MACHINE TOOLS AND DIGITAL

MANUFACTURING

1.1 Introduction to metal cutting

Metal cutting is the process of producing a job by removing a layer of unwanted material
from a given workpiece. Fig. shows the schematics of a typical metal cutting process in
which a wedge shaped, sharp edged tool is set to a certain depth of cut and moves relative
to the workpiece.
Under the action of force, pressure is exerted on the workpiece metal causing its
compression near the tip of the tool. The metal undergoes shear type deformation and a
piece or layer of metal gets repeated in the form of a chip.
If the tool is continued to move relative to workpiece, there is continuous shearing of the
metal ahead of the tool. The shear occurs along a plane called the shear plane.

All machining processes involve the formation of chips; this occurs by deforming the
work material on the surface of job with the help of a cutting tool. Depending upon the
tool geometry, cutting conditions and work material, chips are produced in different
shapes and sizes.

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1.2 Tool nomenclature

Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a standardized abbreviated system is

known as tool signature. It indicates the angles that a tool utilizes during the cut. It
specifies the active angles of the tool normal to the cutting edge. This will always be true
as long as the tool shank is mounted at right angles to the workpiece axis.

The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tool are always
stated in the following order:
1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°) and
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
It is usual to omit the symbols for degrees and mm, simply listing the numerical value of
each component in single point cutting tool:

A typical tool signature is 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8

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The elements of tool signature or nomenclature of single point cutting tool is illustrated
in the figure below
(i) Back rake angle:
Back rake angle is the angle between the face of the single point cutting tool and a line
parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting
edge. If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake angle and if
it is upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle. Back rake angle helps in removing
the chips away from the workpiece.

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(ii) Side rake angle:
Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined sideways. Side rake angle
is the angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the line down
from the point perpendicular to the base. Side rake angle of cutting tool determines the
thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided on tool to provide clearance
between workpiece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of workpiece with end flake of
tool.
(iii) End relief angle:
end relief angle is defined as the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right
angles to the flank. End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the
workpiece.
(iv) Side relief angle:
Side rake angle is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right angles to the
side. Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the
material. It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the
workpiece surface.
(v) End cutting edge angle:
End cutting edge angle is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular
to the shank of the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and workpiece.
(vi) Side cutting edge angle:
Side cutting edge angle is the angle between straight cutting edge on the side of tool and
the side of the shank. It is responsible for turning the chip away from the finished surface.

1.3 Attributes of tool nomenclature

RAKE ANGLE- TYPES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE.

Positive rake :

 Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces , and
the friction, yielding a thinner ,less deformed and cooler chip
 But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section and heat
conduction capacity

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  Some areas of cutting where positive rake may prove more effective are ,
when cutting tough, alloyed materials that tend to work harden, such as
certain stainless steel, when cutting soft or gummy material or when low
rigidity of workpiece, tooling , machine tool, or fixture allows chatter to
occur.

Negative rake:
 To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat conductivity , zero
or negative rake angles employed on carbide, ceramic, polycrystalline diamond,
and poly crystalline cubic boron nitride cutting tools.
 These materials tend to be brittle but their ability to hold their superior hardness at
high temperature results in their selection for high speed and continuous
machining operation.
 Negative rakes increases tool forces but it is necessary to provide added support
to the cutting edge. This is particularly important in making intermittent cuts and
in absorbing the impact during the initial engagement of the tool and work.
 Negative rakes are recommended on tool which does not possess good toughness
( low transverse rupture strength)
 Negative rake causes high compression, tool forces and friction , resulting in
highly deformed , hot chip.

The rake angle for a tool depends on the following factors

1. Type of the material being cut: A harder material like cast iron may be machined by
smaller rake angle than that required by soft material like mild steel or aluminum.

2. Type of tool material. Tool material like cemented carbide permits turning at high
speed. At high speeds rake angle has little influence on cutting pressure. Under such
condition the rake angle can minimum or even negative rake angle is provided to increase
the tool strength.

3. Depth of cut: In rough turning, high depth of cut is given to remove the maximum
amount of the material. This means that the tool has to withstand severe cutting pressure.
So the rake angle should be decreased to increase the lip angle that provides the strength
of the cutting edge.

4. Rigidity of tool holder and machine: an importantly supported tool on old or worn out
machine cannot take up high cutting pressure. So while machining under above condition,
the tool used should have larger rake angle.

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Side cutting edge angle

The following are the advantages of increasing this angle,

 It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is
distributed on a wider surface
 It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and permits
greater cutting speed.
 It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge. ™

The side cutting edge angle of the tool has practically no effect on the value of cutting
force or power consumed for a given depth of cut and feed. ™ Large side cutting edge
angles are lightly to cause the tool to chatter.

