are held fast under the screw. Long nose pliers is shown in Fig.
1.4. -
(d) Slip Joint Pliers.
This type of pliers is useful for conduit wiring, where its

application is in the making up locknuts and bushings and holding
conduits. Such a plier has a slip joint so that its jaws can be opened
to a greater width.
Slip Joint Pliers,

Fig. 1.5.
4. Pocket Knife. The pocket knife is also one of
the most
important tools in the worker's tool kit. It is generally used for
removing insulation from the wires. The knife must be made from
high grade cutlery steel. The closing type of knife should always be
preferred, although a knife made from a broken hacksaw blade can
serve the purpose well.
PocketKnife
Fig. 1.6.
5. Hammers. For electrical work, generally two types of

hammers are used (i) Claw Hammer. (ii) Ball-Peen Hammer. Th
claw hammers are available in two types, i.e., with a straight claw
or a curved claw. Usually a straight claw hammer is preferred by
electricians because the straight claw can be inserted behind,
beneath or between wooden boards to be removed. It is shown
in Fig. 1.7 (a).
(a) Straight claw hammer (b) Ball-peen hammer

Fig. 1.7.
The ball-peen hammer is required for driving nails into wooden
batten or for cutting wall plaster and bricks when it is necessary to
take the wiring from one room to another. Fig. 1.7 (b) shows a
ball -peen hammer.
6. Wooden Saw. The house wiring is also done with wooden
casing capping or batten and it is necessary to make use of a car-
penter's saw for making joints or for cutting the casing or capping.
®R
(a) Wood Saw (b) Key-hole Saw
Fig. 1.8.
In addition to carpenter's saw, a small keyhole saw is also useful
which is used for cutting small holes. Such type of saw has a thin
and narrow blade, and the blade is usually attached with a fly wing
nut to the handle, so that the blade may be replaced when it breaks.
7. Chisels. In house wiring, chisels are required for cutting
wood and for cutting brick or concrete work. In wood work, the use
of chisel is made in making various connections of casing capping,
or for cutting the side of the wooden board from the centre in order
to allow the wires to be connected to switches etc. The wood chisel
TOOLS
is made from tool steel. It has a bevel at the cutting edge.

For plaster cutting or for brick cutting, cold chisels forged from
alloy steel are used. Before use, these chisels are tempered. The cold
chisels are generally available upto 25 mm. size.
(a) Wood Chisel (b) Cold Chisel

Fig. 1.9.
8. Scratch Awl. It is generally difficult to insert a wooden
screw into wood, unless there is a small hole. With a scratch awl,
an impression is made into the wood before starting. Generally itli
made from forged tool steel and has a very sharp point as shown in
Fig. 1.10. As the tool is quite sharp, much care should be taken to
handle such a tool, it should never be taken in hand or pocket.
Scratch Awl
Fig. 1.10.
9. Hand Drill. In house wiring, it is often required to drill a
hole in wooden blocks and wooden boards to facilitate the passage
of insulated V.I.R. wires which terminate into switches or other
fittings. For such purposes, a hand drill is much useful. It consists
of a chuck with hardened steel jaws into which is placed the twist
drill. A crank and gear is used for increasing the speed of drill. For
opening the jaws, hold the chuck in left hand and turn the handle
in an anti-clockwise direction with chuck pointing downward, and
Hand drill
Fig. 1.11.
WrRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
for tightening the twist drill, place the drill into the jaws, hold the
chuck firmly and turn the handle in a clockwise direction with the
drill pointing down, i.e., in the direction of operation of the drill, and
the drill will be firmly secured. Fig. 1.11 shows the hand drill.
10. Ratchet Bit Brace. Sometimes it is required to drill holes
in heavy materials such as beams andjoists. For such jobs, a ratchet
bit brace, as shown in Fig 1.12 may be used. A ratchet bit brace with
interlocking jaws ball bearing head and with 25 cm. sweep is best
suitable for electrical jobs.
Ratchet bit brace

Fig. 1.12.
But for drilling holes near the corners, corner bit or angle b ace
is used as shown in Fig. 1.13. With such an arrangements, the hcle
will be slanting. The degree of slant depends upon the place where
a hole is to be made.
Corner bit
Fig. 1.13.
An alternative arrangement of drilling a horizontal hole in a
joist is by means of a joist boring machine. With such a machine, it
is possible to drill a hole from floor level.
TOOLS
911
.Jf1
Joist Boring Machine
Fig. 1.14
11. AugerBits. In the above-mentioned boring tools, auger bits
are used for drilling. Fig. 1.14(a) shows different types ofaugerbits,
while Fig. 1.14 (b) represents auger bit extension.
Nam
Auger bits
Fig. 1. 14 (a)
IT 14
Auger bit extension
Fig. 1.14 (b)
For new constructional work, a bit with coarse pitch of thread

is to be preferred for which single spiral single cutter bit or double
spiral double cutter bit may be used, but si. gle spiral single cutter
bit is used for easy cuttings. The clip auger or spur ear bit is used
for providing holes in old house wiring, since in old houses there
might be nails etc. driven into the wood and more-over there is not
much to choose for drilling hole for wiring. The clip auger is not
easily damaged by such work as compared to other types of bits.
12, Rawplug Tool. In case of wiring, whether
it is casing
capping, wooden batten or conduit pipe, they are all to be fixed to
walls, for which purpose holes must be drilled into them. One of the
methods of nakin holes in the wall is by means of a drilling bit
fixed to a hoider and into the hole so made in the wall, a rawlplug
is ierted. The rawlplug consists of a t • be of hard fibre with a
central hole. The 'awlplug and the bit are selected to suit the job.
awiplug Tool
Tg. 1.15
I - r etypes of hit in use; cne is called a bullet bit and
tLe.]erd. The bul l et hi t has ahi untnose andis of smooth
hic : sd in so plaster. Such a bit is driven straight
ompres:s the sides of the hole and drills out
Lh rnLerial. Thc p ointed bi is used for making hole into cement
hn r ston Wke drilline', care should be taken to tap it slightly.
vth a rotarly so th. with each stroke, it goes forward and
thv out
13. Hack. For curtiç metals such as conduits, cables etc.,
the wooden saw iF, not suitable and for such purposes a hacksaw as
z
shown in Fig. 1,1,'used. The hacksaw frame is adjustable and
carries a blad' c' tool steel. The blade is usually gripped into the
frame by means c wing nuts. The blade is usually 30 cm. long with
18, 24 or 32 teci o an inch. The less numbered ones are used for
coarse jobs while more numbered ones are used for fine cuts.
Hacksaw
rig. i.i3
When cutting with a haoksaw, make full strokes while pushing
the saw away from ou and no pressure should be applied on return
TOOLS
stroke. For starting, an accurate cut should be made with a blade

having 32 teeth an inch and later on, cut should be continued with
a coarse blade. No doubt the coarse blade will cut faster; but if the
cut is started with a coarse blade, the back strokes try thjump, thus
spoiling the accuracy.
14. Centre Punch. When a hole is to be drilled in metals, the
centre punch is usually used for making a startinghole. It is usually
made of high grade tool steel hardened at both ends as shown in
Fig. 1.17.
Centre Punch
Fig 1.17
15. Twist Drill. For drilling holes into metals, the twist drill
is used. It is held into the jaws of the hand drill and the drill is
rotated at a high speed. Such a drill can also well be used for drilling
holes into wooden boards etc. Fig. 1.18 represents the twist drill. It
is available in different sizes.
Twist Drill
Fig. 1.18
16. Putty Knife. The putty knife is used to replaster the holes
on the wall and ceiling after inserting wooden gutties into them. It
has a broad blade as shown in Fig. 1.19.
Putty Knife
Fig. 1.19
17. Blow Lamp. The blow lamp is used for soldering and cable
jointing purposes. It is capable of producing very high temperatures.
Usually kerosene oil is burnt into it. If its flame is projected directly
on a job, the temperature of the job will increase to a very high
degree. Blow lamp as shown in Fig. 1.20.

10 WIRING, ESTLMATING AND COSTING
Blow Lamp
Fig 1.20
18. Files. For wiring purposes, often we requr a File for
ri3ving burrs etc. For sum purposes, uuTh..- a smooth half round
ofiength 30 cm. size can be used. Since its use is limited, so only
oe uile will serve the purpose.
File
Fig. 1.21
19. Plumb Bob. The plumb bob is shown in Fig. 1.22. It has a
pointed end with a hole at the top for attaching a string. It is gen-
eraifly used to establish a true vertical line.
OGDi^
Plumb Bob
Fig. 1.22

TOOLS 11
20. Conduit Wiring Tools. The conduit wiring is a specialized

jo'i and requires highly skilled labour. There are special tools for
such works which are described in the following articles.
21. Pipe Vice. For cutting conduits or for cutting threads on
the conduits or for bending conduits, they must be held securely.
For holding such conduits firmly, the pipe vice is used. There are
three types of vices which are generally used. Fig. 1.23 (a) shows a
self-locking vice which is bolted to work bench at the site, while Fig.
1.23 (b) shows a portable vice which can be attached to a wooden
post at the site, and Fig. 1.23(c) represents aportable vice and stand
which can be used for bendin g conduits also.
(a) Self-locking vice (b) Portable vice attached to wooden post
(c) Portable vice with stand

Fig. 1.23.
The bench vice can also be used for holding the conduit pipe
securely, by using pipe grip with the vice as shown in Fig. 1.24.
Bench Vice
Fig. 1.24.
22. Conduit Pipe Cutter. The conduit can be cut by means
of an ordinary pipe cutter as shown in Fig. 1.25. The conduit pipe
is held securely by the pipe cutter which is rotated round the conduit
and after few round rotations the cutter is again tightened against
the conduit wall and further rotations are given to the cutter. But
the only draw-back is that it leaves with a bulge and a sharp edge
at the cut as represented in Fig. 1.26. Usually it is difficult to get
rid of such a bulge and sharp edge and if it is left, it strongly affects
the wires by spoiling their insulation and putting them out of action.
7Ip
Conduit pipe cutter
Fig. 1.25
Illustration of a bulge
Fig. 1.26
Although such sharp edges are difficult to remove totally, an
improvement can be made by reaming the edges by means of a
Reamer.
TOOLS 13
23. Conduit Cutting by Hacksaw. The conduits can better

be cut with a hacksaw, the construction of which has already been
explained earlier. Fig. 1.27 shows a cut which has been made with
the half of hacksaw. The cuts made by a hacksaw must also be
reamed.
F
Illustration of a cut made by Hacksaw
Fig. 1.27
24. Reamer. It has already been said earlier that when the
cut is made whether with a pipe cutter or with a hacksaw burr or
sharp edge is formed on the conduit. If these burrs or sharp edges
are not removed they damage the insulation of the wires. These
burrs are removed by means of a reamer as shown in Fig. 1.28.
!nstead of reamer a half-inch round file can also be used.
Reamer
Fig. 1.28
25. Die and Die-Stock. The conduits used in wiring must
have a continuous connection for which purpose the conduits must
be joined properly. The general method adopted is by jointing the
two lengths of conduits which are threaded and a socket is provided
over them.
Taps or Dies
Fig. 1.29
For cutting threads over the conduits, two types of die-stocks

are used : the solid die-stock and the adjustable die-stock. In a solid
die-stock, there is a single block of steel having two handles which
can carry dies or taps shown in Fig. 1.29 of different sizes. Fig. 1.30
represents the die and die-stock. The guide is placed first in the
stock, the purpose of which is to ensure that the threads are kept
absolutely square in respect to the conduit. The die is fixed in
position by two knurled fixing nuts. For cutting threads of different
sizes, the guide and the die must be changed. But in a stock with
adjustable guide, the lever adjusts the tool to any size of conduit.
A triplex die can also be used for this purpose.
amde Pr,je
\k Thrc,r
This
Die and Die-stock

Fig. 1.30
26. Conduit Bending Tools. There are four types of conduit
bending tools. They are:
(ci) Hickeys.
(b) Bending racks.
(c) Pressure benders.
(d) Roller benders.
(a) Hickey. It is a practical tool that is used so commonly by
the electrician for bending the conduits without spoiling the true
round shape of the conduit. It is a hand bender based upon the
principle of levers. It consists of a slot into which the conduit to be
bent is engaged and has a threaded end with which is attached a
handle by means of a pipe coupling. Fig. 1.31 (a) shows a Lakin
hickey, while Fig. 1.31(b) shows the hickey with a handle. The size
of the Lakin hickey depends upon the size of the conduit to be bent,
but there is another type of hickey which has a movable jaw and
when the operator pulls the handle, it automatically grips the
conduit and prevents the tool from slipping.
15
TOOLS
Threcxled for.
Standard Ibi P'pe
Coup/icy
Lakin Hickey
Fig. 1.31 (a)
thcky Head
Hickey with handle

Fig. 1.31(b)
k,Ie
Conduit
Under
Bending.
Bending Rack
Fig. 1.32
-3

(b) Bending Racks. It has an arrangement of A' shape made

from wood as shown in Fig. 1.32. In such an arrangement on end of
the conduit is fixed and a force is applied to the other end of the
conduit. The leverage of the bending conduit can be changed.
(c) Pressure benders. For pressure bending of the conduits, the

conduit is laid as abeam and the pressure is applied at the centre.
Such a bender is shown in Fig 1.33.
Ho
Roller
Hand/C
e/i795t
),76Cve
Pressure Benders
Fig. 1.33
(d) Roller benders. There are many types of roller benders. Fig.
1.34 shows an arrangement of roller bending in which system, a
roller is used at the top and bottom of the conduit.
Holes
P/as
Roller Bender
Fig. 1.34
11
27. Taps. For screwing a bolt into the holes made in metal, it
is necessary to thread the holes. The taps iihown in Fig. 135 is
generally utilised
Taps
Fig. 1.35
for such purposes. For cutting threads the tap is held into a tap
wrenches and is pressed downward with clockwise rotation.
28. Wrenches. For connecting or disconnecting the rigid con-
duits pipe wrenches are required. A pipe wrench which can handle
a conduit upto dia. of 35 mm is sufficient.
Pipe Wrenches
Fig. 1.36
Adjustable wrench
Fig. 1.37
In addition to this an adjustable wrench is also used for handling
square or octagonal head bolts. Such a wrench is shown in Fig. 1.37.
29. Precautions in handling the Tools. Great caution and
care are acquired in handling tools. A worker is liable to injure
himself in addition to the damage caused to the tools, if he, at any
time is slacked in handling them. The following are the safety
precautions in the handling of tools:
(1) The sharp edged tools such as pocket knife, chisels,

scratching awl should never be put in pocket without shield, and
while working with such tools, care should be taken not to place
hand or finger in the path of motions of the cutting tool. Also care
should be taken not to hand over the sharp-edged tools with its sharp
edge first.
(2) When cutting with a chisel, always cut away from you
rather than towards yourself.
(3) Before using a hammer, its handle must he examined,
whether it is properly secured or not.
(4) When making a cut with a saw, the cut must be guided with
a finger and thumb of one hand, otherwise the blade is liable to
brake which may cause serious injuries.
(5) Afteiusing tools, they should never be left at the top of the
ladder or any other place since they may fall accidentally and cause
injury. -
(6) Only a suitable tool should be used for the proper purpose
and if a particular tool does not suit the purpose, do not abuse the
cool, I ry to have a new t031 matching the need.
(7 All injuries must be attended to imniediaiely, since delay
may cause infection.
V
2
Wires, Wire Splicing
,and Termination
3. Stranded wires. 4. Types of wires. 5. Rubber

1. Introduction. 2. Sizes of wires.
covered, Taped, Braided, Compounded wires. 6. Lead alloy sheathed wires. 7. Tough
Rubber sheathed or cab tyre sheathed wires. 8. Weather proof wire. 9. Flexible wires.12.
10. Wire splicing and termination. 11. Western union splice or twist sp lice.
Married joints. 13. Single Branch splice or tap joint. 14. Double branch splice. 15.
Tap joint for stranded wires. 16. Flexible cord splicing. 17. Pigtail joint. 18. Pigtail
joint of a solid conductor and flexible wire. 19. Termination of wires at terminal
screws.
1. Introduction. For estimating the cost of internal wiring, it

is necessary to know the type of wires in use. The wires sho.id be
specified and size of conductor accotding to the type of conductor
or the type of insulation and size of conductor.
As far as the type of conductor is concerned, the subject has been
of
in chapter 8. With the adoption of use aluminiu Tr as
explained
conductor, the use of copper as conducting material has been stopped
and the refore the usual way to specify the wire is with the reference
to the insulation, size and number of cores.
Knowing only the type of wire will not help the executive. For
this purpose it is imperative forhim to know the splicing termination
and jointing which has also been illustrated in this chapter.
2. Sizes of wires. It menuoned earlier h& for con-
duct:--n of electrical power, insulated aluminium conductors are
used. There is a limit to the current carrying capacity of the
aluminium conductor. The current flowing through a wire causes
heat which is proportional to the square of the current. Again there
a limit to the degree of heat which a particular insulation can
.hstand safely. According to the standards laid down, there is
"icular value of maximum current which can be safely carried
wires of different sizes with different insulations ; and if the
are not adhered to, there is a possibility of damage to insulation
may cause fire.

The sizes to the wires are assigned much intelligently. Alu-

minium wires are referred according to the areas, but in case of
copper conductor (which is not generally used), numbers have been
assigned to the wire sizes. The gauge commonly used is the British
Standard Wire Gauge.
04 0372 ' 0348" 02/2' 0 . 144

0324' of 027i0237 /
. •
occc 000 00
OR 710 0R4/0 OR 0R2/
Illustration of sizes of various notches of wire gauge

Fig. 2.1
The smallest wire gauge is ofNo. 40 having a diameter of 0.0048
inch ; while the largest No. of wire is 0,000,000 (named as seven
Wire Gauge
Fig. 2.2

WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINATION 21
zero) or written as 7/0 having adiamet.er of 0.5". It should be noted

that the higher the number of wire gauge, the smaller is the diameter.
Table 2.1 gives the diameters of the British Standard wire gauge.
Fig. 2.2 shows the wire gauge used for measuring the size of wire.
The American Wire Gauge is different from that of British
Standard. The American way of representation of diameter is miles
and not in inches. A rnils is one-thousandth part of an inch.
Table 2.1
British Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.)
Gauge Diameter Area

; No.
Inch mm CIRC.Mils SQ. Inch mm2
7/0 .500 12.7000 250000 19635 126.6769

610 .464 11.7856 215296 .16909 109.0921
5110 .432 10.9728 186624 .14657 94.5638
410 .400 10.1600 160000 .12566 81.0732
3/0 .372 9.4488 138384 .10869 70.1202
2/0
8.8392 .348 121104 .09511 61.3643
0 .324 8.2296 104976 .08245 53.1921
1 .300 7.6200 90000 .07069 45.6037

2 .276 7.0104 76176 .05983 38.5990
3 .252 6.4008 63504 .04988 32.1780

4
53824 232 5.8928 .04227 22.2730
5 .212 5.3848 44944 .03530 22.7734
6 .192 4.8768 36864 .02895 18.6792
7 .176 4.4704 30976 .02433 15.6958
8 .160 4.0640 25600 .02011 12.9717
9 .144 3.6576 20736 .016286 10.5071

10 .128 3.2512 16384 .012868 8.3019
11 .116 2.9464 13456 .010568 6.8183
12 .104 2.6416 10816 .008495 5.4805
13 .092 2.3368 8464 .006648 4.2888
14 .080 2.0320 6400 .005027' 3.2429

15 .072 1.8288 5184 .0040721 2.6268
(Contd.)
-

22
WIRING, E JbcATfl.
G AND COSTING
British Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.)

Gauge Diameter
No. Area
Inch mm CIRC.Mjl,g SQ. Inch nun?I

.064 1.6256 4096
17 .056 .003217
1.4224 3136
18 .048 .002463 1.5890
1.2192 2304 .0018096 1.1675
19 .040 1.0160 1600 .0012566

20 .036 .9144 .8107
1296 .0010179
21 .032 .8128 .6567
1024 .0008042
22 .028 .7112 .5189
784 .0006158
23 .024 .6096 576 .0004524
24 .022 .5588 .2919
484 .0003801
25 .020 .5080 .2453
400 .0003142 .2027
26 .018 .4572 324 .0002545

27 .0164 .4166 .16417
269 .0002 112
28 .0148 .3759 .13628
219 .00017203
29 .0136 .3454 .11099
185 .00014527 .09372
30 .0124 .3150 154 .00012076 .07791
31 .0016 .2946 135 .000 10568

32 108 .2743 .06818
117 .00009161
33 .0100 .2540 .05910
100 .00007854
34 .0092 .2337 .05067
85 .00006648
.0084 .04289
.2134 71 .00005542 .03575
36 .0076 .193058
]60
37 .00004536 .02927
.0068 .1727
38 .0060 46.00003632 .02343
.1524
39 .0052 36.00002827 .018241
.1321 27Ô002124
L 40 .0048 .1219 .013701
2300018096 .011675
Similarly the American way of r

inches, but it is circular mils. epresenting an area is not square
A circular mil is the area of a circle of
one mil in diameter. A wire having a diameter of one mil is said to
have an area of one circular mu.
Since the areas of two circles are proportional to

their diameters, so the cross-sectional area of the wirethe square of
of diameter
2 mils is 4 circular mils. The areas are also sometimes measured in
WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINAI'lON 23
square mils. This is measured by multiplying the two dimensions

in mils. Say the area of a strip 2" x i " is given as
2" =2000mils
= 500 mils
Area = 2000 x 500

= 1,000,000 square mils.
Circular mils can be changed into square mils.
Square mils = circular mils x 0.7854.
Table 2.2 gives the American Wire Gauge for comparison only.
After the adoption of metric system in India the sizes of the
wires are being usually denoted by cross-sectional area in sq. mm . -
viz. 1.5 sq. mm ., 2.5 sq. mm ., 4 sq. mm . etc. The industry has also
started manufacturing the wires in accordance with the new trend.
3. Stranded wires. The wires used for ordinary wiring p.ir-
poea are ofringle solid conductors; but wli en the wires are required
for greater flexibility, such as for a pendant lamp, wires of single
conductors are not suitable. The flexible wire or cord may have -
number of wires of dia. 0.0076 inch, or 0.1930 mm. (36 S.W.G)
stranded together. The number of conductor: stranded together
depends upon the current-carrying capacity of the wire. For
example, a flexible cord of40/0.0076 has a current-carrying capacity
of 7 A and possesses 40 conductors of 36 S.W.G. stranded together
to give a cross-sectional area of . 1.171 sq. mm . The wire having
largest number of strands is 16210.0076 with a cross-sectional area
of 14.742 sq. mm . and has a maximum current capacity of 28 Amps.
4. Types of wires. The wires used for general elect.rical pur-
poses can be divided into the following
(1) Rubber covered, taped, braided and compounded or V.I.R.
wires.
(ii) Lead alloy sheathed wires.
(iii) Tough rubber sheathed (T.R.S.)/or C.T.S. (Cab. Tyre
Sheathed).
(iv) Weather-proof wires.
(c)) Flexible wires.

24
WERING,;ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Table 2.2
_____ Brown And Sharps Gauge (B.SJAWC)

Gauge Diameter Area
No.
____ Inches mm C1RC.Mjls SQ. Inch mm'
7/0 - - - - -
610 - - - -
5/0 - - - -
4/0 .46000 11.7 211600 .1662
3/0 .40964 107.2
10.4 167805 .1318 85.03
210 .36480 9.27 133080 .1045
0 67.43
.32495 8.25 105592 .0829 53.48
1 .28930 7.35 83694 .0657
2 42.41
.25763 6.54 66373 .0521 33.83
3 .22942 5•93 52634 .04133 26.67
4 .20431 5.19 41742 .03278
5 21.15
.18194 4.62 33102 .02599 16.77
6 .16202 4.11 26250 .02061
7 13.30
.14428 3.66 20816 .01635 10.55
8 .12849 3.26 16509 .01297 8.366
9 .11443 2.91 1304 .01028
10 .10189 6.634
2.59 10381 .00815 5.261
11 .09074 2.30 8234 .00646
12 4.168
.08081 2.05 6530 .00513 3.308
13 .07196 1.83 5178 .00407 2.627
14 .06408 1.63 4107 .00323
15 2.082
.05707 1.45 3257 .00256
.05082 1.651
1.29 2583 .00203 1.308
17 .04526 1.15 2048 .00161
18 1.039
.04030 1.02 1624 .001276 .8258
19 . .03589 .912 1288 .001012 .6516
20 . .03196 .813 1021 .000804
21 . .5189
.02846 .724 812 .000608 .4116
22 .02535 .643 640 .000503
23 .02260 .3243
.574 511 .000401 .2588
24 .02010 .511 404 .000317
25 .2047
.01790 .455 320 .000252 .1658
26 .01594 .404 254 .0001985
27 .01420 .1281
.361 202 1 .0001584 1 .10217
(Contd.)
Brown And Sharp'S Gauge (B.SJAWG)

Gauge Diameter Area
Na_______
Inches mm CIRC-Mils SQ. Inch mm'
28 .01264 .320 160 .0001247 .08064
29 .01130 .287 127 .0001003 .06452
30 .01003 .254 100 .00007854 .05067
31 .00893 .226 792 .0000622 .04014

32 .00795 .203 64 .0000496 .03243
33 .00708 .180 50.4 .0000396 .02554
34 .00630 .160 39.7 .00003116 .02011
35 .00561 .142 31.4 .00002463 .01589
36 .00500 .127 25 .00001963 .01267

37 .00445 .114 20 .0000159 .01026
38 .00400 .102 16 .0000126 .008107
39 .00353 .090 12 .00000962 .006207
40 .00314 .079, 10 .00000755 .004869
The rubber covered, taped, braided and compounded wires are

always single core ; )ut can be subdivided into two classes i.e.,
whether meant up to €00 V or 250 V. All other types of wires are
either single core, or double core or 3 core or twin core with E.C.C.
(Earth conti:u conductor).
5. Rubber covered, Taped, Braided, Compounded wires.
(i) Single braid 250 V. Such type of wire is also called simply
as V.I.R. wire. These are used generally for ordinary electrical wiring
in casing, capping or conduit wiring.
Rubber covered, Taped, Braided, Compounded Wires

Fig. 2.3
The general construction of the wire is as shown in Fig. 2.3. It

consists ofa tinned (to prevent the rubber sticking to the conductor)
copper or aluminium conductor covered with a layer of rubber
insulation. Over this rubber insulation is put up a cotton protective
braid which is usually saturated with flame retarding and
moisture-resistant compound. Finally it is finished with a wax for
cleanliness and for helping the pulling action of it into the conduits.
Such type of wire is also called as S.B.R.C. wire (single-braid rubber.
covered). The thickness of the rubber insulation depends upon the

voltage for which the wire is required, i.e., whether it is for 250 V.
or 600 V.
The wires required for higher values of current are usually
stranded, in case, copper is used as conductor. Stranded wires with
aluminium conductor are not manufactured. These wires are pro-
vided with two protective cotton braids and are usually called as D.
B. R. C. Std. (double-braid rubber-covered stranded) wires as shown
in Fig. 2.4.
Double Braid
Fig. 2.4.
6. Lead Alloy Sheathed Wires. Such types arq recommended
where the climatic condition is not dry, but has a little bit of the
moisture. Ordinary S.B.R.C. wires are specified for reasonably dry
locations, so in order to use rubber insulated wires in damp condi-
tions, the ordinary wires are covered with a continuous sheath of
lead.
Thelead covering is usually thin, about 1.25 mm. thick.
t t-•
Lead Alloy Sheathed Wires
Fig. 2.5
The lead alloy sheathed cables are usually available in the
following types
(1) Single core lead-sheathed.
(2) Flat twin lead alloy sheathed (as shown in Fig. 2.5).
(3) Flat lead alloy sheathed 3-core.
(4) Flat twin lead alloy sheathed with E. C. C. (earth continuity
conductor).
These types of lead sheathed wires provide only a little
mechanical protection. The more stronger and mechanically pro-
tected cablesare used for laying under the ground.
7. Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.) or Cab Tyre Sheathed
(C.T.S.) Wires.
The lead sheathed cables are costlier and are quite heavy in
WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINATION
27
weight. The T.R.S. cables have properties similar to that of lead

sheathed cable, but is much cheaper.
The ordinary wire is provided with rubber insulation which is
not water resistant; but the T.R.S. wires are provided with a tough
rubber compound which does not deteriorate even after long expo-
sure to moisture. So it can well be used in wet locations. Such wires
are also available, in single core, twin core, 3-core and twin with an
earth continuity conductor. Fig. 2.6 (a) shows a single core cable
while Fig. 2.6 (b) shows a twin core cable.
(a)
Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.) or Cab T yre Sheathed (C.T.S.) wres