End cutting edge angle

The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing front cutting edge of the
tool from rubbing against the work. A large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens
the tool. It varies from 8 to 15 degrees.

IMPORTNANCE OF NOSE RADIUS

The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools The function of nose radius is as
follows: ™

Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous shearing action and
provides better surface finish. ™

All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning tools ™ It increases the
strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the wear taking place in a sharp pointed
tool with consequent increase in tool life ™

Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits higher cutting speeds

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1.4 Attributes of feed and tool nomenclature on surface roughness
obtainable
 The relationship between cutting speed and surface roughness is inversely
proportional. Generally, increasing the cutting speed decreases the surface
roughness.
 The relationship between feed rate and surface roughness is proportional.
Generally, increasing the feed rate increases the surface roughness.
 The relationship between depth of cut and surface roughness is proportional.
Generally, increasing the depth of cut increases the surface roughness.
 The relationship between nose radius and surface roughness is inversely
proportional. Generally, increasing the nose radius decreases the surface
roughness. Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous
shearing action and provides better surface finish.

1.5 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Orthogonal cutting is a type of metal cutting in which the cutting edge of wedge shape
cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of tool motion. In this cutting the cutting edge
is wider than width of cut. This cutting is also known as 2D cutting because the force
develop during cutting can be plot on a plane or can be represent by 2D coordinate.

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Oblique cutting is another type of cutting in which the cutting edge of wedge shape
cutting tool make a angle except right angle to the direction of tool motion. This will
affect the cutting conditions. It is also known as 3D cutting because the cutting force
develop during cutting cannot be represent by 2D coordinate or used 3D coordinate to
represent.

The basic and main difference between orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting is that in
orthogonal cutting, cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of motion but
in oblique cutting the cutting edge makes an angle with the direction of motion.

There are many other differences which are describe below

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1.6 Mechanism of metal removal and Mechanism of chip formation

(i) Mechanism of chip formation in machining

 Machining is a semi-finishing or finishing process essentially done to impart

required or stipulated dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish to enable
the product to fulfill its basic functional requirements
 provide better or improved performance
 render long service life.

Machining is a process of gradual removal of excess material from the preformed

blanks in the form of chips. The form of the chips is an important index of
machining because it directly or indirectly indicates :

• Nature and behaviour of the work material under machining condition

• Specific energy requirement (amount of energy required to remove unit volume
of work material) in machining work
• Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool interfaces.

The form of machined chips depend mainly upon :

• Work material
• Material and geometry of the cutting tool
• Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent on depth of cut
• Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects temperature and friction at
the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces.

Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation helps to understand the

characteristics of chips and to attain favorable chip forms.

• Mechanism of chip formation in machining ductile materials

During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead
of the cutting tool (edge) is subjected to almost all sided compression as
indicated in Fig. 5.1.

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 Fig. 5.1 Compression of work material (layer) ahead of the tool tip

The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises out of the normal force, N and
frictional force, F as indicated in Fig. 5.1. Due to such compression, shear stress
develops, within that compressed region, in different magnitude, in different
directions and rapidly increases in magnitude. Whenever and wherever the value
of the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in
the deformation region, yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in
that region and the plane of maximum shear stress. But the forces causing the
shear stresses in the region of the chip quickly diminishes and finally disappears
while that region moves along the tool rake surface towards and then goes beyond
the point of chip-tool engagement. As a result the slip or shear stops propagating
long before total separation takes place. In the meantime the succeeding portion of
the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and shear. This
phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin
layer by layer. This phenomenon has been explained in a simple way by
Piispannen [1] using a card analogy as shown in Fig. 5.2.

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 In actual machining chips also, such serrations are visible at their upper surface as
indicated in Fig. 5.2. The lower surface becomes smooth due to further plastic
deformation due to intensive rubbing with the tool at high pressure and
temperature. The pattern of shear deformation by lamellar sliding, indicated in the
model, can also be seen in actual chips by proper mounting, etching and polishing
the side surface of the machining chip and observing under microscope.

The pattern and extent of total deformation of the chips due to the primary and the
secondary shear deformations of the chips ahead and along the tool face, as
indicated in Fig. 5.3, depend upon

• work material
• tool; material and geometry
• the machining speed (VC) and feed (so)
• cutting fluid application

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 • Mechanism of chip formation in machining brittle
materials
The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation are

• Yielding – generally for ductile materials

• Brittle fracture – generally for brittle materials

During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. 5.5
due to wedging action of the cutting edge. At the sharp crack-tip stress
concentration takes place. In case of ductile materials immediately yielding takes
place at the crack-tip and reduces the effect of stress concentration and prevents its
propagation as crack. But in case of brittle materials the initiated crack quickly
propagates, under stressing action, and total separation takes place from the parent
workpiece through the minimum resistance path as indicated in Fig. 5.5.
Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips and mostly of irregular
size and shape. The process of forming such chips is schematically shown in Fig.
5.6.