Fig. 2.6
8. Weather-Proof Wire. The weather-proof wires are for
outdoor purposes, i.e., they are run between buildings. Such wires
when used are suspended at higher distances from the ground and
moreover there is no possibilit y that anyone will touch them. _lso
the wires used must be cheap and resistant to atmospheric varying
conditions. Hence the insulation provided over it is not the same as
that for indoor wiring. Although the T.R.S. wires can be used, yet
the T. R. S. wires are not much cheaper.
Such type of wires consists of 3 braids of fibrous yarn provided
over the copper conductors. The copper conductors are not usually
tinned. Before these braids are applied they are thoroughly satu-
rated with a water-proof compound.
ME
Weather-proof Wires
Fig 9.7
9. Flexible Wires. The wires used for household appliances
such as heaters, irons, refrigerators, lamps etc., must be durable
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
and very flexible. The flexibility is required firstly from the point of
view of handling the equipment, secondly to prevent the wires from
break. These flexible wires are also called as lamp cords. The flexible
cord usually consists of two separately insulated flexible stranded
conductors. The flexible wires are called as 14/0.0076 or 162/0.0076
which means that there are 14 or 162 strands of copper wire each
having a diameter 0.0076 inch or 0.1930 mm. which is equivalent
to 36 S..W.G. wire. There are different types of flexible wires. They
are
(a) Twin Silk Cord. it consists of two cores but each of these
consists of a number of fine copper conductors stranded together.
Over each conductor is given a layer of cotton, which prevents the
sticking of rubber to the copper conductor. After cotton layer cov-
ering the layer of rubber insulation is followed up by a loose braid
of cotton and finally the conductors are laid side by side and silk
insulation is provided over them as shown in Fig. Z.B.
TTi
Tn core flexible wire
Fig. 2.8
(b) Twin Rubber insulated Cord. It is also similar to that

of twin silk cord wire and consists of two stranded conductors each
covered with cotton in Order to prevent rubber sticking to the con-
ductor. Then the two conductors are embedded in a solid mass of
rubber insulation which is built up to a full size of finished wire and
there is no further provision of any other insulation. The two con-
ductors in the rubber insulation are so laid as to form a depression
in the middle of them which facilitates in separating the two
conductors at the termination of the wire in receptacles etc. The
rubber provided for such insulation must be of much higher grade
than is used for ordinary wire insulation.
Twin Rubber insulated Cord

Fig. 2.9
(c) Twin Twisted Cotton Braided Flexible Wire. In this
case each of the conductor is insulated as in the silk flexible cord,
i.e.,each conductor is cotton covered, followed up with a layer of

rubber insulation and after this comes a braid of cotton thus com-
pleting the insulation of the single conductor. Then two such con-
ductors are twisted together. Usually the two insulated conductors
twisted together have rubber insulation of two colours, i.e., red and
black.
Twin Twisted Cotton Braided Flexible Wire

Fig. 2.10
(ci) Twin T.R.S. Flexible Wire. The flexible lamp cords
mentiond earlier are not much resistant to moisture and also they
cannot withstand much wear and tear. The T.R.S. flexible wire
consists of two or more insulated conductors twisted together as in
case of twin twisted flexible wire. The open space in between the
twisted conductors is filled up with cotton or jute threads, so as to
form a round assembly. Over this assembly is provided a loose cotton
braid and then a final layer of high grade of tough rubber.
Twin T.R.S. Flexible Wire

Fig. 2.11
In case of a wire better resistant to moisture, rubber filler is
used to make the twin twisted conductors assembly round and the
wire is finished off with an outer jacket of cotton which is impreg-
nated with a moisture-resistant compound. Such a wire is called as
reinforced wire and is shown in Fig. 2.11.
10. Wire splicing and termination. In all jobs of wiring,
splicing (jointing) and termination is a necessity. The jointing is
required since the wires are manufactured in 100-metre lengths and
the total length of wire used for house wiring may be more than 100
metres. The termination of wires is needed, as the wires are to be
connected to switches, holders, receptacles etc. It is important to
note that all joints made must be mechanically and electrically
sound.
The jointing conductors and wires should always be carried Out

at outlets, i.e., in switches, ceiling roses using the looping in system
or in junction boxes used specially for this purpose. Splicing should
never be done in conduit runs. But sometimes when repairing old
works, jointing becomes a necessity.
11. Western Union Splice or Twist Splice. The western
union splice can be completed in four steps which are
(a) Removing insulation.
(b) Mechanically jointing the conductors.
(c) Soldering the joint.
(d) Tapping the soldered joint.
(a) Removing insulation. For joining two conductors together,
first their insulation is removed. The insulation of the wire should
not be cutbyholding the knife at right angles to the conductor which
cuts the insulation as shown in Fig. 2.12 (a) ;butit should be removed
by holding the knife at an angle just as in the case of sharpening a
pencil, as represented in Fig. 2.12 (b) taking care not to injure the
copper conductor. The removing of insulation in a tapered fashion
is a necessity since it facilitates better jointing and insulating the
joint. After the insulation is removed in a tapered fashion from a
certain portion of wire, the insulation from the remaining portion
of wire can be removed with one pull of pliers up to the end of the
wire as shown i Fig. 2.13. For joining insulated conductors it is
necessary W remove braid only for a required length i.e., 2.5 cm.
approximately as shown in Fig. 2.14 (a). Then the bare conductors
of the two wires to be joined together are gently cleaned with sand
paper.
Insulation removed in a wrong way Correct method of removing the

insulation
(ci) (b)
Fig. 2.12
Pulling insulation with a Pliers

Fig. 2.13
Fig. 2.14 (a)

(b) Mechanically jointing the conductors. For making the joir.t,
cross the two bare wires at ends at a distance of about 2 cm. from
insulation of either of the wire, the wires are crossed or neck turne'
as shown in Fig. 2.14(b). The crossing or neck turn of the conductors
prevents the two wires being separated out under a pressure. Now
with the help of the forefinger and thumb or with pliers, make five
to eight turns, as shown. The remaining excess of the conductor
should be cut away with the pliers and the turns should be tightened
with it. Now a similar process is repeated with the other conductor
and isfinished off in a similar manner. The finished joint is as shown
in Fig. 2.14 (d).
V
AA
MV
-
Fig. showing neckturn of the wires

(b)
Fig. showing one of the conductor bent, around the other

--4
.32 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
fill
Finished joint
(d)
flg. 2.14
(c) Soldering the Joint. The mechanically bound joint made
earlier cannot be said to be mechanically secure. In order to make
the mechanical joint as strong as contjriuous length -of the wire, it
is necessary to solder the joint.
The soldering can be done either with the help of a soldering

iron or by means of a blow lamp. Before soldering it is essential to
clean the surface and to make it free from dirt, grease etc. Now apply
soldering paste around the joint both at the top and bottom of it.
The application of soldering paste is not necessary if resin-core
solder is used which acts as a flux. Now heat the joint with the help
of a blow lamp heating it with the tip of the fiarne. It is essential to
heat thejoint. up to a proper temperature ; if itis I lot proptrlyheated,
proper soldering cannot be done, and if the jcnt s over-heated the
conductor is weakened and becomes brittle. The proper temperature
is tested with a piece of solder wire, which when placed over the
joint should melt. At that instant, apply solder over whole of the
joint as shown in Fig. 2.15. The soldt-'r hou!d le applied se;'eral
times until the solder floats or runs carrpletel: .hrcigh thesplice
Soldering the joint

Fig. 2.15
WIRES, WERE SPLICING AND TERMINATION
(d) Taping the splice. The soldered joint must now be provided
with an insulation, the thickness of which must be equal ¼that on
the wire. For the wires generally used for house-wiring purpose
rubber tape, friction tapes and black tape should be used.. The
method of applying the rubber tape is shown in Fig. 2.15. The tape
should half overlap the previous turn, and the type should be
stretched a bit until whole of the joint is covered and a bit of the
insulation of the other wire is also covered. Now apply friction tape
in a similar fashion to that of rubber tape.
Method of applying tape

Fig. 2.16
12. Married Joint. For a wire having one strand only, the
joint made is called twisted joint, but for wires having a number
of strands, the joint made is called as married joint. The following
points show how the joint is made
(1) Remove the insulation abcut 10 cm. on each wire with the
help of knife in a tapered fashion as explained in Twist Splice.
(2) Remove braid for shout 2.5 ern. or eacl
.3) Sera r.s . Lr iud of each wire by twtirg he stranded
cnuctcrs :. drecion to that of winding.
4) Uleor, ea, ll of the strand gently with saud paper.
Letwist the strands for a length of about 0,5 cm.
nd the ited wire with a binding wire.
) Cut off the Tniddh' strand with the help of a pliers.
.: e ndivduai strand as shown in Fig. 2.17 (a)

Spreading of Strands
(a)
(9) Bring the two wires end to end with all the strands inter-
seating as shown in Fig. 2.17(b).
Intersecting of strands of two wires

(b)
çlO) Hold cne of the wires in the left hand and wrap one of the
strands of the other wire around the twisted conductor in opposite
direction as shown in Fig. 2.17(c). Repeat the process with the other
strand and so on.
Twisting of strands
(e)
Finished joint
(d)
Fig. 2.17
(11) Round off the ends with a1let or pliers.

(12) Repeat the process with the other side of the wire.
The joint is then soldered and insulated explained in article
11.
13. Single Branch Splice or a Tap Joint. Sometimes it is
necessary to tap the electrical enr' from aiunning line. In that
case, only one free end of the wire is available and thus the twist
joint or western unionjoint is not possible whicInecessarily requires
two free ends. Soin such circumstances aTjoinlis necessarily math'
The following steps explain the process of joining.
Removing insulation of a running wire for T-Joint

(a)
-J
Removing insulation of a branch wire

(h)
Fig. 2.18
() Remove the insulation of the running wire as shown in Fig,
2.18 (a) for a length of about 2.5 cm. with care and precautions P-
explained earlier.
(b) Remeve the insulation of the branch wire fo- a rigth cf
about 7.5 cm, as shown in Fig. 2.18 (b).
Neck turn for making T-Joint

(e)
Fig. 2.18
(c) Gently clean the conductors with the help of a double zero
sand paper.

(d) Now keeping the branch wire at 900 to the running wire
and with insulation of both wires near to each other make a neck
turn as shown in Fig. 2.18 (c) which guards against the slipping of
the joint under pressure.
(e) With the branch wire now give 5 to 8 turns as in the case
of western union splice.
Finished T-Joint
(d)
Fig. 2.18
(f) Cut off the excees of the copductor.

(g) Now round off the conductor end with the help of a pliers
or mallet. The finished joint is shown in Fig. 2.18(d).
The splice is then soldered and insulated with a tape as already
ex.iaired in article 11.
Double branch splice

Fig. 2.19
37
14. Double Branch Splice. The double branch splice is used

when the electrical energy is required to be sent in two directions
at right angles to each other. Such a splice is nothing more than
that oftwo single branch splices in opposite direction, so the method
ofobtaining such ajoint is the same as that ofa single branch splice.
Fig. 2.19 represents the double branch splice.
15. Tap Joint for Stranded Wires. For stranded wires the
single branch splice or the tap joint is made as explained in steps
indicated in Fig. 2.20 (a), (b). and (c).
Separating the strands of running wire

(a)
Strands of tap wire are divided

(b)
Finished Tap-Joint
(c)
Fig. 2.20
(a) Remove insulation of the running wire for a length of about
5cm.
(b) Similarly remove insulation of the tapping wire for a length
of about 7.5 cm.
(c) Clean the conductors gently with sand paper.
(d) Separate the strands of the running wire into two groups
as shown in Fig. 2.20 (a).

(e) Insert the tap wire into the opening made in the running
wire.
(I) Divide the strands of the tap wire into two groups, shown
in Fig. 2.20 (b).
(g) Wrap one of the strands around the running wire, then wrap
the second strand and so on.
(h) Wrap one of the strands around the running wire in the
opposite direction to the previous one as shown in Fig. 2.20 (c).
(i) Round off the ends of the conductor with aliers or mallet.
(I) Solder the joint as explain earlier and provide tape.
16. Flexible Cord Splicing. Sometimes it is necessary to
provide a joint in a twin core cord. In such cases the two joints of
the cores must be staggered as represented in Fig. 2.21. Such a splice
has double advantages. Firstly it avoids the accidental short circuit
between the two cores, secondly it does not make the splice bulky.
FIA
M1
Joint in flexibre twin core cord

Fig. 2.21
17. Pigtail Joint. The pigtail joint is the most important joint,
since it is often required for termination of the wires in switches,
holders etc. Moreover it can easilybe made and unmade. For making
such a joint :
Pigtail joint
Fig. 2.22
WIRES, WIRE SPUCThG AND TERMINATION 39
(a) Remove insulation from the two wires as shown earlier in

Fig. 2.14 for a length of about 5 cm.
(b) Gently clean both the conductors.
(c) Keep the two wires with their insulation parallel.
(d) With a pliers make a number of twists as shown in Fig.
2.21.
(e) Keep the length of the twists about 2.5 cm. and cut off the
excess wire.
(J) Round off the corners with a mallet.
Now solder the splice and provide a tape. Similarly more than
two wires can also be spliced together to form a pigtail joint.
18.Pigtail joint of a solid conductor and a flexible wire.
Such a joint is made in a manner similar to that of an ordinary
pigtail joint, except that after wrapping the stranded wire, round
the solid conductor fora length of about 2.5 cm., the solid conductor
is bent back parallel to the wire as shown in Fig. 2.23. and then the
Joint is soldered and provided with a tape as shown in Fig. 2.24 (a).
For providing tape, care should be taken to know that no end of the
joint is left without a tape, so for this purpose, the tape is started
between the wires as in Fig. 2.24 (a). The wires are brought together
tightly and provided a layer of tapes as in Fig. 2.24 (b). Then wrap
the tape ha lf overlap. At bottom, the tape is provided without stretch
as shown in Fig. 2.24 (c). Complete the tape as in Fig. 2.24(d). Over
this rubber tape is provided and then a friction tape.
Finished pigtail joint of a solid conductor and a flexible wire

Fig. 2.23.
19. Termination of wires at terminal screws. When it is
required to terminate an 18 S.W.G. wire or lighter wire to a screw,
the insulation from the wire is removed with the care to remove it
in a-tapered fashion. The conductor is bent in the form of a loop as

shown in Fig. 2.25 (a). It should be remembered that the loop of the
wire must be made in the same direction in which the terminal screw
is to be turned for lighting; such an action closes the loop in the
process. Fig. 2.25 (a) represents the correct termination. 'While
making a termination, the insulation of the wire is brought near to
the screw ; it is a wrong method to keep it away as shown in Fig.
2.25 (b) as such a termination causes short circuit. Also the excess
wire as shown in Fig. 2.25 (c) should be cut off and the wire end is
tucked inward to avoid exposing bare portion of the conductor.
kAW WIRES
5ETUER
START
115,
ETCN TAPE £..4'TAPE
CflYASIT OVER 8OTTCM
PPj: CP3LICWAK
COMPLETE COVIR
(a) (b) (c) td)
Method of employing tape on a pigtail joint of a solid

conductor and flexible wire
Fig. 2.24.
Bending of conductor in the form of loop

(a)

Wrong method of forming
the loop Excess wire needs cutting
(b) (c)
Fig. 2.25
Solderiess connection for

heavier wire
E IaA
Soldering lug
(b)
(a)
Fig. 2.26
Forheavier wire either a solderless connection is made as shown
in Fig. 2.26 (a) or a soldering lug as shown in Fig. 2.26 (b) is used
forconnection. The heavier conductors are soldered to this lugwhich
is terminated with a bolt.
3
Type and Installation of
Wiring Systems
1. Introduction. 2. Methods of installing wiring. 3. Cleat wiring. 4. Wooden Capping
casing. 5. Tough Rubber sheathed wiring. 6. Metal sheathed orload sheathed wiring.
7. Metal Conduit wiring. 8. Installation of conduit wiring. Q. Thin wall conduits. 10.
Rigid Conduits. 11. Flexible Conduits. 12. Conduit accessories. 13. Couplings. 14.
Elbows. 15. Bushings. 16. Locknuts. 17. ConduitNipples. 18. Box Connector bush ings
for flexible Conduits. 19. Conduit reducera. 20. Conduit Box. 21. Conduit Saddles or
Conduit clamps. 22. Conduit fittings. 23. Fishing wire through rigid conduit. 24.
Conduit cutting and threading. 25. Comparison of various wiring system.
1.Introduction. The type of wiring to be adopted is dependent

on various factors viz, durability, safety, appearance, cost and
consumers budget etc. Each factor is explained below.
(a) Durability. The type of wiring selected for incorporation in
a consumer's premises should be durable, i.c., it should be of proper
specification and as well as in accordance with the assessed life and
type of building. Cleat wiring suitable for a temporary building will
definitely be unsuitable for permanent factory building.
(b) Safety. While selecting the type of wiring, one has to look
into the safety aspect. In a factory, where lot of fumes are produced,
the cleat or capping casing wiring will be unsuitable.
(c) Appearance. It must betaken into consideration that the
wiring do not spoil the beauty of the premises. In a beautiful
banglow, if one resort to cleat or capping casing type of wiring, the
whole outlook of the building will deteriorate which will create a
bad impression on the capability of the designer.
(d) Cost. This is th 'nr.,t impornt factor. The executive or
the designer has-to see the funds avaiabie for the job and thereby
arriving at the conclusion for the type of wiring to be adopted for
meetingthe consumer's requirement within the available resources.
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS iS
(e) Accessibility. The extension, renewal of the wiring should

be suitable.
(1) Maintenance Cost. As far as possible the maintenance cost
should be low.
2. Methods of installing Wiring.,There are a number of
methods of installing a wiring system. They are:
(I) Cleat Wiring (Vulcanized India Rubber wire known as
V.I.R wire in porcelain cleats).
(ii) Casing Capping W.I.R. wires in Wooden casings).
(iii) T.R.S. Wiring (Tough, rubber sheath wires run over wooden
battens).
(iv) Metal Sheathed Wiring (V.I.R. wires covered with lead, run
over wooden battens).
(u) Conduit Wiring (V.I.R.
Conductors run in metallic con-
duits).
3. Cleat Wiring. In this system the V.I.R. conductors are
supported in porcelain cleats. These cleats are made in two halves
one of which is grooved to receive the wire and the other half is put
over it and the whole of it is fixed on the wall by means of screws
which further tightens the grip of the wire between the two halves
of the cleat. The cleats are of three types, having one, two or three
grooves, so as to receive one, two or three wires. Two types of cleats
are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Wi/I
Two and three grooves cleats
Fig. 3.1
It is one of the cheapest methods of wiring. The wires are
exposed to view: This system is most suitable for temporary wiring
as it can be quickly installed and the recovery of the material can
be made wlen the wiring is no longer required. Inspection, alter-
ations and additions can easily be made.
This type of wiring is not permitted for permanent Jobs, as the
wiring system, though it appears very neat and clean at the time of
erection, it gives a shabby look after sometime. It sags at some places,
after a certain period, dust and dirt collect over them, moreover a
44
WrRrNG ESTIMATING AND COSTIjG
the time of white washing or disternperjrL

g the lime falls over the
conductor, which erodes it and eventually the wire may break. Thus
the maintenance cost in increased.
Further oil and smoke are much
injurious to V.I.R. So this type of wiring should not be used in
blacksmith's shops or similar places. In order to ensure longer life
to such a wiring system, cleats should be used at intervals of 30 cm.
While installing cleat wiring system the following points should
be borne in mind:
1. The cleats used should not be more than 60 cm, apart
horizontally or vertically.
2. The wires must be laid stretched between the cleats, so as
to avoid contact with the wall.
3. Only proper type of cleats should be used,
i.e. a three-groove
cleat should not be used for 2 wires or a two-groove cleat for a single
wire. For a pressure up to 250 V, the distance between the cleat
grooves should not be less than 2.5 cm. for branch circuits but for
sub-mains it should not be less than 4 cm.
4. Sharp bends should be avoided and the spacing between
the cleats under the bends should be reduced.
5. With 2
metres above the floor, the wires must be run in
wooden casing or conduits and the end of these conduits must he
filed to round off the corners etc. so
that it may not spoil the insu-
lati,n when the wire is drawn in through them.
6. \Vooden bushings are preferred at each end of the conduit.
7. A cleat must be Placed close to each end of the conduit,
similarly a cleat must also be placed at each end of fitting.
8. When the wires are to pass through wails, they must be
taken through conduits.
9. Vhen tno wires CrOSS or superimpose,
they must be sepa-
rated by an insulating brid g e piece which will ma
cm, distance between th0 conductors i ntain at least 1.3
10 The it ires chould not
structural work. be run near water and gas pipes and
11. This svstam of wiring should not be

u sed for damp places
4. Wooden Casing Capping. This system of wiring is most
commonly adopted for residential buildings. It Consists of rectan-
gular wooden blocks made from first class seasoned teak wood or
an y other wood free from kno t
s, shakes or shaps etc. called casing.
It has usually two grooves into which the wires are laid. The casing
at the top is covered by means ofa rectangular strip of wood of the
45
TYPE AND INsTALLATION OF WRUNG SYSTEMS
as capping and is screwed to it.

same width as that of casing known
show the position of wires so
A double bed is cut in the capping to
through wrong position. Two or
that the screws may not be driven
three wires of the same polarity may be run in one groove and in no
case the wires of the opposite polaritiy may be run in one groove.
suitable for low pressure installations,
Such a system of wiring is
where vulcanized insulated rubber cables or plastic insulated cables
two main disadvantages which go against
are used in grooves. The
this system are:
to make the job
1. Highly skilled carpenters are requiitd
cleaner which will naturally be costlier.
2. There is every risk of fire.
According to Indian Standards, the size of the casing capping3.1
and the size of the wire it can accommodate is given in Tables
and 3.2.
The capping and casing is available in pieces of lengths varying
between 3.0 metre to 6.0 metre.
The casing is so fixed on the wall that it does not come in direct
contact with but is supported by round porcelain disc insulators
The fixing is done with the help of wooden counter-sunk screws into
the wooden plugs or gutties. The gutties are. iitt'd into the wall at
mm. (2.5
intel vals not exceeding 90 cm. (3 ft.) for sizes u to 63.5
i n.) and not exceeding 60 cm. (2 ft.) for sizes atcve 63.5 mm. (2.5
in.). In the casing, the wooden screws are pascd into the diding
wall.
capping. Since the standards casing and
5. Joints in casing
capping is available in maximum lengths o,'3 m. and 6 m., so their
CiCSO
jointing will be required. All joints made must be smooth ar
, c. following are the
ft and they are secured with wooden screws. "'t
various joints generally req'...ret
Such a joint, is rrquied when t c p :c :!
1. S lra.;ghi Joint,
cesirig ae to be joined S;raightjoiiits are rece.sary since
and capping is available inlen'ns of3 m and 6 m. For 5uch a
he walls of one of the casings i removed for a length of ab.ut 2.o
em. so that only thickness ot ene wood under the grooves isle there
ing the wooden piece under grooves is
and in the other piece of ca s
removed for a length ofaou i,5 cm. and the two casings properly
made are shown in Fig. 3.2. The joint is made permanent by pro-
viding one or more wooden screws. The completed joint is shown in
Fig. 3.3. If instead of this type ofstraghtj;int
e a gap
it is made b placing
betw en the t' c pieces
two casings side by side, it wi ll lea v
through which white ants etc can enter and can spc.il the insulation.

46 WIIUNG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
C,,
. .
E O0 00 C
1 ,..4 ,1 -4 ,1 ,4
to
0 C.O 0 0 0 C'
0 a ',. '' -
.E --T
L
I) C
-4 C' C
-.
E oo C', w
04 C'C4 cli C' c'i
to
c' - c' -
I . •
0 00. w c c'.
.,, ,, in W C- 00 0
'--4
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS 47
I I I I
I I I I - -
I • - -
en
to
I I I - -
I - eq
• E
c'. 08I I - - • l• O
±±:i

Icn I cli eq
cq eq C4

C C
- - eq eq C
- - eq eq 00
- - eq eq w- 0
eq eqm m o q -
—- — eq -
H

The figure represents two shaped casings to be joined together

Fig. 3.2
cc
The figure represents the finished joints

Fig. 3.3
The capping joints do not QVrlap, but the two pieces of capping
are cut at an angle of 45* and are joined, as is shown in Fig. 3.4.
cdpily
Jointing of Capping
Fig. 3.4
(ii) Tee Joint. Such ajoint is required where the wiring is to be
carried out at right angles to the normal run of the casing, since the
shape of this joint is a T, it is called as Tee Joint. In this joint, for
the piece of casing to be joined at right angles to the normal run the
flat portion of the wood at the bottom of the casing is removed for a
length equal to the outer distance between the middle and outer
walls of the casing (i.e. two wall thickness and a cavity). Such a
piece is called as tenon, which is further shaped as in Fig. 3.5 i.e.
the other two walls of the tenon are made shorter than the middle
wall by a length equal to one of the cavity plus one thickness of the
wall.
Figure representing Tenon and Mortise.

(a)
The other piece in which this tenon will be fixed is called mortise,
the outer wall (not the flat position) is removed for a width equal
to the width of the casing, also some portion of the middle wall of
Figure representing finished T-Joint.

(b)
Fig. 3.5

5° WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
mortise of width equal to the thickness of the middle wall is removed.

Under such conditions the tenon can be made tight fit into mortise
and a Tee Joint is obtained.
1i.
Figure representing top and bottom
pieces of capping with the shaded
portions marked for removing

Figure representing finished
T-Joint.
(d)
(c)
Fig. 3.5.
For the joint of the capping, the squares are made on the top
and right angle bottom cappings as shown. From the top capping.
Figure representing the two portions prepared to the right angled joint.
Fig. 3.6
one quarter of the square is removed, while from the right-angled

capping, of the square is removed so that the joint is Thaped as
shown in Fig. 3.6.
(iii) Right-angled Joint. When a right-angled turn is to be given
to the run of the casing, a right-angled joint is required. For this
joint, the squares are made on the two pieces of the casing to be
joined for a right-angled joint, the piece acting as a tenon is cut along
the diagonal of the square and thus half of the square is removed,
for the half of the square, the bottom flat portion of the casing is
removed; For the piece acting, as mortise, the walls of the casing
are removed along the diagonal of the square made as earlier. The
joint is made permanent by providing a screw in middle wall as
shown in Fig. 3.7.
Finish right angled joint

Fig. 3.7
For the capping joint, the squares are made at the ends of the
two pieces and they are cut along the diagonals of these squares.
Corner Joint. To avoid sharp bends in the insulating wire, a
cornerjoint is required. The carrier joint is a right-angled triangular
prism made by joining two casings and screwing them. For making
such a joint, two pieces of casing are screwed together by placing
one at the back of the other, and this composite casing is then
cut at an angle of 450 depth wise so as to form a right-angular
prism. Such a corner joint is fixed in the corner as shown in Fig
3.8.

Finished corner joint

Fig. 3.8
The points to be noted for installing such a wiring system are:
1. Only seasoned teak wood should be used for casing and
capping to avoid trouble from white ants.
2. The casing should be well fixed to the walls and in no case
it should be supported by the wires themselves
3. Proper measurement should be taken to avoid gaps.
4. In no case the casing should be buried under plaster or
masonry work.
5. When the wiring is to cross a wall, it must pass through
conduits.
6. At bends, the grooves must be well rounded off t.ó avoid the
insulation being damaged.
7. While fixing capping to the casing with the help of wooden
screws, care should be taken that they go into dividing wall of the
casing, otherwise they will damage the insulation of the wires.
TYPE AND 1NSTALLATOF WIRING SYSTEMS 53
5. Tough Rubhw sheathed Wiring (TJLS). The type of

cables are sometimes also called as cable-tyer sheathed wiring
(C.T.S.). The T.R.S.les are available in single, twin or three
cores with a circular roy al shape. The cable is quite flexible and
has an insulation wh resist rough usage, moisture, climatic
variations, acids, alk, but is slightly affected by lubricating oils.
SoT.R.S. cables mayrun on the surface ofthewalls or buried in
plaster, but usually 1r cable is laid over wooden batten which is
fixed on the wall, lead strips or fibre brackets as shown. For per-
manent neat appear, the cable should be secured at a distance
of 30 cm.
fllution of surface conduit wiring

Fig. 3.9.
The following ari'the specific points which should be noted when
installing T.R.S. wig system:
1. For damp places, a wooden batten or beading must be used
over which the cabliould be laid.
2. In damp ples, care must betaken to earth switches, lamp
holders and other ntal fittings.
3. Fibre clips thould not be used in damp places as these are
hygroscopic.
4. If the cables concealed under plaster, care must be
to provide a layer ofneat cement over it to avoid danger from nails.
5. The cable skuld not in any case be put under stress either
due to lead clips ordae to bends etc.
54
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTINC
6. In damp places the ends of the cable must be sealed with

compounds.
7. While t4ing through walls conduit must be used and at
both ends of the conduit, rubber bushing should be inserted.
8 The wire should be properly tightened and to achieve this,
the distance between the clips should not be more than 6 cm.
9 Bends should be provided with longer radius to avoid
cracks.
6. Metal Sheathed or Lead sheathed Wiring. This type of
wiring consists of rubber insulated conductor covered with an outer
sheath of lead alloy containing about 95% lead which provides a
protection to the cable from mechanical injury. These cables can
also be run on wooden beading or batten in residential buildings.
The lead sheath must be earthed. If the lead sheath is not earthed
there will be an electrolytic action due to the leakage current which
will deteriorate the lead covering, also earthing provides a safety
against the metal sheath becoming alive. Metal sheath cables are
costlier than the T.R.S, ones. The following points should be kept
in mind for installation of metal-sheathed wiring:
(1) The cables should be supported by proper metal clips,
saddles etc; which must not be more than 30 cm. apart both hori-
zontally as well as vertically.
(2) The supports used must not be of such a material that it
set up chemical action with the sheath.
(3) Sharp bends should be avoided and for a change of direction,
a round bend should be made of not less than 10 cm. (approximate)
radius.
(4) The lead sheath must be earthed and it must have a con-
tinuous electrical contact.
(5) The cable should not be run over a damp place.
(6) When crossing a wall, the cable must be run in conduits
with bushings at both ends.
(7) The ends of the conduits used must be filed to remove burrs,
and bushes may alo be provided at both ends.
7. Metal Conduit Wiring. In this system ofwi ring, the V.l.R.
Conductors are run in metallic tubes called conduits. It is indis-
putably the best system of wiring which provides mechanical pro-
tection, safety against fire and shock if bonding and earthing are
well done ; and this is most desirable for workshops and public
buildings.
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS
Illustration of surface conduit wiring

Fig. 3.10
There are two types of conduits used for wiring. One is known
as closejoint or open seam conduits or brazed conduits and the second
type of conduits are solid drawn seamless or welded.
The conduits can either be buried under plaster or can be
supported over the wall by means of saddles or pipe hooks. The
wiring with conduit on the surface of the wall is known as surface
conduit wiring and whereas wiring with conduit buried under
plaster is known as recessed conduit wiring. The main advantages
of conduit wiring are:
(1) It provides protection against fire due to short circuits etc.
(2) It provides protection against mechanical injury to the
V.I.R. wires used.
(3) It provides protection against moisture of the atmosphere
since the conduits can be made water-tight.
(4) It provides an easy way of replacing the damaged wires.
(5) Such a system is most suitable for workshops.
The conduits are generally erected first and wiring isdone later.
There are three methods by means of which the wiring of the con-
duits can be done. They are
(a) Threading through.
(b) Pushing in.
(c) Drawing in.
The first method of threading through is suitable when the
wiring is done before the conduits are erected which is somewhat
laborious and takes more time. This is useful only for making
extensions.
The method of pushing in is possible only when the erected

lengths of the conduit are small and straight
The drawing in method of wiring the conduit is most commonly
adopted. First the wires are inserted in the conduits and later V.I.R.
conductors are pulled through by means of steel wires. In order that
the wires may be easily pulled they are sometimes rubbed with
French Chalk. Inspection boxes and bends are provided at frequent
intervals to facilitate drawing in ofthR wires. While drawing, care
must be taken that wires are in no case to be twisted round one
another. It will reduce the capacity of the conduit and it will become
difficult to change the-wire if necessity arises some time later. The
following are the chief points which should be cared for in the
adoption of conduit wiring:
(1) The main drawback for. conduit wiring is that there is a
considerable condensation in the conduits in places where there
occurs appreciable change in temperature. In order to avoid con-
densation of water, the conduits must be well ventilated to allow
free air circulation. When a conduit is run horizontally, it should
be given a fall and care should be taken that no pocket is formed
where the condensation may rest.
- (2) Much care should be taken in cutting the conduit lengths
so that burns etc. may notbe formed which will tear off the insulation
from the wires whendrawing in. It is always advisable to cut the
conduits with a fine blade having 32 teeth per inch.
(3) Correct measurements should be taken to make satisfac-
tory joints.
(4) The oil used for threading the conduits must be wiped off
as it is injurious to the rubber insulation.
(5) The threads should be coated with aluminium paint and
not with red lead as it may act as an insulator
(6) For change of direction, the conduit must be bent round cold
in a press and the radius of the bend should not be less than 8cm.
(7) Whenever the conduits are buried under plaster, the con-
duits must be screwed to the wall behind first so that it may not
become loose later.
(8) The conduit must be well painted even if it is galvanized
before burying it under plaster,
(9) Wooden or ebonite bushes should be used whenever the
wires enter or leave the conduit, while brass bushings may be used
when leading into the building from overhead lines.
(10) If the current is alternating, conductors of opposite polarity

should be bunched together so that the sum of current through that
length of the conduit will be zero at any instant, otherwise eddy
currents may be induced in the conduits which will heat them up.
(11) It is always advisable to use only one size of conduits even
if the parts of rgn of conduits be duplicated or if the conduit is to
carry much less number of wires than its carrying capacity.
(12) The conduit must be electrically continues and effectively
connected to earth.
(13) Contact of the conduits with the metal work should be
avoided and conduits should be kept away from gas and water pipes.
8. Installation of Conduit Wiring. The conduit wiring is
undoubtedly the best wiring system. It has attained much impor-
tance for interior wiring installations. The conduits used may either
h' non-metallic (such a fibre, plastic or alkathine etc.) or metallic.
The metallic conduits may further be subdivided into ferrous or
-'on-ferrous. The non-ferrous conduits may either be of aluminium
or of copper. The ferrous conduits are made of mild steel ; in its
appearance it is similar to that of a water pipe, but they differ from
it, in the sense that conduits are annealed to permit easy bending.
They are specially treated during manufacture so as to have high
degree of corrosion resistance. In general the conduits can be
classified as
(a) Thin wall conduits.
(b) Rigid conduits.
(c) Flexible conduits.
9. Thin Wall Conduits. Such conduits are further subdi-
vided into:
These are made out of light gauge steel
(a) Close joint conduits.
strips, bent so as to form a tube. There is no mechanical adhesion
between its two edges. It is the cheapest form of conduit, and pro-
vides only mechanical protection and covers risk against fire. Such
conduits are not recommended for quality work.
(b) Brazed conduits.
Such conduits are also made similar to
that of close-joint conduits, but the ends of the steel tubing ar
brazed together which makes the conduits damp-proof. If has the
greàtesi disadvantages that the brazing material is left projecting
inside the tube which makes drawing in of the wires impossible.
10. Rigid Conduits- Such conduits are made out of a heavy
gauge steel and the tube edges are electrically welded, so they are
named as heavy gauge welded conduits.
There is another form of rigid conduit called as Solid drawn

conduit. Such conduits are drawn from solids and have no joint
throughoutits section. They are the heaviest and the best, although
a bit costlier.
These are available in about 3-metre lengths and are threaded
at the two ends. The threads are usually tapered and are provided
with a coupling on one side similar to that ofplumbing pipe coupling.
They can be joined together to form one continuous run. The rigid
conduit is shown in Fig. 3.11.
Rigid Conduit
Fig. 3.11
While manufacturing conduits, care is taken to remove all burrs,
scale and other rough spots prom inside of the conduit to avoid
damage to the insulation on the wires. This also makes pulling in
of the wires and cables easier.
There are two general types of finishes in which conduits are
available. They arc:
(a) black enamelled.
(b) galvanized.
The black enamelled conduits have a coating of black enamel,
baked in a heating furnace, so that it may not peal off easily. The
"galvanized conduits" have a coating ofzinc which is usually applied
by hot dipping process.
The black enamelled conduits should be used only in doors.
Their use should be avoided where the location is damp and where
they are liable to face acid fumes, and salt sea water atmosphere.
Table 3.3 gives the maximum number of wires which can be
accommodated in different sizes of conduits.
11. Flexible Conduits. The flexible conduits are made from
galvanized steel strips, specially wound upon each other.
There are three types of flexible conduit:
(a) Concaved double strip. It consists of concave-shaped steel
strips spirally wound one upon the other as shown in Fig. 3.12 (a).
To make the conduit moisture-proof a gasket is provided in between
the strips.
(b) Flat double strip. The consiruction of this type of flexible
conduit is similar to that in (a) except that the strips are flat as
shown in Fig. 3.12 (b).
5g
co
...
cli
0
E
0
• • ,.. . 0 0coC C
— .! L
— — -0 C'
— —
E
0 0 0 0 ' C
0
L) c.1
-
0 • •
—
lz
0
cl
L)
E--
E ' 0 0000
- . cq —
ru
c1
( C C
E e.l c c'J 0 o 0
NN

60 WIRING, ESI'IMATiNG AND COSTING
17&ous Gasket
2J1I1 iXI3
CONCAVED DOUSLE STRIP
(a)
=;Am
Fibrous Gasket
(b)
FLAT DOUBLE STRIP

Round GosAel Srrip
SINGLE STRIP
Flexible Conduits
Fig. 3.12
(c) Single strip. This type of flexible conduit is made from a
single galvanized steel strip. Such strips are interlocked as shown
in Fig. 3.12 (c). These conduits may also be gasketed.
Usually the double strip conduits are preferred to single strip
conduits since
(1) they are more flexible;
(2) they are smoother from inside.
The flexible conduits are available in lengths up to 250 metres,
so no couplings are required and hence no threading. Since the
conduits are flexible and are easily bent, no, elbows are required.
The flexible conduits have advantageous application in installations
where a certain amount of flexibility is required, i.e. with motors
having sliding bases. However, the flexible conduit is costlier than
the rigid conduit. Moreover it is not satisfactory in damp places as
the moisture is liable to enter into the conduit. So embedding of
such conduits into the concrete is avoided.
12. The Conduit Accessories. The general accessories
required for the conduit installations are given in the following
articles.
13. Couplings. Since the conduits are available in smaller
lengths, so to obtain a continuous length of the conduit the two are
coupled together by means ofcoupling. For the three types of conduit
(thin, rigid and flexible) different type of couplings are required.
(i) Thin wall conduit coupling. The thin wall conduits
cannot have threads, so counling cannot be done in an ordinary
way. There are two methods by which two conduit lengths can be
joined together. The first method is by means of a slip socket joint
in which case the two ends ofthe conduit,, are slipped inside a socket
which is provided with collars against which the two ends butt. But
this form ofjoint is not recommended as it does not provide a better
electrically continuous joint. The joint is shown in Fig. 3.13.
V's
Slip socket joint

Fig. 3.13
The second type of thin wall conduit coupling is the watertight
coupling. It consists of a slip socket similar to that of the previous
method, but each end of this socket is provided with male threads
and possess compession rings as shown in Fig. 3.14. A gland nut
is screwed at the top of this socket which compresses the compres-
sion ring, thus tightly clamping the two ends of the conduit.
Wa,MflsSaafl,
Slip socket with a gland nut at the top

Fig. 3.14
(ii) Coupling for rigid conduits. The rigid seamless or
welded conduits can be joined by means ofa screwed socket as shown
in Fig. 3.15. Such coupling is similar to that of water-pipe couplings.
'.. .V\"\ \ ' ':\ \' v'\s s\,\\\ I

Rigid conduit coupling
Fig. 3.15
(iii) Flexible conduit coupling. Usually for such types of
conduits slip couplings are used The split coupling may have two

or four screws. Fig. 3.16(a) shows a two-screw coupling, while Figs.

3.16 (b) and (c) show the upper and lower parts of the fourscrew type
flexible conduit coupling.
II.,
Two screw flexible coupling

(a)
fieXibIe-
Conduit _______ Iiff
Top half of the fl. eb1e coupling

(b)
,-eti0
-
. (ao'.;t Ho"CL Fr
Sto.'e BoIis
Bot'orn half of the flexible coupling

Fig. 3.16 (c)
Of tom i,cl(
flex ,L)e Cdt, Rigid
A .'i3.. >
for
Crrdu,t 0 80ft$
coJp&)c...±rrrfl
_ o I Top )oh'
Fig. representing ajoint b€.::. a rigid conduit and a flexible conduit

'g. 3.17
' 'flPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS
63
When a flexible conduit is to be connected to a rigid conduit, a

combination coupling is used. The combination coupling is similar
to that of split couplingwith 4 screws, but one end of such a coupling
is provided with threads for rigid conduit coupling, Fig: 3.17 rep-
resents such type of coupling.
14. Elbows. The change of direction in conduit wiring is always

made by means of an elbow which provides a 900 bend. Since the
wires are to be pulled through the conduits after installation, it is
necessary that the radius of the bend must be about 6 times the
internal diameter of the conduit. Usually the standard L's are
available in the market, but it is always a practice to bend the
conduit at the site by means of hickey or by hand in pipe vice. The
Offset due to ells is alwa y s more than the radius as

shown in Fig. 3.18. While cutting conduits, care \
must be taken to allow for this offset. Since this
offset is not the same for all sizes of conduit L's, the
usual practice adopted is not to cut the conduit until
the L is fixed to the job.
15. Conduit Bushings. These are used v.hn

the rigid conduit enters the conduit box or when Fig. 3.18
the conduit enter a hole which is not threaded. It is either made
from a malleable iron or from a formed sheet steel. The btshings
serve a double purpose. Firstly it prevents the insulation cn the
cables from being peeled off due to rubbing against the sharp hzes
of the conduit when they arepulied in ; secondlyit helps in securing
the rigid conduit to conduit box when no locknut is placed on the
inside of the box. Fig. 3.19 shows the two types of bushings used.
Generally the collarded bushing is used since it covers the hole in
the hoard.
10e-Pc'tus f9e
r5tCrdc. P,' rbr''
F!r;Gr!p ABG
Pred,' c-19
Bushings
Fig. 3.19
64
rd
eod
CAP ATTACHED
(b) Bushing with cap

(a) Collarded Bushing
Fig. 3.20
There is another closed type of bushing which is used during
the construction of the building. Such type of bushing is provided
with a cap as shown in Fig. 3.20. It prevents the moisture entering
the conduit system during construction.
16. Locknuts. When the conduit enters a
box, it is necessary that the locknut should be
1hread screwed on the conduit as it makes the con-
nection to the box rigid and electrically con-
tinuous. The locknuts are punched out of thin
/ steel sheets shown in Fig. 3.21. The locknuts
are either hexagonal or octagonal.
Locknut l7. Conduit Nipples. The nipples serve the

Fig. 3.21 same purpose as that of conduit bushing.
Similar to the bushing, it has a smooth inner surface and are used
for providing a coupling to the conduit bore. Conduit nipple is shown
in Fig. 3.22. The nipples are rarely provided because the system
becomes costlier.
Ro
a9on
'-'p
Pipe Thread
Conduit Nipples
Fig. 3.22
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF wrnrNG SYSTEMS
65
18. Box Connector Bushings for Flexible Conduits. Fig.

3.23 represents the bushing to be used when the flexible conduit
enters the box. The Connectors so ':sed are usually made of cast
iron, one end of it clamps the flexible conduit while the other
threaded end enters the bore where it is fixed to the box with the
locknut.
ocktut
Bolt
5tar7do,-d Pipe Thread
Box connector bushings for flexible conduits

Fig. 3.23
19. Conduit Reducers. The reducers are used when the size
of the conduit is changed in between the ringsvstem, The conduit
reducers are similar to that of steam and water-pipe reducer. Fig.
3.24 shows a reducer changing a 19.0 mm conduit pipe to 12.5 mm
conduit pipe. In practice the size of the conduit used mono building
is not changed.
125 mm
Th
C"!,
cC7
Conduit reducer
Fig. 3.24
20. Conduit Box. The rigid conduits are always .erminated at
outlets into a box. There are different types of boxes ; it may be
round, square or octagonal. The depth of the box may be " to I
The boxes always have knockouts punch out at the time of

manufacture as shown in Fig. 3.25 and are held there by small
sections ofknockout these knockouts are removed by hammering,
or with the twist motion of the pliers or a blunt tool. The conduit
boxes are also called as outlet boxes since they are usually used for
outlets. The boxes are provided with a cover held by screw on it.

After removing the knockout the conduit is attached to it by means

of the locknut and bushing. Care should always be taken not to
remove the knockout until and unless it is to be used; ifthe knockout
is removed, it must be sealed. The purposes for which the boxes are
used are underlined
RQ!nd- Ho7
fc,'h,ne Scre.'
X,GCkOUtS
Square conduit box

(a)

Round condu. box Octagonal conduit box
(B) (c)
Fig. 3.25
(i) to provide connections for lights, fan, heaters etc. in w}-ich
ease they are called as outlet boxes
(ii) to facilitate the pulling of con ductrs in the conduits and
are known as inspection boxes
(iii) to house the junctions of the conductors and are known as
junction boxes
(hi) to provide snap switches.
Figs. 3.26 (a), (b), (c) represent the method of fixing the rigid
t
conduit to the outlet box.

TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS £7
oc
Fvrlched 041t
Fig. representing the conduit box and the conduit
(a)
•
Bushing
3ox
Fg reprPs nig thecondu fx -d Fig. representing the 1ocnu: ng-

to the box with the bushing m ned wh the box.
position (c)
(b)
Fig. 326
It should be noted that if the conduit to be fixed to the hx is

cut too long, two locknuts are provided, one inside the box and the
other out.
I ocknj-
P/ez6/ CO.'d,t (o'7/ectQp
Conoc-tor 5t'tscrew
Fig. representing the connector and Conduit fixed to be connector with

the flexible conduit the help of screw
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.27
Figs. 3.27 (ci), (b), (c) represent the method of connecting flexible
conduit to the outlet box with the help of a conductor.

68
Q. it 8o
Out/et Bo..
-
8ush'
The connector and conduit assembly Fig. representing the complete
is inserted into the box and the lock- assembly with the bushing
nut inside the box is provided (d)
(c)
Fig. 327
21. Conduit Saddles or Conduit Clamps or Conduit
Straps. The conduit straps or saddles are used to fix the conduit
to the wooden plugs in the wall. The conduit saddle may have one
or two holes as shown in Fig. 3.28. All such saddles are made from
sheet steel.
Renforcin9
I-COt/QUIT 5TR4 CR
5.400LE TWO HCLE
SADDLE TWO HOLE

(a) (b)
Conduit saddles
Fig. 3.28
22. Conduit Fittings. The conduit fittings are similar to that
of a box ; but the difference lies only in the method of fixing the
conduit to these. The conduit fittings have productions as shown
in Fig. 3.29 and have female threads. The use of boxes are generally
limited to the concealed type wiring as the conduit fittings are rarely
usedfor that, but for the surface work both fittings and boxes can
be used.

Presed -Sree/ Badj
Octagonal outlet fitting Rengular outlet fitting

(a) (b)
Another type of rectangular fitting

(c)
Fig. 3.29
Machine Screw
Long pull-out fitting

(d)
Switch outlet fitting Pull-out rectangular bend fitting

(e) (/)
Another type of rectangular pull-outfitting.

(g)
Fig. 3.29

70
WmG
ES7 1MATING AND coSTINC
For pulling the Conductors into the
called 'pull outlet fittings' are used. Con duits special fittings
23. Fi
cussing thenishing
methodWires Through
of wiring rid Rigid Conduits Before dis-
bered that the con c onduits it should be emern-
ductors or res should not be run into them until
and unless the whole of the mechanical works in the building are
co
mpleted The drawback in running of wires before such works
completed is that there is a Possibility of any nail etc. being driven
into the conduit which would spoil the insulation.
Thus no co
Conduit is comp nduit is wired until the complete Funning of the
Stage. leted and the building has reached the water-tight
There are two methods of installing

runs, namely, Con ductors in the Conduit
(1) Pushing.
(2) Drawing
In the pushing method
the wires are p
from one end of the outlet by exerting manual ushed into the
pressure conduits
on them but
this method is pr
acticable only when the Conduit runs are small and
straight In the drawing
method
conduit with the help ofa wire. Suchthea wires
methodare pulled through the
is also called "fishing" of drawingthe wires
Pig. 3.30
The wire snake consists of a flat steel wire or j"thick which

IS rounded off.at
making the hook,onethe end to form
snake a hook
wire is heateas shown in Fig. 3 .31. For
blow lamp and is bend into shape with d at one end by means of
drawings in, the wi res are skinned and the the help of pliers. For '
as shown in Fig. 3.31. It is advantageous to to the snake hook
over the connection.
i p rovide a friction tape
There are two methods of fishing the wire in conduits.

(j) One-way fishing. (ii)
Two-way fishing.
In case ofone.wayflshjng Onlyone snake wire is used forpulling
the wires but where the conduit runs are very long and have a
number of bends close together, those require two-way fishing i.e.
two snake wires are pushed in, one from each end of the conduit.
The wires in the cGnduiL are so manipulated that their hooked ends
engage each other. Then one of the wires is pulled through the
conduit. Usually it is ajob of two men, in order that the wires may
engage easily, one of the workers shakes and rattles it while the
other worker tries to get it engaged with the other snake wire.
In fishing operation care must be taken that
(i) there should not be any kink or bend in the wire entering
the conduit.
(ii) the wires in the conduit should not cross.
24. Conduit Cutting, Threading and Bending. The
methods have already been explained in Chapter I while dealing
with the Tools.
25. Comparison of Various Wiring Systems. To decide
which t y pe of wiring should heused fora particularjobrnuch depend
upon the experience of the designer and the prevailing circum-
stances. There are no hard and fast rules regarding the best wiring
s y stem. Comparative statement given in Table 3.4 can well guide
one in the selection of proper type of wiring to be adopted,
Table 3.4
S. Cleat I Wooden I I Lead I Conduit Remark.,

I Particulars I wiring I casing I T.R.S. I sheathed I wiring
1. Life Fairly
Short Long I Long I Very long
long
0 Cost Low Medium Mediurn Medium High
3. Mechanical pro- None Fair Good I Poor Very good
tection
4. Possibility o Nil Good IFir!resiiYair I Nil
fire .sting
5- Protection from None Slight Good Good I Poor
dampness pro-
vided
Type of labour Semi High'y Skilled I Skilled I Highly
required -skilled skilled skilled
I. No. of points 4 3 1 3 3 2 Average
which can be
installed per
day by an ekc-
trician with a
72
WIRrNG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the various types of conduit used
2. How is the conduit cut and threaded?
3. "hat is the use of offse, and how is it obtained?
4. How is the flexible cciijt fixed to the conduit box?
5. What do you understand by fishing wires through rigid conduit?
6.
What is the difference between a conduitbox and a conduit fitting?
Lighting Accessories
1. Introduction. 2. Switches. 3. Surface Switches 4. Flush -SA, 5. PUll Swithcs
or Ceiling Switches. 6. Grid Switch. 7. Architrave Switch. 8. Rotary Snap Switch. 9.
Push button Switch. 10. Iron-clad Water-tight Switch. 11. Industrial Iron-dad
Switch. 12. Quick Break Knife Switch. 13. Lamp Holders. 14. Switch Ba yonet Cap
Lamp Holder. 15. Small Bayonet Cap Holder. 16. Goliath Edison Screw I..ampHc'der.
17. Medium Edison Screw Lamp Holder. 18. Porcelain Lamp Holders. 19. S.ivcI
Lamp Holder. 20. Fluorescent Lampholders and StarterHolders. 21. Ccihr.gRcses.
22. MountingBlocks. 23. Socket Outlet. 24. Plugs. 25. Terminal Block. 26. App:ar.ce
Connection. 27. Main Switch. 28. Splitter Units. 29. Distribution Fuse Bcard. 30.
Neutral Link.
1. Introducticn. Under the heading of Lighting Accesscrs,

come the switches,lamp-holders, ceiling roses, socket outlet S, pgs
their different types will be discussed here.
2. Switches. A switch is used to make or break the 1ec.riç
circuit. It should so operate that it must make the circuit uirrly,
and under some abnormal conditions, it must retain its rigidity and
keep its alignment between switch blades and contacts correct to
a fraction of a cm. At the instant of breaking the switch, it should
break the current so that there is no formation of an arc between
the switch blades and contact terminals. The disadvantage of
formation of an arc is that it burns or damages the switch contacts.
Such an arc is avoided usually by means of providing a sprir. to
movableblade so as tohave a quick action. Further the switch used
must have a base mechanically strong, capable of holding the parts
together and must have high insulation resistance.
The following are the various types of switches which can be
classified as
(a) Surface switches or Tumbler switch.
(b) Flush switches.
(c) Pull switches or Ceiling switches.
(d) Grid switches.
(e) Architrave switch.
tJ Rotary snap switch.
74
WIRING, E STIMATING AND COSTING
(g) Push button switch,

(/i) Iron-clad water-tight switch.
(i) Industrial iron-clad switch.
(i) Quick break knife switch
3. Surface Switch or Tumbler Switch. The surface
switches are those which are mounted on the mounting block
directly fixed over the surface of the wall, i.e., such types of switches
project out of the surface of the wall. The surface switches can be
classified as
Fig. representing 5 Amp single-way 5Arnp single-way

surface switch without cap with switch with cap
moulded box
(b) (°)
Fig. 4.1.
(i) Single-way Switch. Fig. 4.1 (a) represents the single-way
switch while the adjoining Fig. 4.1 (b) shows the switch with cover
removed while Fig. 4.2 (a) and (b) represent switches with metal
cap porcelain base. The cover when fixed with two screws does not
Fig. representing 5 Amp single-way The porcelain based switch with a

surface switch with porcelain base metal cap
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.2
L.IGHTLNG ACCESSORIES 75
rotate. Such a switch is usually provided with a single pole, with

robust contacts having a quick make and wipe action and has a wide
separation. Each switch movement is mechanically linked to the
dolly. Fig. 4.3 represent an oblong switch which again has a por-
celain base and moulded dolly and cover.
Fig. 4.4 represents a single-way heavy duty 15 Amp switch.

Such switches are required for power circuits, where more than 5
Amp current flows.
(ii) Two-way Switch. The two-way switches are used for wing
circuits which are to be controlled from two points independently.
Such switches are represented in Fig. 4.2 (a) and (b).
I I
5 Amp Oblong switch

Fig. 4.3
;'.
Single-way 15 Amp heavy duty switch

Fig. 4.4
76 wmrNc, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Two-way Switch
Fig. 4.5
4. Flush Switches. The flush switch as is clear from its name
is fixed in flush with the wall and it does not project out. Such type
of switches is used where high quality performance and appearance
are desired. In it, all current carrying parts are mounted on high
grade vitreous porcelain enclosed in an iron box recessed into the
wall. Figs. 4.6 (a) and 4.7 (a) represent 5 Amp single way switch
and its cover. Figs. 4.6 (b) and 4.7 (b) represent 5 Amp two-way
switch.
(a) Single way (b) Two way

5k-np Flush Switch
Fig. 4.6
5 Amp Two-way Flush Switch cap 5 Amp Two-way switch cap

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7
LIGHTING ACCESSORIES 77
Figs. 4.8 (a) and (b) represent 15 Amp single-way and two-way
switches.

Single-way 15 Amp
switch 15 Amp Two-way switch
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.8
Sngle . switch
plate Two-switch plate
(a) (b)
For-switch plate
(c)
Fig. 4.9
78 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTiNG
Figs. 4.9 (a), (b) and (c) represent the flush switch plate for a
single-switch, two switches and 4 switches. All switch plates are
supplied with suitable switch fixing rings which may either be
shallow insulated rings or deep rings as shown in Fig. 4.10. The
deep rings designated for use with their appropriate plates will
ensure proper fixing in those cases where excessive plaster depths
prevent the shallow ring bein g threaded on to the switches.
1I
Shallow insulated ring Deep insulated ring Standard insulated ring
(a) (b) (c)
F.-. 4.10
Fig. 4.11 shows the metal backing rings which should be used
in those cases where the switches are to be secured to a plate or a
panel and is dependent on the fixing ring for support. A metal
backing ring placed between switch and back of plate or panel will
ensure secure fixing.
BW
7^^^Backing rings
Fig. 4.11
Fig. 4.12 (a) shows a cast iron box into which the flush switch
is fixed ; while Fig. 4.12 (b) represents an assembled view of the
switch
Cast Iron Box Assembled cast iron box with a

(ci) switch
(1))
Fig. 4.12
LIGHTING ACCESSORIES
79
5. Pull switches or Ceiling
switches. The pull switches are
fixed on the ceiling and all the alive parts are out off reach of the
operator. The switch has a strong mechanical action and is usually
operated with a single pull on the cord for the on and Off position
Pull Switch
Fig. 4.13
Such switches are most conveniently used in bath rooms (. here

water heaters are used), bed rooms (where the pull cord is provided
near the pillow and restaurants) The only drawback in such a
switch is that there is a considerable wear and tear at the point
'here the cor'j enters the switch. Such a switch is shown in
Fig. 4.13.
.7
6. Grid Switches. The gri switches are sm.ar to thaa of

tumbler switches, except that they are lighter and are portable so
for that reason they are quite useful for the portable machines such
as hand-drill, portable grinder etc. Such switches have all insulated
moulded base and dolly and have a smooth and silent action. They
are manufactured either in a single-way or a two-way pattern both
for 5 and 15 amperes.
This t y pe of switch can also be used for house wiring as a flush
switch for which an iron box is required with an insulated plate.
Such an assembly is shown in Fig. 4.14.
Grid switch for etc. Grid swtch for house wiring

(a)
Fig. 4.14
7. Architrave Sv. itch. This type of switch is designed for
flush munting on aron it raves. The switch movement is enclosed
in a compact porcelain base to which is fitted a metal mounting plate
with 102.5 mm fixing centres. An ivory plate is secured to switch
mount b'. two fixing screws as is represented in Fig. 4.15. Such
Cuver pLite. Architrave Switch.