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 1.7 Primary and secondary deformation shear zones
According to the first law of thermodynamics, when work is transformed into heat, the
quantity of heat produced is equivalent to the quantity of work. Heat generated, through
conversion of mechanical energy. The three distinct sources of heat in metal cutting are given
below:
 The shear zone, 1,where the primary plastic or shear deformation takes place
 The chip-tool interface, 2, where secondary plastic deformation due to friction
between the heated chip and tool takes place.
 The work- tool interface, 3, at flanks where frictional rubbing occurs.

For example, in a typical study of machining mild steel at 30 m/min at about 750 deg of
cutting temperature at tool-chip interface, the distribution of total energy developed at the
shear zone is as follows

Energy at chip – 60 percent

Energy to workpiece – 30 percent
Energy to tool - 10 percent

The rate of energy consumption during orthogonal cutting is given by

Wc = Fc Vc Where FC = Cutting force , N

Vc = cutting speed , m/min
However, when a material is deformed plastically almost all the energy used is converted
into heat. In metal cutting, the material is subjected to extremely high strains and elastic
deformation forms a very small proportion of the total deformation, hence all the energy is
assumed to be converted into heat.

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The cutting energy is converted into heat in two principal regions of plastic deformation
The shear zone or primary deformation zone AB Secondary deformation zone BC If, as is
common in most practical situation, the cutting tool is not perfectly sharp, a third heat
source BD would be present due to friction between the tool and the newly machined
surface. However, unless the tool is severely worn, the heat generated at this source will
be small and hence could be neglected

The temperature distribution in the workpiece, in this instance the chip zone, as seen in
typical experimental study, is given in Figure 2. As point X in the material moves towards
the cutting tool, it approaches and passes through the primary deformation zone, and is
heated till it leaves the zone, being carried away within the chip, However point Y passes
through both deformation zones and continues to get heated till leaves the region of
secondary deformation. It is then cooled as the heat is conducted into the body of chip,
and eventually the chip achieves a uniform temperature throughout. The maximum
temperature thus occurs along the tool face some distance from the cutting edge. The
point Z , that remains in the workpiece , is heated as it passes below the tool cutting edge,
by conduction of heat from the primary deformation zone. Some heat is removed from the
secondary deformation zone by conduction into the body of the tool.

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 1.8 Types of chips in Metal Cutting

The chips types are depend on

* Nature of work piece

* Nature of tool
* Dimension of tool
* Feed rate
* Cutting speed
* Friction between tool and work piece
* Cutting environment like temperature, friction etc.

1. Continuous chips:
According to its name, continuous chips have a continuous segment. This chip is form
during cutting of ductile material like aluminum, mild steal, cooper etc. with a high
cutting speed. The friction between tool and material is minimum during this process.
This is form due to continuous plastic deformation of the material by application of tool.
These chips have equal thickness throughout the length. It generally gives good surface
finish.

The most favorable conditions of forming continuous chips are

1. Work piece should have ductile in nature.

2. The rack angle should be large.
3. Friction between work piece and tool should minimum.
4. Cutting speed should high.
5. Depth of cut should be small.

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 6. Proper use of coolant and lubricant.
7. Tool should have low coefficient of friction.

Continuous chips are the most preferable type of chip due to following benefits.

1. It gives high surface finish of machining ductile material.

2. Continuous chips form when low friction which minimize friction loss.
3. Due to low friction, tool life is high
4. Power consumption is low.

2. Discontinuous chips or segmental chips:

According to its name, this chips form in segment. It is form when machining of brittle
material like cast iron, brass etc. with slow cutting speed. Chips cut into small segment
during cutting. This is formed during slow cutting speed with small rack angle. This chips
form in ductile material when the friction between tool and work piece is high.
Discontinuous chips in ductile material give poor surface finish and slow machine. It is
suitable form of chips of machining brittle material.

The favorable conditions of forming this type of chip are

1. The work piece should have brittle in nature.

2. Slow speed of cutting
3. Small rack angle of tool
4. Depth of cut should large

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3. Continuous Chips with built up edge:
At low speed, the heat dissipation at cutting edge is also low. At high temperature and
pressure the chip material stick or weld itself to the cutting edge and tool face near the
nose. It is called built up edge (BUE). This built-up edge initially gives strength to cutting
edge; however the size of the built-up edge increase as cutting continuous and change the
tool geometry. At some point this accumulated built-up is carried away by the chip, a part
of tool may lose in this mechanism (It is called adhesion wear). The tendency for built-up
edge formation can be decreased by using a tool that has a lower chemical affinity
towards the workpiece material.
Built-up edge is undesirable because[Why a built up edge on a tool is undesirable?]