Fig. 4.15
switches are available in one and two-way patterns and they cannot
be used without the cover plate.
8. Rotary Snap Switches. The rotary switches are much

different from that of ordinary tumbler switch. It consists of an
insulated handle to which are fixed the blades. These blades move
in steps by the movement of the handle and make contact with the
terminals to which are connected the wires in the electric circuits.
The handle motion is controlled by a cam or a spring as the handle
is moved through a quarter turn, the blade is released and moves
over quickly (with the help of spring) to make or break the circuit.
Such switches are available in a single or two-way patterns and a
two-way switch is shown in Fig. 4.16.
(CL) (b)
Rotary switches.
Fig. 4.16
This type of switch is not used for ordinary lighting purpose
but they are specially used for reversal of small motors, speed
controls and for control of circuits or electric ranges of heaters etc.
9. lush Button Switch. The construction of push button
tch is similar to that of a rotary switch, instead of a number cf
l)]Jdes ir consists of only one blade. The operation of this switch is
Cr
Push botton switch.

Fig. 4'17
82 WIR!NG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
not due to rotary motion ; but the blade is given a rocking action by
press buttons and its movement is controlled by a cam and a spring
thus they open or close with quick motion. Such switches have a
special application for starting motors and they can also be used for
controlling the lighting circuits such as a light provided in a
refrigerator which lights automatically when the door is opened and
goes off when its door is closed. This type of switch is shorn
in Fig. 4.17.
10. Iron-clad Water-tight Switches. Such switches are of
cast iron and have very robust construction. A cork gasket is fitted
between the case and the cover which makes it water-tight. The
switch spindle operates through a packed gland. Its construction
is much similar to that of rotary switch and is represented in Fig.
4.18. Another type of water-tight switch has a similar construction
to that of a tumbler switch. Such switches are directly mounted on
to conduits.
tj
Iron-clad water-tight switch

Fig. 41
11. Industrial Iron-clad Switches. The switches to be used
in industry must be of heavy duty and they require a robust con-
struction. The ordinary switch is provided with a cast iron cover
Iron-clad sw:ch 5 Amp Iron-clad switch 15 Amp

(c (b)
F 4.1i
\
UGHTING ACCESSORIES 83
designed to give protection to the nickel plated switch dollies against

possibility of damage. This cover is secured to the iron box with the
help of four corner screws. Fig. 4.19(a) and (b) represent a 5 ampere •
and 15 ampere, Iron clad-switches respectively.
12. Quick-break Knife Switch. The knife swih consists of
blades hinged at one end and are arranged to go into forked ter-
minals or jaws at the other end. Each blade consists of one or two
or more hard rolled copper bars, the cross-section of which is
dependent upon the current to be handled. The hard rolled copper
used makes a better contact. At the hinged end spring washers are
used. The knife switch assembly is either fixed over an insulating
5prl/79 li
Single pole knife

switch. 2-pole knife switch.
(a) (b)
2-pole double throw knife switch.

(c)
Fig. 4.20
84
board or on switch board panel. For making connection to the

external circuit, the hinged ends and the jaws are c onnected to the
threaded studs at the back as shown.
For making the switch a quick break, the main blade is provided
with an auxiliary blade independent of the handle and both these
blades are connected by means of spring. For breaking the circuit,
as the handle is moved out, the main blade comes out while the
auxiliary blade remains in the clip and maintains connection, but
as the handle is moved further out, its puts a tension in the spring
which brings out the auxiliary blade out of the clip quickly. Thus
the spring provides a quick break action. Knife switches are
available as single throw switches or double throw switches. Fig.
4.20 represents the single throw switch. In case of a double throw
knife switch, 2 more clips are provided on the other side of the hinged
side of the switch as in Fig. 4.20 (c).
13. Lamp holders. As is clear from its name a lamp-holder is
used to hold the lamp required for lighting purposes. Earlier, brass
lamp-holders were quite popular, but now-a-days these have been
superseded by the all insulated pattern. A lamp-holder has either
moulded or porcelain interior with a solid or spring plunger and
easily wired terminals. In case of a solid olunger holder, solid
plunger is a one piece construction and the wiring terminal forms
an integral part of plunger and thus the current flows directly
through this plungerto the lamp. The plungerhasan external spring
as shown in Fig. 4.21 (a). As the wire terminal moves in and out as
the tamp is moved out or inserted in, so only flexible wire should be
used fo: wiring.
Sectional view of a solid plunger Sectional view of spring plunger

lamp-holder lamp-holder
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.21

The sprng plunger is necessary a two part construction. The

spring is inside a barrel to one end of which is wire terminal and
on the other end is a solid contact making contact with the lamp.
There is no movement of the wiring terminal as the lamp is inserted
into the holder to any suitable V.I.R. wire or flexible wire can be
used for wiring. Such a holder is shown in Fig. 4.21 (b) Each holder
carries a threaded shade carrier ring orholder maybe of Home Office
pattern ventilated and provided with safety shields. The Home
Office pattern lamp-holders are required in bath rooms and places
where contact with live parts cause additional risks. The lamp
holders can be classified as
(i) Bayonet Cap Lampholders which can further be subdivided
into
(a) Pendant holder or Cord Grip pattern.
(b) Batten holder

(c) Screwed holder which when used with a bracket is called
as bracket holder
(d) Water-tight pattern provided with T.R.S. Gland.
Pendant holders
Fit . 4.22
Standard 3-hole batten holder Strap two hole batten holder

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.23
86 WIRING ES TIMATING AND COSTING
Angle batten holder

(c)
I,
Home office type batten holder
Different types of batten holders

Fig. 4.23
(d)
1041
(a)
(b
Two types of screwed entry bracket holders
Fig. 4.24
Ad
Bracket holder with bracket

Fig. 4.25
Water-tight lamp-holder has got a gland at the top. The gland
is moulded with a bush and a rubber grounmen which firmly grips
the T.R.S. flexible wire.
According to Indian Standard 732 clause 5.5 all lamp-holders to be used on

bracket and the like shall have not less than a 1.13 mm nipple and all those for use
with flexible pendant3 shall be provided with corded cord grips. All lamp-holders
shall be provided with shade carriers. Where centre contact Edison Screw Lamp.
holders are used, the outer or screwed contact shall be connected to the earthed
conductor of the circuit.

W

Pig. showing the gland Assembled view of the Home office pattern
(a) holder (c)
(5)
• Fig. 4.26
14. Switched Bayonet Cap Lampholder. The switched
bayonet bayonet cap lamp-holder has a hush bar switch and is used
only to carry an electric load not exceeding 2 amp. These push bars
are non-detachable. The usual types of switch holders are
(i) Pendant holder or cord grip icider.

(ii) Screwed lamp-holder.
IiuuiiV
1I
i
Ir
Fig. represents the sectional view of Assembled view of the cord grip
switched bayonet holder. type Pendant holder.
(a) (h)
Fig. 4.27

L1J
Screwed lamp-holder, Screwed lamp-holder Home office
(c) pattern
(d)
Fig. 4.27
15. Small Bayonet Cap Holder. The small bayonet cap
holders possess all the features of larger patterns. They are again
of:
(L) Cord grip type.
(ii) Batten type.

(iii) Screwed pattern.
They are designed for carrying small sizes of lamps.
.9
AZ
Srnafl bayonet cap holders

Fig. 4.28
16. Goliath Edison Screw Lampholders (Brass). Such
holders are useful for the lamps having wattage beyond 300 W, the
maximum range the lamps with which they can be used is 1,500 \V
Fig. 4.29 (a) and (b) represent cord grip type and screwed entry type
Screwed Lamp-holders respectively.

I ' &I1:tItLJ• I
(a)
Goliath Edison Screw Lamp-holders
Fig. 4.29
17. Medium Edisbon Screw Lamp holden (Brass). Such
holders are used with the screwed type lamps upth 200 watts, 250
volts. The different types of such holders are showsi in Fig. 4.30.
They are:
(a) Cord grip type.
(b) Batten type and
(c) Screwed Entry Pattern.
Cord Grip type Batten type Screwed entry type

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.30
It will be quite to the point to mention that:
According to Indian Standard 732, clause 5.8, all incandescent
lamps unless otherwise required shall be hung at a high of 2.5 m (8
ft.), above the floor level. They shall be provided nth a cap holder
of the following patterns upto and including 200 watts—Standard
Bayonet.
Above 200 watts and exceeding 200 watts—Edon Screw.
Above 300 watts—Goliath Screw.
18. Porcelain Lampholders. The porcelain lamp-holders are
designed for batten lampholders in Bayonet Cap Edison Screw

90
Ii
Bayonet cap holder Bayonet cap holder Goliath Edison screw

without skirt with skirt lamp holder without skirt
(a) (b) (c)
Goliath Edison screw lamp-holder Edison screw lamp-holder without

with skirt skirt
(d) (e)
.1gIøUIIIHg,
IIi
Edison screw lamp-holder with skirt
Fig. 4.31
patterns wi thor without skirts. The bayonet cap lamp-holders are

fitted with spring loaded brass plungers while the Edison Screw
lamp-holders have spring loaded central contacts to ensure efficient
contact pressure. Figs. 4.30 and 4.31 represent the different types
of lamp-holders.
19. Swivel Lamp-holders. The swivel lamp holders are

designed for controlled wide angle directional lighting which are
used for lighting of shop windows, show cases etc. It consists of a
ball and socket joint fitted between back plate and lamp-holder.
Such a joint is separately shown in Fig. 4.32 (c). The swivel lamp-
holders are available in bayonet cap type, small bayonet cap type
and Edison screw type. All the three types of holders are further
available for wall fixing pattern or ceiling pattern.
Swivel lamp batten holder Miniature swivel lamp-holder

(a) (b)
Ba!l and socket joint

(c)
Fig. 4.32
Angle swivel lamp-holder Edison screw swivel holder

(d 1 (e)
Fig 4.32
20. Fluorescent Lamp-holders and Starter holders. The
fluorescent holders are either of hi-pin type or of bayonet cap type,
but pin type holders are generally used for ordinary fluorescent
tubes, Fig. 4.33 represents a holder for the starter and the twist
turn contact holder of the tube, while Fig. 4.33 (c) represents a
combined holder for the tube as well as for the starter.
Yl i
1:
cscet p ii uibe Holder for th Srt-r ('cr tu)*. a

holder eirt.r hoidr
(a) (c
F1,.
The holder for ba y onet caped tube is shown in Fig. 4.33 for easy
of the tube, the holder is provided with a loai in guide.

q V -1 "-Z
Bayonet caped tube
Fig. 4.34
21. Lamp-holder Adopter. The lamp-holder adopters are
used for tapping temporary power for small portable electric
appliances from lamp-holders. Although such a practice is not
advised. In no case the electric appliance energized by this method
is permitted in bathroom or other damp places. A bayonet lamp-
holder adopter with oval contacts similar to that of an electric lamp
is as shown in Fig. 4.35.
Adopter
Fig. 4.35
22. Ceiling Roses. The ceiling roses are used to provide a
tapping to the -pendant lamp-holder through the flexible wire or a
connection to a fluorescent tube. The ceiling rose consists of a cir-
cular porcelain or bakelite base provided with 2 or terminal plates
(according to the type of ceiling rose whether it is a2-v.aycra 3-way),
which are separated from each other by a porcelain or bakelite
bridge. Each of the terminal plate is provided with metallic sleeve
and abinding screw cn one side through which circuit wire from the
back via mounting block enters the ceiling roses, on the other side
ofthe terminal plate is provided with a washer and a clamping screw
for making connection to the flexible wire. The insulating bridge is
provided with holders through which the flexible wire is passed
through first before making connection to the terminal plate. Such
a construction avoids the supporting of the load of the lamp-holder
flexible wire and lamp by the connecting terminal plate. To the
threaded base is fixed a porcelain or bakelite cover as shown in
Fig. 4.36.

94
WIRING, ESTIMATING MW COSTING
Cover Base
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 4.36
L
Indian standard 732.5.1.
c.:!r.g rose c/an y other similar attachment shall not be
on a ct - cUit, the collage of which normally exceeds 250 volts.
(h) Vermall onl one flexible cord shall be attached to a ceiling
rose. Specicly designed ceiling roses shall be used for multiple
pendants.
(c) A ceiling rose sha!l not embody fuse terminal as integral
part c/it.
23. Mounting Blocks. According to I.S. 732 clause 5.10, all
the surface mounting accessories such as ceiling roses, batten lamp
holders, surface switches, ceiling switches etc., are used in con-
junction with wooden mounting block. For fixing the accessory on
the mounting block, it is placed centrally over the block, its binding
screws used to connect accessory with the main circuit wire are
slacked and through these metallic sleeves pricks are made into the
wooden ick. Then the accessory is removed and holes of mm or
more are drilled into the block for the entry of the wire. The rough
edges of the holes made are cleaned with a file. For fixing the block
over the wail or ceiling two holes are so drilled and made counter-
sunk so as to over these with the base of the accessory fixed over it.
The cable is drawn in for a sufficient length through these holes
LICI{TJNG ACCESSORIES
95
made earlier, which can again be pushed in after making connection
to the accessory. Then the wooden block is fixed to the wall with
the help of the two countersunk wooden screws.
Wooden rno'intr.g Block

Fig. 4.37
24. Socket Outlets The socket outlets have alHnsulatedbae
with moulded or socket base having 3 terminal sleeves. The two
thin terminal sleeves are meant for making connection to the cable,
Wit h the third trrnj7:cl sleeve, thicker in cross . Sectjo, is us 1fo a
earth connection.
5 Amps Socket base

(a)
I.'. ç
All
Cover 3-;-. 15 Amp scket

F. 43;
0
The cover is again moulded and has corresponding 3 holes.

Earlier 2-pin sockets were Lsed for 5 ampere rouge, but now these
are obsolete and only 3-pin sockets are used. These sockets are
shown in Fig. 4.38 (a), (5) and (c) and are available either in flush
or surface mounting. -
The heav y duty 15 A is used for power circuits and is shown in
Fig. 138 (c).
25. Plugs. For tapping power from socket outlets, 3-pin plugs
are used. The thicker pin is used for an earth connection to the
-ortuh1 appliance. Fig. 4.39 represents a 3-pin 5 Amp plug while
Fi. 4.40 roresents a heavy duty power plug.
5 Amp plug.
Fig. 4.39
26. Terminal Block. Fig. 4.41 (a) and (b) represent 5 Amp
and 15 Amp 12-way terminal blocks used for termination and
connection to the other. A single-way terminal block is used for
differentiating the live line from the neutral when the domestic
connection is given and is called as Connector.
10-Ai, m m l a
-5
1- &^
(a) 5 Amp, 12-way terminal block.
(b) 15 Amp, 12-way terminal block.

Fig. 4.41
27. Appliance Connector. Making connection to the domestic
appliances such as electric kettle, electric press, percolator, etc. with
the suppl y mains appliance connectors are used. The connector is
provided with a 2-pin socket and the earth connection is provido
with a twin nickel spring. The cable entry has a rubber protection
tube. The connectors are either flat or round with a side entr y or
straight entry as shown in Fig. 4.42.
Flat connector with a top or side entry

(a)
Fig. 4.42

Flat ccnnecor with side entry

(b)
Round connector.
(c)
Fig. 4.42.
2S. Main Switch. Ir. order that the consumer may have sei
coa Ire1 of the electric circuit, he must have a main switch. Fig. 4.43
rearesents a 15 ampere main switch. The switch is a double-poled
or ind is cornbind with fuses. The bl-isc ofthe switch is high grade
vitreojS p3reelair, possessing perfect insulating properties and it
has MOUILIOd slots for the entry of cables. The blades of the double
pile 5 wjtch are made oftwo links mounted on an insulatin g bar, to
which is also connected the handle for the operatkn of the switch.
It is provided with a moulded cov er attached to the base with a

captive nut. The movement of the insulated bar is controlled by a

spring, which locks up the movement of the handle wen the switch
is without the cover and thus avoids the accidental switching on the
circuit. When the cover is placed in position, it releases a catch
which in turn unlocks the handle. Such main switches are designed
for maximum safe volts of 250, or 400 and they are available in 30
amperes range too, so they are suitable for domestic installations
Main switch having fuse grips in both the lines, and generally when it is
used for single phase the ends of one of the fuse are connected
permanently with a wire.
(a)
Single phase main switch with a fuse grip for neutral

(b)
Fig. 4.43

100 WIRING ES TIMATING AND COSTING
where ideal conditions prevail. But for control and isolation of

motors and machine tools etc. where oil and suds are prevalent, it
requires weather-proof, dust-proof and robust
Con struction of the
switch. So for heavy duty, cast iron switches are used, i.e., in fac-
tories, mills, chemical plants etc. The covers of such switches are
provided with a gasket to ensure that they are weather-proof
. Fig.
4.44 represents a closed and open view of a single-phase bakeflte
top main switch while Fig. 4.45 represents open and closed view of
ironclad switch. Fig. 4.46 (a) represents triple pole main switch,
while Fig. 4.46 (b) represents a triple pole main switch with a
neutral.
Main switch with Bakelite cover

1L
Fig. 4.44
Open and closed view of iron clad switch

Fig. 4.45
29. Splitter Units. There are f:xed number of lamps which can
be connected across the mains circuit, depending on the voltage
which is received at the lastpoint and according to Indian Electricity
Rules it must not be less than 5 per cent of the declared voltage
given by the supplier. If in a building, there are a number of outlets,
101
the wirir of all of the points is divided into a number of circuits.

hne, a splitter
For having a number of circuits from a singlesup ply
unit is required. Fig. 4.47 represents a splitter unit, splitting the
supply into three circuits. It consists of main switch and a fuse
board in cast iron box similar to that for main switch. Such a unit
does not control the individual circuits, for which purpose eparatC
main switch, one in each circuit is required. For the splitter unit,
to be weather-proof, a gasket is provided on the cover. They are
available either for 5 A range or 15 A range.
4
Triple pole 15 Amp i ron-clad 400 V switch
(a)
30 Amp switch.
(b)
Fig. 4.46

102 WIRING, EM ATGA&J.1J COSTING
Three-phase four-wire main switch.

Pig. 4.47
30. Distribution Fuse Boards. In th Industries or in ver)

big b0i1dings, where a number of circuits are to be wired, the dis-
tributicin fuse boards become a necessity. They are usually ironclac
and are designed to provide a large space for wiring and splittiri{
the circuts. The fuse bank in the distribution board can easil y b
removed. Since there are a number of wires making connection tc
the various fuse at top and bottom, to facilitate this, the fuse bank
can be tilted. Moreover, for further convenience of wiring, the cover
plate, top and bottom plates can he removed easily. In the top place,
knockouts are provided for fixing the conduits. Fig. 4.49 represents
30Q V, water-tight fuse boards.
Six-way distribution board

Fig. 448

(b)
12-way distribution board

(c)
Fig. 449
31. Neutral Links. With the help of a neutral link, the normal
three-phasefuse board can be converted into 3-phase 4-wire circuits.
Such neutral terminal consists of a terminal for incoming neutral
Ve
4i
Neutral links
F'ig. 4.50
main and a three-way outgoing circuit terminal, both are connected

by a link which can be detached for test purposes. The metal
components are mounted on high grade vitreous porcelain base. Fig.
4.50 represents 100 Amp, 60 Amp, 30 Amp, 15 Amp neutral links.
32. Miniature Circuit Breaker. The modem day practical
is to use miniature circuit Breakers which are available in sailings
varyirigfrom 0.5Amps to lOOAmps. These can be single pole, double
poles or three poles.
Miniature circuit Breaker Commanly known as MCB are final
sub circuit protective device as it comprises of thermal overload and
magnetic short circuit tripping devices. The MCB can carry rated
circuit continuously but sustained overloading of 150% or above.
Can be detected by thermal overload device which will trip the
M.C.B. The thermal elevate prevents rapid relosing of a circuit
while the overload still persists.
Magnetic short circuit device will trip M.C.B on fault. The trip
free mechanism incorporated in the breaker do not permit closing
of the contacts and in addition the thermal element also prevents
rapid closing of the circuit..
33. Spe9ifications of some Electrical Accessories.
(1) A.C. Energy meter:
Supply : Single phase/three phase 3 wire/4wire
Rated voltage 230 Volts/440 Volts.
Frequency 50 Hertz.
Current Rating : 5, 10, 20, 25 and 100 amps.
Revel utioriK\VH 450/900/1200 etc.
(2) Main switch, Lighting/Power (I.C.D.PJI.C.T.P.)
Material I.C. :(Iron clad)
Poles Double pole/Triple pole. 32A, 250/500V
Rating : 16 amps 250/500; 60A, 500V; bOA,
500V
(3) Tumbler Switch:
Rating : 5 Amp. 250V, one way/Two way, 15 A
250V one way.
Material Bakelite or bakelite with porcelain base.
Type : Surface/flush.
(4) Aerial Fuse:
Rating : 16A, 250V, or 16/32/60A, 500V
Material Tinned copper or tin lead alloy (63 % tin,
37 % lead)

UGHTINC ACCESSORIES 105
Size of fuse wire: Tinned copper : 24 SWG to 40 SWG

Lead : 10 SWG TO 32 SWG
(5) The complete specification of cable wil l give the following
data
(a) Size in metric system (19/2.34, 7/1.70, 7/2.24)-the nurner
ator giving the number of strands and the denominator dia. of each
strand in mm.
(b) Type of conductor material used in cables (copper or alu-
minium)
(c) Number of cores that cable consists ofe.g. Single core, Twin
core, Three core etc.
(d) Voltage grade 250/500 volts or 600/1100 volts or HV or EHV
grade.
(e) Type of cable with clear description regarding insulation,
taping, braiding and compounding etc.
(f) Type Designation:
The type designation is as per IS :709S-1977 (Part . I)
Ex. YY, AYA, YFA, AVMI1. etc.
In these codes, the FIRST letter indicates the material of
conductor, viz Al. or copper.
The SECOND letter indicates the type of insulation.
The letter A indicates Aluminium. If the code does NOT
start with A, then it is copper.
The letter Y in the Second place indicates, the insulation
is PVC
The letter 2X in the second place indicates the insulation
is FINVUL-X
The letter Yin the last place indicates it is PVC sheathed.
The letter M indicates, the conductor is in round con-
struction.
The letter W or R indicates, it is Round Steel Wire
armouring.
The letter F indicates, it is Flat Steel Wire (strip:
armouring.
Example:
AYA -+ Aluminium Conductor, PVC insulted
AYY -* Aluminium Conductor, PVC insulated, and PVC
sheathed, (unarrnoured)
YY - Copper Conductor, PVC insulated and PVC
sheathed, unarmoured
\TY -* Copper conductor, PVC insulated Flat steel wire
armouring and PVC sheathed.

106
AYWY - Aluminium Conductor PVC in sulated Round

steel wire armouring and PVC sheathed.
Also note:
1) AYRY -* 2 core upto 10 sq.rnm. available
3 core upto 6. sq.mm . available
4 core upt.o 4. sq.mm . available
2) AYFY -4 All other types available
3) YRY - upto 7 cores available
4) YFY -* from 10 cores available
(6) For House wiring, the cable size upto 1.0 KW
(Lighting only) load
Copper = SWG 1118. = 1410.3 multistrand, single core or
1mm2 111.12 single strand, single core
OR
Alum. = SWG 1118. = 3/0.80 rnultistrand, single core or
1.5 mn' 1)1.40 single strand, single core
(7) For House wiring the cable size for loads more than 1.5KW
and upto 3KW
(Plugs, and other House - hold appliances - Wet Grinders,
Refrigerators etc.)
Copper SWG 3/20, = 28/0.3 multi-strand, single core or
2.0 mm2 3/0.925multistrand, single core
OR
Alum. SWG 3/20, = 3/1.0 multistrand, single core or
2.5mm2 111.80 single strand, single core
(8) For power loads more than 3KW and less than 10KW
Alum. SWG 7/20, = 7/0.85multistrand, single core or
4.0mm2 1J2.24single stand
Copper SWG 7/20, = 65/0.3multistrand or
4.5mm2 7/0.925single core
(9) Socket outlet:
Rating : 5Amps/25OVgrade
Type Flush/surface
Socket : 3 pin/2 pin.
(10) Adhesive black insulating tape.
The tape contains insulating adhesive material pasted on one
side of it. Its adhesive properties should retain for a considerable
period. It is available in rolls of 2, 5, 10, 20, 25 meters length. It can
withstand 250 volts per layer.
107
(11) Electric Heater.

Wattage : 450W/ 1000/150012000 watts.
Voltage : 230 volts.
Type : AC/DC
Make : BAJAJ/Klertonelcrompton Vijay, Recold, etc
(12) Electric press (for domestic use)
Wattage : 500/1000 watts, 230 volts.
Weight : 2 to 3 kg. System : Automatic
Non-automatic.
Name of manufacturing firm:Bajaj, Kiertone, Vijay, Maurya
etc.
(13) Ceiling Fan:
Name of the man- : Usha, Orient, Crompton, Rally, Kaiton
ufacturing firm etc.
Number of blades two or three or four

Size of blade : 900 mm (36); 60W: 1200 mm (48"), 100W
sweep 140!) mm (56 . I DOW; 1500 mm (60"), 100W
Type offan : ACorDC
Rated voltage : 230 71 , 50iz.
(14) Fluorescent tube:
Standard size : 2 ftJ60 cm; 4 1t1120 cm and I inch/2.5
cm din;
Name of the man- : Crompton, Philips, ElecEronSylvjnja
ufacturing firm Anchor etc.
Power consumed : 20 watts 1 40 watts; 230 volt; 0.6 lag.
(15) Choke for fluorescent tube:
Rating : 40 watts/20 watts at 230 volts
Power factor : 0.6
Name of : Crompton, Phiips, Sylvinia, Anchor etc.
Ma n ufacturers
(16) Starter for Flourvecnt tube:
Rating : 40 watt-,/20 watts at 230 volts
T y pe : Glow type.
Name cf Manufauturr : Crompton, Philips, Usha etc.

(17) Incandescent lamp:

Rating : 230 volts, 25/40/60/100/200 watts.
Type Pin/Screw.
:
Make : OsramlCrompton, Philips, Surya,
Sylvinia Pajaj etc.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. How many types of switches are there?
2. What are the various lighting accessories? Illustrate two types of
switches in use.
3. Why iron-clad water-tight switches are used? Illustrate with dia-
gram its various parts.
4. Why lamp-holders and ceiling roses are used?
5. How many types of lamp-holders are there, explain the construc-
ti onal parts of any two of them with sketches.
6. Illustrate with a sketch the various parts of main switch.
7. Write short notes and specifications for the following
(a) Quick break knife switch
(b) Tumbler switch
(c) Puh Button s.sitch
(d) Medium Edison Screw lamp-holder
(e) Mounting flloc< s
(f) Distribution fuse bards
() Plugs
(h) Socket outlet
(1) Fluorescent lamp-holder and starter holders
(j) A holder for hoid:r.g 60 watts, 230 volts lamps and suitable for
fixing to a brass bracket
[S.B.T.E. Pb. (Elect. Engg. 1967)]
(k) A switch for controll i ng 100 watts, 230 V lamp in cleat wiring.
[S.BT.E. Pb. (Elect. Engg., 1963)]
(1) A single phase ncrgy meter.
(ni) Ceiiig Fan.
(n) Man Switch lighting/power
Protection Devices
ThY. 3
1. Attracted Armature Type Relay. 2. Solenoid Type
. iTle
Induction Type over Current Relay. 5. Induction Type Reverse lsd Relay, 4.
Power
Re lay. 6.
Induction Type Directional over Current Relay. 7. Impedance or Distance Relay
(Induction T y pe) 8 Impedance Time Relay.
Introduction. In an electrical power station, when anything

becomes abnormal, it becomes necessary to isolate the abnormal
condition in
stantaneously or in some cases after a predetermined
time delaj'. The action may be automatic and selective i.e.
it must
segregate te faulty section or piece of apparatus leang the correct
apparatus in the circuit in the normal position. The function can be
fullled b y
using the protective devices like fuses or relays in the
circuit to isolate the circuit from the damages to be cecured due to
short circuit or over-loads etc.
The use of fuse in the circuit is limited for the protection of low
voltage circuits. For higher voltages say from 3300". upwards, the
protection of the circuit is achieved by p
roviding the protective relays
at proper selected points. At the time of occurring the faults in the
circuit, the relay operates to complete the circuit of trip coil, thereby
resulting in opening the circuit breaker and isolating the faults
section from ther
estofthesystern The relaythus ensures the safety
of the e q
uipments from being damaged and normal working cf
healthy portion of the system,
Main Features of Good Protective Devices
(i) Sensitivity The protective system should be so sensitive
that it should operate for low values of fault current'
(ii) Selectivity : The protective System should select correctly
the faulty part of the power s y
stem and disconnect the same without
disturbing the rest of the system.
(iii) Reliability: The protective system should operate defi-
nitely under p redetermined condition.
(it') Quickness: The protective system should be such that it

110
should respond quickly in order to improve quality of service,

equipment and increase stability of oper-
increase safety of life o r
ation.
(v) Non.inerfe1flc
e with Future Extension : There
should be scope for future extension without interfering the original
installation.
protective Relays : The protective relay may be defined as an
electrical device connected between the main circuit and the circuit
breaker in such a way that if any abnormality acts on the relay in
the circuit, it causes the breaker to open and the faulty element is
isolated. Thus the circuit equipments are saved from any damage
being caused by the fault.
The types of a relays may be classified as under
(a) According to Construction and Principle of opera-
tion.
The operation of this type of relay
(i) Attracted Armature type:
depends upon the movement of an armature under the influence of
attractive force due to magnetic field set up by current flowing
through the relay winding.
The operation of this type of relay depends
(ii) Solenoid type :
movement of an ircn plunger core along the axis of a
upon
50lenod.
In this type of relay, th.^ moving part
(iii) Electro dynamic type:
coil, free to rotate in an electromagnetic field.
consists of a
Induction type:
(it')
upon the movement of a metallic disc or cylinder, free to rotate by
the inter action of induced eddy currents and the alternating
magnetic field producing them.
(u) Thermal type :
upon the action of heat produced by the current flowing through the
element of the relay.
( vi) Meting ype : In this type ofCoil
relay, the movingT
part
con sists ofa coil, free to rctate in the air gap ofa permanent magnet.
(b) According to Applications
Over Voltage/Over Current/Over Power Relay : When the
()
.oltageJcurrefltJPOWet increases in any circuit above a specified
value, then the relay operates.
(ii) Under Voltage /under Current /Under Power relay: When
the v Dltageku Power falls below a specified value, then the

relay operatS
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
III
(iii) Directional or Reverse Power Relay : When the applied

current and voltage assume specified phase displacement, then the
relay Operates.
(iv) Directional or Reverse Current Relay :
When the applied
current assumes a specified phase displacement with respect to
applied voltage, then the relay operates,
(v) Differential Relay : When'some specified phase or magni-
tude difference occurs between two or more electrical quantities,
then the relay operates.
(vi) DistanceRelay: In this type, the operation of relay deperd
upon the ratio of voltage to the current.
(c) According to timing characteristics
(i) Instantaneous Relay : In these types, the operation of relays
takes place after a very short duration from the incidence of the
current or other quantity resulting in operation.
(ii) Definite TirneLagRelay: The time of operation is sensibly
independent of the magnitude of the current or of other quantiv
causing operation in these relays.
(w) Inverse Time Lag-Relay : In these types of relays, the time
eioperation is approx. inversely proportional to the magnitude ol
te current or other quantity causing operation.
Description of Relays
1. Attracted Armature Type Relay. One of the most corn-
men type of instantaneous electro-magnetic relays (attracted
armature type) is shown in the fig. below.
I
TRIP
CIRCUIT
The system of an attracted Armature type Relay

Fig. 5.1
The relay described here consists of an electro-magnet and a
Pivoted armature. The armature is balanced by a counter weight
and carries a pair of spring contact at its free end. The armature of
the relay is attracted as soon as the fault or abnormal condition
takes place, s. the stationary contacts attached to the relay frame
:re bridged and trip circuit is completed. The magnet coil is tapped
-9
at intervals and the tapping points are brought out to a number of

terminals or contacts on a plug section bridge, so the number of
turns in use and consequently the setting value at which the relay
operates may be varied.
A definite time lag can be obtained by using an oil dash pot, an
air escapement chamber or a clock work mechanism.
An instantaneous or definite time lag relay works as an inverse
time lag relay when a fuse is place1 in parallel to it.
2. Solenoid Type Relay. This type of relay is used for over
current protection. It consists of a lever which is attracted by the
solenoid, when any fault occurs, the trip circuit is completed.
This type of relay is also an instantaneous type but it can be
converted into a definite time lag or inverse time lag by using an oil
dash pot, an air escapement chamber, a dock work mechanism or
by placing a fuse in parallel with the relay.
System of a Solenoid Type Relay

Fig. 5.2
3. Thermal Relay. It consists of a metallic strip, which i
heated by.the flow of current through the filament. Due to heat, th
TRIP CIRCU.T
RENT
E HEN T
System of a Thermal Relay

Fig. 5.3

PROTECT IVE DEVICES 113
strip expands and it closes the trip circuit for the operation of circuit
breaker. Due to the availability of magnetic relays, the use of
thermal relays have become outdated.
The other type of thermal relay is Buchholz relay. It is used on

all oil immersed transformers having rating more than 750 KVA.
It is used in conjunction with some for-ms of electrically operated
protective gear between the transformer and conservator to give
warning in case of less severe internal faults in oil immersed
transformer and to disconnect theransformer from main supply in
case of severe internal faults. It only protects the transformer from
internal faults and does not respond to external bushing or cable
connection faults.
0
I 0 (1)
- iqik
ii
Or
lit LL
'H ii -
144 i1A
U
if
LU
•lll
I—
c ,
-4
-
c
-cJ
ILU
zt
The construction of Buchholz Rela y is d:scribed below and

shown in the Fig. 5.4. It contains two elements mounted in a small
chnmherlocatc-diri t}-e pipe connection between the conservator and
the transformerol tar.k.When an y minor fault occurs, current leaks
and heat is produced. Due to this heat, some of the oil evaporates
in the transformer tank and some vapours are collected in the top
of the chambe r, wflhie passing to the conservator. When a sufficient
amount of vapour is a accumulated in the top of the chamber, the

oil level falls, the mercury type switch, attached to a float is tilted,
thereby closing the alarm circuit and the bell rings. A release cock
is installed at the top of the chamber so that after operation, the
pressure in the chamber can be released and the gas emitted to allow
the chamber to refill with oil. When any severe fault occurs, large
volume of gas is evolved so that the lower element containing a
mercury switch, fitted on a hinged type flap is tilted and the trip
coil is energized. A test cock is installed at the bottom ofthe chamber
to allow air to be pumped into the chamber for test purposes.
4. Induction type over Current Relay. It gives an inversc
time operation with definite minimum time characteristics. As
shown in the Fig. it corsists of modified mechanism of an a.c. watt
hour meter to give required characteristics. There are two windings
cn the upper electromagnet, one of these is primary and is connected
to the secondary of a current transformer in the line to be protected
and is tapped at intervals. The tappings are connected to a plug
setting bridge by which the number of turns in use can be adjusted,
thereby giving the desired current setting. The second winding is
connected in series with the winding on the lower magnet and is
energized by induction from the primary winding.
r CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
-
UPPER
MAGNET
L_.. . PRIMARY WOG.
ADJUSTABLE
SETTING 77 SEC. WDG.
8PAKE-. ijij- --±J TRIP

MA GNET Co L
ALUM/NUM DISC
SPRING CONTROLLED
LOWER ,4AGNEr
AND WINDING
Internal structure of Induction Type Over Current Relay

Fig. 5.5
The fluxes produced by the primary and secondary windings
are separated in phase and space and a rotational torque is set up
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
115
on the aluminium disc suspended between the two magnets. This

torque is controlled by a special sprini and also by a permanent
magnet brake on the disc. The disc spindle carries a moving contact
which bridges two fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through
an angle which can be adjusted to any value between 0 and 360
degrees. The relay can be given any desired time setting by the
adjustment of angle. Since the torque increases with the current,
therefore, the relay has an inverse tirre characteristic.
In recent designs, the definite minimum time characteristic is
obtained by saturating the iron in the upper electromagnet so that
there is practically no increase in flux after the current has reached
a certain value.
5. Induction Type Reverse Power Relay. As shown in the
Fig., a reverse power relay can be obtained by having a winding on
the middle limb of the upper magnet, energising it from a potential
transformer (P.T.), a separate winding on the two limbs of lower
magnet and energising it from current transformer (C.T.). The
system is just like an energy meter and direction of torque depends
on the direction of flow of energy, When the power flows in a circuit
in the reversed direction, the relay can be used to close trip circuit
contacts. The relay can be made more sensitive by introducing a
very light control spring so that a very small reversal of power
should cause the relay to operate. This relay is very suitable for
parallel feeder protection.
UPPER MAGNET
TA GE
TRIP
BRAKE.
MAGNET
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
LOWER MAGNET ij SEC. WDG.
Internal structure of Induction Type Reverse Power Relay.
Fig. 5.6
6. Induction Type Directional Over Current Relay. This
type ofrelay consists of induction type relays, one of which is simple
over current relay and the other is reverse power relay, both fitted
in one case. Their contacts are connected in series so that the trip
circuit is not energized unless both operate i.e. when the current is
more than the set limit and at the same time direction of power flow
is also reversed.
7. Impedance or Distance Relay (Induction Type). This
relay is similar to induction type over current relay in construction
except that there are two magnet systems, one on each side of the
disc. The over current relay operates only due to current but in
induction type impedance relay, one additional magnet system,
operated by voltage is provided such that under normal working
conditions, torque exerted by voltage operated magnet system-is
grater than that exerted by current operated magnet system and
the trip circuit remains open. In case of occuring any fault, current
becomes excessive and hence the torque exerted by the current
operated system overcome that of the voltage operated system Lind
thus the trip circuit is closed.
. Impedance Time Relay. In this type of relay, the current
drives a disc round by induction and a spring is wound up. This
spring tends to close the trip circuit contacts but is opposed by an
armature attached to the spindle and attracted by a coil carrying
curr.nt due to line voltage. Under normal working conditions, the
force exerted by armature is more than that of the induction elernnt
vnd thus the trip circuit contacts remain open. When any fault
occurs, the induction element, operated by current exerts greater
torque tha that of the armature and thus there is a tendency of
cli- ig of trip circuit contacts. When the disc starts rotating, spring
is wound u p and when the spring is sufficiently wound u p , the
armature leaves the voltage coil and the trip circuitis closed at once.
FUSES
Introduction and Importance

Fuse is the safety valve and the weakest part of the electrical
system. It consists of a small link of soft metal which melts when
excessive current passes through it. The fuse wires are usually bare
wires and are made of lead and tin. Lead alloy for small current and
tinned copper wire issued for large current. Upto 3 amperes load,
lead fuse wires are used, upto 15 amperes alloy of lead and tin is
used and above 15 amperes, tinned copper wires are used.
If a short circuit occurs anywhere in the wiring system, an
excessive current flows through the wires and fuse and if the fuse
operates properly, it will melt, cutting off the current before any
PROTECTIVE DEVICES 117
harm can be done. If the fuse fails to operate, the wire may become
hot enough to ignite the insulation, possibly causing a fire and it
may harm the appliances and fittings connected in the circuit.
Fuses have a second function. Besides protecting in the case of
short circuit, they protect in the case of overload. If too i.a'y
appliances are connected to one circuit, more current will flow
through the supply wires than the wires were meant to carry and
will cause the wires to be burnt and appliances, accessories con-
nected to circuits will be.also damaged. In such case, the fuse, if
properly selected, will melt or blow, thus protecting the wires,
appliances, accessories etc.
Principle of Operation of Fuse. The operation of fuse
depends upon the heating effect of an electric current. When the
electric current is increased in a circuit due to short circuits or over
loads, it increases the rate of heat generation which will increase
the temperature of the fuse wire and thereby the rate of heat dis-
sipation increases from the exposed surface of the fusevire. The
final .temperature reaches to such stage that the heat generation
wiil be oival to the rate of heat dissipation. If this temperature
happns to ne above the melting point of the material of iue wire,
fuse n. ust have operated.
SeIcetion of Fuse Wire. To selecc the proper fuse wire to he
insorted in a circuit two factors viz (a) maximum current rating of
the circuit and (b) current rating of the smallest size of wire or
accessories is to be seen, the fuse wire inserted should he of size so
that whan the current with reference to factors a) and (b) is
increased, it should blow out.
The tpe of wire to he selected to use as a fuse wire deer:ds
upon the ty p e of load connected to the circuits i.e. stead load and
fluctuating loads. The stead load covers the heating loads and the
fluctuating load consists of motor, capacitor and transformer loads.
all ofwhich take transient over current when they are stitched into
the circuit. In steady load circuits, the fuse forms only the protection
part of the circuit. Therefore, the fuse rating should be equal to or
next greaterthan the ratings of the smallest cable used in the circuit.
But if a number of fuse wires are run in parallel to augment the
ratin6, of fuse, total rating should not be equal to the product of
rating of one strand and number of strands used. In fluctuating load
circuits, fuse should have current time characteristics such as to
allow the short time over current to flow without blowing. For this,
it is necessary to select fuses of rated current greater than that of
the cable of the circuit. In motor circuit, fuse is rated for short circuit
118 WIRING, E MIMATING AND COSTING
and not for over current nro which is looke l af cer

current protection provided in the sta rter. On the other hand, the
over current protection is not suitable forclearingheavy short circuit
current. As at th .Larting the motors, very heavy current
is to be handled, so the fuse must be of sufficient size to carry these
current, over long period and as such these are rated at twice the
full load current of motor. The three phase motors which have
protracted starting period or are driving heavy inertia loads, it is
necessary to select fuses of required current time characteristics. In
three phase motors, all the fuses used on the three phases should
be the same rating otherwise it would have single phasing trouble.
For other type of fluctuating load circuit using capacitors,
fluorescent lighting, battery charger, transformers etc., the fuses to
be used must be of 50% more than rated current.
The fuse wire should always be inserted in live wire or phase
of the circuit, or otherwise even if the fuse blows out, the faulty
circuit will be fed and would cause considerable damage in case of
leakage fault.
Melting Points of Various Metals.
Table 5.1 gives melting point of various metals.
Table 5.1

Metal Melting Point in
Aluminium 671.5
Antimony 428.5
Copper
1092.5
Lead 329
Silver 999
Tin 239.5
Zinc 419.20
Silver as a Fusing Element. It has been determined prac-

tically that silver is quite satisfactory material for fuse wires as it
is not subjected to oxidization since its oxide is unstable. There is
no deterioration of the material when used in dry air, and it remains
bright. But when the air is moist and contains hydrogen sulphide,
the silver surface is attacked ; a layer of silver sulphide is formed
at the top which shields the metal from further attack. The only
drawback in its use as a fuse wire is that it is costlier.
Either copper or lead-tin alloy is mostly used as an ordinary
fuse wire.
PROTECTiVE DEVICES 119
Copper as Fuse Wire. Table 5.2 gives the fusing current of

copper in air.
Table 5.2
Diameter of Equivalent Fusing Maximum

Wire in S. IV. G. Current Safe Working Remarks
mm Size Amps. Current Amps.
0.2336 34 8.6 4.3 The length
- of fuse wire up
0.254 33 9.8 4.9 to 0.4572 mm
dia. must be
0.2736 32 11.0 5.5 between 63.5
mm to 90.0 mm,
0.3149 30 13.5 6.8 but for large
dia. wires the
0.3759 28 17 8.6 length must not
be less than 100
0.4572 26 22 11 mm.
0.5588 24 30 15
0.7112 22 41 21
0.9143 20 62 31
1.016 19 73 37
1.219 18 98 49
1.422 17 125 63
1.828 15 191 96
2.032 14 229 115
Lead-tin Alloy as Fuse Wire. Mostly for small value of cur-

rents lead-tin alloy has been used in the past. The tin content varies
from 2 per cent and above. The main objection for the lead-tin alloys
is that these alloys being soft, they are apt to spread under pressure.
The most preferred lead-tin alloy for a fuse element contains 37 per
cent lead and 63 per cent tin. Such an alloy is known as euectic alloy
and is preferred due to the following reasons
1. It has the highest brinnel hardness in all the lead-tin alloy
series and hence there is less tendency to spread over.
2. The material is quite homogeneous.
3. If the fusing characteristic of eutectic alloy and other

composition of alloys is studied, there is only one arrest point in
eutectic alloy as compared to two in other type of alloys.
Table 5.3
DiameterEquivalent Fusing MaximUm
of Wire - size Current Safe Remarks
mm IS Amps. Current
0.508 25 2.0 The maximum length

0.5588 24 3.5 2.3 of wire used must be
0.6095 23 4 2.6 63.5 mm to 90.0 mm
0.7112 22 5 3.3
0.8128 21 6 4.1
0.9143 20 7 4.8
1.219 18 10 7.0
1.626 16 16 11.0
Table 5.3 gives the approximate fusingcurrents of lead-tin alloy
in air (lead 75 per cent, tin 25 pe r cent).
The values of current given in the above tables will be true only
when the fuse wi re çasses through asbestos tube and does not come
in contact with it. When the fuse wire comes in contact with por-
ceain, the value effusing current increases.
Generall y for rupturing small values of current, the fuse wire
used is of lead-tin alloy, because the fusing current for such a type
of fuse wife is about 50 per cent over load. For heavy currents
lead-tin alloy is not used since the diameter of the wire used will be
large and after fusing the metal, released wilibe excessive. Lead-tin
ahoy fuse wires are not used beyond 10 ampere range, for which
copper wires are suitable.
Note When a fuse blows, some t hing is wrong, either a cord or
an appliance is defective or there are too many appliances connected
at the same time on one circuit. Find the trouble and correct it,
otherwise when the blown fuse is replaced, the new one will also
blow out immediately. Before replacing a bown fuse, remove the
appliances from the circuit involved. It is usually advisable to open
the main switch before changing fuses. Never, at any time insert a
fuse ofgreater current carrying capacity than the wires ofthe circuit
can safely carry.
Types of Fuses and Their Description

Fuses can be built in various forms but the most common types
are described below:
1-The Ordinary Fuse. The ordinary or single link fuse is

simply a strip of metal, usually lead. The strip of metal, called the
fuselink, is the part of the fuse through which electricity flows. This
metals when more electricity flows and breaks the connection and
stops the flow of electricity.
2. The Screw-Plug-Type Fuse. It is used on electric

machinery circuits of 220 volts. This type of fuse can be had in sizes
from 3 to 30 amperes and is constructed with either a porcelain or
glass body which encloses the fuse link.
3. A Knife Blade Cartridge Fuse. This type of fuse is used
mostly on heavy power lines of 60 to 600 amperes and 250 volts and
more. They are constructed with a heavy fibre body, fitted with brass
ferrules at each end and a heavy copper blade for making contact
with the circuit. The fuse link can easily be renewed by removing
the end ferrules and inserting the new link.
4. The Ferrule Type Cartridge Fuse. This type of fuses are

of two types—the renewal or non-renewal. The renewal type ha -
a small screw plug in each end whica can be renewed and he new
link is inserted. The o3y part of this fuse is made of fibre with
brass ferrules fasten 3 t.,, each end and can be had in sizes up to
100 amperes and 250 volts.
Type Fuse trdge Fuse with

Fuse Link
Fig. 5.7. Types of Fuses.
I!
1. Ordinary Fuse 2. Screw Plug 3. Knife blade Car- 4. Ferrule-Type
Cartridge Fuse
with Fuse Link

122
WIRING, ESTLMA'FTJ..G AND COSTING
RENEWAL
FUSE BODY
BASE
SOLDER
..EPMAL
cUT' u/CF
LINK
5. The Renewal Type Cartridge 6. Time Delay Fuse
Fuse
Fig. 5.7. Types of Fuses.
5. H.R.C. (High Rupturing Capacity) Cartridge Fuses. These
are used where the high power is supplied. These have a definite
known breaking capacity and a high value.
6. Time Delay Fuse. It is a fuse which has the ability to carry
overload currents of short duration without melting. The heavier
the overload, the less is the time required for the fuse to 'Blow". In
most circuits where the starting currents are high but of short
duration, this type of fuse need not have as high rating as an ordi-
nary fuse to permit the motor to be started. Like the common fuse
the time delay fuse is also made in plug and cartridge types.
Disadvantages of Ordinary Fuses
- Rewirable /ordinary fuses suffer from the following disadvan-
tages
(a) Unreliable operation. It is due to
(i) Oxidation of fuse wire and consequent thinning of wire
section with lapse of time.
(ii) Loose connection causes the local heating.
(iii) Heat radiating devices used in the circuit.
(iv) Single phasing of three phase induction motors when one
of the fuse in blown off.
(b) Lack of discrimination. : On account of unreliable opera-
tion, discrimination can not be ensured always.
(c) Small Time.Lag . On account of small time lag, these type
of fuses can blow will large transient currents when three phase
motors, transformers, capacitors and fluorescentlights etc. are used
in the circuit.
(d) Misuse Sometimes the proper rated wire for the fuse
element is not available and any other piece of wire is used for the
fuse element to solve the purpose which is against the I.S. rules of
electricity.
(e) Low Rupturing Capacity The use of rewirable fuse is
limited to 4 RA in faulty circuit.
Advantages of Rewirable Fuse

Advantages
1. It is the cheapest form of operation.
2. It affords current limiting effect under short circuit con-
ditions due to cut off.
3. It requires minimum time to replace.
4. It requires no maintenance.
5. It has current limtir.g effect.
Advantages of H.TLC. Fuses

1. They are simple and have easy installation.
. They are cheaper as compared vith cther type of circuit
interrupter of the same breaking capacity. They have high breaking
capacity.
3. They do not require any maintenance.
4. Their operation is quick and sure.
5. They have inverse time current characteristic.
6. They do not deteriorate with time.
7. They are quite reliable and can be selected for proper
discrimination.
S. They are capable of clearing high as well as low currents.
9. They have closer control on sustained overloads due to low
fusing factor and the time lag feature.
10. They have current limitation by 'cutoff' property.
Disadvantages of H.R.C. Fuses

1. After each operation, its replacement is required.
2. interlocking is not possible in these types of fuses.
3. They lack relays in complete discrimination.

124
WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
TABLE 5.4
Fuse Wire Table for Tinned Copper Wires
Current Rating in App. Fusing
S.W.G. Amperes Current
in Amperes I
37 3.5
35 5.0
6.0 10
32 7.0
31 11
8.0 12
30 I 8.5
29 13
10.0 16
28 12.0
27 18
13.0 23
26 14.0
25 28
15.0 30
24 17.0
23
33
20.0 38
22 24.0
21 48
29.0 58
20 34.0
19 70
38.0 81
IS 45.0
17 106.
65.0 135
16 1
j 73.0 166
15 1
78.0 197
-----
Fuse Holders. The fuse
the following points; holders are designed, keeping in view
Ii) Ir1u!atjon and separion of the terminals;
(ii) Securjy against fire:

/ kj\
(ii1
c / )
Ease of replacement_This requirement
\T\

so i mportant when the working volta
FL- / /
i. n3t
dc not exceed ioo Volts. ge
Farmcrly fuse holders used to be made in a

• vancty of pater Fig. 5.8 shows a t
3RASS (cy ype of fuse
Pig. 5.8. holder which was being used in the plate. :
consist of a porcelain base with Lwo brass
connecting plates. Between the two brass
contts is connected a fuse wire, and also in
PP.OiV j - 25
between them is a porcelain portion P which helps in suppression

of forming an arcbetween the two contacts.
This type of fuse holder is, although useful from the protection
point of view, has the following disadvantages
(i) For replacement of fuse wire, the worker has to touch the
live mains or the main switch mustbe opened for such replacements.
(ii) On occasions when the fuse is blown off there is an appre-
ciable arcing which will take place on the screws, holding the fuse
wire, thus damaging it. After two or three such arcing, the fuse unit
will become unusable and will have to be replaced.
In order to overcome this difficulty, fuse holders were designed
across two knife contact and these contacts clip into fixed contacts
on a porcelain base. Fig. 5.9 shows such an arrangement which is
its simplest form and was used in early days. The greatest
advantage of such an arrangement is that the holder can be isolated
fiom the fuse base for replacement of fuse wire or to interrupt the
circuit. By continuous use, if the holder is damaged, it can irrrme-
diately be replaced without handling the wires etc.
Fuse holders
Fig. 59.
Many useful designs of fuse have been now developed whose
uses depend upon the naure of work. In practice two types of fuses
mostly used are
(i) Semi-enclosed fuse.
(ii) Totally enclosed or cartridge fuse.
(i) Semi-enclosed fuse. In this type of fuses the fuse element
is neither kept in free air nor it is totally enclosed. Forhousehold
installations mostly such type of fuses are used. Fig. 5.9 shows the
semi-enclosed fuse. The advantage of semi-enclosed fuse is that the
fuse wire used is of shorter length. The shorter length increases the
minimum fusing current. The short length of fuse wire may be
enclosed in an asbestos tube. The added advantage of such enclosure
126 Wm!N, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
is that the temperature d i stribution along the length of the fuse

wire becomes quite uniform in the centre.
The following terms are mostly used in connection with fuse
holders
(a) Fuse Link. It is that part of fuse which consists of fuse
element and cartridge or other container and is capable of either
being attached to contacts or is fitted with contacts as an integral
part of it.
(b) Fuse Carrier. It is a removable holder which carries the
fuse links.
(c) Carrier Contact. It is a contact which engages with fixed
contacts and is capable of having a fuse link attached t it.
(d) Fuse Base. It is that part of fuse which carries the fixed
contacts.
(e) Fixed Contacts. These contacts engage with carrier contact
and are connected to fixed terminal.
(ii) Totally enclosed fuse. It is a
totally enclosed form of fuse. In this , the I
fuse element is placed in an insulating
container called the cartridge. Generally
the cartridge is in the form of tube and
it.-, enj are enclosed with metallic caps as Totally enclosed fuse
shown in Fig. 5.10. Fig. 5.10
Gi.rily thecartridge fuse containing the fuse element is filled
w i th t . ;o der or granular material called the filler. The filler used
Tripple pole iron clad switch show- Iron clad cutout showing semi
ir.g semi enclosed knife carrier and
enclosed knife fuse carrier and
holder fuse. holder.
() (b)
Fig. 5.11.
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
127
expresses the inection and rL r iatin l3s from the fuse element.
There are various types of materials used as filler. Formerly sand
was used, because sand is useful for quenching etc. but the main
drawback in us use of its thermal expansion which causes cracks
in cartridge. The other material used as filler may be calcium car-
bonate ; but it evolves gas when heated. Generally quartz is used
as filler as it is chemically stable. The use of filler increases the
minimum fusing current.
In practice the open fuse holders are not used ; unless they are
provided with some protection. Usually iron clad knife fuse as shown
in Fig. 5.11 is used. The porcelain fuses are fitted into the iron box.
Terms generally used.
The following are the definitions of a few terms mostly used in
the study of fuses
1. Fuse, as defined earlier, is a device used for protecting the
cable in a circuit against damage from an excessive current. Fuse
is a term used in general to represent all parts of the device.
2. Fuse clement or fuse wire. It is that part of the fuse which
melts when an excessive currentflows in thecircujt and thus isolates
the device from the supply mains.
3. Minimum fusing current. It is that minimum value of
current of which the fuse element melts
4. Current rating of fusing element. It is that value of
current which the fusing element can normally carry without
melting. Its value is less than the minimum fusing current.
5. Fusing factor.The ratio of minimum fusing current and the
current rating of fusing element.
or Fusing fuctr Minimum

Minimum fusin,rcLrrofl!
raunsn ecncnt
Its value is ways more than 1.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
I. \V}'.at is the importance of protective devices in an electrical

Circuit?
2. \Vhatare th€. main features ofgood protective devices and explain
a . ut them?
3. How would define a protective relay?
-10 you
4. What are the types of relays according to construction and

principle of operation and explain about them?
5. State the types of relays according to applications and timing
characteristics.
6. Describe the attracted armature type relay and draw the din-
gram.
7. Explain about the solenoid type relay and draw the figure.
S. Describe about two types of thermal relays and draw the figures.
9. Explain about the Induction type over current relay and draw
the figure.
10. Describe about the Induction type Reverse Power relay and draw
the figure.
ii. Explain about the following:
(a) Induction type directional over current relay.
(b) Distance Relay.
(c) Impedance time relay.
12. What is the importance of fuse in an electrical circuit?
13. Explain about the principle of operation of fuse.
14. What the factors on which selection of a fuse wire depends?
15. What are types of fuss? Explain about them and draw the fig-
ures.
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an ordinary
rewirable fuse and H.R.C. fuses?
17. Write short notes on (a) Fuse, (b) Fuse element, (c) Minimum
fusing current, (d) fusing factor.
18. What are the various types of metals used for making fuse ele-
ments?
19. What is the difference between fusing current and maximum safe
current or the current rating?
20. Explain with diagram the construction and function of fuse
holder.
21. According to the I.E. Rules a cut-out (fuse) shall not be placed in
the earthed netural conductor of two-wire system. Discuss the reason to
justify the rule.
IsJ
Illumination-(Lamps, Discharge.
Lamps and Fluorescent Lamps)
1. Introduction. 2. Nature of Light. 3. Colour. 4.