1. Poor surface finish

2. The high power consumption
3. Reduce tool life by accelerating tool wear
4. Fluctuation in cutting force induces vibration that causes tool failure.

The common factors promoting built up edge are

1. Cutting of ductile metal.

2. High friction force at the face of tool.

3. High temperature between tool and work piece.

4. Lack of coolant and lubricant

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Comparison of Continuous chips, Discontinuous chips and Continuous chips
with built edge:

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1.9 Need and types of chip breakers

Need:

The function of a chip breaker is to improve chip control and to reduce cutting
resistance. A better balance between the two will increase the machining performance.

If chips can be broken into suitable lengths by the chip breaker, they will not wrap around
the workpiece, vibration will decrease and tools will not be so easily damaged. Chip
breakers also affect cutting resistance. Reduced cutting resistance can avoid chipping and
fracturing of the cutting edge caused by vibration. Additionally, lower cutting resistance
can decrease the load and heat, and can delay the development of tool wear.

The sharp edged hot continuous chip that comes out at very high speed
• becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the vicinity
• may impair the finished surface by entangling with the rotating job
• creates difficulties in chip disposal.

Therefore it is essentially needed to break such continuous chips into small regular
pieces for
• safety of the working people
• prevention of damage of the product
• easy collection and disposal of chips.

Chip breaking is done in proper way also for the additional purpose of improving
machinability by reducing the chip-tool contact area, cutting forces and crater wear of the
cutting tool.

Types of chip breaking:

The principles and methods of chip breaking are generally classified as follows :

• Self breaking This is accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker either as an

attachment or an additional geometrical modification of the tool.

• Forced chip breaking by additional tool geometrical features or devices.

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 (a) Self breaking of chips : Ductile chips usually become curled or tend to curl (like
clock spring) even in machining by tools with flat rake surface due to unequal speed of flow of the
chip.
The curled chips may self break :
• By natural fracturing of the strain hardened outgoing chip after sufficient cooling
and spring back as indicated in Fig.7.1 (a). This kind of chip breaking is generally
observed under the condition close to that which favours formation of jointed or
segmented chips
• By striking against the cutting surface of the job, as shown in Fig. 7.1 (b), mostly
under pure orthogonal cutting
• By striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated in Fig.
7.1 (c).

(b) Forced chip-breaking: The hot continuous chip becomes hard and brittle at a
distance from its origin due to work hardening and cooling. If the running chip does not
become enough curled and work hardened, it may not break. In that case the running chip
is forced to bend or closely curl so that it breaks into pieces at regular intervals. Such
broken chips are of regular size and shape depending upon the configuration of the chip
breaker.

Chip breakers are basically of two types :

• In-built type
• Clamped or attachment type
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 In-built breakers are in the form of step or groove at the rake surface near the cutting
edges of the tools. Such chip breakers are provided either after the manufacture.

The unique characteristics of in-built chip breakers are:

• The outer end of the step or groove acts as the heel that forcibly bends and fractures the
running chip
• Simple in configuration, easy manufacture and inexpensive
• The geometry of the chip-breaking features are fixed once made (i.e., cannot be
controlled)
• Effective only for fixed range of speed and feed for any given tool-work combination.
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Clamped type chip-breaker: Clamped type chip breakers work basically in the principle
of stepped type chip breaker but have the provision of varying the width of the step and /
or the angle of the heel. Fig. 7.5 schematically shows three such chip breakers of common
use :
• With fixed distance and angle of the additional strip – effective only for a limited
domain of parametric combination
• With variable width (W) only – little versatile
• With variable width (W), height (H) and angle (β) – quite versatile but less rugged and
more expensive

1.10 Merchant’s theory

For establishing the relationship between measurable and actual forces Merchant’s circle
diagram will be used.
 Merchant circle diagram is used to analyze the forces acting in metal cutting.
 The analysis of three forces system, which balance each other for cutting to
occur. Each system is a triangle of forces.

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Assumptions made in drawing Merchant’s circle:
1. Shear surface is a plane extending upwards from the cutting edge.
2. The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance force.
3. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion and
generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
4. The chip doesn’t flow to either side that is chip width is constant.
5. The depth of cut remains constant.
6. Width of the too, is greater than that of the work.
7. Work moves with uniform velocity relative tool tip.
8. No built up edge is formed.