Relative Sensitivity. 5.Radiant
efficiency. 6. Definitions. 7. Laws offliumination. 8. Lamberta'cosifle Law. 9. Design
of Lighting Scheme. 10. Illumination Required for Various Purposes.14. H. Lighting
Schemes. 12. Types of Electric Lamp. 13. Incandescent Vacuum Lamp. Gas-filled
incandescent Lamp. 15. Characteristics of Incandescent Lamp.Low Pressure Principle
16. Working
Mercury
of Electric Discharge Lamp. 17. Sodium Discharge Lamp. 18. 20. Neon Lamp. 21.
Discharge Lamp. 19. Mercury Fluoresent I.amp (Low Pressure).
High Pressure Mercury Vipour Lamp.
Introduction. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was

not possible to do daytime work after sunset, due to lack of adequate
light. During those days, crude system of lighting was used but
during the middle of the 19th century, a gas mantle was used as
source of light. In the year 1900, the electric filament lamps came
into the field as a source of light and they proved to be the best
competitor to gas as a source of light. The electric lamps are pre-
ferred to other sources of illumination for reasons of cleanliness,
convenience, steady light output and reliability.
Due to proper sources of good illumination much advancement
has been made in the sphere of industrialization of countries as it
has reduced the differences between day and night. Every work
which can be done in daylight, can equally be done during night
time with same efficiency. Too bright lights may not be confused
as good illumination because it may cause viewing a bit painful. The
best illumination is that which produces no strain on the eyes.
2. Nature of Light. Light is a form of energy which is
radiated by bodies whose temperatures are increased. The main
source of light is sun which gives out energy in the form of heat and
light at a very high rate (of the order fifty thousand million billion
horse power); but only a fraction of it reaches the earth (250 billion
h.p.). Of the total energy received on earth only 40 per cent is in
the form a light. The energy reaches earth in a very peculiar way.
The energy trnsmitted by the sun is received without.heating o
11W
lighting the space in between and w i t hout an obviuus tanmt)ng

agency such as copper c onductors in case of electrical energy. The
energy is released only when it strikes solid object. The energy
radiated in such a fashion is called 08 radiant energy. An example
of it is a room heater, in which case the heat is felt at a d istance from
the radiator. The radiant energy is necessarily a wave motion
propagated in an other medium in a manner similar to that of an
electromagnetic wave. The velocity of p ropagation in a medium is
2.99776
x 10 nilsec. or say 3 x 10 mlsec. which is constant, but the
wavelength is different. If some obstacle comes in the way of radiant
energy, either-the energy is reflected or observed by it. If the energy
is absorbed then the light energy is converted into heat.
All this has been said about natural source ; but for the treat-
ment of the subject are concerned with the light which is obtained
from the incandescent body which is at a higher temperature than
the surrounding medium radiates out energy into the medium. At
low temperatures the radiation is only in the form of heat waves
but as it becomes red hot it emits light waves in addition to heat
waves. At low temperatures, the wavelength is comparatively larger
than the wavelengths at high temperatures.
At about 300°C the energy emitted has wavelength of 85 x 10m;
at about 800°C (when it is said to be red hot) the wavelength of
radiation is of the order ofo.9 x 10m; at temperatures about 3000°C
(temperature at which incandescent lamps work) the wavelength of
radiation is of the order Of 0.4 >-10to0.7x10 m
6 Actually the
radiation is amixture of different wavelengths. The whole of the
energy radiated out is not useful for illumination purpose. Radi-
ations of very short wavelengths of range of 0.000015 x 106 m to
0.001 x 10' in are not in the visible range and are called as Rontgen
or X-ray's which have the very useful property ofpenetratjngopaque
bodies.
There is a definite relation betweer wavelength (X) and the
frequency (/).
i.e., Wavelength x Frequency = Velocity of propagation
fx),. r3x1OnVs
The wavelength is not usually represented in era/sec., but is
usually represented in the following two units:
(l)Micron : (2) Angstrom (A°) so that
1 micron = 10' metres (6.2)
I A 0 cm
.(63)
ILLUMINATION
131
3. Colour. Let the enery radiated by the heated body be

monoc} romatjc i.e. radiation of only one wavelength, then the colour
of the radiation is as shown in the Table 6.1.
• Table 6.1
Colours of Radiation
Wavelength in A* Colour
4000 Violet
4750 Blue
5500 Green
6000 Yellow
7000 Red
4. Relative Sensitivity. The wavelength which can produce
the sensation of sight lies between 4000 A° and 7500 A°. The sen-
sitivity of the eye to lights of different wavelengths varies from
person to person and according to age. Fig. 6.1 shows an average
relative sensitivity according to which sensitivity decreases for
lesser and more wavelengths. The eye is most sensitive for a
wavelength of 5500 A° and relative sensitivity according to this
wavelength is taken as unity. The ratio of visual sensation at any
wavelength to sensation at 5500 A° is called as relative senitivitv,
the colour corresponding to wavelength 5500 A° is yellowish green,
which is not suitable for most purposes. The relative sensitivity for
any wavelength is also called as Relative Luminosity Factor
(KX).
I
WAVE uwry
Relative Sensitivity
Fig. 6.1
5. Radiant Efficiency. It has been said that when a body is
heated, its temperature increases, and it radiates out energy. The
whole of the energy radiated is not in the form oflight, i.e. producing

132 WIRING, ESTrMATING AND COSTING
sensation of vision ;but it radiates out energy in the form of waves

too.
Radiant efficiency =Energy radiated in the form of light

Toth] energy radiated by the body
Definitions. (i) Light. It may be defined as that radiant energy

which produces a sensation of vision upon the human eye.
(ii) Luminous Flux. It is defined as the light energy radiatec,
per second from a luminous body. Say. for example, the luminous
body is an incandescent lamp. The whole of the electrical power
supplied to the lamp is not changed into luminous flux ; some of the
power is lost by heat conduction, heat convection and absorption.
Of the remaining radiant flux, only a fraction of it lies in between
the visual range of wavelength, i.e. between 4000 A° and 7000 A°Fig.
6.2 shows the representation by a flux diagram.
LLl4%a,5 FLL
PY,VERA 5
RADUNT __,. P4Ra5rA5
-, , . M,,lvrnNous Fwr
ELECTRICAL P(7WER LOST BY

FtW7? INP(JT __... t770'V Eec.
Flux diagram
Pig. 6.2
• •. from point source

'Fable 6.2
Tungsten Limps Fluorescent La
Pouer Luminous Efficierw Input inI Length
Luminous I YE cient
input Flux in y Lumens watts in cn.
in Fi Lumens
watts Lumens, per waft
Lumens. app.
10 80 8 4 15.25 75 18.75
40 460 11.5 8 30.5
60 325 40.53
840 14.0 20 61.0
100 1630 950 47,5
1.3 91.5 1500
200 3660 18.3 50.0
1 40 122.0 2300 57.5
500 9950 19.9 100 152.5 4400 44.0
133
ILLUMINATION
Table 6.2 gives the approximate overhaul efficiency of incan-

descent tungsten filament lamp and fluorescent lamps.
(iii) Luminous Intensity. Consider a point source of light 0.
Let dF be the luminous flux crossing any section of a narrow cone
of solid angle* dw steradians. The apex of the cone so formed is at
the source. Then the Luminous intensity in the direction of the cone
it maybe defined as
is the ratio offlui dF to the solid angle, dw or
the flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle. If luminous
intensity is represented by I
(iv) Lumen. It is a unit of fluxand is d e fi ned as the luminous

flux per unit solid angle from a source of 1 candle power.
Therefore total flux emitted by the source of 1 C.P. is 4ic lumens.
Cu) Illuminance or illumination or degree of illumina-
tion. When the light falls on a surface it is illuminated, the illu-
minance is defined as the luminous flux received per unit area. Let
the incident luminous flux on a small area cL4 be dF, then
Illumination = -
dF
dA
If the area is in square feet, then the unit of illuminatict is
lumens per sq. foot or foot-candle. If the area is in metres the unit
is lumens per square metre.
*The point source radiates out energy in all
directions. With this point source as centre, and
with any distance R as radius, imagine a spherical
surface Lobe construeted.The lines ofliux willcress
an area A forming a cone. The steradian is a
measure of solid angle o which is defined as the
ratio
A
()
Since surface area of the sphere is 4R 1, the

total solid angle subtended by the point is
4t- -
R3 Fig. 6.4
13-1
/NC/EVT
Representation of luminous flux or. an area

Fig. 6.5
(ti) Mean Horizontal Candle Power.
The mean horizontal
candle power of a source of light is the mean of the candle power in
a horizontal plane in all directions.
(tii) Mean Spherical Candle Power. It is the mean ofC.P. of
a source oflight in all directions within the hemisphere either above
the horizontal plane or below the horizontal plane
Reduction Factor.
Mean s p herical candle poer

RtIutor :ucLor = ---------.- - ---
Mean harizonhi candle rxm cr .
s caded as the reduction factor of the source of lighL.
(tx) Foot candle. It is a unit ofillumination and maybe defined

as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 ft at the
centre of which there is a source ofj.C.p
(x) Lux. It is mere candle and is defined as the illumination of
the inside of the sphere of radius 1 metre at the centre of which
there is a source of I.C.P.
I metre = 3.28 ft.

... (6.8)
I ft -c = (3.28)2 x
= 1076 lux .. .(6.9)

or I lax = -
= 0.093 ft.-c. . (6.10)

- .
Ln the illumination is Inversely p pOional to the q uart, of the distance

135
I1,LIJM1NATION
Nit. It is an M.KS. unit of illuminance as of degree of

(xi)
il1umiP.ti0fl at th surface and is defined as illumination of one
candle per square metre.
Stub. It is a bigger M.K..S. unit of illuminanCe and is equal
(xii)
to illumination of one candle per square centimetre.
Brightness It is defined as the flux emitted per unit area
(xiii)
of the source in a direction perpendicular to the surface.
Brightness is a term which may be applied either for emission
of light directly from the source of light covering a large area such
as an incandescent lamp in a globe or for an installation used for
seen, in which
production of certain illumination on the object tobe
case actually the light reflected by the object reaches our eyes, such
as the light from a cinema screen.
- Fig. 6.6
be 1 lumens per
Let the illuminous intnsity in direction OP
steradian on an area A, the projected area ,ill then be A cosO.
... ( 6.11)
or brighflCS5B = A cos .0
brightness is candles per sq. metre or ca

The unit of
since 1 candle gives I urit solid angle.
since
lambert (ft.-L) and
Another unit of brightness known as toot
is defined as brightness of an area emitting or reflectingliglitat the
rate of 1 lumen per sq. foot.
...6.12)
one candle/ft2 ... ft.L.
Law of Illumination. It is defined as
The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
the distance oft he surface from the source of light. It is true
square of
only if the source is point source.
136
6. Quantity of Light to b;Obtained from Various Devices.

Luminous flux— lumen (unit)
Bicycle Lamp 10 Im.
Incandescent lamp of 150 w 1940 Im.
Flouresent lamp of 40w 3000 Im.
Sodium Lamp of 200 w 30000 Im.
Mercury Vapour lamp 100 w 52000 Irn.
Luminous Intens jy-_candela (unit)
Bicycle lamp, straight ahead (without reflector)-1 cd.
Bicycle lamp, straight ahead (with reflector)—_250 cd.
Light House light, centre of beam 20,00,000 cd.
Illumination—Lux (unit)
Summer, midday (Cloudless sky) —100,000 lux.
Winter, midday 10,000 lux.
Summer, midday under balcony 2000-5000 lux.
Summer, behind a window 1000-3000 lux.
Sun rise & Sun set 500 lux.
Full moon & bright sky 0.25 lux.
Living room table under good 200 lux.
artificial lighting
Office with good artificial lightingl000 lux.
Luminance -_cdJm2 (unit)
Sun - 16.5 cd/rn2
Moon - 0.25 x 10 cd/rn2
Incandescent lamp - 0.7 cd/rn2
Flourescent Lamp 8.0 cd/rn2
(lateral direction)
Flourescent Lamp 0.5 cd/rn2
(longitudinal dirction)
7. Lambert's Cosine Law. According to this law the illumi-
nation of a surface at any point is dependent upon the cosine of the
angle between the line of flux and the normal at that point.
Let F be the total light flux falling on the area.
Thus in Fig. 6.7 (a) the angle between normal to the surface and
line of flux is zero.
Intensity of illumination F
Area ABCD
in Fig. 6.7 (b), the angle between them is 0.
F
Intensity of illumination abcd Cos 0. ...(6.13)
Area —

137
ILLUMINATION
T
L/N(FWX
--,-
(a) (b)
Lambert's cosine law

Fig. 6.7
In view of article 7 Eq.6.12 can be rewritten as
intensity of illumination = —i--- .. .(6.13)
8. Design of Lighting Scheme. For designing a lighting

scheme the following factors should be taken into account:
(i) Space-height ratio. It is defined as the ratio of horizontal
distance between lamps and the mounting height of the lamps, or
Space-height ratio
- The horizontal distance between (6.14)
- Mounting height of lamps
In order to have a uniform illumination which can be only with
reflectors, it is necessary that the value of this should be properly
chosen. When reflectors are used, the value of this ratio is given as
between 1 and 2. The height of the source should be between 2.2 in
to 2.45 in from the ground level.
(ii) Utilization factor. The total light flux radiated out by the
source is not utilized on the working planes and its value is given
as
Utilization factor
Total lumens utilised on working planes (6.15)
- Total lumens radiated by lamp
The value of this co-efficient depends upon the following con-
ditions
(a) the area to be illuminated;
(b) height at which the lamps are fitted;
138
WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
(c) the colour of sur rounding walls, ceiling fittings etc.;

(d) the type of lightir i.
— direct or indirect.
The value for direct light varies from 0.25 to 0.5 while its value
for indirect lighL varies from C.1 to 0.3.
(iii) Dep
reciation factor. When the lamps are covered with
dust, dirt and smoke, they do not radiate out same amount of flux
as when they do at the time of fitting new lamps.
Similarly, after some time the walls and
s urrounding in which
lamps are fitted are covered with dirt and dust, so they do not reflect
the same amo
unt of light as compared with the initial conditions
The depreciation factor takes into account all such loss of flux.
Thus depreciation factor
= Illumination Linder nefl..o..k. con d it i ons

lliumnion when everything is ricaa
Its average value O..
The depreciation factor is also givea s
= lilumilIation when-------
cvcrythjn - -- - ...
l rnnation under n ouna, workinc (6.17)
In this case, the value o
fdepreeitjen factor is more than 1 and
its value is 1.3 to 1.4. Table 6.3 indicates the light reflected from
various coloured surroundirigs
Table 6,3
Colour s urfc cc
Ltght reflected in percentage
Light Whit2
Light Cream 81%
69% to 75%
Light Green
65%
Light Grey
58%
Medium Gray
55%
Dark Tan
46%
Dark Grey
25%
Dark Olive Green 15%
Dark Red
12%
Natural
23%
Total lumens required The total gross lumens Output
Area (sq. ft.) x 1Ilurnj na1on (It. candles)
Co-efficient of utilization x Dcpxeciaj,on (6.18)
(for vaj ucs less than 1)
Also
= .-\rca (Sc fi) ,< l''m I f M Dep. factor (for values flre than l
Co-cffjeient of utilization ..(6.19)
ILLU'MNATION 139
9. Illumination required for various purposes:

The illumination required is given in Table 6.4 and 6.5
Schemes. If the light from the source falls on
Poi;' aetallic surfaces, the light is reflected back. According
to laws of reflection, the angle of reflection is equal to angle of
incidence. This is very good as far as illumination is concerned but
only drawback is that it produces glare on the eyes.
If the light from the source falls on coarse surface like painted
ceilings, frosted glass and paper, the light is diffused in all directions
and no glare or image is formed. This method is used for internal'
or external lighting. Following types of lighting schemes can be
incorporated in any construction:
(1) Direct lighting. In this type, the light directly falls from the
source i.e. lamps. The shades or globes are provided to cover the
source from the line of vision. Such type of arrangement is shown
in Fig. 6.8. Direct lighting is very efficient but it causes shadows
.1
.-V.
AN
(0) (b)
(c)
Direct.lighting schemes
Fig. 6.8

A4u WING, E STIMATING AND COSTING
-
'-•: • ol
C
C.?
as
-a
-1
C
c..
cv
CI) —0
000
C.-- 000
E
- C
g O.c•. 0
U,
I.-
C.?
III
ba
8 >4
0
0
to C. ca to -
.,j '.. -
c! *
- 4
cz
—
a 000
.$ECI) 0 - )..
C a .....
0 I >4>4>4.
to >4 000
m co
:
C.) .-
-
E I-
88 -I
C.) 0
. C 0
E c
00000 .
0 0 0 00
C- C'l C
E at ca cj
CI)
cZ-- C)
,cI:1<
cZ
E
c_S -a
141
ILLUMINATION
and glare. The correct and un iform light in a room is obtained by

correctly locating the lamps at different places.
(2) Indirect lighting. As the name implies, in this case the light
does not reach the surface directly. it, this case maximum light is
thrown towards the ceiling from where it is diverted to the room
through diffuse reflection. The indirect lighting is suitable specially
for drawing offices, workshops where shadowless light is preferred.
However there is one drawback in this system that the illumination
will be depressive to the eye. Fig. 6.9 (a) shows an arrangement
which can provide indirect lighting.
i. F i•.;•
r.
'
I
• ii..
.1
I.,
Indirect lighting Semi-direct lighting
(a) (b)
I
- -.-,- -.- . . •.-
(c)
Fig. .9
(3)Semidirect lighting. In this system about 50% of the light is
142 WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
sent from the source directly on the reading plane and about 30%
is sent upward. Diffused globes are preferred in this case, which
avoids glare. Such schemes provide uniform distributed light in a
room. Fig. 6.9 (b) shows an arrangement wbich can provide semi-
direct lighting.
• .:-:
-,
4
Semi-indirect lighting
Fig. 6.10
(4) Semiindirecc lighting. In this system 40% light is sent
upward for diffused reflection and 40% is sent directly on the surface.
Fig. 6, 10 shows an arrangement for such a scheme semi translucent
plastic bawls are used. The defect of indirect lighting as given above
does nrt exist in this scheme.
Table 6.6
\.tnount of Light to be received in different
System of Lighting Scheme.
Systems Down wards Up uards
1. Direct 90-100% 0-10%
2. -em.i direct 60-90% 10-40%
3. General Diffuse approx. 50% approx. 50%
4. MxedDffuse 40-60% 60-40%
5. Semi-indirect 10-40% 60-90%
6. Indirect 0-10% 90-100%
Example I. A lamp having mean spherical candle po;ve'rof 800'
is suspended at a height of loft. Calculate (a) the total flur oflight.
' he illumination just below the lamp.
S d Ut ) fl
i cs of r = M.S.S.P. x 4:: = S(X)x i.
- 11M4 lumens. Ans.
ILLUMINATION 143
(b) The illumination just below the lamp
C.P. 800
d 2 (10)2
= 8 ft.-candle. Ans.
Example 2. A room 50 ft. x 20 ft. is illuminated by twenty 200
watt lamps. The M.S.C.P. of each lamp is 250. Assuming a depre-
ciation factor of 1.2 and utilization factor 0.6, find the average
illumination produced on the floor.
Solution. Area of the room = 50 x 20 = 1000 sq. ft.
M.S.CJ'. of each lamp = 250
Total number of lumens given by each lamp
zr25Ox4lt=3,l40lumens
Total number of lumens given by all lamps
= 3,140 x 20 = 62,800
62,800 x 0.6
Lumen2uulized= =31,400
1.2
From Eq. (6.18)
Average illumination on floor = Lumens utilized

Area of the floor
31,400
= 31.4 ft candle. Ans.
= 1 400
Example 3. A workshop measures 20 x 40 ft. and is lighted by
10 lamps which e.re each rated at 200 watts and have an efficiency
of 15 lumens It atts. Assuming a depreciation factor of 1.5 and a
coefficient of utlisation of 0.5 find the illumination at workshop
plane.
[A.M.I.E. Sec. B, 1955 (Elect. Engg.))
Solution.
Total luminous output
= 10 200 x 15 = 30, 000 lumens

In view of Eqn. (6.19),
-11
144 WIRING. PQT IMATING AND COSTING
imirauon 1.5 x 20 x40
= 12.5 lunens/fj2 Ans.
Example 4. A workshop size 40 x 60 ft.

by 12 ft. height is to be
illuminated to 45 lumens per sq. ft. on
the working plane. If the
coefficient of utilization is 0.5 and the source gives out 10 lumens
watt, find the total wattage required and nurn berof lamps assuming per
depreciation factor as 0.8.
Solution.
Total lumens required = 40 x 60 x 45 2,70,000 lumens

0.5 x 0.8
Power required -
_2,710=27,cx0\atts Ans.
If each lamp of 200 watts is to be fixed, then
No. of lamps - 27,000 -

_—rl3. lamps Ans.
Example 5.An illumination on the working plane of3ft, candle

is required on a room 270'x 50'. The lamps are required to be hung
15 ft. above the work benches. Assuming space/he i ; .rio of 1.25,
a utilisajon factor of 0.5 and a candle power depreciation of 20%,
estimate the number, rating and disposition of suitable lamps.
Effc:ency of a lamp may be taken as 0.5 watt per candle power.
Solution.
x 270 x 50 x 1.2
-.------------
Total lumens required= 3
0.5
= 97, 200 lumens
Output of the lamp for 0.5 watt I C.P.
= 4't lumens
Output of the la:np for each watt = 8t lumens

ILLUMINATION 145
97,200
Total wattage
age . =
8it
= 3,866 watts
Spacing of the lamps
= 1.25
Height
Spacing of the lamps = 18.75 ft.
Now if 2 lamps are provided widthwise, the space height ratio
Ail be too more; and if lamps are provided, the ratio will be 1:10
approx. which will be acceptable.
Similarly 14 lamps can be placed lengthwise, bringing the
number of lamps as 42.
h lamp-Total wattage
Wattage of e ac
No. of lamps
3,866
= 92.05 or say 100 watts. Ans.
11. Methods of Lighting Calculations

Some of the common methods of lighting calculations are given
below
(a) Watts per square metre method.
(b) Lumen or light flux method.
(c) Point to Point or Inverse square law method.
Description
(a) Watts perLwre metre method. Basically it is a °Thumb Rule'
method. It is very handy for rough calculation or checking. While
applying this method, an allowance of watts per square metre of
area to be illuminated is taken according to the illumination desired
on an average figure of overall efficiency of the system.
(b) Lumensor light flux method. This method is applied to those
cases where the sources of light have to produce an approximate
uniform illumination over the working plane or where an average
value is required. Total lumens output is calculated from the effi-
ciency of each lamp and the number of lamps used in the circuit. To
calculate the lumensreceived on the workingplane, the total lumens
already calculated are multiplied by the co-efficient of utilisation.
When the lamps and surroundings are not perfectly clean then white
calculating the Lumens received on working plane, the depreci-
ation factor or maintenance factor is taken into consideration.
Thus Lumens received on working plane

= No. of lamps x Wattage of each lam p x efficiency of each lamp
Cofflcicnt of utilisation
in terms of lumens/watt x
depmciation factor
or =No. of lamps x Wattage of each lamp x Efficiency of each lamp

in terms of lumens/watt x coefficient of utilisation x mainte-
nance factor.
Coefficient of Utilisation or Utilisation factor
The light which is radiated by all lamps does not reach the
working plane. When the installation is new, the ratio of lumens
reaching the working plane to the total lumens given out by the
lamp/lamps is known as utilisation factor or coefficient of utilisation.
If the utilisation factor is on higher side, then more lumens will
reach the working plane for the given lumens output of the lamps.
The value of utilisation factor depend upon
(1) The mounting height of lamps i.e. it decreases with the
increase in mounting height of lamps.
(ii) Area to be illuminated i.e. utilisation factor increases with
the increase in area to be illuminated.
(iii) Type of lighting i.e., it is more for direct lighting and less
for indirect lighting.
(iv) Colours of surroundings i.e. it is more for light colours and
less for darkcolours.
Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.5 and from 0.1 to 0.25 for direct
and indirect lighting schemes respectively.
Maintenance factor. The illumination produced by a lighting
installation decreases considerably after a year or two partly due to
the aging of lamps and partly due to the accumulation of dust on
the lamps, on the transmitting and reflecting fixtures and on the
ceilings and walls. So at the time of calculation of lumens received
on the working plane, this fact is taken into account by including
the maintenance factor which may 1e defined as the ratio of the
ultimate maintained metre candles on the working plane to the initial
metre candles. If the lamps and fixtures and surroundings are
cleaned regularly, its value is more say 0.8 and if there is more dust
then its value decreases to 0.6.
Depreciation Factor. This is merely the revse of maintenance
factor. Its value in more than unity.
(c) Point to point or Inverse-square law method. This method
ILLUMINATION
147
is applied where the iB uminatjoiJjs required at a point due to one

or more sources of light.
The illumination at any point within the range of the lamp can
be calculated from the Inverse square law, if a polar curve of lamp
and candle power of lamp reflected by its reflector in different
directions is known. If two and pore than two lamps are illumi-
nating the same working plane, illumination due to each can be
calculated and added. This method is not commonly used due to
rore complications involved in its calculations. However, it is used
in some special problems such as flood lighting and yard lighting
etc.
12. Types of Electric Lamps. Following types of lamps are
being used:
(1) Incandescent lamp. This type can further be divided into
the following:
(a) Incandescent vacuum lamp.
(b) Incandescent gas filled lamp.
(2) Discharge lamp.
being used: Following types of discharge lamps are
(a) Sodium discharge lamp.
(b) Low pressure mercury discharge lamp.
(c) Neon lamp.
(d) High pressure mercury discharge lamp.
1 3.Incandescent Vacuum Lamps. When an electric current
is passed through a fine metallic wire, it raises the temperature of
the wire, and heat energy will be radiated at low temperatures. At
high temperatures heat as well as light energy will be radiated: the
higher the temperature of the wire, higher is the amount of light
energy radiated.
The incandescent lamp consists of an evacuated* glass bulb
having a fine metallic wire within it. The metal which can be used
as a filament must have the following properties
(1) It must be capable of being worked at very high tempera-
tures, i.e. its melting point must be high.
(2) It should have low temperature co-efficient.
(3) It must be ductile.
(4) It must be very strong mechanically to withstand vibration
during normal -use.
(5) It must have low vapour pressure.
*The lamps are evacuated (i) to prevent the oxidization of the filament,
prevent the temperature lowered by radiation. (ii) to

The different types of materials which can be used for the

production of light in incandescent lamps are carbon, tantalum and
tungsten. Carbon has a melting point of about 3500 but the main
drawback is that it cannot be worked at higher temperatures as at
high temperatures it starts disintegrating and blackens the inside
of the bulb : moreover its temperature co-efficient is negative and
thus its resistance decreases at higher temperatures and so it takes
more current from mains. The efficiency of this lamp is low and is
of the order of 4 lumens per watt. When tantalum metal is used as
a filament of the incandescent lamp, the drawback of negative
temperature co-efficient is compensated since its temperature co-
efficient is positive and is of the order of .00235. But the greatest
drawback in such types- of filament is --------------"r
thnf. m1t 'b rn;rf
F . JflLlJ'
2580°C, thus it cannot be worked at higher temperatures to give
more efficiency. The efficiency of tantalum lamps is about 5 lumens
per watt.
Tungsten is the most common material used as filament in
modern lamps. It is being preferred to carbon and tantalum due to
the following reasons:
(i) Its melting point is hig'h, of the order of 3400°C, (no doubt
it is less than that of carbon, but it can be worked at higher tem-
peratures).
(ii) Its vapour pressure is low.
(iii) It is very strong and can be made ductile.
(iv) Its temperature co-efficient is 0.0051.
CON7C ï.ç
The chemically pure tungsten is
t4SE
very strong and fragile. In order to
make it ductile, the pure tungsten
oxide is first reduced in the form of
T4,.4 a grey powder in an atmosphere of
hydrogen. The powder then is
pressed underhydraulic presses into
small bars. These bars are again
heated in an atmosphere of hydro-
gen at about 1100°C. Further in
F'4ME,vT order to make these bars strong
mechanically, they are raised to
Fig. 6.11 melting point bypassing an electric
current through them, but still the bars are not ductile. In order to
make them ductile, they are heated and resolved and then they are
drawn into wires. Fig. 6.11 represents a vacuum lamp with a large
barrel-shaped filament. --.
ILLUMINATION
149
14. Gass-filled Incandescent lamp. It has been said earlier

that in order to prevent the oxidization of the filament the lamps
are evacuated. The minimum temperature at which the filament
can be worked without oxidization is 2000°C. It has been observed
that when the tungsten lamp is worked beyond 2000°C it blackens
the inside ofthe lamp. Now in order to make the lamp more efficient
it must be worked at the highest temperature possible. In tungsten
lamps, it can be attained by inserting a small quantity of inert gas
(nitrogen with small quantit' of argon). In the barrel type of con-
struction of the lamp, the filament is quite distributed over whole
of the lamp surface, and in this type of construction, if gas is added,
the he-t of the lamp is conducted away and it reducesthe efficiency
of the lamp. To reduce the dissipation of heat, the surface area of
filament lamp is reduced. So the filament is so wound that it takes
very little space, i.e. theyhave coiled uilamentor a coiled coil filament
as shown in Fig. 6.12. The gas prevents the arching between two
consecutive coils of the spiral filament. As the lamps are always
hung vertically, any disintegrated part of the filament is convected
to the top of the lamp and so the efficiency of the lamp is not affected.
In case of low wattage lamps the heat loss due to introduction
gas is more than in the medium wattage lamp, so for low wattage
lamps vacuum type is used. For wattage up to 100, coiled coil lamps,
are used and for still lighter wattage lamps single coil filament are
used.
CONTACT
8RA5
CAP
57EM \L LEAD
tN WIRES
^U^Fj
iUI(
GASFILLE D
LAMP CO/LED FILAMENT COILED CO/i.