The three triangles of forces in merchant’s circle diagram are

1. A triangle of forces for the cutting forces,
2. A triangle of forces for the shear forces,
3. A triangle of forces for the frictional forces.

Let F = Frictional force

N = Normal to frictional force
Fs = Shear force

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Fsn = Normal to shear force
Fc = Cutting force or tangential component of force
Ft =Thrust force or feed force
β = Friction angle
μ = Coefficient of friction = tanβ
Fc and Ft are along and normal to the direction of velocity.

Let R = resultant force

Then resultant force is given by the formula
R = (Fc2 + Ft2)0.5

R = Diameter of merchant’s circle

Ft, Fc forces are defined based on actual machining conditions
 From the above merchant’s circle diagram it is found that there are three right
angled triangles are present and all the three right angled triangle possessing
common hypotenuse (largest side opposite to right angle in a right angled
triangle).
 Merchant’s circle is used for establishing relationship between measurable
and actual forces.

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1.11 Analysis of cutting forces in orthogonal cutting– Work done, power
required (simple problems) , Friction forces in metal cutting

From Merchant Circle,

Forces on the Cutting Tool and the workpiece

 Importance: Stiffness of tool holder, stiffness of machine, and stiffness of
workpiece must be sufficient to avoid significant deflections (dimensional
accuracy and surface finish)
 Primary cause: Friction force of chip up rake face + Shearing force along shear
plane
 Cutting speed does not effect tool forces much (friction forces decrease slightly as
velocity increases; static friction is the greatest)
 The greater the depth of cut the greater the forces on the tool
 Using a coolant reduces the forces slightly but greatly increases tool life

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PROBLEMS

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1.12 Development of cutting tool materials

1 Carbon Steels

However carbon steels start to soften at a temperature of about 180oC. This limitation
means that such tools are rarely used for metal cutting operations. Plain carbon steel tools,
containing about 0.9% carbon and about 1% manganese, hardened to about 62 Rc, are
widely used for woodworking and they can be used in a router to machine aluminium
sheet up to about 3mm thick.

2 High Speed Steel (HSS)

HSS tools are so named because they were developed to cut at higher speeds. Developed
around 1900 HSS are the most highly alloyed tool steels. The tungsten (T series) were
developed first and typically contain 12 - 18% tungsten, plus about 4% chromium and 1 -
5% vanadium

HSS tools are tough and suitable for interrupted cutting and are used to manufacture tools
of complex shape such as drills, reamers, taps, dies and gear cutters. Tools may also be
coated to improve wear resistance. HSS accounts for the largest tonnage of tool materials
currently used. Typical cutting speeds: 10 - 60 m/min.

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3 Cast Cobalt Alloys

These alloys have compositions of about 40 - 55% cobalt, 30% chromium and 10 - 20%
tungsten and are not heat treatable. Maximum hardness values of 55 - 64 Rc. They have
good wear resistance but are not as tough as HSS but can be used at somewhat higher
speeds than HSS. Now only in limited use.

4 Carbides

Also known as cemented carbides or sintered carbides were introduced in the 1930s and
have high hardness over a wide range of temperatures, high thermal conductivity, high
Young's modulus making them effective tool and die materials for a range of
applications.
The two groups used for machining are tungsten carbide and titanium carbide, both types
may be coated or uncoated.
Tungsten carbide particles (1 to 5 micro-m) are are bonded together in a cobalt matrix
using powder metallurgy. The powder is pressed and sintered to the required insert shape.
titanium and niobium carbides may also be included to impart special properties.
Tungsten carbide tools are commonly used for machining steels, cast irons and abrasive
non-ferrous materials.
Titanium carbide has a higher wear resistance than tungsten but is not as tough. With a
Typical cutting speeds are: 30 - 150 m/min or 100 - 250 when coated.

5 Coatings

Coatings are frequently applied to carbide tool tips to improve tool life or to enable higher
cutting speeds. Coated tips typically have lives 10 times greater than uncoated tips.
Common coating materials include titanium nitride, titanium carbide and aluminium
oxide, usually 2 - 15 micro-m thick. The techniques used for applying coatings include
chemical vapour deposition (CVD) plasma assisted CVD and physical vapour deposition
(PVD).
Diamond coatings are also in use and being further developed.

6 Cermets

These typically contain 70% aluminium oxide and 30% titanium carbide. Some
formulation contain molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide. Their
performance is between those of carbides and ceramics and coatings seem to offer few
benefits. Typical cutting speeds: 150 - 350 m/min.