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.12
15. Characteristics of Incandescent Lamps. The candle
power or the total number of lumens given out by the lamp depends
much upon the applied voltage and the relation between them is
given as:
C.P.°'En ... (6.20)
where n = Constant and varies from 4 to 5 for tungsten filament

lamps, and from 8 to 7 for carbon filament lamps.
The efficiency of the lamp is given in lumens/watt, the efficiency
or the total number of lumens given out by the lamp increases with
the increase of temperature or voltage. The life of the lamp in
number of hours decreases with the increase of voltage. Fig. 6.13
represents the curves for life, efficiency and total lumens.
35C
v 304
25i
20
j
z
' 10
'.. 5
-J
0 20 40 60 80 foo 120 140

VOLTAGE AS PERCENrAGE Of NORMAL
Curves for life efficiency and total lumens

Fig. 6.13
1 6.Halogen Lamp. This is one of types of incandescent lamps,
possessing number of advantages over the ordinary incandescent
lamp. The life and efficiency of an incandescent lamps are affected
by the gradual evaporation of tungsten and also its operating
temperature. But the addition of small amount of halogen vapour
to the filling gas restores part of the evaporated tungsten vapour
back to the filament by means of a chemical reaction and the cycle
goes on. Halogens are a group consisting of the elements fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine.
ILLUMINATION 151
As a result, halogen lamps poss oss the following advantages:

(a) The blackening of the bulb is not caused, so there is no
depreciation of light output.
(b) It has 50% more efficiency than that of an ordinary
incandescent lamp.
(c) It is smaller in size than that of incandescent lamp.
(d) It gives better colour radiation.
Halogen lamps are manufactured upto 5 kW and are suitable
for outdoor illumination ofbuilding, sports grounds, parks, airports
etc. These are also used for lighting of halls, factories, sport halls
and marriages' shamianas etc.
1000W Incandescent
lamp
The Comparison of Halogen Lamp of 1000 W

and 1000 Wincandescent lamp.
Fig. 6.14
17. Working Principle of Electric discharge Lamp. Such
lamps have a transparent enclosure and contain a gas or vapour at
low pressure (sometimes the pressure is several atmospheres). At
the two ends of the lamp electrodes are provided for connecting the
lamp to the mains. The principle of such lamp is that the light is
obtained from the excited atom of the gas. In the discharge space,
there are three kinds ofparticles such as neutral atoms or molecules
ofgas or vapour, positive ions and electrons. When the potential is
applied to the electrodes, the neutral atoms will not respond to
potential gradient but will have a motion at random depending upon
thermal conditions ; but the positive ions and electrons will have an
axial drift towards the cathode and anode respectively. The move-
ment of the electrons is accelerated by the potential gradient and
thus obtain a very high velocity and so possess high kinetic energy.
During the passage of the movement of the electrons toward anode,
they collide with the neutral atoms or molecules of the gas or vapour.
The collisions are of three types which are detailed below and as
well as shown in Fig. 6.15.
INSTANTS I COLLISION COLLISION COLLISION

TYPE TYPE II TYPE ill
e
BEFORE
COLLISION
T
co^ .00
AFTER
COLLISION (0 (0 0
Types of collision in discharge lamp

Fig. 6.15
(i) The collision may be elastic in which case the electron

simply bounces off the neutral atom without any physical change.
Such a collision results in the change of direction and change of
velocity of both electron and neutral atom.
(ii) Thecollision may be so severe that the neutral atom may

receive sufficient energy to displace the valency electron from no
mal orbit to the outer orbit. The energy received by the neutral atom
for such displacement is equal to the work done against the
gravitational attraction of the molecules. The loss inthe kinetic
energy of the colliding electron is equal to the energy gained by the
neutral atom with which the electron has collided. When the
structure of the atom is thus changed, the atom is said to be in an
excited st-ate. The excited state of the atom is an unstable state for
about lO secs, after which the atom attains its original state and
in doing so, it gives out energy exactly equal to that received by it in
Me form of light waves.

ILLUMINATION 153
(iii)The collision of the electron with the neutral atom may be

so violent as to detach the electrons from it. The atom after losing
electron becomes positive and starts moving towards the cathode.
All these effects of collisions have been given in Table v.7.
Table 6.7
Instants Collision Type I Collision Type II Collision Tve III
Result (i) No physical (i) Thestructureof (i) The electron is
change. the atom is detached from
changed. the neutral
atom.
(ii) Change in the (ii)Loss in (ii)The neutral atom
direction of el ?C- energy of the attains positive
trons. colliding elec- charge.
trons and is
equal to the
energy received
by the atom. -
(iii) Change in (iii)The structure of
velocity' the atom is
changed and
the atom is said
to be excited.
(iv)After about 10
secs, the atom
reverts to its
original state
and gives out
energy in the
form of light
waves.
The gas discharge lamps are preferred to filament lamps due
to the following reasons
(a) It has been seen that the efficiency of the filament lamp is
dependent upon the temperature at which it is worked but there is
a limit to which its temperature can be increased which is much less
than the melting point of the filament. Even if the working tem-
perature of the filament is high only a small portion of the total
energy radiated is in the form of light energy, while in the case of a
discharge lamp the light energy is obtained from a gas column which
is not heated but is excited electrically.
(b) The gas discharge lamps are capable of giving only one
particular type of wavelength of electrical energy while the incan-
descent lamps give light energy of all wavelengths. It is due to the
fact that the atoms in a solid filament are closely packed and are
not capable of radiating energy of one frequency, while in gas dis-
charge lamps, the atoms are widely separated and so can radiate
out energy without interference from any other atom.
The luminance of the discharge lamps is dependent upon—
(a) composition of the gas;
(b) the gas or vapour pressure.
18. Sodium Discharge Lamp. It is in the form of U-tube as
shown in Fig. 6.16. The glass of this tube is also special since sodium
vapourbiackens the ordinary glass. Usually a thin coating of special
glass is made by fusing it on inner surface of the ordinary glass tube.
WPPLY
p.,.
AUTO TRANSFORMER
r-- - - 1
L..
I'-
II
II COIL ED
I II I ELECTRODE
II
II
I,
II I,I
UTU5E
II Iii
I,
I,
I'
'S
—VACUUM
FLASK
• I
I I
I,
• ' I'
•I
Sodium discharge lamp

Fig. 6.16
ILLUMINATION
155
The lamp is quite s ensitive to
temperatures, as when the temper-
ature increases over the normal
attained by the working temperature , the velocity
the electrons to 2nd e er ' level and excesaive and they excite
since the radiation from 2nd
energy level of 3.61 V is of wavelength which lies in the ultraviolet
region ; also if its te
temp mperature lowers below the normal working
erature, the sodium does not remain in the vapour form. So to
keep the temperature of the lamp within the working range, it is
enclosed in a doubl
e-walled flask as shown. In addition to sodium
a small quantity of inert neon gas is also inserted.
Operation.
Before the lamp starts working the sodium is usually
in the form of a solid deposited on the sides of the tube walls. So in
the initial state when the potential is applied to the lamp, it operates
as a low pressure neon lamp with pink colour (characteristic of the
itneon
r gas); but as the lamp warms up itvaporizes sodium and slowly,
adiates outyellow light and after about twenty minutes, the lamp
starts giving its full output.
/J
Transformer core
Fig. 6.17
At the time of starting the discharge lamp, a voltage higher than

the normal supply voltage is required which is 350 V forth e 45 watts
lamp an
from and 410 volts for 100-watt lamp. Such voltages are obtained
auto.tran sformer. The auto -trsan
Poor regulation i.e. former used has a very
at no load when no current is taken from the
tr ansformer, the voltage is very much higher than when the
transformer is loaded. Thus when the discharge starts, the output
voltage of the transformer falls. The regulation of the transformer
is made poor by increasing the leakage reactance which in turn is

obtained by means of providing magnetic shunts in the core as shown
in Fig. 6.17. Hence the transformer acts as a blast.
The colour of the sodium discharge lamp is bright yellow and is
recommended only for street lighting. The life of such a tamp ends
when:
(a) the filament breaks or bums out;
(b) when the cathode fails to emit electrons
(c) when the sodium particles may concentrate to one side of
the tube;
(d) when the lamp tube is blackened due to sodium vapour
action on the glas., in which case the output will be reduced.
Advantages. (1) First excitation level is achieved at law
potential and thus requires less energy in excitation as compared
to other vapours. -
(2) Most of the radiation is on visible region and therefore more
economical.
Disadvantages. (1) Its luminous intensity is low which is
approx. 9 candle-cm' and to evercome this, U-tube of larger size as
shown in Fig. 6.16 is used.
(2) The colour of the light is bright yellow and thereby its use
is restricted to street lights or advertisement.
19. Low Pressure Mercury Discharge Lamp. The mercury
discharge is quite complicated since the atom of mercury has eighty
electrons and they are of two valency. These two valency electrons
are excited in a number of ways and in the visible spectrum, the
colours radiated are yellow, green, blue and violet. From this visible
radiation, the effect of variation of wavelength 5461 A°, which
produces green colour, on the human eye is maximum and as the
radiations depart from this wavelength, the visual effect decreases.
Therefore the radiations from the low pressure mercury dis-
charge give a spectrum of few lines resulting in a colour which is
very objectionable from practical point of view. The gaps in the
mercury discharge spectrum must be filled in. Such filling is
obtained by the following methods:
(i) By using fluorescent materials in the tube.
(ii) By increasing the va pour pressure in the tube.
(iii) By using mixed vapours.
/
ILLUMINATION . 157
(iv) By using low mercury discharge lamps in conjunction with

temperature radiations.
20. Mercury Fluorescent Lamps. (Low pressure)
It has been pointed out earlier that the low pressure mercury
discharge lamps produce an objectionable colour and have a low
efficiency. Such drawbacks can be overcome by coating the inside
of the tube with a fluorescent material. Before the discharge lamps
are explained, it is necessary to have some knowledge offluorescence
which is explained as
All bodies except perfect absorbers reflect most of the light
falling on it ; the difference may be due to the absorption of certain
wavelengths of incident light by the colour of the body. There are
certain b6dies which do not observe the general law of reflection but
radiate out light energy in a different wavelength if the incident
radiation is in the ultraviolet region. Usually the radiated wave-
length 1s longer than the incident wavelength. The phenomenon of
re-emission is called as luminescence. The luminescence can be
classified as
(a) Fluorescence, in which case the excitation lasts only for the
excited period.
(b) Phosphorescence, in which case the excitation persists even
after the exciting source is removed.
In case of discharge lamp, the radiation of light energy is du
to the collision of electrons. Again, for luminescence the radiation
is due to the collision process but of photons. The photon is an excited
atom as a whole and possesses an energy equivalent to the energy
level acquired by the excited valency electron of the atom, for
example the energy of photon ofresonance radiation is exactly equal
to the first excitation of the electrons. When the photon, say of
resonance radiation, collides with a neutral atom of fluorescent
material, it transfers its whole energy to the neutral atom and it
disappears itself. The part of the energy received by the neutral
atom reappears in the form of light energy of longer wavelengths.
Let E by the energy received by the fluorescent materiaL
So wavelength of photon giving incident radiation to the fluo-
12, 378
rescent material is = £
Let the energy re-emitted = czE . . .(621)

where ais always less than 1, since the energy re-emitted is always
less than the incident energy.

I" WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Wavelength of re-emitted radiation12378 . . .(6.22)

The fluoresent powders used in case of low pressure lamps
are solids and are usually called as phosphors. The phosphors used
are shown in Table 6.8. They are excited by resonance mercury
radiation. By the use of suitable mixtures of phosphors a variety of
colours can be obtained.
Table 6.8

Pho8phor Wavelength in A of Colour of

emitted radiation Fluorescence
Calcium tungitate 3800-7000 Blue
Magnesium tungstate 3800-7200 Blue-white
Cadmium borate 4000-7000 Pink
Cadmium silicate 4300-7200 Yellow-pink
Zinc silicate 4C0-6200 Green
Zinc-beryllium silicate 4500-7200 Yellow-white
For commercial use the phosphors usually contain a heavy
impurity called activator, such an impurity is introduced in order
to have the required spectral distribution in the re-emitted radi-
ation. The materials used as activators are shown in Table 6.9.
Table 6.9

Activator Colour of Fluorescence
Silver Blue
Copper Green
Bismuth Green
Gold Blue-white
Manganese Deep-yellow.
Copper plus silver I Bluish or greenish white
Construction of the Lamp. The low pressure mercury lamp is
essentially a long tube, the
ANDE CATkOD( inside of which is coated witb
phosphor. The tube contains
a small amount of mercury
and a small quantity of argon
OLAS
i of mercury. The presence of
-LE ADS
the gas is justified as at
Construction of mercury fluorescent starting the mercury is in the
lamp (low pressire; form of globules, so in the
Fig. 6.18. beginning the lamp starts

ILLUMINATION 159
conducting with argon gas and as the temperature increases, the

mercury changes into vapour form and takes over the conduction of
current. Both the electrodes of the l amp are of tungsten and are
coated with an electron-emitting material (usually an alkaline
earth). Each of the filament alternatively acts asa cathode andemits
electrons and so also each of them alternatively acts as an anode.
But since during each half of acycle it is almost an insulator, it does
not attract electrons. So for collection of electrons, each end is
provided with metallic fins called as anodes as shown in Fig. 6.18.
The starter filaments of the tube and the choke all form one series
circuit. The series choke acts as a ballast when the lamp is running
and it also provides a voltage impulse for starting. The starter used
is a small cathode glow tube with bimetal strips as support to the
electrodes and when starter is cold, the electrodes of the starter are
open.
21. Neon Lamp. It is a cold cathode lamp. It consists of glass
bulb filled with neon gas with a small percentage of helium. Such
types of lamps give orange pink coloured light. The electrodes used
in the lamp are of pure iron and are spaced only few mm apart so
that lamspmay be made for the voltages as low as 110 volts ac. or
150 volts d.c. When the lamps are to be used an a.c. supply,
ELECTRODES
GLASS BULB FILLED

WITH NEON & HELIUM
GAS
GLASS STEM
BAYONET CAP
(Resistance inside
the cop obout 200011)
Neon lamp
Fig. 6.19
the electrodes used in theamp should of equal size, when the lamps
are used on d.c. supply, the gas glows near the negative e]ectrcde.
Therefore negative electrode is made larger in size owing to dis-
charge of the gas between the electrodes in the form of an arc, it
may cause the current drawn by the lamp to increase indefinitdy.
-12
160
This can be prevented by inserting a high resistance of few thousand
ohm in series of the electrode and mounted in the cap of the lamp.
The size of this lamp is of an ordinary incandescent lamp. The
efficiency of the lamp lies between 15 lumens/watt . to 40
lumens/watt. The power consumption of the lamp is 5 watt.
22. Neon Tubes.
The high voltage neon tubes or neon signs are
used for advertising; for signs ; for the decoration of buildings etc.
The neon tubes are used in varying lengths upto 8 rn and are bent
into almost any desired shape during ma nufacturing. The neon
Cubes contain two electrodes, one at each end of the tube, made of
iron, steel or copper.
Te neon tabs are ma1;uuctured in different col ours by varying
the com p osition, of glass and adding different substances to neon
gas.
Colour Prod ihetiQa
1. Orange-Red -* Neon gas
2. Blue -- Mercury neon and argon gas
3. Green -- Yeflow glass and mixture ot'neon and mercury.
4. Yellow - Yellow glass and helium gas.
L•-JLJJ )IbGLASS TUBE
TENSION
f1rnThT STEP - tiP

I TRANSFORMER
CAPACITOR
N
For PFimp,-orner, TO A C
Arrangemon of Neon Signs

Fig. 6.20
The tubes are n1anufactued in different, diameters like 10, 15,

20 and 30 mm which may carry currents of 25, 35, 60 and 150 m
respecL'vely. The voltage required per netre of tube length is 300
ILLUMINATION 161
V to 1000 V and for starting the discharge, a striking voltage of

about I times this value is required. The high voltage is obtained
with the help of step up transfofmer, having a high leakage reac-
tance so that it may give drooping characteristics.
The neon tubes are installed either on a wooden frame ora metal
base. Nickel wires are used for the connection of letters in the neon
signs which are covered with glass tubings and these are matched
with step up transformer by connecting suitable tappings for the
rated current. Since the power factor of the neon tubes is quite low
which is improved by using capacitors on the low voltage of trans-
formers in the circuit. When the neon tubes are installed in open,
they require frequent cleaning, say 4 times per annum. Sometimes
flickering is noticed in the lighting which can be rectified by
adjustment of the transformer tappings. Flickering may be due to
low gas pressure in the tube on account of absorption of the gas in
the electrodes. The gas can be got filled by the manufacturers.
23. High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp. There are dif-
ferent types Gfhigh pressure mercury vapour lamps. They are
(a) M.A. Type made in 250 and 400 watt sizes for 200-250V
A.C. mains.
(b) M.A.T. Type made in 300 and 500 watt sizes for 200-250V
A.C. mains.
(c) M.B. Type working at very high pressure and is available
in 80 and 125 watt sizes.
The high pressure lamps are used either for street lighting or
for industrial purposes where there is no objection to the greenish
light.
(a) MA. Type Lamp. It consists of aglass tube ofborosilica-
tewhich is quite hard. At the two ends in the tube are provided two
electrodes of specially coated wire. Near the upper electrode is
another auxiliary starting electrode which is connected to the bot-
tom electrode through a high resistance as shown. The tube is sealed
with an inside pressure of one and a half atmosphere. This tube is
further enveloped by another tube, the advantage of which is that
the heat of inner tube may not be dissipated and the tube may not
be caused to come in contact with sudden changes in temperature.
The lamp has a screwed cap and is connected to the mains supply
through a choke. To improve the power factor of the tube, a con-
denser is connected across the mains as shown.
The inner tube, in addition to mercury, also contains a small
quantity of argon gas since at the time of startin g . the tube is celd
162
WIRING, EST MATING M'I) COSTING
]444IN
1cHaeE
AUX
L1A$T EL (C
-RE 5/5 TA NCE
I 1L/8( W,'TH
ME 'CJR V
f^^] 1^
AC. /C. I
MA/I
O(/TE. GLA
I ELECTRQ(
ENVELOPE
(EVACUATED.)
H.P.M.V. lamp (M.AType)
Fig. 6.21
and the mercury is in the condensed form.
on, 'Vhe the tube is
an are starts between an auxiliary electrode to the main switched
and at this instant the discharge is in argon gas controlledelectrode
by high
resistance and due to this discharge ,
the whole of the argon gas
becomes conducting and a discharge starts between the two
main
electrodes. Due to the high resistance in the auxiliary anode circuit,
the discharge shifts in between the mairi electrodes The
discharge
is of a paleblue glow and is now controlled by the choke. Due to the
heat prcdced drng discharge ,
the tube warms up and the mercury
is evaporated and the pressure inside develops .
takes up the shape ofan intense are. After about The
5 discharge later
starts giving full Output. minutes the lamp
In such lampsit should be noted that—

(1) As the lamp is not operative when cold, its
some time, about six minutes ru nning up takes
(ii)
Once the lamp is switched off, it will not restart again until
and unless the pressure is developed inside the tube subsides but
there is no harm in keeping the
switches on.
(iii)
The lamp should always be hung ve-tically, otherwise the
arc will burn the inner tube.
(b) M.A.T. Type Lamp. This type of lamp iA
that of M.A. type, but the outer tube, instead of beingalm ost similar to
empty,
of tungsten filament Similar to that ofan ordinary lamp inconsistsseries
ILLUMINATION
163
with the discharge tube, so that it acts as a blast. Since the lamp
does not require a blast of choke, it can be qsed for a.e. as well d.c.
mains. When the lamp is switched cn, it wrks as a Mament lamp
and its full output is given by the outer tube, at the same time the
discharge tube starts warming up and when a particular temper-
ature is attained, a thermal switch operates and coils of a part of
the filament is cut off so that the voltage across the discharge tube
increases.
'ERUAL
VI TCI4
:Rcupr
IBE
F/LA A4LpIT
VOL TAE
H.P.M.V. Lamp (M.A,T. Type)

Fig. 6.22
The advantage of the type of lamp is that the colour given out
by the M.A. type lamp is of poor appearance since it is short of red
colour while light given by this lamp consists of a mixture of lights
due to discharge lamp (short of red colour) and that due to filament
lamp (excess of red colour). The colour so obtained is more some-
thing.
(c) M.B. Type Lamp. This lamp operates at an extra high
pressure of 5 to 10 atmosphere. The discharge tube in this type of
lamp is of quartz about 5 cm. long has three electrodes, two main
and one auxiliary. This tube is in a pearl glass bulb, similar to that

of 100 watt lamp. There is a high starting resistance in series with

the auxiliary starting electrode. This lamp generally has 3 pin
bayonet cap so that it may not be put in an ordinary holder since it
requires a choke and a condenser.
TARflfi
RSISTA,',C(
STARTING
&tECTODE
QUARTZ TU5E
WIT/I MERCURY
PEARL GLASS
8UL S
_MAINELECT,,-009
AC VCLTAE - -
H.P.M.V. lamp (MB. type)
Fig. 6.23
The function of the tube is similar to that of M.A. Type lamp.
Since quartz tube can withstand high temperature due to arc etc.,
it can be used in any position.
nimim Mounting Height of Lamps.
S.No. Lamps and Watae Auin. Hr. ufrzounting in
Tu rig IMercury I Sodium Feet I Metre
1. 60 8 2.5
2. 100 9 2.75
3. 150 45 9 2.75
4. 200 .80 60 10.5 3.2
5. 300 125 85 12 3.6
6. 500 250 140 14 4.2
7. 750 17 5.1
8. 1000 400 20 6.0
9. 1500 24 7.2
Notes. In order to avoid the feeling of inconvenience or dis-

comfort and disability, the light should be installed at the proper
height so that there should be no strain on the eyes and direct type
of fixtures should be avoided.