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7 Ceramics - Alumina

fine grained high purity aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and silicon nitride (Si3N4) are pressed
into insert tip shapes and sintered at high temperatures. Additions of titanium carbide and
zirconium oxide (ZrO2) may be made to improve properties. But while ZrO2 improves the
fracture toughness, it reduces the hardness and thermal conductivity. Silicon carbide (SiC)
whiskers may be added to give better toughness and improved thermal shock resistance.
The tips have high abrasion resistance and hot hardness and their superior chemical
stability compared to HSS and carbides means they are less likely to adhere to the metals
during cutting and consequently have a lower tendency to form a built up edge

8 Silicon Nitride

These may also contain aluminium oxide, yttrium oxide and titanium carbide. SiN has an
affinity for iron and is not suitable for machining steels. A specific type is 'Sialon',
containing the elements: silicon, aluminium, oxygen and nitrogen. This has higher thermal
shock resistance than silicon nitride and is recommended for machining cast irons and
nickel based superalloys at intermediate cutting speeds.

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9 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)

This is the second hardest material available after diamond. cBN tools may be used either
in the form of small solid tips or or as a 0.5 to 1 mm thick layer of of polycrystalline
boron nitride sintered onto a carbide substrate under pressure. In the latter case the carbide
provides shock resistance and the cBN layer provides very high wear resistance and
cutting edge strength. Cubic boron nitride is the standard choice for machining alloy and
tool steels with a hardness of 50 Rc or higher. Typical cutting speeds: 30 - 310 m/min.

10 Diamond

The hardest known substance is diamond. Although single crystal diamond has been used
as a tool, they are brittle and need to be mounted at the correct crystal orientation to obtain
optimal tool life. Single crystal diamond tools have been mainly replaced by
polycrystalline diamond (PCD). This consists of very small synthetic crystals fused by a
high temperature high pressure process to a thickness of between 0.5 and 1mm and

Basic properties that cutting must posses are:

 Tool material must be at least 30 to 50% harder than the work piece material.
 Tool material must have high hot hardness temperature.
 High toughness
 High wear resistance
 High thermal conductivity
 Lower coefficient of friction
 Easiness in fabrication and cheap.

1.13 Thermal aspects of machining -Tool wear and wear

mechanisms

A cutting tool may fail during the process due to many working conditions such as
softening, brittle fracture, due to sudden mechanical load changes/shocks, gradual wear in
working piece, etc. The stresses develop due to the resistance of the work material at the
prevailing temperature and strain rate cause rounding off the cutting edge due to
inadequate strength of the cutting edge. The area of contact at the flank expands forcing
the effluent too material past the flank surface.

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Tool Wear Mechanisms:

1. Abrasion wear

The most common type of wear mechanism. Abrasive wear occurs when the hard particle
on chips passes over the cutting tool face. In steel alloys, it is caused by oxides, nitrides
and other nonmetallic inclusion present in the workpiece. This hard inclusion having
sharp edges comes in contact with a cutting tool and removes material from the tool
surface by abrasion action. This wears are more predictable and give a stable tool life.

2. Adhesion wear or attrition wear

Adhesion wear occurred when chip material plucked out the microscopic fragment from
the tool. At high temperature and pressure at cutting edge, the tool-chip interface forms a
metallic bond in the form of spot welds. The spot weld results in an irregular flow of chips
over the tool face and forms built-up edges. Sliding of the chip over the built-up causes
the fracture of this small weld joint, and some tool material carried along with them by the
phenomenon known as adhesion. Adhesive wear can be reduced by using a cutting
fluid which can provide a protective film on the contact surface.

3. Diffusion wear

This type of wear occurs due to the diffusion process, where atoms in a crystal lattice
move from a region of high concentration to low concentration (Ficks law). Diffusion
weakens the surface structure of cutting tool and leads to tool failure. The favorable
condition for diffusion is provided by localized temperature at tool-chip interface.
depends

 Temperature
 Binding affinity between the material of tool and chip, the solubility of tool
material in work material.
 Period of contact between tool and chip.

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 4. Fatigue wear

It occurs in microscopic level when two surfaces slide in contact with other under high
pressure. Hill on the one rough surface interlocks with those of another surface. It causes
cyclic stress on each hill as it slides over another. A surface which repeatedly loading and
unloading subjected to fatigue wear. It only comes to measure when other wear rates are
very small. Fatigue wear cause surface cracks which ultimately combine with one another
and lead to surface crumble. Cyclic thermal stress is another reason for fatigue wear.

5. Oxidation wear (corrosive wear)

Oxidation is the result of a chemical reaction between the tool surface and oxygen at high
temperature, it forms a layer of oxides on the surface. When this layer is destroyed during
the cutting process by abrasion, another layer begins to form. Tool wear takes as this
removal and formation of the corrosive layer is repeated.