165
ILLUMINATION
25. Street Lighting

(i) To make the road clearly visible is order to promote safety
and convenience to the traffic and any other obstruction
if any.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To.increase the community value of the street.
26. Lighting Schemes. In this system of lighting, since there
are no walls and ceiling which reflect or diffuse light, hence only
direct lighting scheme is used. As the areas te be illuminated being
large, the value of illumination for economic reasons is very low as
compared to that of indoor lighting and the questi3n of colour ren-
dering is also of minor importance. Owing to the ow illumination,
the eye is in its most sensitive state and therefore glare must be
avoided.
27. Principle of designing of street lightng installations.
Generally two principles are employed in 0,v design of street
lighting installations i.e.
(i) The Diffusion Principle ti;) The Specuar Reflection Priri-
ciple
i) The Diffusion Principle-In this the lamps are fitted
with suitable reflectors. The refleetcrs are €-igned in. sucha way
that they may direct the light downwards and c2ead over the road
surface uniformly. To avoid glare, t}e reflectors are made to have a
cut-offofIbetween 300 to 450 so th- he flarent is not visible. The
diffusing nature of the road surface c' uses he i flection of a certain
proportion of the incident light in tte direcin of the observer and
therefore the-road surface appears bright t- the observer. The
il l umination at any point on the road surface is calculated by
applying point to point or inverse square method.
(ii) The Specular Reflection Principle. In this case, the

reflectors are curved up in such a way that he light i thrown on
the road at a very large angle of incidence. It has been observed that
a motorist requires to see objects about 30 rn away, which is fulfilled
by the method bf the using the type of reflectors in this principle.
The object will appear against the bright road surface due to lamps
ata long distance. The requirement.ofapedest.rians is to see objects
nearby which is also fulfilled in this method as some light falls
directly downwards from the lamps. This method of lighting is more
economical than the diffusion method but thee is one drawback
thatit produces glares for the motorist. This method is more suitable
for straight sections of the road.
WJNC ESTIMATING AND COSTING
28.
Illumination level for street lighting and
height of lamps. The
illu
mination required depends Upon the class
ofinstaflation ofstreet lig htj
n,g. The class A
Shopping centres and road jun insta llation is used for
c
required is 20 lumens/M2 The classtions H and level of ilumjnatjon
i nstallation is used for poorly
lighted suburban streets and the
illu mination level of I lumen/M2
in sufficient. The level ofi llu jn j
natjon required for an average well
lighted Street is between 2 to 5 lurnen&/mZ
Lamps posts should be fixed aLthe junction of roads and they

should be avoided from large trees. Norrn& spacing for
lamps is 50 metres with a m standard
ounting height of 8 metres.
29. Spacing of Street Lighting The spacing should be uni-
form between luminaries i.e.
about 29.31
metres in case of cut O fT
type fittings and in case of 'non cut ofl type fittings, it should be
31.46 metres. Maximum spacing is
r ecommended 37 metres only
for 'non—cut off fittings Light sources may be installed on one or
both sides ofthe road, in parallel or in Staggered way or in the middle
denending upon the width of road and the intensity of li
required. Staggered arrangement is more preferred ghting
uniforrG as it gives more
lighting than other systems of lighting arrarlgern1
30.
Types of lamps used for street lighting Due to lower
efderjcy, high glare and high recurdng cost,
are used only in the streets having less traffic.inca ndescent lamp
The streets where
there is medium and heavy intensity oftrafflc is
O f i;iinos used there are fl ob served, the types
uorescent tubes, mercury lamps
and
sodium ]amps. Fluorescent lamps fitted one above other gives better
light distribution for street lighting . -
31.Control ofstreet lights. Two types
for street lighting i.e. ofcon nectj ons are used
(i)
Lamps in Parallel connections (Constant Voltage Control)
(ii)
Lamps in Series connections (Constant Current Control)
The constant voltage control is not
p referred due to the
of voltage from lamp to lamp and Conductors ofmore cross variation
are required. But there is no such d r sectional
control and is thus p awback in constant current
referred more for Street lighting system. For
this purpose, special high voltage transformers are used. Series type
connections are used for sodium vapour lamps and parallel
con-
nections are used for mercury vapour lamp but for incandescent
lam p
s either connection can be used. Special cutout is provided with
each lamp in series arrangement to maintain the
Circuits. continuity of the
1LLU1'11NATION 167
32. Flood Lighting This type of lighting is obtained by using

a powerful projectors on any line. This type of lightingis mostly
ernoloyed for decoration of buildings (ancient or religious), public
places, monuments, on important occasions / festivals at night.
These are also used for illuminating railway yards, parking areas,
recreation and sports grounds, shipping yards, Air ports, con-
struction sites, advertisement boards and show cases etc.
For flood lighting, it is necessary to concentrate the light from
the light source into a relatively narrow beam. For this purpose a
flood light projector is used which is robust in nature and weather
proof in construction as it is to be used in remote positions. Since
the reflecting surface is the most important part in a projector, so
it should be made of silvered glass or chromium plate or stainless
steel. Metal reflectors are preferred more being robust in nature.
The casing and mounting of the projector are arranged in such
a way so that the beam can be varied in both a vertical and a-hor-
izontal direction as per requirement on any site. Use of cast-metal
cases is made for the robustness and protection against weather for
permanent installations. For temporary installations or those in
sheltered situations, the use of sheet metal casing is made.
At the time of using 500 or 100 watt lamps in the projectors,
ventilation is provided for adequate cooling by providing sufficient
radiating surface.
Projectors are classified according to spreading of beam
(a)Narrow beam projectors, the beam of which is spreaded
between 12 to 25 0and are used for above than 70 metres range.
(b) Medium angle projectors, the beam of which is spreaded
between 25 to'40 0 and are used between 30 to 70 metres range.
(c) Wide angle Projectors, the beam of which is spreaded
between 40 to 90 are used for distance below 30 metres.
For economic reasons, the use of wide angle projectors with high
wattage lamp are more preferred than that of narrow' beam pro-
jectors with low wattage lamp. High wattage lamps prove more
efficient in narrow beam projectors. Medium and wide angle
projectors make use of standard gas filled tungsten filament lamps
of 250, 500 or 1000 watts or special lamps having bunched fila-
ments, known as projector lamps.
33. Location and Mounting of Projectors. There are two
possible locations of projectors in practice i.e. symmetrical and
unsymmetrical. Symmetric projectors are kept 20 to 35 metres away
from the surface to be flooded and provide approximately páraile

WIRING, ESTIMATING AND CCT[NG
beam having beam spread of 25 0 to 300, Sometimes when the

projector cannot be located away from the building, in such a case
an unsymmetric reflector mounted in a basement area or on a
braéket attached to the building is used which directs more intense
light towards the tip of the building.
34. Flood Lighting Calculations. Flood-lighting calcula-
tions may be considered into three steps :
First Step Illumination leuci required.
The level of illumination i.e. lumens/m' to be required depends
upon the type of building, the purpose of the flood lighting ; the
amount of conflicting light in the vicinity etc.
Second Step Type of Projector
Beam size and light output are taken into consideration to select
the type of projector. The former calculates the area to be covered
by the beam and the latter is for providing illumination. While
deciding the beam angle of the projector, the distance of projector
from the surface is kept in view.
fhird Step : Number of projectors
The number of projectors for ony desired intensity of light over
a definite surface is obtained fora the following relation
A x E x deprccin factor x woste light factor
N -
Utilisation factor x waua.c of lamp x Luminous efficiency of lamp
where N = Number of proctors
A = Area of surface to t illuminated in sjarc metres
E = Illumination level re q uired in lumens/m2

Description of terms used in the above relation
(i) Waste light factor. When a surface is illuminated by a
number of light sources, there is always a certain amount of waste
light on account of over lapping arid falling of light beyond the edges
of the area to be illuminated.
This is known as waste light factor which may be taken into
account as 1.2 per rectanguler areas and 1.5 for irregular areas and
objects like states and monuments etc.
(ii) DepreciatiorL factor. Depreciation factor may be defined as
the ratio of illumination under ideal conditions to the illumination
under normal conditions. The need of taking this factor into con-
sideration arises when dirt and dust depositing on the reflector
surface and on the source of light reduces the effectiveness of the
projector..
169
ILLUMINATION
It is also known as beam factor and i
(iii) Utilisation Factor.
defined as the ratio of beam lumens to lamp lumens. Its value is
factor is taken into accountbecause all the
taken as 0.3 to 0.5. This
light emitted by the projector is not along the direction of the beam
but some of it is absorbed by the reflector and by front glass when
the losses increases, the utilisation factor becomes low.
35. Brief Description of Various Lamps
1.VaccuU-Ifl Lamps ; - single coil, rating upto 25W
2. Gas filled lamps; - Coiled-Coil . rating 25W to 300W.
Gas filled imaps ; - rating 300 to 1000W
3. single Coil
All the above are available with clear inside - frosted or opalised
bulbs (milky white upto 200W). For ratings 300W and above, the
bulbs are practically clear.
4. Bulbs upto 200W: -
warm light (b) Soft
Special characteristics are (a) Pleasant &
shadow effect (c) Perfect diffused light.
5. Super lux Lamps:
These are partially satin-frosted bulbs. These have increased
luminous intensity (upto 30%) in the direction of the working plane.
Hence most suitable for all applications where brighter local illu-
mination levels are riquired.
6.Three-Light Lamps:
These have 3 contacts. One for the lower wattage, the second
for higher wattage and the thrid being the combined contact.
7. Bowl Reflector Lamps: -
These are normal, inside-frosted incandescent lamps (60 -
200W). The bulb is provided with a silvered bowl, such that the
filament is completely shielded from the viewer. This bowl elimi-
nates the glare, with suitable fittings, and these-bulbs can give
diffused lighting.
For usage for displays and in shop windows. Clear glass bulb
with bowl reflector bulbs (24V) are also available.
S. Reinforced - Construction Lamps
These bulbs are available with an inside - frosted finish (25 to
200\V). These bulbs have strong, special filament wire whichtioflsenable
occur
.
them to be used in places where shocks, jumps and vibra
frequenclY.
9. K - Lamps:
These bulbs are smaller in dimension & the bulb's shape is
pleasing. In smaller size rooms, these can be used.
WIRING ESTIMATING A VD COSTING
10. Show - Window Lamps:
These are ordinary inca
lope with a cap at each end.ndescent
These two bulbs
capsbut have tubular enve-
straight contacts in single - pole lamp are clamp
tube is s maller, h olders since th eeddia.
between
of the
the lamps can be
Sh op windows, show cases, acqujrja concealed behind small covers in
filament P r p ictures and mirrors. The
hence gives actically
a uniformextends
strip ofover
light.the entire length of the bulb, &
ll.Phjljnea Lamps:
Another type
of tubular
diffusing glass, having low lu incandescent lamp, with the bulb of
minance is available.
These
of light canhave caps
be got byatarr
one side of the bulb and a continuous line
p atterns of one's choice. anging these bulbs end - to - end or in
12. " Fantasje" Lamps:
These are new-style lamps for
lighting of1jvjg decorative and general interior
rooms, halls restaurants shops, recreation rooms,
canteens
ad d i tionaletc. Ordinary lamp holders can be used and eliminates
gass outer glebe.
13. Decorative Lamps:
Decorative ;:imps like candle lamps
lighting sets, chistmas tree c olorenta lamps festoon
illu mination sets are av ailable.
14. Co loured Lamrs:
These limps can be used fdr
illu mination of streets, gardens,
fairgrounds etc. The colour coating is flushed
not inside & hence it can
chip, scratch or fade & can not be affected by
different shapes are a w eather. Two
low wattage rating only, vailable for lvoltage iio to 230V These are
less than
suitable for ill uminating specifi OW to avoid glare & hence not
c work task.
15. R eflector Lamps:
These have a light quality i

Of lamps giving beams of various nternal
widthsmirror. An extensive range
& luminous
available. Two clases of r in
eflector lamps are available tensities are
(i) Pressed - Glass Lamps &
(ii) Blown - bulb Lamps.
used Pressed glassoutdoor

for indoor.& lamp have higher luminous efficiency & can be
lightin g
(2001-Jrs) These are made from These have longer b urning hours
-is thick & strong, water proof at pressed hard glass, the bulb wall
Water al l' times and can be p
laced even in

ILLUMINATION 171
Available wattage 100W &150W

Operating voltage 24 V, 250V
Narrow beam (2 x 7.5)
Illuminating smaller surfaces or ohjccts placed at longer dis-
tance
Wide beam (2 x 18).
Illuminating large surfaces or objects placed at shorter dis-
tances.
16.Halogen Lamps:
Halogen gas in smaller quantity is added in an ordinary
incandescent lamp. The chief advantages are blackening of bulb is
avoided, light depreciation is greatly reduced, size becomes smaller
and the filament efficiency is increased. (22 lmJw to 33 lm/w). These
aremost suitable for lighting of film studios, 8mm line photography,
narrow-guage film projection & for use in motor car head lights. For
flood lighting tubular quartz halogen lamps are avaiable. Halogen
lamps can also be used for outdoor illumination of buildings, sports
grounds, playing fields, parks, large gardens, fountains, car parks,
lighting of Air port runways etc.
100W, 150W bulbs give symmetrical cone shaped beams.
300W bulbs give elliptical or oval shped beams.
300W Wide flood beam spread 2x 190 (horizontal)
2 x 80 (vertical)
Medium flood beam spread 2 x 12.5° (horizontal)
2 x 6' (vertical)
Narrow spot, beam spread 2 x 7' (horizontal)
2 x 5' (vertical)
Flood Colour Lamps:
100W pressed - glass reflector lamps are available with red,
green, yellow or blue front. These are heat & weather resistant &
hence most useful for indoor & outdoor uses.
Blown - Bulb Reflector Lamps;
These are used for indoor lighting. These have low luminous
flux. These have a narrow beam (2 x 9°) and a wide beam (2 x 25°)
17.Neon Tubes:
These tubes have a maximum length of 25 feet (750 cm) and
dia. ranging from 112" to 1" (12.5 mm to 25 mm) & can be bent in

all shapes. The current intensity is low (50 - 200mA). Luminous

efficiency 5 - lOim watt. For advertising signs, the length is dis-
tributed over a few letters, which are connected in series. The gases
introduced in the bulb, Neon (red) Helium (pink). Nitrogen (golden
yellow), Sodium (yellow), xenon (pale blue), kypton, carbaric acid
and mercury vapour (blue), argon (solet). These colours are also
varied by using either coloured glass or internally coating the glass
wall with a filtering or colour powder.
18.Glow Lps:
Glow lamps or neon indicator lamps have very low currents and
have lower gas pressure & hence the radiation of light remains
limited to a faint glow. . The gas in the lamp is normally neon or
helium or argon. These are available in a great variety of sizes and
voltages with or without series resistor. These are smaller in sizes
& suitable for mains tension. These have high brightness and never
affected by mains fluctuations, these are shock and vibration proof
to a large extent, develope minimum heat & serve for a longer period.
These can be used in all kinds of electric appliances such as
irons, grills, domestic heaters, boilers, frying pans, electric ovens,
washing machines, dish washers hair dryers, coffee percolators,
freezers, refrigerators, blankets etc.
19.Night Larrqm
These lamps also belong to the large family of discharge lamps.
The neon gas filling, acts as the current - carrying medium. These
have no filaments, these can withstand vibration & shock. These
are fitted with a flourcscent bulb & give a greenish light.
These have low wattage rating (0.8W) & serve for a long life.
These are suitable for children's bed rooms, hospitals, nurseries,
passages, staircases etc.
20. Sodium Vapour Lamps:
Available in 85W, 140W & 200W
Average life time 6600 Hrs.
(for 3 or more burning hours per switching) -
Power factor : 0.25 to 0.35 without a capacitor
0.8 to 0.9 with a paralled capacitor
Luminous gfficienev High (110 lm!W)
The light is monochromatic (single colour)
These are most suitable for lighting of motor ways, storage
yards, & for flood lighting of high buildings.
ILLUMINATION
21. Mercury Vapour Lamps:

Lamp Mm. starting Ballast Nominal lumi
Voltage losses ndus
flux. Im.
50W 200V 9W 1700

SOW 200V 9W 3100
125W 300V 11W 5400
250W 200V 17W 11500
300W 200V 25W 20500
700W 200V 32W 36000
1000W 200V 43W 52000
2000W 340V 68W 125000
Application : Factory lighting, quarries, paper mills, Iron

foundaries & advertisement flood lighting.
22. Mercury Iodide Lamps:
These are lamps with a mercury - discharge tube made of quartz.
In this tube, apart from Mercury, there are a no. of iodides - like
sodium iodide (pinkish -yellow light), thallium iodide (green light),
indium iodide (blue light). These lamps are available with high
efficiency 75 lm/watt.
They are also available with 400W, 2000W, 30,000 Ims. and
1,90,000 Ims. These are mostly used in the field of flood lighting,
industrial lighting & public lighting.
23. Blended Light Lamps:
The Construction of these lamps is similar to that of mercury
vapour lamps, but, with addition of a filament which is connected
in series with the vapour tube. i.e. apart from mercury light, the
same quantity of incandescent lamp light is also produced i.e. the
ballast is incorporated in the lamp itself. Operating voltage should
not be lower than 200V.
Average life time - 600 burning Hrs.
Light Depreciation - 20%
Available wattages - 160, 250, & 500 watts
Note: HOW bulb has to be used in vertical position only.
24. Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps: Flourescent Tube
Lights
These are subject to ageing. After 3000 burning hours, the
depreciation of luminous flax is about 15 to 20% of normal value.
These give the best efficiency when the ambient temp. is arotind
25°C to 30°C. When used in cold and draughty places, tightly closed
fittings are to be used. When used in warm surroundings open type
fittings or fittings with ventilating holes are to be used. When there

is a variation in the frequency of supply mains, the lamps have to
be switched OFF.
These are slightly sensitive to vibration & hence can be mounted
on machines, in trains, ships. For violent vibrations, spring loaded
suspensions have to be used.
25. Special Gas Discharged Lamps:
(1) Low pressure Pulsed Xenon Lamps
These are used in the printing industry for reproduc tion &
copying. The wattage rating will be 1500, 3000, 4000W. These are
instant start and Restart - max efficiency immediately after start-
ing'. Colour, temperature, and light out put remain constant
throughout its life period. Long life period, uniform burning during
exposure and high efficiency are their advantages. So they are
excellent for colour reproduction.
Applications:
1. Copy - Board lighting
Small size horizontal copy - boards, as well as large vertical
ones can be lit very evenly with 2 or 4 lamps.
2. Stop and Repeat copying machines.
3. Light source in photo and film studios.
4. Plate making : The concentrated beam from the lamp is
used for plate - making, wattages required ; 4000W.
5. Light printing Lamps In Photo.copying equipments
Super Actinic Lamps:
' These are flourescent lamps used in various photo - chemical
processes such as light printing (Diazo), copying and reproductions.
These are tubular, low pressure lamps coated with a flourescent
layer that transforms the short. wave ultra. violet radiation of the
arc into useful actinic radiation. For a higher light printing speed,
several lamps are used together. No complicated cooling systems
are required.
Mercury -Vapour Lamps 125W
In this, the discharge tube is fitted in a bulb of hard glass pro-
vided with an internal mirror reflector. This reflector allows the
transmission of long - wave ultra violet radiation. This is
particularly suitable for black white reproduction and copying
process. Also used for flood light.
ILLUMINATION 175
Sun Lamp:
The sun lamp 300W is a tungsten mercury lamp, constructed
in the same principle of Blended - light lamps. No ballast is nec-
essary. The bulb is made of hard glass which filters out radiations
of lower values.
Applications:
Used for pre - heating and drying processes of plastics.
Black Light Flourescent Lamps:
These are tubular low pressure mercury vapour lamps. The
tube is of dark blue glass transparent to ultra violet and opeque to
visible radiation. A minimum of visible light is produced by the
lamp.
Applications:
Analysis in chemical, suger, food and textile industries.
Detection in philately, mineralogy, bauring, criminology and
medicine and in the field of entertainment.
GERMICIDAL Lamps:
Power rating 6W, 220/230V. No ballast is necessary. This gives
ultra - violet radiation.
Applications:
Used in refrigerators and in all vending machines for liquids.
Tubular Germicidal Lamps:
These are low pressure mercury vapour lamps without a
phosphor coating. These lamps radiate energy at 2537 Armstrong
line, which is very near the wavelength that destroys bacteria &
moulds.
Applications:
Used in Hospitals, cold storage rooms, cheese ware - houses,
pharmaceutical industries, dairies, breweries etc.
Warning:
Do not have long exposures. This will affect the skin and eye;.
Compact Sources Mercury Lamps:
These are super - high pressure mercury lamps. Thes3 have
high energy concentration with in a small dimension. Hence high
brightness is possible.
Applications:
Micro film enrgers, recording and measuring instruments,
photochemistry.
-13
176
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COTJNG
Compact Source Xenon Lamps:
These are super - high pressure xenon lamps. Chief advantages

is that o p
tical adjustment remains constant when once set and
Perfect in operation. Th is is to be used only on
D.C. Supply.
Applications
Cinema projection (900 - 2500 W), COlOUr matching scientific
purposes (microscope) Small spotlights, Spot lights in films studios,
Back ground projectors, Beacons Zone melting.
36. Light
Sources and Light Fittings. The three main groups
Of light sources available for industrial lighting and their main
ch aracteristics are tabulated below.:
Type of Sources Characterj.stics Applications

1. Incandescent Low initial outLv
lamps For lighting areas or
Rather high-running rooms of restricted
costs owing to the extent or where traffic
limit.d luminous etl- or occupation density
ciency and reati'jv is low and hours of
short life burning is limited.
2. Discharge lamps High Luminous cE- For residence and
ci.ncj Factory lighting
a) Mercury vapour Low :urningcosts All factory premises
with high ceilings
b) Sodium vapour Long lfc Al! premises with a
smoky or dust laden
atmosphere.
3. Flouresent Lamps High luminous effi- In circumstances
ciency (5 times more where colour
light tliarj appraisal is impor-
incandescent lampsl tant.
for the same power'
Consumption). Long
life. Low running
costs, (compensating
the higher initial out-
lay). Pleasant diffuse
light. No shadows.
Once the light source is selected, the next step is to select the
type of fitting to be used. For big factory halls, high bay fittings are
used; for mercury vapour lamps, fittings with slots in the reflector
can be utilised, to present excessive contra,t5 between fittings and
background. Where atmospheric conditions warrant, specialty
designed fittings such as water tight, dust proof, explosion proof and
corrosion resistant fittings have to be used.

ILLUMINATION 177
37. Recommended Values of Illumination.

S. Nj. Visual Taska

Illumination
lox
A. Industrial Buildings and Processes

General Factory Area.,:
a) Canteens b) Cloak-rooms and c) Entrances, corri- 100
dors, stairs
Factory Outdoor Areas:
Stockyards, main entrances and exit roads, car parks, 2.0
internal factory roads
3 Assembly Shops:
a) Rough work, for example, frame assembly and 150
assembly of heavy machinery.
) Medium work for example, machined parts, 300
engine assembly, vehicle body assembly.
C) Fine work, for example, radio and telephone 700
equipment, typewriter and office machinery
a ss.e m bly.
d) Very fine work, for example, assembly of very 1500
small precision mechanisms and instruments
4. Thwt and Shoe Factories 900(ave
S. Canning and Preserving Factories 300(avf.
6. Carpet Factvrie8 300'av,.
7. Chemical Works 200(avr
8. Engraving 1000
9. Flour Mills 200
10. Forges 150
11. Foundries 250(ave
12. Gas work 50(ave)
13. Gouge and Tool Room 700
14. Glass works and Processes 300(ave)
15. Inspection shops (Engineering)
a) Rough work for example counting and rough 150
checking of stock parts, etc.
b) Medium work for example 'go' and no 'go' gauges 300
and sub-assemblies
c) Fine work for example radio and telecommuni- 100
cation equipment, calibrated scales, precision
mechanisms and instruments.
d) Very fine work for example, gauging and 1500
inspection of small interior parts.
e) Minute work for example, very small instru- 3000
ments.
16 Iron and Steel Works 150.200
(Cvntd.)

178
S.No. Visual Tasks
Illumination
lux
17. Laborutorjeg and Test Rooms:
a) General laboratories and balance roomb
b) Electrical and instrument laboratories 300
18. Machine and Fitting shops: 450
a) Rough bench and machine work
b) Medium bench and machine work, ordinary, 150
300
automatic machines, rough grinding, medium
buffing and polishing.
c) Fine bench and machine work, fine automatic
750
machines merLum grinding, fine buffing and
polishing.
19. Motor vehicle plan.'.,
20. P/virpnaceuti,,j and Fine Chemisal works 400(ave)
21. Plastic works 300(ave)
22. Plating shops 200(ave)
a) Vat bath, buffing polishing and burnishing
b) Final buffing and polishing 150
Special
23. Sheet Metal Work: lighting
a) Bench work scribing, pressing, punching,
rLer.ringr 200
eta png pning an4 folding
b) sheet inspection
Special
24. Textile Mills (Cotton Linen): lighting
25. Textile Mills (Silk or Synthetics): SOO(ave)
26. Textile Mills (Woolen): 400(ave)
27. Textile Mills (Jute): SOO(ave)
28. Welding and soldering: 1SO(ave)
25O(ave)
B. Office, Schools and Public Buildings
29. Cir,eruis
l20(ave)
30. Libraries:
a) Shelves (stocks)
71 to 150
b) Reading room (newspaper and magazines) 150 to 300
c) Reading tables
300 to 730
31. Office:
400(ave)
32. School and Collages
a) Aseenibly halls
l)Geneial 150
2) When used for examinations, 300
3) platform
300
(Con td)
179
ILLUMINATION

S.Nu. Visual Tasks lila ni 1,10 £LOfl
lax

b) class and lecture room (1) Desks (2) chalk boards 300
33. Homes: a) Kitchen - 200

b)Bathrooms, Sta4s 100
c)Garazes k 70
d) Reading (casual) 150
e)Homework and sustained readings 300
POWER REQUIREMENT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT

HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCE
Electric iron ... 400- 1000W Small Kitchen range... 2200 -3500 W
Immersion heater ...500 - 1000W Large Kitchen range .. 3700 - 7300 'N
Rapaid.action cooker ... 700- 1200W Water heater ... 1200-6000W
Electric heater ... 1000 -2000W Washing machine ... 300W
Hair-drier ...500 W Washing with heating ... 1 -6 k.W
Heating pad ...90 W Refrigerator .. 100 -200W
Vacuum cleaner ...150 .300W Radio ... 50- 100W
Cooker ..1200 - 1500W Wet Grinder ... 025 HP - 0.5 HP
180W -400W
Oven ... 700 - 1500 W Mixics 40W -60 W(small)
250W -450W (big)
Kettles & Jugs Grills : 20.3 x 15.2 cm 750- 1000W
46 x 30,5 cm 3000.4500 \V
1.13 litre 450- 650W Ovens: 36 x 36 x 30 cm, 1.5 kW
1.7 litre 800 . 1000W 30x30 x41 cm- 1.5 kW
2.3-3.4 litre 1000 - 1400W 36 x 36 x 41 cm 2kW
Hot-water tanks & Wash boilers Irons (Laundry and tailoring):
3645 litre 3 k W 1.36 kg 250W
54 litre 4.5k W 181 kg 280.300W
2.27 kg 350.450W
3.17 kg 500 -600W
5.44 kg 600 - 750W
9.10 k g 800.1500W
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain coefficient of utilization and depreciation factor in con-

nection with the lighting schemes.
2. Define the terms (a) brightness (b) illumination (c) luminous
intensity (d) luminous flux.
3. Explain (a) Relative sensitivity (b) Radiant efficiency (c) Foot-
candles and (d) luminous flux.
4. Explain the (a) Sodium discharge lamp (b) Mercury vapour lamp.
5. Explain the various lighting system employed in interior lighting.
180 WllNC, FS T[MATING AND COSTING
6. What do you u nderstand by discharge lamp ? Explain the con-

struction and working principle of sodium vapour lamps.
7. What do you understand by incandescent lamp? Explain the
construction of vacuum incandescent lamp.
8. Why high pressure mercury vapour is used in H.P.M.V lamp ?
Explain its construction and working.
9. A class room size 20' x 30'y 12 ft. high, is to be illuminated to 15
lumens per sq. ft on the working plane. If the coefficient of utilization is
0.45 and the source gives 12 lumens per watt. Calculate the total wattage
required and the number of lanips. Arts. 10 lamps 200 watts
10. An illumination on the working plane of 0.33 ft. candles is required
in a room 270' x 50'. The lamps are required to be hung 15 ft. above the
working benches. Assuming a suitable space ratio and utilisation factor 0.5
and candle power depreciation as S0%, estimate the number of lamps
required. (A.M.I.E. See. B, Nov. 1958)
Ans. 22
11. A certain incandescent lamp has an MSCP of 250. It is suspended
at a bright of 16 ft. above the working plane and is provided with a reflector
which gives an approximate uniform light distribution over an area of 16
ft. in diameter on the working plane. If the efficiency of such reflector is
such that 45% of the total light emitted by the lamp is directed en t o
circular area, calculate the average i urirato- wc ' uld you expct .t this the
outer part of the circular area if the reflector is rcmoved from the lam.
(A.M.1. E. Nov. 1957, Elect. Engg.)
12. What are methods of lighting CaiCUlat v)fl5 9 Ans. 0.7 lumens/ft2
Explain about them.
7• 3 Explain about the Halogen lamp and draw the figure.
Wh,at is the difference between neon lamp and neon tubes ?
Expicir aot them with figures.
15. What is the necessity and lighting scheme of street lighting?
16. On what principles the designing ofinsta]latior,s of street lighting
dep'nd ?
17. Explain about the illumination level and rr.ountingheight oflamps
for street lighting.
i. What do you know about spacing of street lighting ?
19. What types of lamps are used for street lighting and how are street
lights controlled?
20. What types of projectors are used for flood lighting?
21. Explain about the flood lighting calculations.

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1

1.Introduction. It is said that among the tool kits of engineers,

Square blade Screw Driver

Side cutting pliers

Diagonal cutting pliers.

So under such odd circumstances diagonal pliers as shown in Fig.

This type of pliers is useful for conduit wiring, where its

Slip Joint Pliers,

5. Hammers. For electrical work, generally two types of

(a) Straight claw hammer (b) Ball-peen hammer

is made from tool steel. It has a bevel at the cutting edge.

(a) Wood Chisel (b) Cold Chisel

Ratchet bit brace

For new constructional work, a bit with coarse pitch of thread

stroke. For starting, an accurate cut should be made with a blade

20. Conduit Wiring Tools. The conduit wiring is a specialized

(a) Self-locking vice (b) Portable vice attached to wooden post

(c) Portable vice with stand

23. Conduit Cutting by Hacksaw. The conduits can better

For cutting threads over the conduits, two types of die-stocks

Die and Die-stock

Hickey with handle

(b) Bending Racks. It has an arrangement of A' shape made

(c) Pressure benders. For pressure bending of the conduits, the

(1) The sharp edged tools such as pocket knife, chisels,

3. Stranded wires. 4. Types of wires. 5. Rubber

1. Introduction. For estimating the cost of internal wiring, it

The sizes to the wires are assigned much intelligently. Alu-

04 0372 ' 0348" 02/2' 0 . 144

OR 710 0R4/0 OR 0R2/

Illustration of sizes of various notches of wire gauge

WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINATION 21

zero) or written as 7/0 having adiamet.er of 0.5". It should be noted

Gauge Diameter Area

7/0 .500 12.7000 250000 19635 126.6769

1 .300 7.6200 90000 .07069 45.6037

9 .144 3.6576 20736 .016286 10.5071

14 .080 2.0320 6400 .005027' 3.2429

British Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.)

Inch mm CIRC.Mjl,g SQ. Inch nun?I

19 .040 1.0160 1600 .0012566

26 .018 .4572 324 .0002545

31 .0016 .2946 135 .000 10568

Similarly the American way of r

Since the areas of two circles are proportional to

square mils. This is measured by multiplying the two dimensions

Area = 2000 x 500

_____ Brown And Sharps Gauge (B.SJAWC)

Brown And Sharp'S Gauge (B.SJAWG)

31 .00893 .226 792 .0000622 .04014

36 .00500 .127 25 .00001963 .01267

The rubber covered, taped, braided and compounded wires are

Rubber covered, Taped, Braided, Compounded Wires

The general construction of the wire is as shown in Fig. 2.3. It

covered). The thickness of the rubber insulation depends upon the

weight. The T.R.S. cables have properties similar to that of lead

Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.) or Cab T yre Sheathed (C.T.S.) wres

(b) Twin Rubber insulated Cord. It is also similar to that

Twin Rubber insulated Cord