6. Edge chipping (premature wear)

Breaking away of small chips from cutting edge of the tool due to interrupted cutting and
sudden shock. It happens when cutting with the variable depth of cut.

7. Chemical decomposing:

Due to high temperature and pressure there is change in chemical composition of tool
which reduces its life.

Types of Tool wear

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1. Flank wear:

Flank wear is due to abrasive action of discontinuities like debris from built up edge etc. It
wears out side and end flank of the tool. It is occur at tool work-piece interface. This wear
predominates at low speed.

2. Crater wear:

Crater wear generally occur in machining ductile material due to abrasion and diffusion of
metal at face of tool. It is occur at face at a short distance from cutting edge. This wear
predominates at high speed.

3. Nose wear:

Nose wear are consider as separate part of wear. It wears out the tool corner. It is the
matting part of flank and face which is combination effect of crater wear and flank wear.
It is considered as separate wear because the tool corners are very important for proper
cutting of work-piece.

Tool wear can be reduce by proper cooling and lubricate because the major cause of tool
wear is friction and temperature rise due to friction. Lubricate reduce friction between
chips and tool which reduce tool wear tool. It can also be reduced by using high hardness
and abrasion resistance tool and high resistance to adhesion and diffusion.

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1.14 Factors affecting tool life
The tool life can be defined in three different ways.
1. The actual machining time between two successive regrinding of a cutting
tool is called tool life. It is most commonly expressed in minutes.
2. Volume of material removed in mass production.
3. Number of work pieces machined (in mass production).

The life of cutting tool is affected by the various factors mentioned below:

1. Properties of Work Piece Material:

 With the increase in hardness of work piece, forces and power consumption
increases and tool wear increases. So tool life decreases.
 When ductility of work piece increases, forces and power consumption
decreases, tool wear decreases. So tool life increases.
 But there is no quantitative relationship available between properties of work
and tool life.
2. Tool Geometry:
As the tool geometry changes, like when rake angle increases, the tool life
will increase. But there is no quantitative relationship between tool geometry
and tool life.
3. Use of Cutting Fluid:
 When the cutting fluid is used during machining it is acting as a lubricant in
friction zone and carrying away the heat during machining.
 So forces in machining with the use of cutting fluid. It increases by 25 to 40
%.
4. Process Parameters:
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed
3. Depth of cut

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  Because of uniqueness of process parameters, the researchers tried to
establish relationship between process parameters and tool life.
 Taylor has assumed that cutting velocity is the major parameter influencing
the tool life.

Taylor’s Tool Life Equation:

VTn = constant = C

where, V = Cutting velocity in m/min

T = tool life in minutes
C = Taylor’s constant = Cutting velocity for 1 minute tool

n = Taylor’s exponent depending mainly on cutting tool material

n = 0.05 to 0.1 for H.C steels.
n = 0.1 to 0.2 for H.S.S
n = 0.2 to 0.4 for carbides
n = 0.4 to 0.6 for ceramics
n = 0.7 to 0.9 for diamond

Modified Taylor’s Equation:

f = Feed mm/rev
d = depth of cut in mm
p,q are constants < 1
q < p indicates that tool life is more sensitive to the uncut slip chip thickness than to
the width of cut.
Problem : If in turning of a steel rod by a given cutting tool (material and geometry) at a
given machining condition (so and t) under a given environment (cutting fluid
application), the tool life decreases from 80 min to 20 min. due to increase in cutting

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velocity, VC from 60 m/min to 120 m/min., then at what cutting velocity the life of that
tool under the same condition and environment will be 40 min.?

1.15 Economics of machining

Our goal now is to find out the operating conditions (mainly the cutting speed) that
maximize the metal-removal rate or the tool life. These two variables are in opposition to
each other; a higher metal-removal rate results in a shorter tool life. Therefore, some
trade-off or balance must be made in order to achieve either minimum machining cost per
piece or maximum production rate, whichever is necessitated by the production
requirements.

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Fig.2.2 Various elements of tool wear relationship in between product time per piece and
cutting tool speed Fig.2.2 (a) indicates how to construct the relationship between the
cutting speed and the total cost per piece for a simple turning operation. The total cost is
composed of four components: machining cost, idle-time (nonproductive) cost, tool cost,
and tool-change cost. An increase in cutting speed obviously results in a reduction in
machining time and, therefore, lowers machining cost. This is accompanied by a reduction
in tool life, thus increasing tool and tool-change costs. As can be seen in Fig.2.2 (a), the
curve of the cost per piece versus the cutting speed has a minimum that corresponds to the
optimum cutting speed for the minimum cost per piece. The relationship between the
production time per piece and the cutting speed can be constructed in the same manner, as
shown in Fig.2.2 (b). There is also a minimum for this curve that corresponds to the
optimum cutting speed for the maximum productivity (minimum time per piece). Usually,
this value is higher than the maximum economy speed given in Fig.2.2 (a). Obviously, a
cutting speed between these two limits (and depending upon the goals to be achieved) is
recommended. Both these depend on the choice of cutting parameters, e.g., cutting speed,
feed, and depth of cut. Generally, a component goes through various operations and an
exact economic analysis is extremely complicated. But, at the same time, in mass scale
production, often one operation is performed in one special machine; thus, we shall an
attempt to carry out a preliminary analysis, considering single operations. Such analysis
provides us with some basic information on the important economic aspects of the
machining operations.

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1.16 Cutting fluids

Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically

for metalworking processes, such as machining and stamping. There are various kinds of
cutting fluids, which include oils, oil-water emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and
air or other gases. They may be made from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils,
water and air, or other raw ingredients. Depending on context and on which type of
cutting fluid is being considered, it may be referred to as cutting fluid, cutting
oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant.
Most metalworking and machining processes can benefit from the use of cutting fluid,
depending on workpiece material. Common exceptions to this are cast iron and brass,
which may be machined dry (though this is not true of all brasses, and any machining of
brass will likely benefit from the presence of a cutting fluid).[1]
The properties that are sought after in a good cutting fluid are the ability to:

 keep the workpiece at a stable temperature (critical when working to close tolerances).
Very warm is acceptable, but extremely hot or alternating hot-and-cold are avoided.
 maximize the life of the cutting tip by lubricating the working edge and reducing tip
welding.
 ensure safety for the people handling it (toxicity, bacteria, fungi) and for the
environment upon disposal.
 prevent rust on machine parts and cutters.

Various functions of cutting fluids are

1. Cutting fluid cools the work piece and tool by carrying away the heat
generated during machining.
2. It acts as lubricant at the friction zones, hence tool life increases.
3. As friction get reduced, the forces and electricity power consumption
decreases.
4. Using cutting fluids produces better surface finish to the work piece.
5. It causes to break the chips into small pieces.
6. It washes away the chips from the tool.
7. It prevents the corrosion of chips and machine.
8. Improves dimensional accuracy and control on the work piece.

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 9. It permits maximum cutting speed hence the time for machining reduce and
cost of manufacturing increases.

Properties to be possessed by the cutting fluids are

1. Cutting fluids should have low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.
2. It should posses good lubricating properties.
3. It should have high specific heat, high heat conductivity and high heat
transfer coefficient.
4. It should be non-corrosive to work and machine.
5. It should be non-toxic to operating person.
6. It should be odourless.
7. It should stable in use and storage.
8. It should be safe.
9. It should permit clear view of the work operation.

Most commonly used cutting fluids are

1. Cast Iron: No cutting fluids are used.

2. Steels: Lord oil with mineral oil is used.
3. Alloy steel: Sulphur brass oil with mineral oil is used.
4. Copper: Soluble oil with 90 to 95% of water is used.
5. Aluminium: Mineral oil with soluble oil cutting fluids are used as cutting
fluids.

Types

Cutting fluids are an instrumental part of metal machining due to their

improvement of the tool life, reduction of the work piece thermal radiation,
flushing away chips from the cutting area, and improving the surface finish.
There are four main categories of cutting fluids:
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1. Straight oils

These oils are non-emulsifiable and very useful in machining operations where
they function in undiluted form. Their composition is a base mineral or even
petroleum oil. Often they contain polar lubricants like vegetable oils, fats and
esters.
They may also contain extreme pressure additives including sulphur, chlorine,
and phosphorus. To achieve the best lubrication use straight oils however they
may have poor cooling characteristics.

2. Synthetic fluids

They do not contain mineral oil base or petroleum. Instead, they’re formulated
from the alkaline organic and inorganic compounds alongside additives to
prevent corrosion. They function well in their diluted form. Of all the varieties
of cutting fluids, synthetic fluids offer the best cooling performance.

3. Soluble oils

Soluble Oils usually form an emulsion after mixing them with water. The
resulting concentrate contains emulsions and a base mineral oil to produce a
stable emulsion. They function well in their diluted form and offer a great
lubrication in addition to heat transfer performance. They are the least
expensive and are the most widely used fluids in the industry.

4. Semi-synthetic fluids

These fluids are basically a combination of the soluble oils and synthetic fluids.
Besides, the heat transfer performance and cost of the semi-synthetic fluids falls
between those of the soluble and synthetic fluids.
Therefore, if you would like to benefit from the properties and functions of the
soluble and synthetic oils, you can try a semi-synthetic fluid

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